Avian Thyroid Metabolism and Diseases

Robert E. Schmidt, DlOYI, PhD

Thyroid metabolism in birds is a complex subject. Avian (TRH). In a d n h chickens TRH does not cause
thyroglobulin production, control, and metabolism are TSH releaseS; rather, its release from the ante-
described. The influence of photoperiod and diet and
the relationship of thyroid hormones and moulting/
rior pituitary is controlled by T3. In birds, TSH is
feather growth are discussed. Diseases of the thyroid mainly tltyrotrophic and has no influence on
gland and the clinical problems with current thyroid peripheral activation ofT4 and "1"3.6 Follicle-stim-
testing are presented. ulating h o r m o n e (FSH) is less effective than
Copyright 9 2002 by W.B. Saunders Company. TSH but can increase follicular diameter and
Key words: Thyroid gland, thyroid hormones, thyroid
height of epithelial thyroid cells in baby chick-
disease, thyroid function tests, photoperiod, diet. ens. 7
U n d e r the influence o f TSH, cyclic 3', 5'
adenosine m o n o p h o s p h a t e (cAMP) is activated
!~yroid h o r m o n e s are synthesized in birds
T ~s they are in mammals. Iodide is concen- in thyroid follicular epithelial cells. Increased
cAMP leads to increased iodide trapping from
trated within the thyroid gland by means o f the the blood by tire follicular cells. 8 As a restdt,
maintenance o f a gradient over tire iodide con- follicular colloid is processed into follicular epi-
centration of blood. 1 Iodide is converted t o I 2 thelial cells, leading to release of thyroid hor-
and then to I +. Iodine concentration in the mones into the circulation. Approximately 60%
avian !thyroid peaks 6 hours after appearing in is T4, and 40% is T~.
the blood and is then stored for several days. 2 Thyroid h o r m o n e s and growth Itormone
A~ian thyroglobtdin (TG) is highly iodinated (GH) are related in birds, because thyroid hor-
and possesses 1.5% iodine by weight. 3 Iodide is mones inhibit the synthesis and release of GH. 9
converted to iodine by means of a peroxidase This may be a feedback mechanism because GH
system within the thyroid gland, a second en- enhances the peripheral production of T3 but
z)ane system combines iodinated tyrosines with not o f T4. GH appears to impair "1"4release as
T G to form triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine well as stimulate its monodeiodination. 5,9
(T4).~ T h e processes o f iodination and deiodina- T 4 and T3 are metabolized in the liver by
tion take place continually within the thyroid the action o f the enz)ane, I-5'-deiodinase. m~
gland, leading to randomization o f thyroidal io- GH inltibits type III deiodinating enz)ane in the
dine, which shifts between tyrosine and thyro- liver.
nine. 4 Thyroid h o r m o n e s control metabolism and
Control of thyroid h o r m o n e production is by development by actions mediated by nuclear
means of a negative feedback loop regulated by thyroid h o r m o n e receptors. These receptors
the hypothalamus and adenohypophysis. 1 A de- have their highest affinity for T~. In birds, the
crease in circulating thyroid h o r n t o n e - - f o r an), development of thermogenic metabolic re-
r e a s o n - - b e l o w metabolic reqtfirements stintu- spouses is correlated ~5th the pattern o f thyroid
lates the anterior pituitary to release thyroid- developntent and extrathyroidal deiodinations
stimulating h o r m o n e (TSH). Exogenous admin- of thyroid hormones. ~
istration ofT4 leads to a decrease in TSH. Secre-
tion o f TSH is controlled by the h)pothalamus
via the action o f thyroid-releasing h o r m o n e Environmental and Other Influences
on Thyroid Function
From the Zoo~Exotic Pathology Selvice, Greenview, CA. T h e secretion rate o f T 4 in young chicks and
Address conespondence to Robel~tE. Schmidt, DI]~I, l'ld), Zoo/ aduh chickens in tile s u m m e r is half that of the
l;xot& l'atholoff~' Service, PO Box 267, Greenview CA 9603Z
Cop)'light 9 2002 lO' IEB. SaundeT~ Company.
~inter rate. ~ This effect is directly correlated to
1055-937X/02/1102-0005535.00/0 ambient temperature. In winter the follicular
doi: l O. 105 3/saep. 2002.122692 cells are higher and follicular volume is greater. ~2

80 Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol 11, No 2 (April), 2002: pp 80-83
 Avian Thyroid Metabolism and Diseases 81

Photoperiod also affects thyroid fnnction and dinase activity, bringing about a lower plasma T3
metabolism. A long p h o t o p e r i o d depresses io- concentration.
dine I TM uptake in ducks and quail. 1 Long days
inhibit thyroid fimction but stimulate th)a-otro-
phic activity. During daylight T 4 is depressed and Relationship to Moulting and
T~ becomes elevated, whereas the reverse occurs Feather Growth
at night? 3
In penguins, changes in T3 have not been
Thyroid h o r m o n e is involved in maintaining
demonstrated to coincide ~fith mouhing, but an
photorefractoriness in turkey hens. ~a Light in-
increase in "I"4 associated with a decrease in
tensity affects food-conversion efficiency in male
plasma levels o f sex steroid h o r m o n e s was shown
turkeys, body weight being highest trader the
to induce moulting. '~'2In thyroidectomized birds
lowest light intensity, which coincides with
(the spotted Mtmia) Ta is m o r e effective than T3
higher weight gain and lower food intake. 15
at inducing feather regeneration. 23 In chickens,
Food intake and composition o f the diet are
doses o f T4 at 0.2 nag/bird diminished egg pro-
also related to thyroid h o r m o n e concentration
duction but did not result in moulting, whereas
and metabolism. T h e T4/T3 ratio increases dur-
doses o f 0.4 m g / b i r d caused featlter loss after
ing fasting, and plasnm TSH concentration de-
day 14 o f administration. "~ In general, an in-
creases);~a7 H)]~odtalamic TRH content becomes
crease in thyroid h o r m o n e s leads to motdting,
elevated' during fasting, suggesting a decreased
possibly by stimulating new feather growth. ''5
h)qoothalamic release. In addition, fasting leads
to increased hepatic t)i~e II deiodinase (D3) and
decreased renal D3 activity. No change has b e e n
noted in either hepatic or renal type I deiodi-
Thyroid Disease
nase (Di). TM Diseases of the thyroid are well d o c u m e n t e d
T h e level o f dietary protein fed to chickens in chickens but less well described in other avian
has been demonstrated to affect the concentra- species. Cystic thyroids are occasionally seen, but
tions ofT4 and T 3 when T 3 is added to the bird's the cysts may actually arise in the tdtimobranciai
diet. With a lfigh level o f protein, T 4 increased body. 2~
while T3 levels decreased. However, the protein T h e thyroid gland may play a part in humoral
level did not affect the response to the addition innnunity. Physiologic levels o f thyroid h o r m o n e
o f T3 to the diet. This suggests tlmt dietary pro- are necessary to maintain normal weights of the
tein levels may not affect adaptive responses to spleen and the bursa o f Fabricins. 27 The thyroid
T3. ~9 This effect may be attributable to selected is also involved in a u t o i m m u n e disease in obese-
~tmino acid deficitsY ~ When ctficks are fed a strain chickens, which get a spontaneous auto-
restricted diet, there is a decrease in plasma T 3 i m m u n e thyroiditis. 2s,2:~ T h e condition develops
concentrations. Arginine deficiency prevents in file first 2 to 3 weeks posthatching. As in lm-
this d e c r e a s e but does not alter T4 concentra- roans, the iodine content of the obese chicken
tion, suggesting that there is a specific alteration thyroglobulin was lower than that o f n o r m a l
in the metabolism o f T3. Methionine deficiency chickens; however, these chickens have ahnost
also leads to elevated plasma T3 concentration in no inorganic iodide in their thyroid glands. A
diet-restricted chicks. O t h e r amino acids with morphologically similar condition has been ob-
similar effects include lysine and isoleucine. served in African Gray Parrots. 3~
Leucine and threonine have no effect on plasma The most commonly reported a~fan thyroid
T3 levels. [,)'sine is the only antino acid that was problem hyperplasia (goiter).3~ Ahhough the lit-
observed to lower T4 levels. erature indicates that the condition is most com-
T h e level of dietary selenitun affects the mon in budgerigars, an analysis o f 16 )'ears of
growth of chickens througll tltyroid h o r m o n e our data indicates that macaws, particularly Blue
metabolism. 21 Selenium supplementation in- and Gold Macaws, have the lfighest incidence o f
creases the plasma T3 level, whereas tlmt ofT4 is h)q~erplastic goiter. 3"-' Colloid goiter is also seen
decreased. Hepatic 5'-deiodinase activity is ele- sporadically. 33 Clinical signs o f thyroid hyperpla-
vated by selenium. Conversely, a selenium deft- sia may be absent or may be referable to bilatei,'al
ciency can depress growth by inhibiting 5'-deio- enlargement o f the thyroid glands, putting pres-
82 Robert E. Schmidt

sure on surrounding tissues, inchtding the tra- T h e best m e t h o d o f testing die avian thyroid
chea. T h e primat T cause o f goiter in budgerigars for abnormalities is through the adnfinistration
has been considered to be iodine deficiency. 3~ of TSH mad the m e a s u r e m e n t o f the serum T4
O t h e r potential causes include the feeding o f concenth'ation after a particular time. n,4`-' Unfor-
goitrogenic substances o f plant origin or genet- tunately, because veterinary TSH is no longer on
ically induced bios)aathetic problems. 3"-' the market, the test must be done with an ex-
Morphologically hyperplastic goiter results pensive h u m a n product. 43
in s)amnetrical enlargement o f the thyroid T h e alternative is measurement of'l"4 only. 44
glands. 3t Affected glands are red-brown and Because avian T4 levels are lower than those o f
firm. Histologically, there is a decrease or com- mammals, the test must be able to detect lower
plete lack of follicular colloid and the follicular T4 values. A single low T4 test cannot be accepted
epithelial cells are cuboidal or low-colttmnar. as a definitive diagnosis o f hypotlwroidism. Con-
Functional h)q3othyroidism is considered un- versely, a single normal result may not be p r o o f
comnton in birds, ~5 although one case has been that the bird is n o t hypothyroid. The test should
d o c u m e n t e d in a Scarlet Macaw. -~6 be interpreted in association with multiple fac-
An e x p e r i m e n t a l model for h)q~othyroidisnl tors, inchtding clinical signs and other tests.
was developed in Cockatiels37; however, classical Recendy a method for using a high-sensitivity
clinic,ql and laboratory signs, such as p o o r featlt- radioimmtmoassay to measure total th}Toxine con-
ering and hypercholesterolemia, were either ab- centradon has been developed. 45 This method ~,qs
sent or ntild 48 days after radiothyroidectomy. developed by using psittacine birds only and will
This observation may indicate that a longer du- be a ~,qy to measure T4 concentrations in these
ration of t h e disease is necessary for these signs birds. Results of the study indicated that T4 con-
to develop. Without TSH-response testing or his- centrations in Blue-fronted Amazon Parrots
tologic confirmation o f lesions associated with were higher and more variable titan in tire other
clinical Iwpoth)Toidism, the true incidence of species tested.
ltypothyroidism is difficult to determine.
In older, obese Amazon Parrots, lesions o f the References
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