CECW-EP Department of the Army EM 1110-1-1004

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineer Washington, DC 20314-1000 31 October 1994
Manual
1110-1-1004
Engineering and Design

DEFORMATION MONITORING AND

CONTROL SURVEYING

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
 EM 1110-2-1004
31 October 1994

US Army Corps
of Engineers

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

Deformation Monitoring
and Control Surveying

ENGINEER MANUAL
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-1-1004
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EP Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-1-1004 31 October 1994

Engineering and Design

DEFORMATION MONITORING AND CONTROL SURVEYING

1. Purpose. This manual provides technical specifications and procedural guidance for control,
geodetic and precise structural deformation surveying. It is intended for use by engineering,
topographic, and construction surveyors performing control or deformation surveys for civil works,
military construction, and environmental restoration projects. Procedural and quality control standards
are defined to establish uniformity in control survey performance and contract administration.

2. Applicability. This manual applies to HQUSACE elements, major subordinate commands, districts,
laboratories, and field operating activities having responsibility for the planning, engineering and
design, operations, maintenance, construction, and related real estate and regulatory functions of civil
works, military construction, and environmental restoration projects. It applies to control surveys
performed by both hired-labor forces and contracted survey forces. It is also applicable to surveys
performed or procured by local interest groups under various cooperative or cost-sharing agreements.

3. General. Control survey techniques can be used to formulate accurate, three-dimensional point
positions. Positions obtained through control surveying may be used to provide the primary reference
control monument locations for engineering and construction projects, from which detailed site plan
topographic mapping, boundary demarcation, and construction alignment work can be performed.
Positions obtained through control surveying have application in the continuous positioning of marine
construction vessels, such as dredges and survey boats. Also, various control survey techniques can be
used to effectively and efficiently monitor and evaluate large structures, such as locks and dams.

4. Accuracy. The accuracy of USACE surveying measurements should be consistent with the
purpose of the survey. When evaluating the technique to be used and accuracies desired, the surveyor
must evaluate the limits of the errors of the equipment involved, the procedures to be followed, and
effects of error propagation. These evaluations should be firmly based on past experience or written
guidance. It is key to remember in this evaluation that the best survey is the one that provides the
data at the required accuracy levels without wasting manpower, time, and money.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

____________________________________________________
ETL 1110-1-147 is superseded and incorporated in this manual.
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-1-1004
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EP Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-1-1004 31 October 1994

Engineering and Design

DEFORMATION MONITORING AND CONTROL SURVEYING

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1 Topographic Site Plan Mapping

Introduction Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 3-4
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1 Structural Deformation Surveys . . . . . . . . 3-8 3-5
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1 Photogrammetric Mapping Control
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1 Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 3-5
Explanation of Abbreviations Hydrographic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 3-5
and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-1 GIS Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 3-5
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-1
Scope of Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 1-1 Chapter 4
Life Cycle Project Reference Systems and Transformations
Management Applicability . . . . . . . . . . 1-7 1-2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1
Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 1-2 The SPCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-3
Trade Name Exclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 1-2 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) . . . 4-3 4-5
Accompanying Guide Specifications . . . . . 1-10 1-2 Geocentric Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . 4-4 4-6
CORPSCON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 1-2 Geocentric Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 4-6
Horizontal Transformations NAD 27 to
Chapter 2 NAD 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 4-6
Control Surveying Applications Horizontal Transition Plan . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 4-10
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1 Vertical Datums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 4-12
Project Control Densification . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1 Distinction Between Orthometric and
Geodetic Control Densification . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-1 Dynamic Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 4-13
Vertical Control Densification . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-1 Vertical Transformations NGVD 29 to
Structural Deformation Studies . . . . . . . . 2-5 2-1 NAVD 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 4-13
Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2-2 Vertical Transition Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11 4-14
Dynamic Positioning and Navigation . . . . 2-7 2-2
GIS Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-2 Chapter 5
Horizontal Control Survey Techniques
Chapter 3 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Standards and Specifications for Horizontal Control Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Control Surveying Applications Primary Horizontal Control . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1 Secondary Horizontal Control . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-2
Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-1 Traverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-3
General Procedural Standards Various Forms of Traverse . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-4
and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-2 Traverse Classifications and
Construction Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-4 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-6
Cadastral and Real Estate Surveys . . . . . . 3-5 3-4 Triangulation and Trilateration . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-6
Geodetic Control Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 3-4 Bearing and Azimuth Determination . . . . . 5-9 5-7

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Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Astronomic Observation Requirements . . . 5-10 5-8 PICES Classification for Determining

Three-Point Resection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11 5-8 Monitoring Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9-3
GPS Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12 5-8 Dam Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 9-4
Foundation Problems in Dams . . . . . . . . . 9-6 9-4
Chapter 6 Seepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7 9-5
Vertical Control Survey Techniques Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8 9-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1 Embankment Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 9-5
Vertical Control Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-1 Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 9-5
Direct Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-1 Concrete Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 9-5
Indirect Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4 6-1 PICES Measurements on Other USACE
Reciprocal Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6-3 Navigation and Flood Control
Three-Wire Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6 6-3 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12 9-5
Two-Rod Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6-4 Deformations in Large Structures . . . . . . . 9-13 9-6
Tidal Benchmarks and Datums . . . . . . . . 6-8 6-4 Current Deformation Methods, Equipment,
Leveling Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9 6-4 and Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 9-7
GPS Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10 6-8 Review of Monitoring Techniques and
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15 9-8
Chapter 7 Electronic Distance and Angle
Miscellaneous Information on Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16 9-9
Survey and Instrument Operations Leveling and Trigonometric Height
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-17 9-12
Field Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1 Use of GPS in Deformation Surveys . . . . 9-18 9-12
Entry Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-2 Photogrammetric Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 9-19 9-14
Alignment Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-20 9-14
Chapter 8 Measurement of Extension (Change in
Survey Adjustments for Distance) and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-21 9-15
Conventional Surveys Tilt and Inclination Measurements . . . . . . 9-22 9-16
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1 Concluding Remarks on Monitoring
Adjustment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-23 9-18
Traverse Adjustment (Balancing) . . . . . . 8-3 8-1 Design of Monitoring Schemes . . . . . . . . 9-24 9-19
Weighted Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8-5 Basic Considerations in Designing
Least Squares Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8-5 Monitoring Schemes for Large Dams . . . 9-25 9-20
Observations, Blunders, and Systematic Optimal Design of the Configuration and
and Random Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-6 Accuracy of the Monitoring Schemes . . . 9-26 9-22
Variances, Standard Deviations, Analysis of Deformation Surveys . . . . . . . 9-27 9-23
and Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8-6 Geometrical Analysis of Deformation
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 8-8 Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-28 9-23
Least Squares Adjustment Techniques . . . 8-9 8-9 Statistical Modeling of the Load-
Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 8-13 Displacement Relationship . . . . . . . . . . 9-29 9-26
Interpretation and Analysis of Deterministic Modeling of the Load-
Adjustment Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11 8-16 Deformation Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . 9-30 9-27
Contract Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 8-17 Hybrid Method of Deformation
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-31 9-28
Chapter 9 Automated Data Management of
Structural Deformation Monitoring Surveys Deformation Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32 9-28
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1 Standards and Specifications for Dam
Deformation Monitoring Survey Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-33 9-31
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-2 Monitoring Techniques and Their
Accuracy Requirements for PICES Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-34 9-31
Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-2

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Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Analysis and Modeling of Deformations PICES Project Requirements and

and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-35 9-32 Instructions for Settlement
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-2
Chapter 10 Instrumentation and Equipment
Standards and Specifications for Deformation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 12-2
Monitoring Reference Networks Leveling Computations and Reductions . 12-8 12-4
General Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1 Office Computations, Reductions, and
Reference Network Accuracy Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9 12-6
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1 PICES Micrometer Alignment Deflection
Accuracy Requirements for Surveying Measurements - General . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10 12-6
PICES Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-1 Micrometer Deflection Observations . . . . 12-11 12-6
Local Coordinate Systems for Reference References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12 12-6
Network Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-2 Expected Deflection Observation
First-Order 3-D Deformation Monitoring Accuracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 12-7
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 10-2 PICES Micrometer Alignment
Network Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 10-2 Requirements and Instructions . . . . . . . 12-14 12-7
Monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 10-3 Instrumentation Requirements . . . . . . . . 12-15 12-7
Reference Point Monuments . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 10-3 Observing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16 12-7
Object/Target Point Marks . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 10-5 Field Computations and Reductions . . . . 12-17 12-8
PICES Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10 10-6 PICES Crack and Joint Measurement
PICES Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 10-6 Procedure - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-18 12-8
Equipment Adjustment and Calibration . . . 10-12 10-7 PICES Requirements and Instructions . . . 12-19 12-8
Survey Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 10-7 Instrumentation and Equipment . . . . . . . 12-20 12-8
Final Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14 10-13 Crack Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . 12-21 12-9
Micrometer Calibration Bars . . . . . . . . . 12-22 12-9
Chapter 11 Periodic Calibration Requirements on
Deformation Monitoring Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-23 12-10
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1 Data Computations and Reductions . . . . 12-24 12-10
DME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-1 PICES: Horizontal EDM Observations -
DME Error Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11-1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-25 12-10
Atmospheric Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11-3 Required Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-26 12-11
Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 11-3 PICES Requirements and Instructions . . . 12-27 12-11
2-D Deformation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . 11-6 11-5 General EDM Observing Procedures
for Lines Less Than 1,000 M in
Chapter 12 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-28 12-11
Periodic Deflection and Settlement Measurement EDM Observing Repetitions . . . . . . . . . 12-29 12-12
Surveys (PICES) Internal EDM Rejection Criteria . . . . . . 12-30 12-13
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 12-1 EDM Computations, Reductions, and
PICES Settlement Monitoring Surveys - Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-31 12-13
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 12-1 Office Computations and Adjustments . . 12-32 12-13
Vertical Settlement Measurements Using
Precise Leveling Techniques . . . . . . . . . 12-3 12-1 Appendix A
Required/Expected Accuracy of Vertical References
Measurements Using Differential
Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12-1 Appendix B
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12-1 Glossary

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Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Appendix C Appendix D
Guide Specification for Deformation Monitoring CORPSCON Technical Documentation and
and Control Surveying Activities Operating Instructions

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Chapter 1 b. Conventional survey techniques are those which

Introduction use traditional ground survey instruments. They do not
include Global Positioning System (GPS) control survey
techniques. Typically, conventional survey techniques
include traverse, triangulation, trilateration, and differen-
1-1. Purpose tial leveling.
This manual provides technical specifications and proce- c. Control survey techniques can be used to formu-
dural guidance for control, geodetic and precise structural late accurate, three-dimensional point positions. Positions
deformation surveying. It is intended for use by engineer- obtained through control surveying may be used to pro-
ing, topographic, and construction surveyors performing vide the primary reference control monument locations for
control or deformation surveys for civil works, military engineering and construction projects, from which detailed
construction, and environmental restoration projects. site plan topographic mapping, boundary demarcation, and
Procedural and quality control standards are defined to construction alignment work can be performed. Positions
establish uniformity in control survey performance and obtained through control surveying have application in the
contract administration. continuous positioning of marine construction vessels,
such as dredges and survey boats. Also, various control
1-2. Applicability survey techniques can be used to effectively and effi-
ciently monitor and evaluate large structures, such as
This manual applies to HQUSACE elements, major subor- locks and dams.
dinate commands (MSC), districts, laboratories, and field
operating activities (FOA) having responsibility for the 1-6. Scope of Manual
planning, engineering and design, operations, maintenan-
ce, construction, and related real estate and regulatory This manual covers the use of control survey techniques
functions of civil works, military construction, and envi- (horizontal and vertical) for establishing and/or extending
ronmental restoration projects. It applies to control sur- project construction or boundary control. Azimuth deter-
veys performed by both hired-labor forces and contracted mination procedures, data reduction and adjustment meth-
survey forces. It is also applicable to surveys performed ods, and control surveying techniques are outlined. A
or procured by local interest groups under various cooper- primary emphasis of this manual centers on the technical
ative or cost-sharing agreements. procedures for performing precise surveys in support of
structural deformation monitoring.
1-3. References
a. The manual is intended to be a reference guide
Required and related publications are listed in for control and deformation surveying, whether performed
Appendix A. by in-house hired-labor forces, contracted forces, or com-
binations thereof. General planning criteria, field and
1-4. Explanation of Abbreviations and Terms office execution procedures, and required accuracy speci-
fications for performing control surveys are provided.
Control surveying terms and abbreviations used in this Accuracy specifications, procedural criteria, and quality
manual are explained in the Glossary (Appendix B). control requirements contained in this manual should be
directly referenced in the scopes of work for Architect-
1-5. Background Engineer (A-E) survey services or other third-party survey
services. This ensures that standardized procedures are
a. A control survey consists of establishing the hori- followed by both hired-labor and contract service sources.
zontal and vertical positions of points for the control of a
project site, map, or study area. A geodetic control sur- b. The specific project control survey procedures and
vey takes into consideration the size and shape of the standards are designed to achieve adequate and econom-
earth; it implies a reference ellipsoid which represents the ical results to support USACE engineering and construc-
geoid and the vertical control datums. A structural defor- tion activities. Thus, the primary emphasis of the manual
mation survey involves the accurate measurement of centers on performing Second- and Third-Order accuracy
short-term and long-term structural deflections or defor- surveys. This accuracy level will provide adequate refer-
mations. Geodetic survey techniques are used in perform- ence control from which supplemental real estate,
ing deformation measurements.

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EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

engineering, construction layout surveying, and site plan over a project’s life cycle, with a goal of eliminating
topographic mapping work may be performed. Therefore, duplicate or redundant surveys to the maximum extent
the survey criteria, given in this manual, are not intended possible.
to meet the Federal Geodetic Control Committee (FGCC)
(now the Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee 1-8. Metrics
(FGCS)) standards and specifications required for densify-
ing the National Geodetic Reference System (NGRS). Both non-SI and metric units are used in this manual.
However, following the methods and procedures given in Metric units are commonly used in control surveying
this manual will yield results equal to or exceeding FGCS applications, including the control survey work covered in
Second-Order relative accuracy criteria. Second-Order this manual. Control surveyed geographical or metric
accuracy is sufficient for USACE engineering and con- Cartesian coordinates are generally transformed to non-SI
struction work. units of measurements for use in local project reference
and design systems, such as State Plane Coordinate Sys-
c. When a project requires NGRS densification, or tem (SPCS) grids. In all cases, the use of either metric or
such densification is a desirable by-product and is eco- non-SI units shall follow local engineering and construc-
nomically justified, USACE Commands should conform tion practices. Non-SI/metric equivalences are noted
to the more rigorous FGCS “Standards and Specifications where applicable, including the critical--and often statu-
for Geodetic Control Networks.” This includes related tory--distinction between the U.S. Survey Foot (1,200/
automated data recording, submittal, and project review 3,937 meters (m) exactly) and International Foot (30.48/
requirements mandated by FGCS and the National Geo- 100 m exactly) conversions.
detic Survey (NGS). Details outlining the proposed use
of control surveying techniques, including specific 1-9. Trade Name Exclusions
requirements for connections to the NGRS, shall be
included in the descriptions of surveying and mapping The citation or illustration in this manual of trade names
activities contained in project authorization documents. of commercially available survey products, including other
auxiliary surveying equipment, instrumentation, and
d. This manual does not cover the theory and physi- adjustment software, does not constitute official endorse-
cal concepts of GPS survey techniques. For further spe- ment or approval of the use of such products.
cific guidance on all aspects of GPS surveying, the user
should consult EM 1110-1-1003. 1-10. Accompanying Guide Specifications

1-7. Life Cycle Project Management Applicability Appendix C provides guide specifications which can be
used to support A-E service contracts for control
Project control may be used through the entire life cycle surveying.
of a project, spanning decades in many cases. During
initial reconnaissance surveys of a project, control should 1-11. CORPSCON
be permanently monumented and situated in areas that are
conducive to the performance or densification of subse- A conversion program, CORPSCON, that performs datum
quent surveys for contract plans and specifications, con- conversions for the continental U.S. has been developed
struction, and maintenance. During the early planning by the U.S. Army Topographic Engineering Center
phases of a project, a comprehensive survey control plan (TEC). Technical documentation and operating instruc-
should be developed which considers survey requirements tions are given in Appendix D.

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Chapter 2 2-4. Vertical Control Densification

Control Surveying Applications
Orthometric heights (from benchmarks located in the
project area) and conventional leveling methods are used
to determine elevations (orthometric heights) for vertical
2-1. General control densification. The setup and operation for
conventional control surveying for vertical control densifi-
Control surveys are used to support project control densi- cation offers economies of scale in the same manner as
fication, structural deformation studies, photogrammetry, that offered by the setup for project control densification:
dynamic positioning and navigation for hydrographic smaller projects require less setups, while larger projects
survey vessels and dredges, hydraulic study/survey loca- require more. The procedures for using GPS for vertical
tion, river/floodplain cross-section location, core drilling control densification are covered in further detail in
location, environmental studies, levee overbank surveys, EM 1110-1-1003.
levee profiling, levee grading and revetment placement,
disposal area construction, grade control, support for real 2-5. Structural Deformation Studies
estate surveys and regulatory enforcement actions.
a. Conventional control surveying can be used to
2-2. Project Control Densification monitor the motion of points on a structure relative to
stable monuments. This can be done with an array of
a. Conventional surveying. Conventional control calibrated reflectors positioned at selected points on the
surveys can be used to economically and accurately estab- structure, an Electronic Distance Measuring instrument
lish or densify project control in a timely fashion. Quality (EDM) alternated on various remote stable monuments,
control statistics and redundant measurements in networks and trilateration techniques. These precise techniques can
established by these methods help to ensure reliable provide a direct measure of the displacement of a struc-
results. However, conventional survey methods do have ture as a function of time. If procedures are strictly
the requirement for intervisibility between adjacent adhered to, it is possible to achieve +0.5 mm + 4 ppm
stations. (4 mm/km) for baseline using conventional surveying.
Personnel requirements generally are two personnel once
b. GPS surveying. GPS survey techniques can often the initial test network of reference and object points are
be used to establish or densify project control more effi- set up: one person to monitor the EDM, another to aid in
ciently than conventional control surveying techniques. reflector placement.
Quality control statistics and redundant measurements in
GPS networks help to ensure reliable results. Field opera- b. GPS can be used to monitor the motion of points
tions to perform a GPS survey are relatively easy and can on a structure relative to stable monuments. With GPS,
generally be performed by one person per receiver, with an array of antennae are positioned at selected points on
two or more receivers required to transfer control. GPS the structure and on remote stable monuments as opposed
does not require intervisibility between adjacent stations. to using reflectors and EDMs as previously described.
However, GPS must have visibility of at least four satel- The baselines between the antennae are formulated to
lites (for position determination) during surveying. This monitor differential movement. The relative precision of
requirement may make GPS inappropriate in areas of the measurements is on the order of +5 mm over dis-
dense vegetation. For GPS control survey techniques tances averaging between 5 and 10 km. Formulations can
refer to EM 1110-1-1003. be determined continuously 24 hours a day, depending on
GPS constellation availability. Once a deformation moni-
2-3. Geodetic Control Densification toring system has been set up using GPS, it can be oper-
ated unattended and is relatively easy to maintain. More
Conventional control and GPS surveying methods can be specific guidance on the use of GPS for deformation
used for wide-area high-order geodetic control densifica- monitoring is included in EM 1110-1-1003.
tion. First-, Second- or Third-order work can be achieved
using conventional or GPS surveying techniques.

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31 Oct 94

c. Methods for deformation determination, including b. GPS can reduce the time and effort required to
the direct measurement of deformation parameters (e.g., install control for dynamic positioning and navigation. In
tilt, strain, stress, etc.), the real-time processing of contin- addition to this capability, properly equipped GPS
uously recorded deformation data, the structural finite equipment can provide dynamic, real-time GPS code and
element method, and the integrated analysis of deforma- carrier phase positioning of construction and surveying
tion measurements, are not covered in this manual. For platforms. GPS code phase differential techniques can
further information on these techniques, the user should provide real-time meter-level horizontal positioning and
consult any of the references listed in Appendix A relative navigation, while GPS carrier phase differential techniques
to the particular subject. can provide real-time centimeter-level three-dimensional
positioning and navigation. These GPS methods can be
2-6. Photogrammetry used for any type of construction or survey platform (e.g.,
dredges, graders, survey vessels, etc.). More specific
Conventional control and GPS surveying can be used in guidance on the use of GPS for dynamic positioning and
the support of photogrammetric applications. More spe- navigation is included in EM 1110-1-1003.
cific guidance on the use of control surveying in support
of photogrammetry is included in EM 1110-1-1000. 2-8. GIS Integration

2-7. Dynamic Positioning and Navigation A Geographic Information System (GIS) can be used to
correlate and store diverse information on natural or man-
a. Conventional control surveying can be used to made characteristics of geographic positions. To effec-
establish control for the dynamic positioning and naviga- tively establish and use a GIS, it must be based on
tion of construction and surveying platforms used for accurate geographic coordinates. A GIS with an accurate
design, construction, and environmental regulatory efforts. foundation of geographic coordinates enables the user to
These efforts include dredge control systems, site inves- readily exchange information between databases. Conven-
tigation studies/surveys, horizontal and vertical construc- tional control surveying and GPS surveying can be used
tion placement, hydraulic studies, or any other activity to establish the geographic coordinates used as the foun-
requiring two- or three-dimensional control. Second- or dation for a GIS.
Third-Order leveling is required for these efforts.

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Chapter 3 e. Many of the criteria shown in the tables are

Standards and Specifications for developed from FGCS standards for performing conven-
tional control surveys and GPS surveys. The criteria
Control Surveying Applications
listed in the tables have been modified to provide more
practical standards for engineering and survey densifica-
tion. FGCS Standards and Specifications for Geodetic
3-1. General Control Networks covers all aspects of performing con-
ventional control surveys for high-precision geodetic net-
This chapter details standards and specifications for con- work densification purposes, while FGCS GPS Standards
trol surveying applications and provides guidance on how covers the use of GPS surveys for the same application.
to reach them. This intended application of techniques is not practical for
typical civil works, military construction, and environmen-
3-2. Accuracy tal restoration activities where lower precision control is
acceptable.
a. This section prescribes field surveying standards
and specifications that are applicable to surveys performed f. If a primary function of a survey is to support
to provide base reference control, regardless of the appli- NGRS densification, then specifications listed in the
cation, whether in support of the engineering design, plan- FGCS publications (1984 and 1988) should be followed in
ning, construction, project operation and maintenance, real lieu of those in Tables 3-1 and 3-2.
estate, and/or regulatory enforcement functions.
(1) Survey classification. A survey shall be class-
NOTE: The accuracy of control surveying measurements ified based on its horizontal point closure ratio, as indi-
should be consistent with the purpose of the survey. cated in Table 3-1 or the vertical elevation difference
When evaluating the technique to be used and accuracies closure standard given in Table 3-2.
desired, the surveyor must evaluate the limits of the errors
of the equipment involved, the procedures to be followed,
and the error propagation. These evaluations should be Table 3-1
USACE Point Closure Standards for
firmly based on past experience or written guidance. It is Horizontal Control Surveys
important to remember in this evaluation that the best sur-
Point Closure Standard
vey is the one that provides the data at the required accu-
USACE Classification (Ratio)
racy levels without wasting manpower, time, and money.
Second Order Class I 1:50,000
Second Order Class II 1:20,000
b. Survey accuracy standards prescribed in this sec- Third Order Class I 1:10,000
tion relate to the relative accuracy derived from a par- Third Order Class II 1: 5,000
ticular survey. This relative accuracy (or precision) is Construction Layout/
estimated by internal closure checks of the survey run Fourth Order 1:2,500 - 1:20,000
through the local project, map, or construction site. Rela-
tive survey accuracy estimates are traditionally expressed
as ratios of the misclosure to the total length of the survey
(e.g., 1:10,000). Relative survey accuracies are different Table 3-2
than map accuracies, which are expressed in terms of lim- USACE Point Closure Standards for
Vertical Control Surveys
iting positional error. Since map compilation is dependent
on survey control, map accuracies will ultimately hinge on Point Closure Standard
USACE Classiciation (Feet)
the adequacy and accuracy of the base survey used to
control the map. Second Order Class I 0.025*M0.5
Second Order Class II 0.035*M0.5
Third Order 0.050*M0.5
c. Tables 3-1 and 3-2 detail the basic minimum cri- Construction
teria required for planning, performing, and evaluating the Layout/Fourth Order 0.100*M0.5
adequacy of control surveys.
NOTE: M0.5 = square root of distance M in miles

d. These criteria apply to all conventional control

surveying and GPS surveying activities regardless of the
intended accuracies.

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(2) Horizontal control standards. The horizontal point Control may be established by short, non-redundant spur
closure is determined by dividing the linear distance shots, using total stations or GPS, or by single traverse
misclosure of the survey into the overall circuit length of runs between two existing permanent control points.
a traverse, loop, or network line/circuit. When indepen- Positional accuracy will be commensurate with, and rela-
dent directions or angles are observed, as on a conven- tive to, that of the existing point(s) from which the new
tional survey (i.e., traverse, trilateration, or triangulation), point is established.
these angular misclosures may optionally be distributed
before assessing positional misclosure. In cases where (3) Vertical control standards. The vertical accuracy
GPS vectors are measured in geocentric coordinates, then of a survey is determined by the elevation misclosure
the three-dimensional positional misclosure is assessed. within a level section or level loop. For conventional dif-
ferential or trigonometric leveling, section or loop mis-
(a) Approximate surveying. Approximate surveying closures (in feet) shall not exceed the limits shown in
work should be classified based on the survey’s estimated Table 3-2, where the line or circuit length (M) is mea-
or observed positional errors. This would include abso- sured in miles. Fourth-Order accuracies are intended for
lute GPS and some differential GPS techniques with posi- construction layout grading work. Procedural specifica-
tional accuracies ranging from 10 to 150 feet (2DRMS). tions or restrictions pertaining to vertical control survey-
There is no order classification for such approximate ing methods or equipment should not be overly restrictive.
work.
(4) Contract compliance with USACE survey stan-
(b) Higher order survey. Requirements for relative dards. Contract compliance assessment shall be based on
line accuracies exceeding 1:50,000 are rare for most the prescribed point closure standards of internal loops,
USACE applications. Surveys requiring accuracies of not on closure with external networks of unknown accu-
First-Order (1:100,000) or better should be performed racy. In cases where internal loops are not observed, then
using FGCS standards and specifications, and must be assessment must be based on external closures. Specified
adjusted by the NGS. closure accuracy standards shall not be specified that
exceed those required for the project, regardless of the
(c) Construction layout or grade control. The Con- accuracy capabilities of the survey equipment.
struction Layout or Grade Control USACE Classification
is analogous to traditional Fourth-Order work. This clas- 3-3. General Procedural Standards and
sification is intended to cover temporary control used for Specifications
alignment, grading, and measurement of various types of
construction, and some local site plan topographic map- a. Most survey applications in typical civil works
ping or photo mapping control work. Accuracy standards and military arenas can be satisfied with a Second- or
will vary with the type of construction. Lower accuracies Third-Order level of accuracy. Higher levels of accuracy
(1:2,500 - 1:5,000) are acceptable for earthwork, embank- are required for the densification of high precision
ment, beach fill, and levee alignment stakeout and grad- geodetic networks and some forms of deformation
ing, and some site plan, curb and gutter, utility building monitoring.
foundation, sidewalk, and small roadway stakeout. Mod-
erate accuracies (1:5,000) are used in most pipeline, b. Since most modern survey equipment (e.g., GPS
sewer, culvert, catch basin, and manhole stakeout, and for or electronic total stations) are capable of achieving far
general residential building foundation and footing con- higher accuracies than those required for engineering,
struction, major highway pavement, and concrete runway construction, and mapping, only generalized field survey
stakeout work. Somewhat higher accuracies (1:10,000 - specifications are necessary for most USACE work. The
1:20,000) are used for aligning longer bridge spans, following paragraphs outline some of the more critical
tunnels, and large commercial structures. For extensive specifications which relate to the USACE horizontal and
bridge or tunnel projects, 1:50,000 or even 1:100,000 vertical standards. Additional guidance for performing
relative accuracy alignment work may be required. Verti- control surveying is found in subsequent chapters, as well
cal grade is usually observed to the nearest 0.01 foot for as many of the technical manuals listed in Appendix A.
most construction work, although 0.1-foot accuracy is
sufficient for riprap placement, grading, and small diame- (1) Survey instrumentation criteria. USACE Com-
ter pipe placement. Construction control points are typi- mands shall minimize the use of rigid requirements for
cally marked by semi-permanent or temporary monuments particular surveying equipment or instruments used by
(e.g., plastic hubs, P-K nails, wooden grade stakes). professional surveying contractors. In some instances,

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31 Oct 94

contract technical specifications may prescribe a general either the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) or
type of instrument system be employed (e.g., total station, NAD 27 systems, with coordinates referred to the local
GPS, spirit level), along with any unique operating or SPCS for the area. The Universal Transverse Mercator
calibration requirements. (UTM) grid system may be used for military operational
or tactical uses, in OCONUS locales without a local coor-
(2) Survey geometry and field observing criteria. In dinate system, or on some civil projects crossing multiple
lieu of providing detailed government procedural specifi- SPCS zones. Vertical control should be referenced to
cations, professional contractors may be presumed capable either the National Geodetic Vertical Datum, 1929 Adjust-
of performing surveys in accordance with accepted indus- ment (NGVD 29) or the North American Vertical Datum,
try standards and practices. Any geometrical form of 1988 Adjustment (NAVD 88). Independent survey
survey network may be formed: traverses, loops, net- datums and reference systems shall be avoided unless
works, and cross-links within networks. Traverses should required by local code, statute, or practice. This includes
generally be closed back (or looped) to the same point, to local tangent grid systems, state High Accuracy Reference
allow an assessment of the internal misclosure accuracies. Networks (HARN), and unreferenced construction base-
Survey alignment, orientation, and observing criteria line station-offset control.
should not be rigidly specified; however, guidance regard-
ing limits on numbers of traverse stations, minimum (6) Spur points. Spur points (open-ended traverses
traverse course lengths, auxiliary connections, etc. are or level lines) should be avoided to the maximum extent
provided in the subsequent chapters of this EM, as well in practicable. In many cases, it is acceptable survey proce-
other EM’s listed in Appendix A. dure for temporary Fourth-Order construction control,
provided adequate blunder detection is taken. Kinematic
(3) Connections to existing control. USACE surveys differential GPS (DGPS code or carrier phase tracking)
should be connected to existing local control or project surveys are effectively spur point surveys with relative
control monuments/benchmarks. These existing points accuracies well in excess of Third-Order standards. These
may be those of any Federal (including USACE project DGPS kinematic spur techniques may be acceptable pro-
control), state, local, or private agency. Ties to local cedures for most control surveying in the future, provided
USACE project control and boundary monuments are blunder protection procedures are developed. Refer to
absolutely essential and critical to design, construction, EM 1110-1-1003 for further GPS guidance.
and real estate. In order to minimize scale or orientation
errors, at least two existing monuments should be con- (7) Survey adjustments. The standard adjustment
nected, if practicable. However, survey quality control method in USACE will be either the Compass Rule or
accuracy assessments (Tables 3-1 and 3-2) shall be based Least Squares. Technical (and contractual) compliance
on internal traverse or level line closures--not on external with accuracy standards prescribed in Tables 3-1 and 3-2
closures between or with existing monuments or bench- will be based on the internal point misclosures. Propa-
marks. Accuracy assessments based on external closures gated relative distance/line accuracy statistics used by
typically require a knowledge of the statistical variances FGCS that result from unconstrained (minimally con-
in the fixed network. strained) least squares adjustment error propagation statis-
tics may be assumed comparable to relative misclosure
(4) Connections to NGRS control. The NGRS per- accuracy estimates for survey quality control assessment.
tains to geodetic control monuments with coordinate or Surveys may be adjusted (i.e., constrained) to existing
elevation data published by the NGS. It is recommended control without regard to the variances in the existing net-
that USACE surveys be connected with one or more work adjustment. Exceptions to this requirement are sur-
stations on the NGRS when practicable and feasible. veys performed to FGCS standards and specifications that
Connections with the NGRS shall be subordinate to the are adjusted by NGS.
requirements for connections with local/project control.
Connections with local/project control that has previously (8) Data recording and archiving. Field survey data
been connected to the NGRS are adequate in most cases. may be recorded either manually or electronically. Man-
ual recordation should follow industry practice, using
(5) Survey datums. A variety of survey datums and formats outlined in various technical manuals (Appen-
references are used throughout USACE projects. It is dix A). Refer to EM 1110-1-1005 for electronic survey
recommended that horizontal surveys be referenced to data collection standards.

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3-4. Construction Surveys densification is a desirable by-product and is economically

justified, USACE Commands should conform to FGCS
In-house and contracted construction surveys generally survey standards and specifications, and other criteria
will be performed to meet Third-Order-Class II (1:5,000) prescribed under Office of Management and Budget
accuracy. Some stake-out work for earthwork clearing (OMB) Circular A-16 (OMB 1990). This includes related
and grading, and other purposes, may need only be per- automated data recording, submittal, project review, and
formed to meet Fourth-Order accuracy requirements. adjustment requirements mandated by FGCS and NGS.
Other stake-out work, such as tunnel or bridge pier align- Details outlining the proposed use of FGCS standards and
ment, may require Second-Order or higher accuracy crite- specifications in lieu of USACE standards, including spe-
ria. Construction survey procedural specifications should cific requirements for connections to the NGRS, shall be
follow recognized industry practices. Reference also included in the descriptions of survey and mapping activi-
FM 5-233, Construction Surveying. ties contained in project authorization documents.

3-5. Cadastral and Real Estate Surveys c. Geodetic control surveys intended for support to
and inclusion in the NGRS must be done in accordance
Many state codes, rules, or statutes prescribe minimum with the following FGCS publications:
technical standards for surveying and mapping. Gener-
ally, most state accuracy standards for real property (1) “Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Con-
surveys parallel USACE Third-Order point closure stan- trol Networks” (FGCS 1984).
dards--usually ranging between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000.
USACE and its contractors shall follow applicable state (2) “Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and
minimum technical standards for real property surveys Specifications for Using GPS Relative Positioning Tech-
involving the determination of the perimeters of a parcel niques” (FGCS 1988).
or tract of land by establishing or reestablishing corners,
monuments, and boundary lines, for the purpose of (3) “Input Formats and Specifications of the
describing, locating fixed improvements, or platting or National Geodetic Data Base” (also termed the “Blue-
dividing parcels. Although state minimum standards book”) (FGCS 1980).
relate primarily to accuracies of land and boundary sur-
veys, other types of survey work may also be covered in (4) “Guidelines for Submitting GPS Relative Posi-
some areas. See also ER 405-1-12, Real Estate Hand- tioning Data to the National Geodetic Survey” (NGS
book. Reference also the standards and specifications 1988).
prescribed in the “Manual of Instruction for the Survey of
the Public Lands of the United States” (U.S. Bureau of A survey performed to FGCS accuracy standards and
Land Management 1947) for cadastral surveys, or surveys specifications cannot be definitively classified or certified
of private lands abutting or adjoining Government lands. until the NGS has performed a variance analysis of the
survey relative to the existing NGRS. This analysis and
3-6. Geodetic Control Surveys certification cannot be performed by USACE Commands--
only the NGS can perform this function. It is estimated
a. Geodetic control surveys are usually performed that performing surveys to meet these FGCS standards,
for the purpose of establishing a basic framework to be specifications, and archiving criteria can add between 25
included in the national geodetic reference network, or and 50 percent to the surveying costs of a project. There-
NGRS. These geodetic survey functions are distinct from fore, sound judgment must be exercised on each project
the survey procedures and standards defined in this EM when determining the practicability of doing survey work
which are intended to support USACE engineering, con- that, in addition to meeting the needs of the project, can
struction, mapping, and Geographic Information System be used for support to and inclusion in the NGRS.
(GIS) activities.
3-7. Topographic Site Plan Mapping Surveys
b. Geodetic control surveys of permanently monu-
mented control points that are to be incorporated in the Control surveys from which site plan mapping is densified
NGRS must be performed to far more rigorous standards (using plane tables, electronic total stations, or GPS) are
and specifications than are surveys used for general engi- normally established to USACE Third-Order standards.
neering, construction, mapping, or cadastral purposes. Follow guidance in FM 5-233, Construction Surveying;
When a project requires NGRS densification, or such

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31 Oct 94

FM 5-82D, Topographic Surveyor; FM 5-232, Geodetic Second-Order standards will be required for extensive
and Topographic Surveying; EM 1110-1-1005. aerotriangulation work. Reference EM 1110-1-1000, for
detailed photogrammetric mapping standards and
3-8. Structural Deformation Surveys specifications.

Structural deformation surveys are performed in compli- 3-10. Hydrographic Surveys

ance with the requirements in ER 1110-2-100, often
termed PICES surveys. PICES surveys require high line Control points for USACE hydrographic surveys generally
vector and/or positional accuracies to monitor the relative are set to Third-Order horizontal and vertical accuracy.
movement of monoliths, walls, embankments, etc. PICES Exceptions are noted in EM 1110-2-1003. Hydrographic
survey accuracy standards vary with the type of construc- depth sounding accuracies are based on the linear and
tion, structural stability, failure probability, and impact, radial error measures described in EM 1110-2-1003, as
etc. In general, horizontal and vertical deformation moni- well as hydrographic survey procedural specifications.
toring survey procedures are performed relative to a con- Requirements for compliance with EM 1110-2-1003 are
trol network established for the structure. Ties to the contained in ER 1130-2-307.
NGRS or NGVD 29 are not necessary other than for gen-
eral reference; and then only an USACE Third-Order 3-11. GIS Surveys
connection is needed. FGCS geodetic relative accuracy
standards are not applicable to these localized movement GIS raster or vector features can be scaled or digitized
surveys. Other deformation survey and instrumentation from any existing map. Typically a standard USGS
specifications and procedures for earth and rock fill dams 1:24,000 quadrangle map is adequate given the accuracies
and concrete structures are in EM 1110-2-1908 and needed between GIS data features, elements, or classifica-
EM 1110-2-4300. tions. Relative or absolute GPS (i.e., 10- to 30-foot preci-
sion) survey techniques may be adequate to tie GIS
3-9. Photogrammetric Mapping Control Surveys features where no maps exist. Second- or Third-Order
control networks are generally adequate for all subse-
Control surveys required for controlling photogrammetric quent engineering, construction, real estate, GIS, and/or
mapping products will normally be performed to USACE Automated Mapping/Facilities Management (AM/FM)
Third-Order standards. Occasionally USACE control.

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Chapter 4 X,Y,Z = Cartesian coordinates

Reference Systems and Transformations
a = semi-major axis

b = semi-minor axis
4-1. General
The ellipsoid of revolution provides a defined mathemati-
The discipline of surveying consists of locating points of cal surface to calculate geodetic distances, azimuths, and
interest on the surface of the earth. Points of interest are coordinates. Some adjustment, transformation, and GPS
defined by spherical or planar coordinate values that are postprocessing software packages require the user to input
referenced to a defined mathematical figure. In survey- the size and shape of the reference ellipsoid. The semi-
ing, this mathematical figure may be an equipotential major (a) and semi-minor (b) axes are used to determine
surface, ellipsoid of revolution, or a plane. the ellipsoid size (Figure 4-2). The ellipsoid shape can
also be defined by the flattening (f), reciprocal of flatten-
a. Geoid. The geoid is an equipotential surface ing (f-1), eccentricity, and second eccentricity (e’).
where the plumb line is perpendicular to each point on its
surface. The geoid is considered a mean sea level (MSL) Flattening: f = (a-b)/a
surface extended continuously through the continents.
The geoidal surface is irregular due to mass excesses and Reciprocal of flattening: f-1 = 1/f
deficiencies within the earth (Figure 4-1). The geoidal
surface is the reference system for orthometric heights and Eccentricity: e = (a2 - b2)0.5/a or
astronomic coordinates. e = (2f - f2)0.5

Second eccentricity: e’ = (a2 - b2)0.5/b

Figure 4-1. The relationship between the ellipsoid,

geoid, and the physical surface of the Earth

b. Ellipsoid. An ellipsoid of revolution is a mathe-

matical figure that “best” approximates the geoid (Fig-
ure 4-1). The ellipsoid of revolution is developed by
rotating an ellipse about its semi-minor axis (b) and is
Figure 4-2. Ellipse
symmetric to the equator.

Ellipsoid of revolution: Table 4-1 contains the ellipsoid parameters for the Clarke
1866, Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS 80), and the
X2/a2 + Y2/a2 + Z2/b2 = 1 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) reference ellip-
soids. The Clarke 1866 and GRS 80 are the mathematical
where surfaces utilized by the North American Datum 1927

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EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Table 4-1
Ellipsoidal Parameters
Datum
NAD 27
Ellipsoid Clark 1866
Semi-major axis (a) 6,378,206.4 m
Flattening (1/f) 294.9786982
NAD 83
Ellipsoid GRS 80
Semi-major axis (a) 6,378,137.0 m
Flattening (1/f) 298.257222101
WGS 84
Ellipsoid WGS 84
Semi-major axis (a) 6,378,137.0 m
Flattening (1/f) 298.257223563

Figure 4-3. Coordinate reference frames

(NAD 27) and the North American Datum 1983
(NAD 83). The WGS 84 is the reference system utilized
by the GPS. The WGS 84 and NAD 83 are considered East-west longitude conversion:
synonymous in the continental United States. However,
in some locations, positional variations of several meters λ = 282 52 36.345 E
may occur between the NAD 83 and WGS 84.
λ = 360 - 282 52 36.345 E
c. Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z). Cartesian coor-
dinates are considered a true three-dimensional coordinate λ = 77 07 23.655 W
system. They can be referenced to a regional ellipsoid
(Clarke 1866), a global ellipsoid (WGS 84), a plane, or a (3) Ellipsoid height (h). The ellipsoid height above
single point. Cartesian coordinates are termed geocentric the reference ellipsoid is the distance measured along the
if they are related to a global ellipsoid which has its coor- ellipsoidal normal to the point in question. The ellipsoid
dinate origin at the mass center of the earth. However, height is positive if the reference ellipsoid is below the
Cartesian coordinates are seldom utilized in engineering topographic surface and negative if the ellipsoid is above
and cadastral surveys. the topographic surface. The ellipsoid height is not uti-
lized in engineering and cadastral surveys.
d. Geodetic coordinates. Geodetic coordinates con-
sist of latitude (φ), longitude (λ), and ellipsoid height (h). (4) Geoid separation (N). The geoid separation is
Geodetic latitude, longitude, and ellipsoid height define the distance between the normal to the reference ellipsoid
the position on the surface of the earth with respect to the and the geoid. The geoid separation is positive if the
reference ellipsoid (Figure 4-3). geoid is above the ellipsoid and negative if the geoid is
below the ellipsoid.
(1) Geodetic latitude (φ). The geodetic latitude of a
point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the (5) Orthometric height (H). The orthometric height
normal through the point on the ellipsoid (Figure 4-3). is the vertical distance of a point above or below the
Geodetic latitude is positive north of the equator and geoid. In the United States, elevations are commonly
negative south of the equator. referenced to MSL which approximates the geoidal sur-
face. Orthometric (MSL) heights are utilized in engineer-
(2) Geodetic longitude (λ). The geodetic longitude is ing, construction, and topographic surveys.
the angle measured in the equatorial plane from the prime
meridian (Greenwich meridian) to the defined point (Fig- e. Datum. A datum is a numerical or geometrical
ure 4-3). Longitude is commonly measured eastward reference system. Horizontal and vertical datums are
from the Greenwich meridian (0o-360o). In the continental commonly used in surveying and mapping. Horizontal
United States, longitudes are expressed westerly. To and vertical datums are further subdivided as project and
convert easterly to westerly referenced longitudes, the geodetic.
easterly longitude must be subtracted from three hundred
and sixty degrees (360o).

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(1) Horizontal datum. A horizontal datum is defined 250,000 stations. The best fitting area for the resultant
by the geometric figure utilized (plane, ellipsoid, sphere) adjustment is worldwide. The longitude origin for
in coordinate, distance, and directional calculations; initial NAD 83 is the Greenwich Meridian. The reference units
reference point (origin); and a defined azimuth or bearing are meters and the coordinate values are defined in terms
from the initial point. of easting and northing.

(a) Geodetic datum. Five parameters are required to (2) Vertical datum.
define a geodetic datum: the semi-major axis (a) and
flattening (f) define the size and shape of the reference (a) A vertical datum is a reference system for ele-
ellipsoid; the latitude and longitude of an initial point; vations. Vertical datums are most commonly referenced
and a defined azimuth (α) from the initial point. The to MSL, mean low water (MLW), mean low low water
NAD 27 and NAD 83 are examples of geodetic datums. (MLLW), or mean high water (MHW). MSL elevations
For example, the NAD 27 utilizes the Clarke 1866 ellip- are utilized for construction, photogrammetric, geodetic,
soid. The initial point for the NAD 27 is at Meades and topographic surveys. MLW elevations are utilized in
Ranch, Kansas, and a defined azimuth extends from dredging projects. MHW elevations are utilized in con-
Meades Ranch to Station Waldo. struction projects involving bridges and tunnels.

(b) Project. A project datum is relative to local con- (b) The vertical reference system most often used in
trol and may not be directly referenced to a geodetic the past was the NGVD 29. The NAVD 88 is to be used
datum. Project datums are the most common reference for all future work. Transformations between NGVD 29
system utilized by the Corps of Engineers. and NAVD 88 will be done using the Vertical Conversion
(i.e., VERTCON) software whenever a survey or resurvey
(c) The adjusted horizontal datums typically used are with new control or a readjustment of the original survey
the NAD 27 and NAD 83. The FGCS, of which USACE observations cannot be done.
is a member, has adopted the NAD 83 as the horizontal
datum for surveying and mapping activities performed or 4-2. The SPCS
financed by the Federal Government. To the extent prac-
ticable, legally allowable, and feasible, the USACE should The SPCS was developed by the NGS to provide a planar
use NAD 83 in its surveying and mapping activities. representation of the earth’s surface. To properly relate
Transformations between NAD 27 and NAD 83 are done spherical coordinates (φ,λ) to a planar system (northings
using the CORPS Convert (i.e., CORPSCON) software and eastings), a developable surface must be constructed.
package or other North American Datum Conversion (i.e., A developable surface is defined as a surface that can be
NADCON) based program whenever a survey or resurvey expanded without stretching or tearing. The two most
with new control or a readjustment of the original survey common developable surfaces or map projections used in
observations cannot be done. (See Appendix D.) surveying and mapping are the cone and cylinder (Fig-
ure 4-4). The projection of choice is dependent on the
(d) The NAD 27 is based on an adjustment of the north-south or east-west areal extent of the region. Areas
Clarke 1866 reference ellipsoid. The origin and orienta- with limited east-west dimensions and indefinite north-
tion of NAD 27 is defined relative to a fixed triangulation south extent utilize the Transverse Mercator (TM) projec-
station in Kansas (i.e., Meades Ranch). Azimuth orienta- tion. Areas with limited north-south dimensions and
tion for NAD 27 is South. The original network adjust- indefinite east-west extent utilize the Lambert projection.
ment for NAD 27 included approximately 25,000 stations. The SPCS was designed to minimize the distortion at a
The best fitting area for the resultant adjustment is North point to approximately one-part in ten thousand
America. The longitude origin for NAD 27 is the Green- (1:10,000). To achieve this criterion, the SPCS has been
wich Meridian. The reference units are U.S. Survey Feet divided into zones that have a maximum width or height
and the coordinate values are defined in terms of x and y. of approximately one-hundred and fifty eight statute miles
(158 miles). To minimize distortion, each state may have
(e) The NAD 83 is defined relative to the Geodetic several zones or may employ both the Lambert and TM
Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80). GRS 80 is an ellip- projections. For example, Florida consists of one Lambert
soid model based on the mass center of the earth. Azi- zone that encompasses the panhandle region and two TM
muth orientation for NAD 83 is North. The original zones that cover the remainder of the state. The TM and
network adjustment for NAD 83 included approximately Lambert projections are conformal. A conformal

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31 Oct 94

b. Lambert conformal conic. The Lambert projec-

tion utilizes a cone that is coincident with the rotational
axis of the ellipsoid and intersects the ellipsoid along two
standard parallels (Figure 4-6). The scale factor is equal
to unity at the standard parallels and is less than one
inside and greater than one outside the standard parallels.
The scale factor remains constant along the parallel; there-
fore, the Lambert projection is ideal for states with indefi-
nite east-west extent.

Figure 4-4. Common map projections

projection preserves angular relationships. Angles mea-

sured on the ellipsoid are equal to angles measured on a
conformal projection. To calculate TM or Lambert pro-
jection state plane coordinates, the user must identify the
datum to which the geodetic coordinates are referenced.

a. The TM. The TM projection utilizes a cylindrical

surface. The cylinder is perpendicular to the rotation axis
of the ellipsoid and intersects the ellipsoid along two
ellipses equidistant from the central meridian (Figure 4-5).
Distortions in the TM projection increase in the east-west
direction; therefore, the TM projection is utilized in states
with north-south extent. The TM scale factor is unity
where the cylinder intersects the ellipsoid. The scale
factor is less than one within the lines of intersection and
greater than one outside the lines of intersection (Fig-
ure 4-5). The scale factor is the ratio of arc length on the
projection to arc length on the ellipsoid. To compute the Figure 4-6. Lambert projection
state plane coordinates of a point, the latitude and longi-
tude of the point and the projection constants for that c. Grid distances. Grid distances are computed by
zone or state must be known. multiplying the horizontal distance measured in the field
by the combination or grid factor. The combination fac-
tor consists of the sea level and scale factor. The sea
level factor is computed by dividing the mean radius of
the earth by the sum of the mean earth radius and the
average elevation between the points. The mean radius of
the earth is approximately twenty million nine-hundred
and six thousand feet (20,906,000 ft or
68,589,101.667 m). The sea level distance is obtained by
multiplying the sea level factor by the measured distance.

Sea level factor:

SL = R/(R + H)

where

Figure 4-5. TM projection

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31 Oct 94

SL = sea level factor utilized by the U.S. Army, Air Force, and Navy for map-
ping, charting, and geodetic applications. The UTM
R = mean earth radius projection differs from the TM projection in the scale at
the central meridian, origin, and unit representation. The
H = average elevation scale at the central meridian of the UTM projection is
0.9996. In the northern hemisphere, the northing coordi-
Example nate has an origin of zero at the equator. In the southern
hemisphere, the southing coordinate has an origin of ten
Measured distance = 2,623.000 feet million meters (10,000,000 m). The easting coordinate
has an origin of five-hundred thousand meters
Average elevation (H) = 300 feet (500,000 m) at the central meridian. The UTM system is
divided into sixty (60) longitudinal zones. Each zone is
Sea level (SL) factor = 0.999985650259 six (6) degrees in width extending three (3) degrees on
each side of the central meridian. The UTM system is
Reduced distance = 2,622.962 feet applicable between latitudes eighty-four degrees north
(84 N) to eighty degrees south (80 S). To compute the
The scale factor is a function of latitude and can be inter- UTM coordinates of a point, the TM coordinates must be
polated from tables published from the National Oceanic determined. The UTM northing or southing (NUTM, SUTM)
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). coordinates are computed by multiplying the scale factor
(0.9996) at the central meridian by the TM northing or
d. Units. State plane coordinates can be expressed southing (NTM, STM) coordinate values. In the southern
in both feet and meters. State plane coordinates defined hemisphere, a ten-million-meter (10,000,000-m) offset
on the NAD 27 are published in feet. State plane coordi- must be added to account for the origin. The UTM east-
nates defined on the NAD 83 are published in meters; ings (EUTM) are derived by multiplying the TM eastings
however, state and Federal agencies can request the NGS (ETM) by the scale factor of the central meridian (0.9996)
to provide coordinates in feet. If NAD 83 state plane and adding a five-hundred-thousand-meter (500,000-m)
coordinates are defined in meters and the user intends to offset to account for the origin. UTM coordinates are
convert those values to feet, the proper meter-foot conver- always expressed in meters.
sion factor must be utilized. Some states utilize the
International Foot rather than the U.S. Survey Foot in the UTM northings, southings, and eastings
conversion of feet to meters.
NUTM = (0.9996)NTM (Northern Hemisphere)
International Foot:
SUTM = (0.9996)STM + 10,000,000 m (Southern
1 International Foot = 0.3048 meter (Exact) Hemisphere)

U.S. Survey Foot: EUTM = (0.9996)ETM + 500,000 m

1 U.S. Survey Foot = 1200/3937 meter (Exact) The UTM zone (Z) can be calculated by knowing the
geodetic longitude of the point. In the continental United
e. NAD 83 versus NAD 27 state plane coordinates. States the UTM zones range from ten (10) to nineteen
The major difference between NAD 83 and NAD 27 state (19). If the value Z is a decimal quantity, the zone must
plane coordinates is that NAD 83 state plane coordinates be incremented by one. In the example below Z is a
are published in meters. Also, in the establishment of the decimal quantity; therefore, the zone equals seventeen
NAD 83 SPCS, some zones that were present in the (17) plus one (1).
NAD 27 system were eliminated. Future USACE projects
should adopt the NAD 83 SPCS. Zone

4-3. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Z = (180 + λ)/6 (Easterly Longitude)

UTM coordinates are used in surveying and mapping Z = (180 - λ)/6 (Westerly Longitude)
when the size of the project extends through several state
plane zones or projections. UTM coordinates are also where Z = UTM Zone Number

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31 Oct 94

Example UTM zone calculation high-order NGRS network densification work is being
performed.
λ = 077o 08’ 44.3456" W
a. Geodetic to Cartesian coordinate conversion.
Z = 17.14239 Given geodetic coordinates on NAD 83 (in φ , λ , H) or
NAD 27, the geocentric Cartesian coordinates (X, Y,
Z = 17 + 1 and Z) on the WGS 84, GRS 80, or Clarke 1866 ellipsoid
can be converted directly by formulas as related in
Z = 18 EM 1110-1-1003.

4-4. Geocentric Coordinate Systems b. Cartesian to geodetic coordinate conversion. In

the reverse case, given GRS 80 X, Y, Z coordinates, the
a. World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). The conversion to NAD 83 geodetic coordinates ( φ, λ, H )
geocentric reference system used most often is the can be performed using a noniterative method (Soler and
WGS 84. This is because WGS 84 is the reference ellip- Hothem 1988) that is detailed in EM 1110-1-1003.
soid for GPS. For most applications, the three-dimen-
sional (3-D) geocentric coordinates of WGS 84 are c. OCONUS Cartesian to geodetic coordinate con-
converted into their equivalent two-dimensional (2-D) version. Transformations between other OCONUS
horizontal and vertical components and then used. For datums may be performed by changing the ellipsoidal
example, the geocentric coordinates are most often con- parameters (i.e., a, b, and f) shown in EM 1110-1-1003 to
verted to 2-D NAD 83 SPCS horizontal coordinates and the OCONUS datum’s reference ellipsoid.
ellipsoid elevation values.
d. Example geographic to geocentric coordinate
b. Ellipsoid coordinate system definition. Once the transformation. An example of a geographic to geocen-
reference ellipsoid is defined, a 3-D (i.e., x, y, and z axis) tric transformation can be found in EM 1110-1-1003.
Cartesian coordinate system also can be defined relative
to the ellipsoid definition. Subsequent determination of a e. Example geocentric to geographic transformation.
point relative to the reference ellipsoid and associated An example of a geocentric to geographic transformation
Cartesian coordinate system is made based on the differ- can be found in EM 1110-1-1003.
ence in x, y, and z (i.e., x, y, and z) between the x,
y, and z of the point and the references ellipsoid/Cartesian 4-6. Horizontal Transformations NAD 27 to
coordinate axes. NAD 83

4-5. Geocentric Conversions a. Conversion techniques. Any USACE survey con-

trol which was in the NGS database should have been
The primary use of geocentric coordinates is in conjunc- converted to NAD 83 with corresponding results pub-
tion with the use of GPS for the densification of military lished by NGS. However, most USACE survey control,
construction and civil works project control. Horizontal although referenced to NAD 27, was not in the NGS
and vertical densification are handled as separate issues, database and was not included in the NGS readjustment
therefore necessitating the conversion of the 3-D geocen- and redefinition of the national geodetic network. There-
tric coordinates to 2-D horizontal components (i.e., x fore, the USACE will have to convert this control to NAD
and y or latitude and longitude) and an elevation on a 83 by some mathematical adjustment or transformation
particular datum. Conversion of geocentric coordinates in process. All conversion methods are dependent on the
this manner permits their use, for practical engineering existence of nearby survey controls that are, or can be,
purposes, directly on any local user datum. For example, referenced to both the NGS NAD 83 database and the
GPS derived WGS 84 baselines in a network (i.e., geo- USACE survey control requiring conversion. These are
centric coordinates) can be directly used on an NAD 27, referred to as common stations from which unknown or
NAD 83, or even a local project datum. Minor variation intermediate points are best fitted. The process is
between these datums will be minimal when the GPS data analogous to that of a simple traverse adjustment; e.g., if
used to formulate the baselines are used to adjust the fit the fixed control points are changed, then a recomputation
between the local datum stations. Such assumptions are of the intermediate traverse stations causes a differential
good for a localized project but may not be as valid when shift at each point proportionate to the overall change in

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31 Oct 94

the fixed coordinates. Although a variety of methods (3) Mathematical transformations. Since neither of
exist to perform these conversions, only the three that are the above methods can be economically justified on many
considered applicable to USACE projects are discussed USACE projects, mathematical techniques for transform-
below. ing project control data to NAD 83 have been developed.
These methods yield results which are normally better
(1) Survey or resurvey of projects using NAD 83 than ± 1 foot of the actual values and errors are typically
control. A new survey using NGS published NAD 83 consistent within a project area. Therefore, they are con-
control could be performed over an entire project. This sidered approximate. However, this will probably meet
could be either a newly authorized project or one under- most USACE needs. They should be used with caution
going major renovation or maintenance. A resurvey of an when real property demarcation points are involved.
existing project must tie in all monumented points and When mathematical transformations are employed they
may be performed using any conventional survey proce- should be adequately noted so that users will be aware of
dure. Although this is not a datum transformation tech- the conversion method and accuracy of the resulting
nique, it accomplishes the same thing. A resurvey of an coordinates.
existing project would not normally be economically
justified unless major renovation work is being performed (a) A 3-D coordinate transformation process from
or the existing NAD 27 control is of low density or accu- one geodetic reference system to another can generally be
racy. A resurvey of an existing project should not be represented as a simple three-step process:
performed solely to transform the project to NAD 83.
One of the other methods described below should suffice. (1) Convert elliptical (geodetic or geographical)
One disadvantage of this procedure is that other users of angular coordinate system to a 3-D rectangular (Cartesian)
USACE survey data may also convert these data to coordinate system.
NAD 83 using a mathematical transformation resulting in
different coordinate values for the same survey points. If (2) Translate and reorient the origin from the old
this method is employed, actions may have to be taken to ellipsoid/datum to the new ellipsoid/datum using known
notify other users of the USACE NAD 83 coordinates. translation and orientation values.

(2) Readjustment of original survey observations. If (3) Convert the new Cartesian system to its geodetic
the original project control survey was connected to com- ellipsoid coordinate reference system.
mon NGS stations, the survey may be readjusted using
NAD 83 coordinates instead of the NAD 27 coordinates Performing the second step is not straightforward since
originally used. This method involves locating the origi- the method of defining the datum origin and axis orienta-
nal field angular, distance, and azimuth observations, and tion parameters differs significantly between NAD 27 and
completely readjusting the survey using a recognized NAD 83. Thus, a simple 3-D coordinate relationship does
adjustment method, such as a rigorous least-squares or not exist between the two systems. As a result, local
other equally adequate semi-rigorous method (including scale distortions exist between NAD 27 and NAD 83 and
traditional traverse adjustment methods). The original this distortion is known only at NGS published points
Corps survey scheme (e.g., traverse, triangulation, trilater- common to both datums. Such NGS control which was
ation, etc.) must have been rigidly connected to the originally published on NAD 27 and readjusted as part of
National Geodetic Control Network (i.e., published coor- the 1983 NAD redefinition are termed common points.
dinates on both NAD 27 and NAD 83), which allows the
readjustment process to be performed using only the pub- (b) A USACE survey control point will typically fall
lished NAD 83 control as fixed. This procedure is between these common points, and the distortion at this
extremely labor intensive and would be justified only on point due to the NAD 83 readjustment can only be esti-
selected projects. Another disadvantage of this procedure mated. Since coordinates are known for common points
is that other users of USACE survey data may also con- which were included in both the NAD 27 and NAD 83
vert these data to NAD 83 using a mathematical transfor- adjustments, datum differences or shifts at these common
mation resulting in different coordinate values for the points provide the necessary mathematical model to trans-
same survey points. It is, however, theoretically superior form points which were not common to both datums.
to the mathematical transformation methods described Such a coordinate transformation process is usually per-
below. If this method is employed, actions may have to formed by a so-called rigorous mathematical minimization
be taken to notify other users of the USACE NAD 83 or regression technique. This is typically accomplished
coordinates. by some form of a least squares adjustment whereby the

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31 Oct 94

point to be transformed is best fitted between the sur- alignment data. This is due to the varying amount of
rounding common points. A rigorous transformation from datum shift from point to point. This variation could be
NAD 27 to NAD 83 does account and compensate for not significant over small distances typically encountered on
only the ellipsoidal orientation differences but also the USACE projects. For this reason, care must be taken in
local readjustment changes in the reference network. Any the use of mathematical transformations to convert exist-
point which has been converted by such a transformation ing control to NAD 83, whether it be fixed monumented
method should be considered as having approximate points or project alignment data, e.g., PIs, PTs, and all
NAD 83 coordinates. This is because these coordinates other similar computed or nonoccupied points. As stated
were not computed using original survey observations. earlier, this variable shift is due to both the readjustment
and redefinition of the NAD 83 reference datum. In
b. Performing mathematical transformations. addition, the various SPCS 83 grid references were rede-
Numerous mathematical techniques have been developed fined with origins deliberately changed by large amounts
to convert coordinates from NAD 27 to NAD 83. These to avoid confusion with the older SPCS 27. When trans-
include a variety of multiple parameter transformation formed NAD 83 geographic coordinates are subsequently
equations and multiple regression transformation equa- converted to redefined SPCS 83 grid coordinates, the total
tions. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages magnitude of the coordinate shift between SPCS 27 and
in terms of accuracy, consistency, and complexity of the SPCS 83 contains both the geographic datum shift (due to
process. redefinition and readjustment) and the local grid redefini-
tion shift.
(1) LEFTI. One of these was the computer program
LEFTI, developed by NGS and distributed within USACE (1) Shift gradients. Since the overall datum shift
by the U.S. Army Topographic Engineering Center (TEC) varies from point to point throughout North America, the
in 1987 within the computer program DATATRAN. The amount of datum shift across a local project is not con-
results from LEFTI are dependent upon the selection of a stant. The variation can be as much as 0.1 foot per mile.
set of points which are common to both NAD 27 and Some typical coordinate shift variations that can be
NAD 83. Selecting different common points yields dif- expected over a 10,000-foot section of a project are
ferent NAD 83 coordinates of the other points being con- shown below:
verted. As various conversions are performed with
LEFTI, different coordinates will be computed for the Project Area SPCS Reference per 10,000 feet
same point. Although these differences are small, they
Baltimore, MD 1900 0.16 ft
create inconsistency in survey data which could lead to
Los Angeles, CA 0405 0.15 ft
intolerable situations for many applications.
Mississippi Gulf Coast 2301 0.08 ft
Mississippi River (IL) 1202 0.12 ft
(2) NADCON/CORPSCON. To eliminate these
New Orleans, LA 1702 0.22 ft
inconsistencies, NGS developed the transformation pro-
Norfolk, VA 4502 0.08 ft
gram NADCON which does not require selection of com-
San Francisco, CA 0402 0.12 ft
mon points and yields consistent results. This technique
Savannah, GA 1001 0.12 ft
is based on a bi-harmonic equation classically used to
Seattle, WA 4601 0.10 ft
model plate deflections. NADCON has been reconfigured
by TEC into a more comprehensive program called
(2) Example. Such local scale changes will cause
CORPSCON, which also converts between SPCS 27,
project alignment data to distort by unequal amounts.
SPCS 83, UTM 27, and UTM 83; thus eliminating several
Thus, a 10,000.00-foot tangent on 1927 NAD project
steps in the total process. CORPSCON will be the
coordinates could end up as 9,999.91 feet after a mathe-
standard conversion method for USACE, replacing the
matical transformation of the PI stations to NAD 83 coor-
previously used LEFTI. Technical documentation and
dinates. Although such variances may not be physically
operating instructions for CORPSCON are contained in
significant from a construction standpoint, the potential
Appendix D.
for such numerical anomalies must be recognized. There-
fore, in addition to significantly changing all absolute
c. Distortion of dimensions. In addition to changing
coordinates on a project, the datum transformation process
all coordinates on a project, the conversion process could
will slightly modify the project’s design dimensions
slightly modify project dimensions. Localized coordinate
and/or construction orientation and scale. On a navigation
changes created by the 1983 readjustment could result in
project, for example, an 800.00-foot-wide channel could
very slight distortions of project dimensions and

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

vary from 799.98 to 800.04 feet along its reach. The grid Since coordinate differences do not exceed 0.03 foot in
azimuth between the PIs will also change. If the local either the X or Y direction, the computed SPCS 83-27
SPCS 83 grid was modified, then even larger dimension coordinate differences at the center of the sheet may be
changes can result. used as a fixed conversion factor to be applied to all
existing SPCS 27 coordinates on this drawing.
(3) Corrections. Correcting this may require recomp-
utation of coordinates after conversion to ensure that (b) Assuming a 1" = 1,000’ base map is prepared of
original project dimensions and alignment data remain the same general area, a standard drawing will cover
intact. This is particularly important for property and some 30,000 feet in an east-west direction. Computing
boundary surveys. Alternatively, a fixed shift may be SPCS 83-27 differences along this alignment yields the
applied to all data points over a limited area. Determin- following:
ing the maximum area over which such a fixed shift can
be applied is important. SPCS 83 SPCS 27 SPCS 83 - SPCS 27
West N 3,527,095.554 Y 246,200.000 dY = 3,280,895.554
end E 11,921,022.711 X 2,438,025.000 dX = 9,482,997.711
(4) Computing fixed conversion factors. CORPS-
CON may be employed to compute a conversion factor to East N 3,527,095.364 Y 246,200.000 dY = 3,280,895.364
end E 11,951,022.104 X 2,468,025.000 dX = 9,482,997.104
within ±1 foot. This conversion could be held fixed and
applied to all coordinates over a given sector of a project
The conversion factor gradient across this sheet is about
or an entire project. Typically, this fixed conversion
0.2 foot in Y and 0.6 foot in X. Such small changes are
would be computed at the center of a sheet or at the cen-
not significant at the plot scale of 1" = 1,000’; however,
ter of a project and the conversions in X and Y from
for referencing basic design or construction control (either
NAD 27 to NAD 83 and from SPCS 27 to SPCS 83
monumented points or within an Intergraph Design File),
indicated by notes on the sheets or data sets. Since the
applying a fixed shift across an area of this size is not
conversion is not constant over a given area, the fixed
recommended -- individual points should be transformed
conversion amounts must be explained in a note. The
separately. If this 30,000-foot distance were a navigation
magnitude of the conversion factor gradient across a sheet
project, then a fixed conversion factor computed at the
is a function of location and the drawing scale. Whether
center of the sheet would suffice for all bathymetric
the magnitude of the gradient is significant depends on
features.
the nature of the project. A 0.5-foot variation on an off-
shore navigation project may be acceptable for converting
(5) Redefined SPCS 83 grid parameters. In devel-
depth-sounding locations, whereas a 0.1-foot gradient may
oping the SPCS 83 grid system, some states made signifi-
be intolerable for construction layout on an installation.
cant modifications relative to their previous SPCS 27 grid.
In any event, the magnitude of this gradient should be
As a result, a fixed conversion factor cannot be performed
computed by CORPSCON at each end (or corners) of a
by simply translating the X and Y differences between
sheet or project. If the conversion factor variation
SPCS 27 and SPCS 83 -- a grid rotational component
exceeds the allowable tolerances, then a fixed conversion
may also be present if the central meridian was changed.
factor should not be used. Examples of two fixed con-
Variation in the CORPSCON computed convergence for
version factors follow:
both SPCS 27 and 83 is an indication of this. For those
states/zones which have been modified, and excessive
(a) Let’s assume we have a 1" = 40’ scale site plan
shift differences occur over small distances, then a fixed
map on existing SPCS 27 (VA South Zone 4502). Using
conversion factor for even a small area or sheet is not
CORPSCON, convert existing SPCS 27 coordinates at the
appropriate. A geographic datum shift (in seconds of arc)
sheet center and corners to SPCS 83 (U.S. Survey Foot),
may still be used in these cases provided the variation
and compare SPCS 83 and 27 differences.
over the project/sheet is not significant.
SPCS 83 SPCS 27 SPCS 83 - SPCS 27
Center N 3,527,095.554 Y 246,200.000 dY = 3,280,895.554
of sheet E 11,921,022.711 X 2,438,025.000 dX = 9,482,997.711
d. Project continuity. Caution should be exercised
NW N 3,527,595.553 Y 246,700.000 dY = 3,280,895.553 when converting portions of projects or military installa-
corner E 11,920,522.693 X 2,437,525.000 dX = 9,482,997.693 tions or projects that are adjacent to other projects that
NE N 3,527,595.556 Y 246,700.000 dY = 3,280,895.556
corner E 11,921,522.691 X 2,438,525.000 dX = 9,482,997.691
may not be converted. If the same monumented control
SE N 3,526,595.535 Y 245,700.000 dY = 3,280,895.535 points are used for several projects or parts of the same
corner E 11,921,522.702 X 2,438,525.000 dX = 9,482,997.702 project, different datums for the two projects or parts
SW N 3,526,595.535 Y 245,700.000 dY = 3,280,895.535
corner E 11,920,522.704 X 2,437,525.000 dX = 9,482,997.704
thereof could lead to surveying and mapping errors,

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31 Oct 94

misalignment at the junctions, and layout problems during g. Dual grids ticks and coordinate systems. Depict-
construction. ing both NAD 27 and NAD 83 grid ticks and coordinate
systems on maps and drawings should be avoided where
e. Metric units. SPCS 83 is defined in metric units. possible. This is often confusing and can increase the
Therefore, coordinate conversions between geographic chance for errors during design and construction. How-
positions (latitude and longitude) and SPCS 83 use metric ever, where use of dual grid ticks and coordinate systems
units. However, since most USACE work will continue is unavoidable, only secondary grid ticks in the margins
in feet, conversion to feet will be required. The FGCC will be permitted.
recommended standard for Federal surveying applications
in the United States is still the U.S. Survey Foot h. Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS surveying
(1200/3937 Meters). USACE has traditionally used the techniques and computations are based on WGS 84,
U.S. Survey Foot and will continue to do so in most which are consistent with NAD 83. Differential (static)
instances. However, since some states have adopted the GPS surveying techniques are accurate for high order
International Foot (30.48/100 meters) and others may control over very large distances.
choose to use metric units, property and boundary surveys
in these states may require this conversion factor, or use (1) Problem. If GPS is used to set new control
of metrics, to be legally correct. points referenced to higher order control many miles from
the project, inconsistent data may result at the project site.
f. Datum notes. During the period of conversion to If the new control is near older control points which have
NAD 83 there will be two datums in use. Therefore, a been converted to NAD 83, two slightly different net-
note must be added to all maps, engineering site draw- works can result, even though both have NAD 83 coordi-
ings, and documents containing coordinate information nates. This slight difference creates problems in adjusting
that indicates which datum is being used. If the control the data and using the two networks as one.
has been converted from NAD 27 to NAD 83, identify the
conversion method used. A datum note should be (2) Solution. In order to avoid this situation, locate
repeated on separate sheets as opposed to a general note the GPS base stations on the control in the project area,
on the index or cover sheet. The note will be as follows: i.e., don’t transfer it in from outside the area. Use the
CORPSCON program to convert the old control from
NAD 27 to NAD 83 and use these NAD 83 values to
initiate the GPS survey. This allows GPS to produce
coordinates that are both referenced to NAD 83 and con-
sistent with the old control.

i. Local project datums. Local project datums

which are not referenced to NAD 27 cannot be mathemat-
ically converted to NAD 83. Field surveys connecting
them to other stations that are referenced to NAD 83 are
required. GPS is the most economical and accurate tech-
nique to accomplish this connection.

4-7. Horizontal Transition Plan

a. General. Not all maps, engineering site drawings,

documents, and associated products containing coordinate
information will require conversion to NAD 83. To
ensure that an orderly and timely transition to NAD 83 is
achieved for the appropriate products, the following gen-
eral guidelines should be followed:

Note: Do not reference SPCS 27-83 differences if the (1) All initial surveys should be referenced to
SPCS 83 grid was significantly redefined. In such cases, NAD 83.
omit the SPCS 27-83 differences and show only the NAD
27-83 differences in arc seconds of latitude and longitude.

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(2) Active projects where maps, site drawings, or (3) Military construction and master planning proj-
coordinate information are provided to non-USACE users ects. All MCA, OMA, AFH, OMAR, MCAF, OMAF,
(e.g., NOAA, USCG, FEMA, and others in the public and and master planning projects will remain on NAD 27 or
private sector) should be converted to NAD 83 the next the current local datum until a thoroughly coordinated
time the project is surveyed or maps or site drawings are effort can be arranged with the MACOM DCSENGR and
updated for other reasons. installation DEH or AFRCE and BCE. An entire installa-
tion’s control network should be transformed simulta-
(3) For in-active projects or active projects where neously to avoid different datums on the same installation.
maps, site drawings, or coordinate information are not The respective MACOMS are responsible for this deci-
normally provided to non-USACE users, conversion to sion. However, military operations may require NAD 83,
NAD 83 is optional. including SPCS 83 or UTM metric grid systems. If so,
these shall be performed separate from facility engineer-
(4) Whenever maps, site drawings, or coordinate ing support. A dual grid system may be required for such
information (regardless of the above type) are provided to operational applications when there is overlap with normal
non-USACE users, it should contain a datum note. facilities engineering functions. Coordinate transforma-
tions throughout an installation can be computed using the
b. Levels of effort. For maps and site drawings the procedure described in Appendix D. Care must be taken
conversion process entails one of three levels of effort: when using transformations from NAD 27 with new con-
conversion of coordinates of all mapped details to trol set using GPS methods from points remote from the
NAD 83 and redrawing the map, replace the existing map installation. Installation boundary surveys should adhere
grid with a NAD 83 grid, and simply adding a datum to those outlined under real estate surveys listed below.
note. For surveyed points, control stations, alignment,
and other coordinated information, conversion must be (4) Real estate.
through either a mathematical transformation or readjust-
ment of survey observations. (a) Surveys, maps, and plats prepared in support of
civil works and military real estate activities should con-
c. Detailed instructions. form as much as possible to state requirements. Since
most states have adopted NAD 83, most new boundary
(1) Initial surveys on civil works projects. The proj- and property surveys should be based on NAD 83. The
ect control should be established on NAD 83 relative to local authorities should be contacted before conducting
the NGRS using conventional or GPS surveying proce- boundary and property surveys to ascertain their policies.
dures. The local SPCS 83 grid should be used on all
maps and site drawings. All planning and design activi- (b) It should be noted that several states have
ties should then be based on the SPCS 83 grid. This adopted the International Foot for their standard conver-
includes supplemental site plan mapping, core borings, sion from meters to feet. However, recent action by the
project design and alignment, construction layout and FGCS to affirm continued use of the U.S. Survey Foot for
payment surveys, and applicable boundary or property Federal surveying activities could lead to a reversal of
surveys. All maps and site drawings shall contain datum some state policies.
notes. If the local sponsor requires the use of NAD 27
for continuity with other projects which they have not yet (c) In order to avoid dual coordinates on USACE
converted to NAD 83, conversion to NAD 27 could be survey control points which have multiple uses, all control
performed using the CORPSCON transformation tech- should be based on the U.S. Survey Foot, including con-
niques described in Appendix D. trol for boundary and property surveys. In states where
the International Foot is the only accepted standard for
(2) Active civil works O&M projects undergoing boundary and property surveys, conversion of these points
maintenance or repair. These projects should be con- to NAD 83 should be based on the International Foot,
verted to NAD 83 during the next maintenance or repair while the control remains based on the U.S. Survey Foot.
cycle in the same manner as for newly initiated civil
works projects. However, if resources are not available (5) Regulatory functions. Surveys, maps, and site
for this level of effort, either redraw the grids or add the drawings prepared in support of regulatory functions
necessary datum notes. Plans should be made for the full should begin to be referenced to NAD 83 unless there is
conversion during a later maintenance or repair cycle some compelling reason to remain on NAD 27 or locally
when resources can be made available. used datum. Conversion of existing surveys, maps, and

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drawings to NAD 83 is not necessary. Existing surveys, datum was changed from the Mean Sea Level Datum to
maps, and drawings need only have the datum note added the NGVD 29 in 1973 to eliminate the reference to sea
before distribution to non-USACE users. The require- level in the title. This was a change in name only; the
ments of local, state, and other Federal permitting agen- definition of the datum established in 1929 was not
cies should be ascertained before site-specific conversions changed. Since NGVD 29 was established, it has become
are undertaken. If states require conversions based on the obvious that the geoid based upon local mean tidal obser-
International Foot, the same procedures as described vations would change with each measurement cycle.
above for real estate surveys should be followed. Estimating the geoid based upon the constantly changing
tides does not provide the most stable estimate of the
(6) Other existing projects. Other existing projects, shape of the geoid, or the basic shape of the earth.
e.g., structural deformation, beach nourishment, sub-
merged offshore disposal areas, historical preservation b. NAVD 88. NGVD 29 has been replaced by
projects, etc., need not be converted to NAD 83. How- NAVD 88, an international datum adopted for use in
ever, existing surveys, maps, and drawings should have Canada, the United States, and Mexico. NAVD 88 was
the datum note added before distribution to non-USACE established to resolve problems and discrepancies in
users. NGVD 29. The datum for NAVD 88 is based upon the
mass or density of the earth instead of the varying heights
(7) Work for others. Existing projects for other agen- of the seas. Measurements in the acceleration of gravity
cies will remain on NAD 27 or the current local datum are made at observation points in the network, and only
until a thoroughly coordinated effort can be arranged with one datum point, at Pointe-au-Pere/Rimouski, Québec,
the sponsoring agency. The decision to convert rests with Canada, is used. The vertical reference surface is there-
the sponsoring agency. However, existing surveys, maps, fore defined by the surface on which the gravity values
and drawings should have the datum note added before are equal to the control point value. The result of this
distribution to non-USACE users. If sponsoring agencies adjustment is newly published NAVD 88 elevation values
do not indicate a preference for new projects, NAD 83 for benchmarks (BMs) in the NGS inventory. Most
should be used. The same procedures as described above Third-Order BMs, including those of other Federal, state,
for initial surveys on civil works projects should be fol- and local government agencies, were not included in the
lowed (see paragraph c(1)). NAVD 88 adjustment. The FGCS of the Federal Geo-
graphic Data Committee (FGDC) has affirmed that
4-8. Vertical Datums NAVD 88 shall be the official vertical reference datum
for the U.S. The FGDC has prescribed that all surveying
A vertical datum is the surface to which elevations or and mapping activities performed or financed by the Fed-
depths are referred to or referenced. There are many ver- eral Government make every effort to begin an orderly
tical datums in the CONUS. The surveyor should be transition to NAVD 88, where practicable and feasible.
aware of the vertical control datum being used and its
practicability to meet project requirements. The following c. MSL datums. Some vertical datums are refer-
paragraphs will detail further some of the vertical control enced to MSL. Such datums typically are maintained
systems and associated datums used in the CONUS. locally or within a specific project area. The theoretical
bases for these datums are just as their title indicates: the
a. NGVD 29. NGVD 29 was established by the mean sea level. Local MSL is a vertical datum of refer-
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey’s (USC&GS’s) ence that is based upon the observations from one or
1929 General Adjustment. NGVD 29 was established by more tidal gaging stations. NGVD 29 was based upon the
constraining the combined U.S. and Canadian first order assumption that local MSL at those 21 tidal stations in the
leveling nets to conform to MSL as determined at U.S. and 5 tidal stations in Canada equaled 0.0000 foot on
26 long-term tidal gage stations that were spaced along NGVD 29. The value of MSL as measured over the
the east and west coasts of North America and along the Metonic cycle of 19 years shows that this assumption is
Gulf of Mexico, with 21 stations in the U.S. and 5 sta- not entirely valid and that MSL varies from station to
tions in Canada. The NGVD 29 was originally named the station.
Mean Sea Level Datum of 1929. It was known at the
time that because of the variation of ocean currents, pre- d. Tidal datums. Some vertical datums are refer-
vailing winds, barometric pressures, and other physical enced to tidal waters or lake levels. An example of a
causes, the MSL determinations at the tide gages would lake-level-based tidal datum used as a vertical datum is
not define a single equipotential surface. The name of the the International Great Lakes Datum of 1955 (IGLD 55),

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maintained and used for vertical control in the Great b. The orthometric height (H) and the geopotential
Lakes region of the CONUS. Just like the NGVD, these number (C) are related through the following equation:
datums undergo periodic adjustment. For example, the
IGLD 55 was adjusted in 1985 to produce IGLD 85. C=G*H
Unlike the prior datum (IGLD 55), IGLD 85 has been
directly referenced to NAVD 88 and originates at the where G is the gravity value estimated for a particular
same point as NAVD 88. Tidal datums typically are system. Height systems are called different names
defined by the phase of the tide and usually are described depending on the gravity value (G) selected. When G is
as MHW, MLW, and MLLW with each description hav- computed using the Helmert height reduction formula that
ing a particular relevance to the datum definition. For is used for NAVD 88, the heights are called Helmert
further information on these and other tidal-datum-related Orthometric Heights. When G is computed using the
terms, the reader is advised to refer to any of the appli- International Formula for Normal Gravity, the heights are
cable texts in Appendix A. called Normal Orthometric Heights. When G is equal to
normal gravity at 45o latitude, the heights are called Nor-
e. Other vertical datums. Other areas of the mal Dynamic Heights. It should be noted that dynamic
CONUS and OCONUS may maintain and employ other heights are just geopotential numbers scaled by a constant,
vertical datums. For instance, there are a variety of verti- using normal gravity at 45o latitude equal to 980.6199 gal.
cal datums maintained in Alaska, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, the Therefore, dynamic heights are also an estimate of
Virgin Islands, Guam, and other islands and project areas. hydraulic head. In other words, two points that have the
Specifications and other information for these particular same geopotential number will have the same dynamic
vertical datums can be obtained from the particular FOA height.
responsible for survey-related activities for these areas or
the National Ocean Service (i.e., NOS). c. IGLD 55 is a normal dynamic height system
which used a computed value of gravity based on the
4-9. Distinction Between Orthometric and International Formula for Normal Gravity. Today, there
Dynamic Heights is sufficient observed gravity data available to estimate
“true” geopotential differences instead of “normal” geopo-
a. There are several different reference elevation tential differences. The “true” geopotential differences,
systems used by the surveying and mapping community. which were used in developing IGLD 85 and NAVD 88,
Two of these height systems are relevant to IGLD 85: will more accurately estimate hydraulic head.
orthometric heights and dynamic heights. Geopotential
numbers relate these two systems to each other. The 4-10. Vertical Transformations NGVD 29 to
geopotential number (C) of a BM is the difference in NAVD 88
potential measured from the reference geopotential surface
to the equipotential surface passing through the survey For map and site plan drawings, including digital varia-
mark. In other words, it is the amount of work required tions thereof, the conversion process entails one of two
to raise a unit mass of 1 kg against gravity through the levels of effort: (1) conversion of all elevations to
orthometric height to the mark. Geopotential differences NAVD 88 and redrawing the map, or (2) simply adding a
are differences in potential which indicate hydraulic head. datum note based on an approximate VERTCON
The orthometric height of a mark is the distance from the conversion.
reference surface to the mark, measured along the line
perpendicular to every equipotential surface in between. a. VERTCON is a program developed by the NGS
A series of equipotential surfaces can be used to represent that converts elevation data from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88.
the gravity field. One of these surfaces is specified as the VERTCON uses a simplified transformation of BM
reference system from which orthometric heights are heights using a modeled shift for a given area and is, in
measured. These surfaces defined by the gravity field are general, only sufficiently accurate to meet small-scale
not parallel surfaces because of the rotation of the earth mapping requirements. VERTCON should not be used
and gravity anomalies in the gravity field. Two points, for converting BM elevations used for site plan design or
therefore, could have the same potential but may have two construction applications. Users can simply input the
different orthometric heights. The value of orthometric latitude and longitude for a point and the vertical datum
height at a point depends on all the equipotential surfaces shift between NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 is output. VERT-
beneath that point. CON returns the orthometric height difference between

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NAVD 88 and NGVD 29 at the geodetic position speci- • NAVD 88 is recommended by ACSM and FGCS.
fied by the user. The root-mean-square (RMS) error of
the actual NGVD 29/NAVD 88 height differences versus 4-11. Vertical Transition Plan
the computed height differences from the model for the
data points used to create the model is ±1 cm; the esti- A change in vertical datum will affect most USACE engi-
mated maximum error is ±2.5 cm. Depending on network neering, construction, planning, and surveying activities.
design and terrain relief, larger differences (e.g., 5 to The cost of conversion could be substantial at the onset.
50 cm) may occur the further a benchmark is located There is a potential for errors in conversions inadvertently
from the control points used to establish the model coeffi- occurring. The effects of the vertical datum change can
cients. For this reason, VERTCON should only be used be minimized if the change is gradually applied over time;
for approximate conversions where these potential errors being applied to future projects and efforts, rather than
are not critical. concentrated on changing already published products. In
order to ensure an orderly and timely transition to
b. Whenever maps, site drawings, or spatial eleva- NAVD 88 is achieved for the appropriate products, the
tion data are provided to non-USACE users, they should following general guidelines in this section should be
contain a datum note that provides, at minimum, the fol- followed.
lowing information:
a. Conversion criteria. Maps, engineering site draw-
The elevations shown are referenced to the ings, documents, and associated spatial data products con-
[NGVD 29] [NAVD 88] and are in [feet] [meters]. taining elevation data may require conversion to
Differences between NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 at NAVD 88. Specific requirements for conversion will, in
the center of the project sheet/data set are shown large part, be based on local usage -- that of the local
on the diagram below. Datum conversion was per- sponsor, installation, etc. Where applicable and appro-
formed using the [program VERTCON] [direct priate, this conversion should be recommended to local
leveling connections with published NGS bench- interests.
marks] [other]. Metric conversions are based on
[U.S. Survey Foot = 1200/3937 meters] [Interna- b. Newly authorized construction projects. Gener-
tional Survey Foot = 30.48/100 meters]. ally, initial surveys of newly authorized projects should be
referenced to NAVD 88. In addition to design/construc-
c. There are several compelling reasons that make it tion, this would include wide-area master plan mapping
advantageous for USACE commands to convert to work. The project control should be referenced to
NAVD 88. These include: NAVD 88 using conventional or GPS surveying tech-
niques. All planning and design activities should be
• Differential leveling surveys between benchmarks based upon NAVD 88. All maps and site drawings shall
will often close better. contain datum notes as described below. If the sponsor/
installation requires the use of NGVD 29 or some other
• NAVD 88 will provide a better reference to esti- local vertical reference datum for continuity, the relation-
mate GPS-derived orthometric heights. ship between NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 shall be clearly
noted on all maps, engineering site drawings, documents,
• IGLD 85 will provide a better reference to esti- and associated products.
mate heights of water-level surfaces on the Great
Lakes. c. Active projects. On active projects where maps,
site drawings, or elevation data are provided to non-
• Data and adjusted height values will be readily USACE users, the conversion to NAVD 88 should be
available and accessible in convenient form from performed. This conversion to NAVD 88 may be per-
NGS’s Integrated Data Base. formed the next time the project is surveyed or when the
maps/site drawings are updated for other reasons. Civil
• Federal surveying and mapping agencies will stop works projects may be converted to NAVD 88 during the
publishing on NGVD 29 and IGLD 55, and will next maintenance or repair cycle in the same manner as
publish only on NAVD 88 and IGLD 85. that for newly initiated civil works projects. However, if
resources are not available for this level of effort, either
• Surveys performed for the Federal government redraw the maps or drawings and add the necessary datum
will require use of NAVD 88. note. Plans should be made for the full conversion during

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31 Oct 94

a later maintenance or repair cycle when resources can be be converted to NAVD 88. However, it is recommended
made available. MCA, OMA, AFH, OMAR, MCAF, that surveys, maps, and drawings have a clear datum
OMAF and master planning projects should remain on reference note added before distribution to non-USACE
NGVD 29 or the local vertical datum until a thoroughly users.
coordinated effort can be arranged with the MACOM
DCSENGR and installation DEH, or AFRCE and BCE. g. Real estate implications.
An entire installation’s control network should be trans-
formed simultaneously to avoid different datums on the (1) Surveys, maps, and plats prepared in support of
same installation. MACOMs should be encouraged to civil works and military real estate activities should con-
convert to NAVD 88. However, the respective MACOMs form as much as possible to state requirements. Many
are responsible for this decision. states are expected to adopt NAVD 88 (by statute) as an
official vertical reference datum. This likewise will entail
d. Inactive projects. For inactive projects or active a transition to NAVD 88 in those states. State and local
projects where maps, site drawings, or elevation data are authorities should therefore be contacted to ascertain their
not normally provided to non-USACE users, conversion to current policies.
NAVD 88 is optional.
(2) Note that several states have adopted the Interna-
e. Work for others. Projects for other agencies will tional Foot for their standard conversion from meters to
remain on NGVD 29 or the current local vertical datum feet. However, recent action by the FGCS to affirm
until a thoroughly coordinated effort can be arranged with continued use of the U.S. Survey Foot for Federal sur-
the sponsoring agency. Other agencies should be encour- veying activities could lead to a reversal of some state
aged to convert their projects to NAVD 88, although the policies.
decision to convert rests with the sponsoring agency.
However, surveys, maps, and drawings should have a (3) In order to avoid dual elevations on USACE
datum note added before distribution to non-USACE survey control points which have multiple uses, it is rec-
users. If sponsoring agencies do not indicate a preference ommended that published elevations be based on the U.S.
for new projects, NAVD 88 should be used. Survey Foot. In states where the International Foot is the
only accepted standard for boundary and property surveys,
f. Miscellaneous projects. Other projects referenced conversion of these elevations to NAVD 88 should be
to strictly local datum, such as structural deformation, based on the International Foot while the control remains
beach nourishment, submerged offshore disposal areas, based on the U.S. Survey Foot.
historical preservation projects, etc., need not necessarily

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Chapter 5 directional theodolite with an optical micrometer with a

Horizontal Control Survey Techniques least count resolution of one second (i.e., 1") and an EDM
capable of a resolution of 1:10,000; or a total station or
other instrument having capabilities comparable to or
better than any of the instruments just detailed.
5-1. General
b. Primary horizontal control points not permanently
This chapter outlines procedures to follow for horizontal monumented in accordance with criteria and guidance
control surveys. The material presented is not meant to established in EM 1110-1-1002 should meet the following
be rigid methodology that cannot be tailored for a par- minimum standards:
ticular application. The mandatory classifications and
standards portions must be followed, while the recom- (1) Primary horizontal control points shall be marked
mendations should be followed whenever possible. Refer with semipermanent-type markers (e.g., rebar, railroad
to EM 1110-1-1003 for more information on GPS survey spikes, large spikes).
techniques, as well as any of the applicable references
listed in Appendix A for further guidance on information (2) Primary horizontal control points shall be placed
not covered in this chapter. either flush with the existing ground level or buried a
minimum of one tenth of a foot below the surface.
NOTE: The accuracy of control surveying measurements
should be consistent with the purpose of the survey. It is (3) Each primary control point shall be referenced
important to remember that the best survey is the one that by a minimum of two points to aid in future recovery of
provides the data at the required accuracy levels without that point. For this reference, well defined natural or
wasting manpower, time, and money. man-made objects may be used. The reference point(s)
can be either set or existing and should be within 100 feet
5-2. Horizontal Control Surveys of the control point.
Horizontal control surveys are done to establish primary (4) A sketch shall be placed in a standard field book.
or secondary horizontal control points. The procedures to The sketch at a minimum will show the relative location
establish the control are traverse, triangulation, and/or of each control point to the reference points and major
trilateration. The preferred method for establishing hori- physical features within 100 feet of the point.
zontal control is to use a traverse and GPS survey tech-
niques. When conventional horizontal control survey (5) If concrete monuments are required, they will be
techniques are used, the preferred instrument is a total sta- established prior to the accomplishment of any horizontal
tion; and if such equipment is not available, a theodolite survey work. These monuments will be established in
and electronic distance measuring equipment (EDM) are accordance with EM 1110-1-1002.
often used. Always keep the project requirements para-
mount (e.g., accuracy, time, money, manpower, etc.) when c. Primary horizontal control points shall be occu-
determining what survey procedures to follow and the pied by an electronic total station, a theodolite and EDM,
equipment to be used. or comparable equipment. Establishing primary control
points by one angle and one distance will not be
5-3. Primary Horizontal Control permitted.
Primary horizontal control is established at accuracies d. Distance measurements for primary horizontal
where practicable to meet the requirements of the applica- control points shall be accomplished with a total station,
tion, typically at Third-Order Class I or better. Primary an EDM, or other comparable equipment capable of
horizontal control is established to serve as a basic frame- obtaining an accuracy of 1:10,000.
work for large mapping projects, to establish new hori-
zontal control in a remote area, or to further densify e. When an EDM is used, a minimum of two read-
existing horizontal control in an area. ings shall be taken at each setup and recorded in a stan-
dard field book. The leveled height of the instrument and
a. The minimum instrument requirements for the the height of the reflector shall be measured carefully to
establishment of primary control shall be: a repeating within 0.02 foot and recorded in the field book. Each
theodolite with an optical micrometer with a least count slope distance shall be reduced to a horizontal distance
resolution of six seconds (i.e., 6") or better; or a

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31 Oct 94

using either reciprocal vertical angle observations or from reverse reading of any theodolite deviates more than
the elevation of each point obtained using differential 30 seconds from 180 degrees, the instrument should be
leveling. adjusted for collimation error. Readjustment of the cross
hairs and the level bubble should be done whenever their
f. All total stations, EDMs, and prisms used for pri- misadjustments affect the instrument reading by more than
mary control work shall be serviced regularly and checked the least count of the vernier of the theodolite.
frequently over lines of known length. Calibration should
be done at least annually. j. If a total station is used for the horizontal angles,
the same procedure shall be followed as detailed in the
g. If a repeating theodolite (e.g., Wild T1) is used preceding paragraphs g and h, depending on the type of
for the horizontal angles, the instrument will be pointed at total station used. When using high precision total sta-
the backsight station with the telescope in a direct reading tions, only half as many readings are generally required
position, and the horizontal vernier set to zero degrees. (two data set collections).
All angles shall then be turned to the right, and the first
angle recorded in a field book. The angle shall be k. To reduce slope distances to horizontal, a vertical
repeated a minimum of four times (i.e., two sets) by alter- angle observation must be obtained from each end of each
nating the telescope and pointing in the direct and line being measured. The vertical angles shall be read in
inverted positions. The last angle will also be recorded in both the direct and inverted scope positions and adjusted.
the field book. If the first angle deviates more than five If the elevations for the point on each end of the line
seconds (i.e., 5") from the result of the last angle divided being measured are obtained by differential levels, this
by four, the process shall be repeated until the deviation is vertical angle requirement is not necessary.
less than or equal to five seconds. Multiples of
360 degrees may need to be added to the last angle before l. All targets established for backsights and
averaging. The horizon shall be closed by repeating this foresights shall be set directly over the point to be meas-
process for all of the sights to be observed from that ured to. Target sights may be a reflector or other type of
location. The foresight for the last observation shall be target set in a tribrach, a line rod plumbed over the point
the same as the backsight for the first observation. If the in a tripod, or guyed in place from at least three positions.
sum of all the angles turned at any station deviates more Artificial sights (e.g., a tree on the hill behind the point)
than ten seconds (i.e., 10") from 360 degrees, the angles or hand-held sights (e.g., line rod or plumb bob string)
shall be turned again until the summation is within this will not be used to set primary control targets.
tolerance.
5-4. Secondary Horizontal Control
h. If a directional theodolite (e.g., Wild T2,
Wild T3) is used for the horizontal angles, the instrument Secondary horizontal control is established at accuracies
shall be pointed at the backsight station with the telescope where practicable to meet the requirements of the applica-
in a direct reading position and the horizontal vernier set tion, generally at Third Order Class II or lower. Second-
to within ten seconds (i.e., 10") of zero degrees. The ary horizontal control typically is established to determine
vernier shall be brought into coincidence and the angle the location of structure sections, cross sections, or topo-
read and recorded in the field book. The angles shall graphic surface, or to pre-mark requirements for small- to
then be turned to each foresight in a clockwise direction, medium-scale photogrammetric mapping.
and the angles read and recorded in a field book. This
process will continue in a clockwise direction and shall a. Secondary horizontal control requirements are
include all sights to be observed from that station. The identical to those described for primary horizontal control
telescope shall then be inverted and the process repeated with the following exceptions.
in reverse order, except the vernier is not to be reset, but
will be read where it was originally set. The actual (1) Monumentation. It is not required for secondary
angles between stations may then be computed by differ- horizontal control points to have two reference points.
encing the direct and reverse readings. This process shall
be repeated three times for a total of three data set (2) Occupation. Secondary horizontal control points
collections. can be established by one angle and one distance.

i. Regardless of the theodolite used, at least once a

year and whenever the difference between direct and

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

(3) When a total station or EDM is used, a minimum (b) Connecting traverse. A connecting traverse
of two readings shall be taken at each setup and recorded starts on a station of known position and terminates on a
in a standard field book. different station of known position. When using this type
of traverse the systematic errors and position inaccuracies
(4) If a repeating theodolite is used for the horizontal can be detected and eliminated along with blunders and
angles, the angle measurement shall be repeated a mini- accidental errors. This type of traverse is always pre-
mum of two times by alternating the telescope and point- ferred over a loop traverse when a choice exists.
ing in the direct and inverted positions.
(2) Open traverse. The open traverse starts on a sta-
(5) If a directional theodolite is used for the horizon- tion of known position and terminates on an unknown
tal angles, the process (described for primary control) position. In this type of traverse, there are no checks to
shall be repeated two times for a total of two data set determine blunders, accidental errors, or systematic errors
collections. that may occur in the measurements. The open traverse is
very seldom used in topographic surveying because a loop
5-5. Traverse traverse can usually be accomplished with little added
expense or effort. If conditions require it, a picture point
A traverse is defined as the measurement of the lengths may be located by a side shot (open traverse) if project
and directions of a series of straight lines connecting a specifications permit.
series of points on the earth. The points connected by the
lines of traverse are known as traverse stations. The b. Guidelines. The following minimum guidelines
measurements of the lengths and directions are used to should be followed when performing traverse procedures:
compute the relative horizontal positions of these stations.
In the past, the traverse distances were determined by (1) Origin. All traverses will originate from and tie
indirect measurement or taping and these traverses were into an existing control line of equal or higher accuracy.
used primarily as supplementary control to area triangula- No traverse will be stubbed off or dead-ended (e.g. radial
tion networks. However, with the advent of total stations or spur spots) except by specific instructions from the
and EDM’s, the traverse is now frequently used for basic appropriate authority.
area control surveys. In addition to the observation of
horizontal directions between traverse stations, the eleva- (a) Astronomic observation. Under some conditions
tion of the stations must be determined by either direct or it may not be possible to start or terminate on stations of
trigonometric leveling. Astronomic observations must be known position and/or azimuth. In these cases, an astro-
made along a traverse at prescribed intervals to control nomic observation for position and/or azimuth must be
the azimuth of the traverse and sometimes to determine accomplished. For Third Order, only an astronomic azi-
the deviation of the vertical (plumb line). The interval muth is required at intervals along the traverse and at
and type of astronomic observation will depend upon the abrupt changes in direction of the traverse. Placement of
order of accuracy required and the traverse methods used. these astronomic stations is governed by the order of
accuracy required.
a. Traverse types. There are two types of traverses,
the closed and the open. (b) Route and/or location. Generally, where to start
a traverse and tie it in are predetermined. Where prac-
(1) Closed traverse. A traverse that starts and termi- ticable, always show additional ties to other lines if the
nates at a station of known position is called a closed traverse course being followed approaches other lines or
traverse. The order of accuracy of a closed traverse triangulation points. The advantage of additional ties is
depends upon the accuracy of the starting and ending the possibility of isolating an error even if it is not the
known positions and the survey methods used in the field intention to adjust the traverse into the extra ties. The
measurements. There are two types of closed traverses. specific route of a new traverse shall be selected with
care, keeping in mind its primary purpose and the possi-
(a) Loop traverse. A loop traverse starts on a station bility of its future use. Angle points should be set in
of known position and terminates on the same station. A protected locations if possible. Examples of protected
loop traverse will detect blunders and accidental errors, locations include at fence lines, under communication or
but will not disclose systematic errors or inaccuracies in power lines near poles, or any permanent concrete struc-
the starting information. ture. It may be necessary to set critical points

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31 Oct 94

underground. If so, reference the point relative to perma-

nent features by a sketch, as buried points are often diffi-
cult to recover at future dates.

(2) Accuracy. Traverses are performed under four

general orders of accuracy: First, Second, Third, or Con-
struction Layout/Fourth Order. First-Order traverse work
requires a high degree of accuracy, instruments, and meth-
ods of precision, and therefore typically is not done in the
USACE. The order of accuracy for any traverse is deter-
mined by the equipment and methods used in the traverse
measurements, by the accuracy attained, and by the accu-
racy of the starting and terminating stations of the tra-
verse. The point closure standards in Table 3-1 must be
met for the appropriate accuracy classification to be
achieved. Table 5-1 lists general guidelines for the num-
ber of angle points between bearing checks and bearing
discrepancies per angle point necessary to achieve the
desired accuracy. A disadvantage of the traverse is the
lack of field or computation checks on the accuracy until
the traverse is connected to previously established traverse
or triangulation networks of the appropriate order of
accuracy.

Table 5-1
General Traverse Requirements for Horizontal Control Surveys
USACE Classification
Requirement Second-Order Third-Order

Number of angle 10 to 20 20 to 40
points or distance angle points angle points Figure 5-1. Typical survey equipment used in traverse
between bearing but not > than and horizontal control work
checks 5 miles

Bearing discrepancy made in the area of consideration. They may be of First-,

per angle point (not 2.0 seconds 5.0 seconds Second-, or Third-Order accuracy, depending on
to exceed) requirements.

(1) Most project requirements are satisfied with Sec-

5-6. Various Forms of Traverse ond- or Third-Order accuracies. It is very unusual to
have requirements in the USACE for First-Order traverse
Although there are various forms of traverses, they all work. A Second-Order traverse requires special proce-
have very basic and common methods of operation. The dures both in the field and in the office to achieve the
main differences between them is: the accuracy with required accuracies for a particular project. A Second-
which they are run, the different style of field notes Order traverse generally is necessary for special jobs or in
required, and equipment used. Figure 5-1 shows some areas where there is not sufficient triangulation control.
survey equipment used for traverse work. The field pro- Often, a secondary triangulation net is established instead
cedures are dictated by the type of traverse to be done. of a traverse; but in flat areas, it is sometimes difficult to
Even though there are equipment differences and level of establish much control by triangulation because of sight-
accuracies achievable by the type of traverse to be done, ing limitations, therefore it is advisable to run a Second-
the procedures for each can be generalized. Order traverse, establishing permanent points at intervals
of one mile or less.
a. Control traverses. Control traverses typically are
run for use in connection with all future surveys to be

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31 Oct 94

(2) For a Second-Order traverse, the first step is to reduced and mean angle figured in the field and recorded
determine a good route. Start at a known point, prefer- along with the sketch. All adjustments should be made in
ably an NGS or USC&GS triangulation point. Plan the the office. At the time of angle determinations, a sketch
traverse to follow a route that will be centered as much of the monument location should be made and a detailed
on the work as possible, yet through areas that will not be description on how to find it written. This information
bothered by construction, traffic, or other forms of con- will be used for making subsequent record of the survey
gestion. The route should check into other known points monument.
as often as practicable. Depending on the application,
examples of good traverse routes include ones along the b. Right-of-way traverse. A right-of-way traverse
edge of a road or the banks of a main river. After typically is a Third-Order traverse, starting and ending on
determining the route, it is best to next set permanent known points. This type of traverse is usually run with a
monuments (e.g., tee bars, brass caps, concrete, or some transit and tape, EDM, or total station. The style of notes
other suitable monument) at each angle point and any is similar to most traverses with the only difference being
intermediate points desired. Refer to EM 1110-1-1002 for the type of detail shown. Fences are of particular impor-
further guidance on survey markers and monumentation. tance in determining right-of-way limits, especially when
Make sure there is a clear line of sight from angle point working in an area not monumented. Notes for right-of-
to angle point. Determine a numbering or naming system way traverses should be especially clear and complete for
and mark all points at the time of setting. many times this type of traverse is the basis for law suits
or court hearings regarding true property corners. If a
(3) EDM or total station operation is less labor inten- search for a corner is made and nothing is found, a state-
sive, generally more productive, and provides as good as ment should be written in the field book to this effect.
or better results than most conventional surveying meth- Be sure before getting to the field to know where to
ods. Manufacturer instructions for operation of the EDM expect to find the corners. This information generally is
or total station should be followed to determine distances available from recorded maps, the word of property
between monuments and posts in the line. owners, etc.

(4) When using an EDM or total station, a minimum c. Stadia traverse. This type of traverse is not used
of two readings will be done before moving to the next for day-to-day operations to establish horizontal control.
post. All readings should agree within 0.001 foot with A stadia traverse can be used for establishment of rough
the original reading. (Third-Order or lower) horizontal control. Uses of stadia
traverses include rough- or reconnaissance-type surveys,
(5) Determination of angles should be done as soon checking on another traverse for errors, and control for a
as practicable after distance determination. Most total sta- map being made by stadia methods on a very large scale.
tions combine these two determinations (i.e., the distance A stadia traverse typically is run along a route that will
and angle determinations). Special care should be taken best suit the needs of the survey. The stadia points or
with the type of sights used in the angle determination. stadia angle points will be set at locations that will best
Use as small a sight as possible given the requirements fulfill the purpose of the traverse and if possible will be
for clear vision of the target. The shorter the sight, the set in protected locations for future use.
more important this consideration becomes. Fixed rigid
sights should be used, not hand-held ones. If weather is d. Topography traverse. This type of traverse is
especially hot or humid, early mornings or late evenings usually Third-Order or close to it and can be used for
should be reserved for angle determination. Second-Order horizontal control in some instances. Its intended purpose
results generally do not require using lights or working at is for controlling the mapping of an area previously deter-
night, except under the most unusual of circumstances. It mined. Because of this, it usually is necessary to deter-
is desirable to use a directional theodolite or total station mine elevations over the line prior to mapping. Some
for all angle determinations. It is best to turn no less than surveyors prefer to carry levels along with a transit
three sets of angles, direct to right, if possible. Adequate survey, but this generally does not always provide results
results can be obtained with fewer angles if the best of accurate enough for project requirements. Refer to
equipment is used, but a few extra angles takes very little EM 1110-1-1005 for guidance on topographic surveying.
time compared with setting up instruments, traveling to
the job, etc.. If results look slightly weak after turning e. Deflection traverse. A deflection traverse is used
the minimum angles, add extra angles, and consider clos- to indicate the way in which angles are turned with the
ing to the horizon. All angle notes should be completely transit or other instrument. This term usually applies to

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31 Oct 94

Third-Order traverses with the only exception being com-

Table 5-2
pass traverses. A deflection angle is an angle that is Traverse Requirements
measured right or left of the back tangent produced ahead
Requirement Second-Order Third-Order
of the instrument. The angle is measured by sighting the
back tangent and plunging the instrument before turning Horizontal Directions or Angles
to forward tangent. Accuracy is obtained by repeating Instrument 0.2" or 1.0" 1.0"
this procedure using standard operating procedures for Number of
transit work. This method is especially good when office observations 6-8 2-4
Rejection limit
computations use a bearing and not an azimuth system.
from mean 4 or 5" 5"

f. Compass traverse. This type of traverse is Number of Azimuth

exactly what its name implies: it is a traverse where the Courses between
direction of the line is measured by a compass. In a azimuth checks not
compass traverse, no angles are turned. Distances are to exceed for:
Tape 25 35 - 50
usually measured by stadia or paced if work is very
Electronic 12 - 16 25
rough. When using a compass to do a traverse, pacing is
all it takes to determine distances comparable to the accu- Azimuth Closure
racies offered by the compass. Probable error 2.0" 5.0"

g. Azimuth traverse. Like a bearing, an azimuth Azimuth Closure at

denotes direction. Bearings break the directions into four Azimuth checkpoint 10"*N0.5 15"*N0.5
quadrants, while an azimuth measures direction from one not to exceed or or
point. This point can be true North, South, or on some 3" per station 5" per
station
other base. Azimuth angles should always be turned to
the right. This turning practice is particularly important Note: N is the number of stations carrying azimuth
for many directional instruments only read or turn to the
Note: For Second-Order, the use of the traverse will dictate the
right (e.g., most Wild instruments). type. For Third-Order, an astronomic azimuth station is sufficient.
When two expressions are given, the formula which gives the
5-7. Traverse Classifications and Specifications smallest permissible value should be used.

Traverses can be classified according to the type of instru- Third-Order methods should be carefully considered, even
ments used to do them. All horizontal control surveys though the points are not to be monumented permanently.
conducted by traverse will be classified based on the hori- The map compilation requirement usually is that a hori-
zontal closure standards given in Table 3-1. Table 5-2 zontal control picture point for 1:50,000 mapping shall be
lists specific traverse requirements necessary to meet Second- located to within 6 m of its true relationship to the basic
and Third-Order type accuracies. control. For 1:25,000 mapping the requirement is usually
to within 3 m. The allowable errors permit accuracies to
a. Second-Order. Second-Order traverse is used vary from generally 1 part in 500 to 1 part in 5,000,
extensively for subdividing an area between First- and depending on the distance the lower order traverse must
Second-Order triangulation and First-Order traverse. travel, the type of control at the start of the traverse, the
Second-Order traverse must originate and terminate on desired accuracy of the control point and the methods and
existing first or second order control that has been previ- equipment used in the traverse.
ously adjusted.
5-8. Triangulation and Trilateration
b. Third-Order. Third-Order traverse is normally
used for detailed topographic mapping. Third-Order Triangulation and trilateration may be used to establish
traverse must start and close on existing control stations horizontal control in areas where it is not practical to use
of Third- or higher order accuracy. other methods. Unless otherwise directed, horizontal con-
trol established by triangulation and trilateration will be at
c. Lower order. Traverses of lower than Third-
least Third-Order accuracy for most applications. As a
Order are used for controlling points when a relatively
general policy, the following minimum guidelines should
large error in position is permissible. However, with the
be followed when performing triangulation and/or trilat-
advent of new equipment, very little is saved either in
eration procedures:
time or money by using lower order traverse. The use of

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31 Oct 94

a. Origin. When practicable, all triangulation and geodetic north, the position of which is defined by its
trilateration nets will originate from and tie in to existing angular relationship to the North Star or Polaris. For
control of equal or higher accuracy than the work to be general surveying purposes, it is assumed that for any giv-
performed. An exception to this policy would be when en point on earth, true meridian is always the same,
performing a triangulation or trilateration across a river or ensuring that any directions referred to the true meridian
some obstacle as part of a chained traverse. In this case, will remain the same regardless of time.
a local baseline should be set.
(3) A magnetic bearing is one whose reference
b. Accuracy. The point closure standards in meridian is the direction taken by a freely suspended
Table 3-1 must be met for the appropriate accuracy clas- magnetic needle (i.e., a compass). The magnetic poles are
sification to be achieved. If project requirements are at some distance from the true poles, so the magnetic
First-Order, refer to the FGCC/FCCS Standards and Spec- meridian typically is not parallel to the true meridian.
ifications for Geodetic Control Networks (FGCS 1984). The location of the magnetic poles is constantly changing,
therefore the magnetic bearing between two points is not
c. Triangulation and trilateration methods. Trian- constant over time. Thus, magnetic bearings should only
gulation and trilateration methods are similar in basic be used for reconnaissance work, rough surveys, and real-
principle. A triangulation system consists of a series of estate surveys.
joined or overlapping triangles in which an occasional line
is measured and the balance of the sides are calculated (4) The angle between a true meridian and a mag-
from angles measured at the vertices of the triangle. A netic meridian at the same point is called its magnetic
trilateration system also consists of a series of joined or declination. A line on the earth’s surface which has the
overlapped triangles, but contrary to a triangulated system, same magnetic declination throughout its length is called
a trilaterated system measures the lengths of all the sides an “isogonic” line, while the line where magnetic north
of the triangles and only enough angles and directions to and a true meridian coincide is called an “agonic” line.
establish azimuth. Unfortunately, the nature of trilatera-
tion is such that only procedural guides are available to (5) An assumed bearing is a bearing whose prime
the field parties; they can only adhere to project instruc- meridian is assumed. In some cases, the relationship
tions and specifics which should permit later computations between an assumed bearing and the true meridian is
to show the desired accuracy. given a definite calculable relationship. This is the case
with most state plane grid coordinate systems used to
5-9. Bearing and Azimuth Determination make maps.

Bearing and azimuth determination are typically done as b. Bearing determination guidelines. All bearings
the basis for horizontal control surveys. used for engineering applications will be described by
degrees, minutes, and seconds in the direction in which
a. Bearing types. The bearing of a line is the direc- the line is progressing. The accuracy of its calculation is
tion of the line with respect to a given meridian. A bear- dependent on the exact measurements of distances and
ing is indicated by the quadrant in which the line falls and bearings. Also, the bearing will state first its primary
the acute angle which the line makes with the meridian in direction, north or south, and next the angle east or west.
that quadrant. The reference meridian may be either For example, a line can be described as heading north and
“true,” magnetic, or assumed, while the bearings likewise deflected so many degrees east or west. Alternatively, a
also are “true,” magnetic, or assumed. line also can be described as heading south and deflected
so many degrees east or west. A bearing will never be
(1) Observed bearings are those for which the actual listed with a value over 90˚ (i.e., the bearing value always
bearing angles are directly obtained by survey field work, will be between 0˚ and 90˚).
while calculated bearings are those for which the bearing
angles are indirectly obtained by calculations. c. Azimuth types. The azimuth of a line is its direc-
tion as given by the angle between the meridian and the
(2) A true bearing is one whose reference meridian is line, measured in a clockwise direction. Just like bear-
a true meridian of the earth -- a meridian passing through ings, azimuths can be either “true,” magnetic, or assumed,
the earth’s poles and the projection of which passes depending on the meridian to which they are referenced.
through the celestial pole. The earth’s poles are the geo- Azimuths can be indicated from either the south point or
graphic north and south poles. The celestial pole is the north point of a meridian.

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31 Oct 94

(1) Assumed azimuths are often used for making 5-11. Three-Point Resection
maps and performing traverses. Typically, for USACE
maps and traverse work, the angles (i.e., the azimuths) are Three-point resection is a form of triangulation.
determined in a clockwise direction from an assumed Three-point resection will be used in areas where existing
meridian. Assumed azimuths are sometimes referred to as control points cannot be occupied or when the work does
“localized grid azimuths.” not warrant the time and cost of occupying each station.
Triangulation of this type will be considered Fourth-
(2) Azimuths, just like bearings, can be either Order, although Third-Order accuracy can be obtained if a
observed or calculated. An observed azimuth is simply strong triangular figure is used and the angles are
one which is read by using electronic instrumentation, accurately measured. The following minimum guidelines
transit, or compass in the field. Calculated azimuths are should be followed when performing a three-point
those obtained by computation. For example, a calculated resection:
azimuth may consist of adding to or subtracting field
observed angles from known bearings or azimuths to a. Location. Points for observation should be
determine other bearings or azimuths. selected so as to give strong geometric figures.

d. Azimuth determination guidelines. An azimuth b. Observation. If it is possible to sight more than

will be determined as a line with a clockwise angle from three control points, the extra points should be included in
the north or south end of a true or assumed meridian. the figure so that the computed position can be verified.
The accuracy of its calculation is dependent on the exact
measurement of distances and bearings. For traverse (1) When it is possible to occupy one of the control
work using angle points, the requirements in Table 5-1 stations, it should be done as this added information will
will be followed. serve as a check on the computations and increase the
accuracy because its position can also then be computed
5-10. Astronomic Observation Requirements directly and checked by three-point computation. Occupa-
tion of a control station is especially important as it serves
as a control of the bearing or direction of a line if a tra-
a. Azimuth. In order to control the direction of a
verse were to originate from this same point.
traverse, an astronomic azimuth must be observed at
specified intervals and abrupt changes of direction of the (2) The interior and exterior angles shall be observed
traverse. The specified intervals and the maximum and recorded. The sum of these angles shall not vary by
deflection of the traverse will depend upon the accuracy more than 3 seconds per angle from 360 degrees.
of the traverse. The observation of an astronomic azi-
muth can be made by the hour angle method or altitude (3) Each angle will be turned not less than 2 times,
method. The method used will depend upon your location but preferably 4 times, 2 direct and 2 inverted. Turn all
on earth and/or the order of accuracy required. A set of angles to the right.
positions for an azimuth observation consists of half the
required positions being observed using the rear station as 5-12. GPS Surveying
an initial and half using the forward station as an initial.
Using rear station, turn clockwise to forward station then Establishing or densifying horizontal control with differ-
to star, reverse telescope on star, then forward station and ential carrier-phase based GPS is often cost-effective,
back to rear station. Using forward station, turn clock- faster, more accurate, and more reliable than most con-
wise to rear station then to star, reverse telescope on star, ventional methods. The quality control statistics and large
then rear station and back to forward station. The number number of redundant measurements in GPS networks help
of position repetitions will depend upon the order of accu- to ensure viable results. Differential carrier-phase based
racy required. GPS is particularly attractive for horizontal control sur-
veying as compared with conventional surveys because
b. Position. For Second-Order traverse the obser- intervisibility is not required between adjacent stations
vation of position for a Laplace azimuth will depend upon and GPS equipment is not limited by optics for its range
the use of the traverse, and the project instructions of operations as are most conventional survey instruments.
typically will specify when an astronomic position is Horizontal control established with differential carrier-
required. For Second- and Third-Order, it is often neces- phase based GPS (in accordance with guidelines detailed
sary to observe astronomic positions to obtain the starting in EM 1110-1-1003) will be of sufficient quality for most
and terminating azimuth data. applications.

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31 Oct 94

Chapter 6 6-3. Direct Leveling

Vertical Control Survey Techniques
Direct leveling is usually referred to as differential level-
ing or spirit leveling. The actual differences in elevation
are measured. In this method, a horizontal line of sight is
6-1. General established by using a sensitive level bubble in a level
vial. The instrument is leveled and the line of sight of
This chapter outlines procedures to follow when perform- the instrument describes a horizontal plane. The differ-
ing conventional vertical control survey work. The ence in elevation between a known elevation and the
material presented is not meant to be rigid methodology height of instrument (HI) is determined. Next, the differ-
that cannot be tailored for a particular application. The ence in elevation from the HI to an unknown point is
mandatory part is the classifications, standards, style of derived by measuring the vertical distance with a precise
keeping notes, and general procedures required to success- or semiprecise level and leveling rods.
fully complete the particular survey. Refer to EM 1110-
1-1003 for GPS survey techniques for vertical control 6-4. Indirect Leveling
purposes as well as any of the applicable references listed
in Appendix A for further guidance on information not Indirect leveling is a subdivision of leveling which does
covered in this chapter. not measure the difference in elevation between points;
instead other methods are used to determine elevation
6-2. Vertical Control Surveys differences. There are two common methods of doing
indirect leveling: trigonometric and barometric.
a. The purpose of vertical control survey operations
is to establish points at convenient intervals over the area a. Trigonometric. This method applies the funda-
to be surveyed. These established points can then serve mentals of trigonometry to determine the differences in
as points of departure and closure for leveling operations elevation by observing a horizontal distance and vertical
and as reference marks during subsequent construction angles above or below a horizontal plane to compute the
work. The NGS, National Ocean Service (NOS), United vertical distance between points. Trigonometric leveling
States Geological Survey (USGS), other Federal agencies, is generally used for Second-Order or lower order accura-
and many FOA have established control nets throughout cies. Trigonometric leveling is especially effective in
the CONUS. Unless otherwise directed, these bench- establishing control for profile lines, for strip
marks will be used as a basis for all vertical control photography, and in areas where the landscape is steep.
surveys. Usually NGS level circuits are found along main
highways or railroads, while most FOA-maintained con- (1) In typical trigonometric leveling operations, it is
trol is limited to project or survey areas. Exact locations only necessary to measure the HI, determine slope dis-
of benchmark data and their values can be found in publi- tance, read the vertical angle, and observe rod intercept.
cations issued by the agency maintaining the circuit. From these data, the vertical difference in elevation can
Information on USACE-maintained points can be found at be computed using the sine of the vertical angle and
the District or Division level offices, but are generally applying the rod difference as shown in Figure 6-1.
maintained on the NGVD 29 or NAVD 88 datum. Level
circuits maintained by other agencies are not necessarily (2) Refinements to this technique that can reduce the
on the same datum. Therefore, the surveyor must investi- chance for errors include doubling vertical angles, taking
gate what datum is being used in a particular level circuit differences both ahead and back, and using mean values.
before crossing into it. This will minimize the possibility
of errors in subsequent calculations and operations. (3) If the horizontal distance is known between the
instrument and the rod, it is not necessary to determine
b. Vertical control surveys can be done at First-, the slope distance. This is the case because the tangent of
Second-, Third-, or Fourth-Order, although most applica- the vertical angle times the horizontal distance will give
tions can be satisfied with Third- or Fourth-Order vertical you the same answer as the sine of the angle times the
level work. Although there are various forms of vertical slope distance.
control surveys, all have similar methods of operation.
The main differences between them are: the accuracy
with which they are run, the slightly different style of
field notes required, and the equipment used.

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31 Oct 94

Figure 6-1. Trigonometric (or indirect) leveling

(4) Equipment. There are many types of instruments Manufacturers’ procedures should be followed to achieve
that may be used such as theodolites, transits, or alidades. the point closure standards shown in Table 3-2.
The instrument used will depend upon the accuracy
requirements. (f) Semiprecise rods. When leveling in remote areas
where the density of basic vertical control is scarce the
(a) Theodolite. The instrument most commonly used semiprecise rod is generally used. The semiprecise rod
is the 1-second directional theodolite. should be graduated on the face to centimeters and on the
back to half-foot intervals.
(b) Transit. The transit is very seldom used by topo-
graphic surveyors today. The construction surveyor, (g) Standard rods. When leveling in urban areas or
however, will frequently be called on to use it. The pro- areas with a high density of vertical control where ties to
cedure is the same as that of the theodolite. higher order control are readily available, the standard
leveling rods are used. The Philadelphia rod graduated to
(c) Alidade. With normal operating care, a telescopic hundredths of a foot can be used. Other rods that are
alidade equipped with a Beaman arc can be used for graduated to centimeters can be used. Both types of rods
lower order control leveling. are furnished with targets and verniers which will permit
reading of the scale to millimeters or thousandths of a
(d) Total station. An electronic-based instrument foot if required by specifications. This is generally not
with features comparable to or better than those of a required on lower order trigonometric level lines.
theodolite can be used. Manufacturers’ procedures should
be followed to achieve the point closure standards shown (h) Stadia rods. The standard stadia rods can also
in Table 3-2. be used for lower order level lines. The stadia rod is
graduated to the nearest 0.05 of a foot or 2 centimeters.
(e) Digital levels. Digital (or Bar-Code) levels are These rods are generally equipped with targets or
used for fully automatic leveling. These instruments auto- verniers, but if project specifications require, they can be
matically measure, store, and compute heights and are estimated to hundredths of a foot.
capable of achieving Second-Order or higher accuracies.

6-2
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31 Oct 94

b. Barometric. This method uses the differences in are calibrated or a matched pair). With the instrument
atmospheric pressure as observed with a barometer or near A, read rod at A, then turn to B and have target set
altimeter to determine the differences in elevation between as close as possible and determine the difference in eleva-
points. This is the least used method in surveying and the tion. Leaving rods at A and B, move instrument around
least accurate method of determining elevations. This to point B, read B, then turn to read A and again deter-
method should only be used when one of the other meth- mine the difference in elevation. Example calculations
ods is unfeasible or would involve great expense. Gener- are shown in Figure 6-2. The mean of the two differ-
ally, this method is used for elevations when the map ences is the true difference to be applied to the elevation
scale is to be 1:250,000 or smaller. of A to get a true value of B. If the long sight is difficult
to determine, it is suggested that several tries be made
6-5. Reciprocal Leveling and an average determined. For more precise results, it
may be necessary to take a series of foresights, depending
Reciprocal leveling is a method of carrying a level circuit on the length of the sight. It is typical to take as many as
across an area over which it is impossible to run regular 20 to 30 sightings. When taking this many sightings, it is
differential levels with balanced sights (Figure 6-2). Most critical to recenter the level bubble (if applicable) and
level operations require a sight 300 or 400 feet long, and reset the target after each observation.
it’s often possible in such operations to set backsights a
similar distance away. Sometimes though it may be nec- b. Cautions. Reciprocal leveling assumes the condi-
essary to shoot 500 feet, 1,000 feet, or even further in tions during the survey do not change significantly for the
order to span across a river, canyon, or other obstacle. two positions of the level. Two factors that typically may
Where such spans must be leveled across, reciprocal lev- affect the result when the lengths of the sights are long
eling is appropriate. are unequal expansion of the parts of the instrument and
variations in atmospheric refraction. To minimize these
effects, it is recommended observations be made on a
cloudy, cool day if possible. Protecting the instrument
with an umbrella and rapid careful collection of the read-
ings also help to minimize these two factors. Reciprocal
leveling with two instruments should never be done unless
both instruments are used on both sides and the mean
result of both sets used. The use of two instruments is
advised if it is a long trip around the obstacle. Reciprocal
leveling is effective only if the instruments used are of
similar power and sensitivity.

6-6. Three-Wire Leveling

a. Accuracy. Three-wire leveling can be used to

achieve any level of accuracy from First- to Third-Order,
depending on the care in which the work is conducted.
However, most applications do not require the accuracies
possible with three-wire leveling and due to its labor-
intensive nature, sound judgment must be exercised when
deciding whether or not three-wire leveling should be
used to establish vertical control for a project.
Figure 6-2. Reciprocal leveling
b. Methodology. Three-wire leveling can be applied
a. Procedure. Assume point “A” and “B” are turns whenever the reticule of the level has stadia lines and
on opposite sides of the obstacle to be spanned (Fig- stub-stadia that are spaced so that the stadia intercept is
ure 6-2). Points A and B are assumed to be able to be 0.3 foot at 100 feet, rather than the more typical 1.0 foot
sighted from an instrument set up opposite to it. Two at 100 feet. The stub-stadia lines in instruments meant
rods should be used, one at point A and the other at for three-wire leveling are short cross lines that cannot be
point B. The rods should be first compared on a common mistaken for the long central line used for ordinary lev-
turn to be sure they will read exactly the same (i.e., they eling. A Zeiss Ni2 Self-Leveling level is an example of a

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31 Oct 94

typical instrument designed specifically for three-wire and back rod are moved to forward positions. The
leveling. In three-wire leveling, the rod is read at each of instrument is set up approximately midway between the
the three lines and the average is used for the final result. old and new rod positions. The new sighting on the back
Before each reading, the level bubble is centered. The rod is a BS for a new HI and the sighting on the front rod
half-stadia intervals are compared to check for blunders. is an FS for a new elevation. The points on which the
For example, in a typical reading, the following values rods are held for FSs and BSs are called turning points.
were taken and recorded and calculations made: Other FSs made to points not along the main line are
known as sideshots. This procedure is used as many
Upper Wire: 8.698 2.155 :Upper Interval times as necessary to transfer a point of known elevation
Middle Wire: 6.543 to another distant point of unknown elevation.
Lower Wire: 4.392 2.151 :Lower Interval
Sum 19.633 b. Second-Order leveling operations. Leveling of
Average 6.544 Second-Order accuracy levels is usually limited to control
of a large area or on jobs where grades are critical. An
The final rod reading would be 6.544 feet. The upper and example where Second-Order accuracy may be required is
lower intercepts differ by only 0.004 foot -- an acceptable a canal where a concrete lining is used and the grades are
error for this sort of leveling and evidence that no blunder exceptionally flat. Another example is a tunnel being dug
has been made. It is recommended that Yard rods specif- underground for several miles where the ends may be
ically designed for three-wire leveling operations be used miles apart by the route the control levels are to be run,
instead of Philadelphia rods which are designed for ordi- but the aboveground distance between the ends is rela-
nary leveling. tively short. On some jobs requiring such high levels of
accuracy, it is desirable to close the loop being run back
6-7. Two-Rod Leveling to the point of beginning because closing into another
existing benchmark of equal or higher order may be
In order to increase the productivity in precise leveling impractical, especially if the check-in benchmark is in
operations, it is advisable to use two rods. When the another leveling circuit from a completely different area.
observations are completed at any instrument setup, the
rods and the instruments are moved forward simultane- c. Second-Order leveling accuracy. Second-Order
ously. Halfway between benchmarks, the rods should be leveling point closure standards for vertical control sur-
interchanged to minimize the possible effects of index veys are shown in Table 3-2. Second-Order leveling
error. Two rods are recommended when using a self- consists of lines run in only one direction, between bench-
leveling level, as this takes full advantage of the produc- marks previously established by First-Order methods. If
tivity possible with this type of instrument. not checking into another line, the return for Second-
Order Class I level work should check within the limits of
6-8. Tidal Benchmarks and Datums 0.025 times the square root of M feet (where M is the
length of the level line in miles), while for Second-Order
Refer to EM 1110-2-1003 and FM 5-441 for guidance on Class II work, it should check within the limits of
the establishment of tidal benchmarks and datums. 0.035 times the square root of M feet.

6-9. Leveling Operations d. Second-Order leveling equipment. The type of

equipment needed is dependent on the accuracy
a. General. The leveling operation consists of hold- requirements.
ing a rod vertically on a point of known elevation. A
level reading is then made through the telescope on the (1) Second-Order level. The instrument used in
rod, known as a backsight or BS, which gives the vertical Second-Order leveling can be a total station, level, or
distance from the ground elevation to the line of sight. equivalent that provides precise leveling and is con-
By adding this backsight reading to the known elevation, structed of materials having a low coefficient of thermal
the line of sight elevation, called height of instrument or expansion. The instrument must employ the normal tilt-
HI, is determined. Another rod is placed on a point of ing device, and the design of the instrument must allow
unknown elevation, and a foresight or FS reading is taken. the bubble in the level vial to be observed by the instru-
By subtracting the FS reading from the HI, the elevation ment man without moving from his normal observing
of the new point is established. After the FS is com- position. If the instrument is a level, it must be of the
pleted, the rod remains on that point and the instrument Dumpy type, incorporating a three-wire reticule, an

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31 Oct 94

inverting eyepiece, and a three-screw base. Generally a frequently to make sure it has not been bent or otherwise
graduated tilting screw micrometer is built into the damaged.
instrument to allow reading to the nearest 0.001 of a unit.
The sensitivity of the level vial, telescopic power, focus- (3) Instrument test and adjustments. To maintain the
ing distance, and size of the objective lens are factors in required accuracy, certain tests and adjustments must be
determining the precision of the instrument. These factors made at prescribed intervals to both the levels and rods
may vary individually, but when one factor is weakened, being used.
another factor must be strengthened to maintain the speci-
fied order of accuracy. Instruments are rated and tested (a) Determination of stadia constant. The stadia
according to their ability to maintain the specified order constant factor of the instrument should be carefully
of accuracy. Only those rated as precise geodetic quality determined. This stadia factor is required in the computa-
instruments (such as Wild N-3) may be used for Second- tion of the length from the stadia intervals and in comput-
Order work. ing the allowable error. This determination must be done
for each level used in the field. Should new cross wires
(2) Second-Order rods. Precise level rods are be installed in the field, a redetermination of the constant
required when running Second-Order levels. There are must be made before using the level in the survey. The
many precise rods, and any of them may be used as long observations and computations for this determination must
as they are equivalent in accuracy to the rod described. be recorded as a permanent record along with the time
The rods must be of the one piece, invar strip type, with and date and kept with the project files. The determina-
the least graduation on the invar strip of 1 cm. The invar tion is made by comparing the stadia intervals observed
strip is 25 mm wide and 1 mm thick and is mounted in a over a known distance course. The course should be laid
shallow groove in a single piece of well-seasoned wood. out on a reasonably level track, roadway, or sidewalk, and
The groove is slightly wider than the strip and deep nails or other marks placed in a straight line at measured
enough so that the strip is free to move. The rod has a distances of 0, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, and 75 m. The center
metal footpiece to which the strip is securely fastened. In of the instrument and the zero point of the instrument
order to eliminate any error due to sagging of the invar may not be the same for the instrument being used. The
strip when the rod is held erect, it is placed under tension Wild N-3 level has an additive constant of -20 cm. When
by a stiff spring, set into a recess in the top of the staff determining the stadia constant, therefore, the instrument
and bearing against a small brass angle plate attached to must be plumbed 20 cm forward of the zero stake. For
the top of the strip. This tension spring also allows the other instruments, the manufacturer’s manual should be
strip to expand or contract because of temperature consulted. Read the rod at each of the six points and
changes. The front of the rod is graduated in meters, record the intervals. The level bubble need not be accu-
decimeters, and centimeters on the invar strip. The back rately centered, but should at least be free of the ends of
of the rod must be graduated in feet and tenths of feet, or the tube. The half-wire intervals should be computed as a
yards and tenths of yards. These rods must be standard- check against erroneous readings. The sum of the total
ized by the National Institute of Standards and Tech- intervals for the six readings should be computed. The
nology and their index and length corrections determined. stadia constant is the sum of these measured distances
The rods with similar characteristics are paired and (300 m) divided by the sum of the six total wire intervals.
marked. The pairings must be maintained throughout a As a check against gross errors each separate observation
line of levels. The invar strips should be checked peri- should be computed. The average of the six separate
odically against a standard to determine any changes computations serves as a numerical check on the compu-
which may affect their accuracy. The precise level rod is tations. Any tendency for the six computed values to
a scientific instrument and must be treated as such, not creep in one direction will be good evidence that some
only when in use but during storage and transporting. error in the measurement of the distance has been made
When in use the rods should be alternately carried by the from the center of the instrument to the zero point and
handles and face up on the shoulder. If the rods are then to the first of the six rod points.
always carried with the face down or up, they will
become slightly bowed and the reading will be too large. (b) Determination of “C” factor. Each day, just
Therefore, the rods should be carried an equal amount of before the leveling is begun or immediately after the
time by the handle and face up on the shoulder. When beginning of the day’s observations, and immediately
not in use they must be stored in their shipping containers following any instance when the level is subjected to
to avoid damage. The footpiece should be inspected unusual shock, the error of the level or C factor must be

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EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

determined. This determination may be done during the 1/100, 0.007 for stadia constants of 1/200, and 0.010 for
regular course of leveling or over a special course; in stadia constants of 1/333. It is desirable to have the
either case the recording of the observations must be done determination of the C factor made under the anticipated
on a separate page of the recording notes with all compu- conditions as to length of sight, character of ground, and
tations shown. If the determination is made during the elevation of line of sight above the ground. The date and
first setup of the regular course of levels, the following time must be recorded for each C factor determination,
procedure is used (Figure 6-3): since this information is essential in computing the level
corrections when making office computations for that
particular day’s work.

(c) Adjustment of level. The type of instrument

being used will dictate the method and procedure used to
adjust the instrument, if the C factor exceeds the allow-
able limits. The manufacturer’s procedures should be fol-
lowed when adjusting a level.

(d) Test of leveling rods. Precise level rods must be

tested once each week or whenever they receive a severe
shock. This test is made with the level rod bubble held at
its center, and the deviation of the face and edge of the
rod from the vertical are determined. If the deviation
from the vertical exceeds 0.01 m on a 3-m length of rod,
the rod level must be adjusted. This level is adjusted in
Figure 6-3. Procedure for C factor the same manner as any other circular bubble. A state-
ment must be inserted in the records showing the manner
After the regular observations at the instrument station A in which the test was made, the error that was found, if
are completed, transcribe the last FS reading “a” as part any, and whether an adjustment was made. When using
of the error determination; call up the back rodman and other than precise leveling rods this test is not required.
have the rod placed about 10 m back from the instrument;
read the rod “b,” over the instrument to a position “B” e. Second-Order leveling monumentation. All
about 10 m behind the front rod; read the front rod “c” benchmarks used to monument on Second-Order level
and then the back rod “d.” The two instrument stations lines will conform to criteria in EM 1110-1-1002. In
must be between the rod points. The readings must be general, all benchmarks used to monument Second-Order
made with the level bubble carefully centered and then all level lines shall be standard USACE brass caps set in
three wires are read for each rod reading. The concrete. The concrete should be placed in holes deep
required C factor determined is basically the ratio of the enough to avoid local disturbance, such as spading, soft-
required rod-reading correction to the corresponding sub- surface heaving due to winter rains, frost action, etc. If
tended interval, or: the brass cap is not attached to an iron pipe or tip, use
some type of metal to reinforce the concrete prior to
embedding the brass cap. Concrete should be placed in a
(Σ near rod readings) (Σ distant rod readings) position that is protected as much as possible. If possible,
C
(Σ distant rod readings) (Σ near rod readings) benchmarks should be set close to a fence line, yet far
enough away to permit plumbing of level rod. Do not set
the monument closer than 4 feet to a fence post as when
The total correction for curvature and refraction must be the post is replaced, the benchmark usually will be dis-
applied to each distant rod reading before using them in turbed. If practical, when a benchmark is monumented
the above equation. It must be remembered that the sum near a fence, paint the top 18 inches of the nearest fence
of the rod intervals must be multiplied by the stadia con- post white to aid in identification of the location of the
stant in order to obtain the actual distance before correc- benchmark. Each brass cap must be stamped to identify
tion. The maximum permissible C factor varies with the it by the adopted method detailed in EM 1110-1-1002. In
stadia constant of the instrument. The instruments must addition to stamping a local number or name on the cap,
be adjusted at once if the C factor is greater than 0.004 it is desirable to stamp true elevation on the brass cap
for instruments with a stadia constant of approximately after final adjustment has been made. The benchmarks

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31 Oct 94

must be set no less than 24 hours in advance of the level (3) Lower order. The type of spirit level instrument
crew if the survey is to be done after monument used should be a type that ensures an accuracy in keeping
construction. with required control point accuracy. The precise type
level should not be used on lower order work when other
f. Second-Order leveling notes. Notes for Second- less precise instruments are available. The Fennel tilting
Order levels will be kept in a manner approved by the level, Dumpy level, Wye level, or their equivalent are
immediate supervisor. A set style cannot be developed examples of levels that can be used. The rods should be
due to different types of equipment that can be employed. adequate for obtaining the required accuracy. The precise
Elevations will not be carried in the field as they will be invar strip rods should not be used. Any stadia rod with
adjusted by the field office and closures approved prior to least readings of five-hundredths of a foot or 1 centimeter
marking benches. will be satisfactory. The use of turning pins and/or plates
will depend upon the type of terrain. Terrain permitting,
g. Third-Order or construction layout leveling. All the rods may be placed on reasonably firm stones or
levels run for traverse profiles, temporary benchmarks, roadways.
control of cross-sections, slope stakes, soundings, topo-
graphic mapping, structure layout and miscellaneous con- j. Third-Order and lower leveling monumentation.
struction layout and miscellaneous construction staking The level line shall be tied to all existing benchmarks
shall be Third-Order or construction levels as detailed in along or adjacent to the line being run. In the event there
Table 3-2, unless otherwise directed. All levels will origi- are no existing benchmarks near the survey, new ones
nate from and tie into existing control. No level line shall should be set, not more than 0.5 mile apart. Steep
be stubbed off or dead ended unless by specific instruc- landscape in the area of survey may necessitate monu-
tions by a designated immediate supervisor or written ments be placed more often.
directive.
(1) It is desirable to set benches on permanent struc-
h. Third-Order and lower leveling accuracy. All tures. Examples of permanent structures include head
accuracy requirements for USACE vertical control surveys walls, bridge abutments, pipes, etc. Large spikes driven
will conform to the point closure standards shown in into tree roots, telephone poles at the base, and fence
Table 3-2. The required accuracy for Third-Order levels posts generally are acceptable for this level of work. All
is 0.050 M feet where M is the length of the level line temporary benchmarks must have full description of what
in miles, while construction layout level work will con- they are and where they are located. Unless they are on a
form to 0.100 times the square root of M feet. The turn, they may not be considered to be temporary bench-
length of the line may be determined from quad sheets or marks. No closures shown by an intermediate shot will
larger scale map if a direct measure between points is not be accepted. All temporary benchmarks must have a
available, although this is not a preferred method. Direct name or number for future identification.
measure of the line is the preferred method.
(2) Turning points are a very important part of lev-
i. Third-Order and lower leveling equipment. The eling. The rodman will select a suitable point or drive a
type of equipment needed is dependent upon the accuracy turning pin in the ground until rigid with no possibility of
requirements. movement. All turning points or temporary benchmarks
will have a definite high point so that any person not
(1) Third-Order level. A semiprecise level should be familiar with the point will automatically hold the rod on
used for Third-Order levels, such as the tilting Dumpy the highest point. If solid rocks are being used for turns
type, three-wire reticule, or equivalent. they must be marked with crayon or paint prior to taking
reading. Be sure the rod will spin free on the high point.
(2) Third-Order rods. The rods should be graduated
in feet, tenths, and hundredths of feet. The Philadelphia (3) It is not mandatory to use targets on the rod
rod or its equivalent is acceptable. However, the project when the reading is clearly visible. However, they are
specifications will sometimes require that semiprecise rods required in dense brush, when using grade rods, or when
be used that are graduated on the front in centimeters and unusually long shots are necessary.
on the back in half-foot intervals. The Zeiss stadia rod,
fold type, or its equivalent should be used when the speci- k. Third-Order and lower leveling notes. Complete
fications require semiprecise rods. notations or sketches will be made to identify shots. All

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EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Third-Order or lower level notes will be completely provides height (h) or height difference (h) in terms of
reduced in the field as the levels are run, with the error of height above or below the WGS 84 reference ellipsoid.
closure noted at all tie-in points. In practice, the circuit These ellipsoid heights (h) are not equivalent to orthome-
will be corrected to true at each tie-in point unless tric heights (elevations), which would be obtained from
instructed to do otherwise by an immediate supervisor or conventional differential leveling. Therefore, users of
written directive. Any change in rod reading shall be GPS must exercise extreme caution in applying GPS
initialed and dated so there is no doubt as to when cor- height determinations to projects which are based on
rection was made. Cross out erroneous shots -- never conventional orthometric elevations. Using current meth-
erase them. The instrument man shall take care to keep odology (i.e., geoid modeling and transformation soft-
peg notes on all turns in the standard field book. The ware), the best accuracy achievable is Third-Order.
notes will be dated and noted as to what line is being run, Therefore, the use of differential carrier-phase based GPS
station occupied, identification of turns, etc. techniques for establishing or densifying of vertical con-
trol should be limited to applications where this level of
6-10. GPS Surveying accuracy is acceptable. Refer to EM 1110-1-1003 for
guidance concerning GPS vertical control surveys. Point
Establishing or densification of vertical control with dif- closure standards shown in Table 3-2 should be used to
ferential carrier-phase based GPS is often difficult. GPS classify subsequent results.

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Chapter 7 (5) No data will be written on scratch paper and/or

Miscellaneous Information on on the back page of the field book and copied into the
book later. Also, details of the survey will not be carried
Survey and Instrument Operations
in the mind of the surveyor or until the end of the job and
then entered into the field book. Information copied or
transferred into the field book or carried in the mind of
the surveyor is subject to more error than data recorded as
7-1. General they are obtained. Systematic recording of data will help
to improve accuracy. No erasures should be made in the
The purpose of this chapter is to provide general survey field book. If errors are made, they will be crossed
operations guidance necessary to obtain the accuracy through and the correct ones will be written in such a way
requirements of the USACE. The user should make that the original data remain legible. No figure should
special note of survey note requirements and the general ever be written over the top of another nor should any
principles of survey operation. figure be erased. If a whole page is in error, the com-
plete page will be lined or crossed through and the word
7-2. Field Notes “VOID” will be written in large letters diagonally across
the page. A cross reference will be entered on the voided
a. Field notes. All field notes will be recorded in a page showing the book and page number where the cor-
standard hardcover field book as the measurements are rect information may be found. Also, an explanation of
made in the field. The typical dimensions of such a field the error and the correction will be entered in the field
book are 4-7/8 inches by 7-1/2 inches. notes.

(1) All field note entries shall be made with a black (6) If a data collector is used, only setup information
lead pencil or black ink. Notations made by other than (i.e., description, HI, sketch, etc.) and every 20th shot
the original surveyor shall be made with a colored pencil should be recorded in the field book. This information is
so a clear distinction exists between the field observations used to check the instrument for systematic errors.
and subsequent corrections, adjustments, comments, or
supplemental data. (7) When it is necessary to copy information from
another field book or other source, a note will be made
(2) The first two pages of each field book shall be which clearly states that the information was copied and
reserved for the book index and shall not be numbered. the source from which it came.
The index should contain the date and description of the
survey. The description will indicate the type of field (8) If the notes are a continuation from another field
activity performed: traverse, levels, topography, etc. book, a description will be written in the field book to the
Also, the index should list the actual pages used in the effect “NOTES CONTINUED FROM BK XXXX PAGE
field book for the particular description entry. The XX.” A similar description (e.g., CONTINUED IN
remainder of the field book shall contain the actual field BOOK XXXX FROM PAGE XX) will be written on the
data and shall be numbered beginning at page one. last page of each section of notes if those notes are to be
continued either in another book or on another page
(3) The first page of each entry should contain at the which is not adjacent to the current page.
top left side of the page the name of the installation or
project location and a specific project title (e.g., James (9) The sketch should show all the details, dimen-
River - Kingsmill Dam), the type of work being done, and sions and explanatory notes required. The sketch should
a detailed description of the work. This description be written on a whole page whenever possible. If neces-
should include as much information as necessary to detail sary, multiple pages with the sketch divided equally
what was done during the course of the survey. among the pages should be used if the sketch has too
many details to be shown on one page. Sketches of struc-
(4) At the top of the right side of the right half of the ture sections must be well drawn as they are often the
page, the actual date of the survey, weather conditions, basis for working drawings of existing structure(s). If
type and serial number of instruments used, members of applicable, show the center-line station of all creeks and
the crew and their assignment, map or field book refer- draws and edge of channel on all rivers and streams
ences, and other remarks as necessary for a complete crossed.
understanding of the survey shall be written.

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EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

(10) Note in the field book any conversations with XXXX PAGE XX, USGS Quad XXXXXX, NOS Chart
owners regarding property corners. Use owner’s full XXXX, etc.).
name if possible.
(3) A complete description of each point on which
(11) At the end of each day of work, the field notes an elevation is established shall be recorded in the field
shall be signed and dated by the crew chief or individual book adjacent to the station designation. Figure 7-2
responsible for the work. shows some examples of field notes taken during a typical
vertical control survey.
b. Minimum horizontal control survey field note
requirements. 7-3. Entry Rights

(1) When using the appropriate applicable equipment When entering property to conduct a control survey, the
(e.g., EDM, total stations, etc.) to do a traverse, the field rights of the property owner will be respected. The fol-
notes shall contain the height of the instrument (i.e., HI) lowing details some minimum guidelines to follow in an
above the station occupied, the target height (i.e., TH) effort to respect the rights of the property owner.
above the station being measured to, both the horizontal
angles and the vertical angles, and distance readings a. Permission to enter a military installation and
obtained with the instrument. other private property will always be acquired by the Dis-
trict prior to entering such property. While on the mili-
(2) Even though the EDM, total station, etc. being tary installation, members of the survey crew will adhere
used may be capable of computing and displaying a hori- to all of the stipulations (e.g., rules, regulations, direc-
zontal distance and a difference in elevation based on the tives, verbal guidance, etc.) set forth by the Base Instal-
slope distance and vertical angle obtained by the instru- lation Commander or his designated representative. The
ment, the vertical angles shall still be recorded in the field same basic guidelines are applicable when the right to
book. All these measurements shall be clearly labeled as enter private property is given.
vertical angle, slope distance, and horizontal distance.
b. Government and private property shall be pro-
(3) In addition to the measured angles, a description tected at all times. The right to enter a property does not
of the point occupied shall be included. This description give the crew the license to destroy or cause excessive
shall include the type of monument (e.g., brass disk, RR damage to the property. Every effort should be made not
spike, 1/2" re-bar, etc.), general location (e.g., 15’ east of to damage or cut trees, shrubs, plants, etc. on the prop-
north end of Kingsmill Dam centerline & 20’ south of fire erty. If such must be done, the Base Installation Com-
hydrant), and type of material point is set in (e.g., mander or in the case of private property, the private
chiseled cross on concrete slab, flush with gravel road, property owner, is the only person who can grant per-
etc.). A sketch of the location of the point relative to mission to do so.
existing physical features and reference ties shall be made
and included in the notes. c. As practicable, the property entered shall be
returned to its condition prior to entry once the survey is
(4) If a horizontal control line is used, a sketch of it completed. Gates and other structures should be left in
shall be made and included in the notes. This sketch does the position in which they were found prior to entry. If a
not need to be drawn to scale, but it should include the gate is closed, do not leave it open for any long period of
relative position of one point to the next and the basic time.
control used. Figure 7-1 shows some examples of field
notes taken during a typical horizontal control survey. d. Return all borrowed property (e.g., keys, maps,
etc.) as instructed by the property owner or designated
c. Minimum vertical control survey field note representative.
requirements.
e. Survey points should be placed in such a way as
(1) A short description of the course of the level line to not obstruct the operations of the property owners or be
shall be entered in the field book. offensive to their view. Monuments set as a result of the
survey should be set below ground level to prevent dam-
(2) Entries shall be made in the book that give the age by or to any equipment or vehicles. Extra care must
references to the traverse notes and other existing data be taken when setting a survey point at or near airports.
used for the basic elevations (e.g., TRAVERSE BOOK

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31 Oct 94

Figure 7-1. Field notes taken during a typical horizontal control survey

f. Any pre-marks set on military installations or

private property will be removed as soon as possible after
the survey work is completed or the Base Installation
Commander, property owner, and/or designated represen-
tative requests such.

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31 Oct 94

Figure 7-2. Field notes taken during a typical vertical control survey

7-4
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Chapter 8 the concept of a weighted mean. The main scope of the

Survey Adjustments for chapter will deal with the adjustment of data using the
method of least squares. The method of least squares is
Conventional Surveys
the most prevalent adjustment technique utilized by com-
mercial software packages.

8-1. General 8-3. Traverse Adjustment (Balancing)

The adjustment of survey and photogrammetric data is a The method of traverse adjustment is widely used by the
critical component in the determination of reliable coordi- land surveying and engineering communities. This
nates, directions, distances, and elevation data. The method of adjustment is easy to perform and provides
adjustment technique and the analysis of the estimated adequate results for many survey applications. The
parameters should be given the same priority as the data method of traverse adjustment depends on the precision of
collection and recording procedures. An adjustment is a the directions as compared to the precision of the dis-
method of dealing with redundant data. Redundancy can tances. The equations necessary for each adjustment
be considered excess information. If the redundancy of a method are available in any elementary survey text.
system is zero, the system of observations would not
warrant an adjustment. For example, if a surveyor meas- a. Crandall rule. The Crandall rule is used when
ured the distance from two known survey points to an the angular measurements (directions) have greater preci-
unknown location (range - range intersection), the two sion than the linear measurements (distances). This
distances from the known points would uniquely deter- method allows for the weighting of measurements and has
mine the two-dimensional location of the unknown point. properties similar to the method of least squares adjust-
In this example there is no extra or redundant data, there- ment. Although the technique provides adequate results,
fore, an adjustment would not be warranted. it is seldom utilized because of its complexity. Also, with
the advent of the personal computer, a traditional least
a. Survey computations, whether made on a local squares adjustment can be performed with little effort.
system or a standardized accepted system (e.g., SPCS),
are for all intents and purposes identical. The adjustment b. Transit rule. The transit rule is utilized when the
of raw survey data is treated as independent observations angular measurements are of greater precision than the
and adjusted as part of a total network. A variety of linear measurements. For example, if a surveyor was
methods may be used to adjust the survey data, including using a transit or theodolite for angular measurements and
compass (or Bowditch) rule, transit rule, the Crandall stadia for linear measurements, the transit rule adjustment
Method, and the method of least squares. This chapter would be applicable. This method is rarely used because
describes some of the methods used to perform horizontal modern distance measuring equipment (DME) and elec-
and vertical adjustments and provides guidance in evaluat- tronic theodolites provide distance and angular measure-
ing the adequacy and accuracy of the adjustment results. ments with equal precision.

b. Differential carrier phase GPS survey observa- c. Compass rule. The compass rule adjustment is
tions are adjusted no differently than conventional sur- used when the angular and linear measurements are of
veys. Each three-dimensional GPS baseline vector is equal precision. This is the most widely used traverse
treated as a separate distance observation and adjusted as adjustment method. Since the angular and linear precision
part of a trilateration network. A variety of the tech- are considered equivalent, the angular error is distributed
niques developed in this chapter can be used to adjust equally throughout the traverse. For example, the sum of
observed GPS baselines to fit existing control. However, the interior angles of a five-sided traverse should equal
they are usually adjusted by least squares. Refer to 540o 00’ 00".0, but if the sum of the measured angles
EM 1110-1-1003 for further guidance on GPS baseline equals 540o 01’ 00".0, a value of 12".0 must be subtracted
adjustment. from each observed angle to balance the angles within
traverse. After balancing the angular error, the linear
8-2. Adjustment Methods error is computed by determining the sums of the north-
south latitudes and east-west departures. The misclosure
An adjustment may involve a mean of observations, bal- in latitude and departure is applied proportional to the
ancing of a traverse, and an adjustment by least squares. distance of each line in the traverse.
This chapter will briefly address traverse balancing and

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d. Example compass rule adjustment. A four-sided αt = (n+2) * 180o

closed traverse was performed (Figure 8-1) using a
twenty-second (20") theodolite and a one-hundred-foot n = number of sides in the traverse
(100’) steel tape. The linear and angular measurements
were considered of equal precision, therefore, the compass αt = true angular closure
rule was utilized to adjust the traverse. The observed and
adjusted angles, azimuths, latitudes, and departures are Angular Error
listed in Table 8-1. The following four steps demonstrate
how a compass rule adjustment is performed for a loop αe = (αm - αt)
traverse.
αe = angular error

The angular error (αe) is divided by the number of sides

(n) in the traverse and is distributed equally to all of the
measured angles. If the angular error is negative, the
error is added to all the angles in the traverse. If the
angular error is positive, the error is subtracted from all of
the angles in the traverse. After the angular misclosure
has been distributed throughout the traverse, the summa-
tion of the interior or exterior angles should equal the true
angular closure (αt). The four-sided closed traverse in
Figure 8-1 and Table 8-1 has an angular error (αe) of four
arc seconds (4"). In this example, the angular error is
negative; therefore, to balance the angles within the tra-
verse, one arc second (1") must be added to each angle in
the traverse.

Step 2. The horizontal angles are converted to bear-

ings or azimuths. To compute the “true” bearing or azi-
muth of each line in the traverse, one known bearing or
azimuth must be available prior to the adjustment process.
If a known bearing or azimuth is not available, a “false”
bearing can be used to perform the adjustment process. If
a “false” bearing is utilized, the traverse will be oriented
relative to this bearing. The example in Figure 8-1 and
Figure 8-1. Loop traverse Table 8-1 has a known azimuth between stations 11
and 12. The azimuth for each line in the traverse was
Step 1. The angular error (αe) of the polygon is com- computed by adding the back azimuth between stations
puted by differencing the measured (αm) and true (αt) and the angle to the right. The back azimuth is computed
angular closure. The measured angular closure is the by adding or subtracting one-hundred and eighty degrees
summation of the interior or exterior horizontal angles in (180o) from the forward azimuth. The angle right equals
the traverse. If interior angles were measured when per- the measured interior angle.
forming a loop traverse, the true angular closure equals:
Back Azimuth
αt = (n-2) * 180o
If the forward azimuth αab 180o
n = number of sides in the traverse
The backward azimuth αba = αab + 180o
αt = true angular closure
If the forward azimuth αab 180o
If exterior angles were measured when performing a loop
traverse, the true (αt) angular closure would equal: The backward azimuth αba = αab - 180o

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Step 3. The latitude and departure for each course in P = ρ/D

the traverse are computed using the bearing or azimuth
and distance of the line. If bearings are utilized, the where
latitude and departure must be identified as negative or
positive. The latitude of a line increases south to north. P = traverse precision
The departure of a course increases from west to east. In
the example from Figure 8-1, the line from station 13’ to ρ = ( (Σ∆N)2 + (Σ∆E)2 )0.5 (line of closure)
12 would have a positive latitude and departure. The line
from station 12 to 11 would have a positive latitude and D = Σ li
negative departure. When azimuths are utilized, the alge-
braic sign (+/-) of the latitude and departure is accounted Σ∆Nm = summation of the measured northings within
for in the trigonometric functions. the traverse

Latitude and Departure Σ∆Em = summation of the measured eastings within

the traverse
∆Nm = cos(BRG) * lij
Σ li = summation of the distances within the traverse
∆Em = sin(BRG) * lij
lij = Distance from station i to station j.
or
The latitude (δNe) and departure (δEe) errors are added or
∆Nm = cos(α) * lij subtracted from the measured latitudes (∆Nm) and depar-
tures (∆Em). To obtain the adjusted latitudes (∆N) and
∆Em = sin(α) * lij departures (∆E), the algebraic signs (+/-) of the latitude
(δNe) and departure (δEe) errors are reversed and the
where errors are added to the measured latitudes (∆Nm) and
departures (∆Em) (Table 8-1).
∆Nm = measured latitude
Adjusted Latitudes and Departures
∆Em = measured departure
∆N = δNm +/- δNe
BRG = bearing
∆E = δEm +/- δEe
α = azimuth
e. Error detection. Errors in a balanced traverse are
lij = distance between stations i and j difficult to locate. Determining angular and linear errors
in a balanced traverse requires inspection of the traverse
Step 4. The summation of the measured latitudes plot and the line of closure (ρ). The perpendicular bisec-
(Σ∆Nm) and departures (Σ∆Em) represents the error in tor of the line of closure (ρ) is utilized to find the angular
northing and easting of the traverse. The northing and error. If an angular error exists within the traverse, the
easting error is distributed throughout the traverse propor- perpendicular bisector of the line of closure will “point”
tional to the distance of each line (lij) and the perimeter (Figure 8-2) to the possible station that contains the error.
distance of the traverse (D). The precision of the traverse The perpendicular bisector of the line of closure in Fig-
(P) is equal to the line of closure (ρ) divided by the per- ure 8-2 represents a possible angular error in station A.
imeter distance of the traverse. The line of closure (ρ) may parallel a line within the
traverse that may have a linear (distance) error (Fig-
Latitude and Departure Error ure 8-2). Figure 8-2 represents a possible distance error
between stations A and B. These techniques in identify-
δNe = (lij/D) * Σ∆Nm ing angular and linear errors are effective when only one
error exists within the traverse.
δEe = (lij/D) * Σ∆Em

Traverse Precision

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Xw = (X1w1+X2w2+X3w3+Xnwn)/(w1+w2+w3+wn )

Xw = weighted mean

X1, X2, Xn = independent observations

w1, w2, wn = observational weights

If the position of a hydrographic vessel was determined

by the two techniques Differential Global Positioning
System (DGPS) and range azimuth techniques, the con-
cept of the weighted mean can be utilized to determine
the most probable position (Table 8-2). The precision of
the weighted mean equals the inverse of the sum of the
observational weights.

σ2 = 1/ (w1 + w2 + ... + wn )

8-5. Least Squares Adjustment

The method of least squares is the procedure of adjusting

a set of observations that constitute an over-determined
model (redundancy 0). A least squares adjustment
relates the mathematical (functional model) and stochastic
(stochastic model) processes that influence or affect the
observations. Stochastic refers to the statistical nature of
Figure 8-2. Error detection observations or measurements. The least squares princi-
ple relies on the condition that the sum of the squares of
the residuals approaches a minimum.
8-4. Weighted Mean
vtwv = φ
The weighted mean (Xw) of a set of observations allows
the surveyor to estimate the mean and variance of a v = observation residual
parameter from a set of independent observations. The
weight (w) of an observation is proportional to the inverse w = weight of observation
of the variance (σ2) of the observation.
φ = minimized criteria
Observational Weight
The residuals (v) are the corrections to the observations.
w ≈ 1/σ2 The final adjusted observations equal the observation plus
the post-adjustment residual.
Weighted Mean

Table 8-2
Weighted Mean
System N (meters) σN wN E (meters) σE wE
DGPS 2120373.545 1.5 0.444 3617852.015 .8 1.563
Range 2120380.243 1.8 0.309 3617860.323 2.4 0.174
azimuth
Weighted N σN E σE
mean
2120376.294 1.2 3617852.847 0.7

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l^ = l + v DME the user should correct the distance for meteorologi-

cal effects (temperature, pressure, relative humidity).
l^ = adjusted observation
d. Random errors. Random errors are an unavoid-
l = observation able characteristic of the measurement process. The
theories of probability are used to quantify random errors.
v = residual The theory of least squares is developed under the
assumption that only random errors exist within the data.
a. Functional model. The functional model relates If all systematic errors and blunders have been removed,
physical or geometrical conditions to a set of observa- the observations will differ only as the result of the ran-
tions. For example, if a surveyor measures the interior dom errors.
angles of a five-sided figure, the sum of these angles
should add up to five hundred and forty degrees (540o). 8-7. Variances, Standard Deviations, and Weights
If the correct model is not determined, the adjusted obser-
vations will be in error. The least squares principle incorporates the functional and
stochastic models. It is essential that the correct a priori
b. Stochastic model. The stochastic model is the observational weights or variances are computed before
greatest advantage of the least squares procedure. In least the adjustment process.
squares adjustment, the surveyor can assign weights,
variances, and covariance information to individual obser- a. Variance and standard deviation. The measure of
vations. The traverse balancing techniques and weighted variability of a set of observations is the sample (s2) or
means do not allow for this variability. Since observa- population variance (σ2). The greater the variance, the
tions are affected by various errors, it is essential that the greater the variability of the observations. If a sample of
proper statistical information is applied. observations has a variance of zero (s2 = 0), the values of
all observations are equal. Since the population mean (µ)
8-6. Observations, Blunders, and Systematic and is seldom known, the sample variance (s2) is computed
Random Errors utilizing the sample mean (x).

a. Observations. Observations in least squares are Sample Variance

the measurements that are to be adjusted. An adjustment
is not warranted if the model is not over-determined s2 = [Σ (xi - x)2 ]/ (n - 1)
(redundancy = 0). Observations vary due to blunders and
random and systematic errors. When all blunders and Population Variance
systematic errors are removed from the observations, the
adjustment provides the user an estimate of the “true” σ2 = [Σ (xi - µ)2 ]/N
observation.
where
b. Blunders. Blunders are the result of mistakes by
the user or inadvertent equipment failure. For example, s2 = sample variance
an observer may misread a level rod by a tenth of a foot
or a malfunctioning data recorder may cause erroneous σ2 = population variance
data storage. All blunders must be removed before the xi = observations ( where i = 0 through n )
least squares adjustment procedure. Blunders can be
identified by scrutinizing the data before they are input in x = sample mean
the adjustment software. Preliminary procedures like loop
closures, traverse balancing, and weighted means are µ = population mean
techniques that can identify blunders before adjustment.
n = number of observations
c. Systematic errors. Systematic errors are the N = number of elements within the population
result of physical or mathematical principles. These
errors must be removed before the adjustment procedure. x equals: x = (Σ xi)/n
Systematic errors are reduced or eliminated through care-
ful measurement procedures. For example, when using µ equals: µ = (Σ xi)/N

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The sample (s) and population (σ) standard deviation are Empirical Weights
the square root of the sample or population variances.
Table 8-3 shows a list of four horizontal angles using a σ = 5 mm + 2 ppm * distance
ten-second (10") theodolite, sample mean (x), sample
mm = millimeters
variance (s2), standard deviation (s), and observational
weight (w). If the user did not calculate the variance, the ppm = parts per million
fact that the theodolite was a ten-second (10") instrument
could be used as a standard deviation of the observations. If a distance of a thousand meters (1000 m) was mea-
However, it is advised that the surveyor calculate the sured between two locations, the observational weight
variability (s2) of a set of observations. Computing the would equal:
sample variance provides a more accurate representation
of the statistical nature of the observations. ppm = millimeters (mm)/kilometers (km)
1 km = 1,000 m
b. Weights. The weight of an observation may be
determined by empirical formulas, intuition, or observa- σ = 5 mm + (2 mm/km) * (1 km)
tional analysis. The concept of weight is dependent on
σ = 7 mm
the a priori knowledge of the observational variance (σ2
or s2). The greater the observational weight, the greater w = 1/σ2
the confidence in that observation. The least squares
w = 0.02
adjustment technique can accommodate absolute or rela-
tive weighting. Absolute weights are known if the obser- (2) Relative weighting. Relative weighting is the
vational variances have been measured or determined result of intuition. In relative weighting, the user assigns
empirically. Relative weights are derived by intuition. weights based on past procedures, human factors, or phys-
ical phenomena. In level loop adjustments, relative
(1) Absolute weights. Absolute weights are com- weights (w) are considered inversely proportional to the
puted empirically or through observational analysis leveled distance between stations. If the difference in
(Table 8-3). Empirical weights are the result of experi- elevation (deAB = 0.512 m) was measured between sta-
mentation or mathematical derivations. For example, tions A and B and the distance between the two stations
DME or GPS manufacturers provide the user an equip- was scaled from a map to be five hundred meters
ment accuracy based on distance. These empirically (500 m), the distance between the two stations could be
derived values can be utilized to determine the variance or used to compute the weight for the difference in elevation
weight of an observation or set of observations. between stations A and B.

Table 8-3
Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation, and Weight

Observations Deg Min Sec

1 142 20 20
2 142 20 30
3 142 20 10
4 142 20 10
Mean (x) 142 20 17.5
2
Variance(s ) 000 01 31.6
Standard 000 01 09.8
Deviation(s)
Observation Weight (w) w = 1/s2 0.01

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Relative Weights measured and true value. This bias may be the result of
systematic errors that were not removed prior to
wAB ≈ 1/dAB adjustment.

wAB = observational weight e=m-t

dAB = distance between leveling stations RMS = (Σe2/n)0.5

wAB ≈ 1/(500 m) where

wAB ≈ 0.002 Σe2 = summation of the observational errors

8-8. Accuracy and Precision m = measured value

The terms accuracy and precision are many times consid- t = true value
ered synonymous. However, they are unique, and the
surveyor should use great care in how they are used to n = number of observations
define a set of observations or coordinate values.
RMS = root mean square error
a. Accuracy. The accuracy of an observation is its
degree of “closeness” to the true value (Figure 8-3). The b. Precision. The precision of an observation is its
RMS error statistic is often used to describe the accuracy degree of closeness to the mean value (Figure 8-3). The
of a set of observations. The RMS is centered about the variance or standard deviation is used to determine the
true value and the standard deviation (σ) is centered about precision of a set of observations.
the mean value (x). The difference between the RMS and
the standard deviation is the result of a bias between the

Figure 8-3. Precision and accuracy

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8-9. Least Squares Adjustment Techniques

The user can employ various techniques in the adjustment

of data using the least squares principle. The technique
employed is dependent on the adjustment model, com-
putational capability (computer resources), and the
requirement of the survey. The reader should consult an
introductory adjustment text to gain further understanding
of the principles of adjustment theory. To fully under-
stand the procedure of adjustment, a thorough understand-
ing of matrix algebra and differential and integral calculus
is required.

a. Adjustment model. The adjustment model con-

sists of determining the number of observations to be
adjusted (n), the minimum number of observations
required to uniquely determine the functional model (no),
and the redundancy (r). The model is determined by
mathematical or physical relationships. For example, if
the distances between three stations A, B, and C are to be
determined (Figure 8-4a), the minimum number (no) of
observations (distances) to fix the model are two. If the
distance A to B (Figure 8-4b) was measured nine times
and the distance B to C was not measured, the model
could not be determined if the objective was to adjust the Figure 8-4. Adjustment model
distance between A and C. Therefore, it is not only
important to have redundant observations, but it is critical
to have the correct number of observations to fix the
model (no).

b. Observations only (Av = f). This method is sel-

dom utilized because generalized software packages are
difficult to develop. The method involves creating a
condition or set of conditions that satisfies the functional
model. Figure 8-5 shows a level loop involving three
stations. Table 8-4 includes the differences in elevations
and distances between stations A, B, and C. To perform
a least squares adjustment for this level network, the
adjustment model must be determined (n,no,r). The num-
ber of observations are the difference in elevations
between the points (deab,debc,deca). If one station has a
known elevation, two observations or difference in eleva-
tions are required to fix the adjustment model (no). If two
stations have known elevations, one observation or differ-
ence in elevations is required to fix the adjustment model
(no). In general, the minimum number of observations
required to uniquely determine a level loop equals the
number of stations in the loop minus the number of
known stations. The redundancy for the model equals the
number of observations minus the minimum number of
observations to fix the model (r = n - no). The observa- Figure 8-5. Level loop
tions-only technique involves the use of condition

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Table 8-4
Level Loop

Known Elevation A = 232.150 m

Adjusted Elevation B = ?
Adjusted Elevation C = ?

Difference in Elevation (DE) Distance

From To (meters) (meters)

A B -10.234 500
B C 2.324 1200
C A 7.821 1000

equations. In this example the elevation of one station  

(A) is considered known, the redundancy (r) equals one,  1 0.0 0.0 
 500 
and the condition equation equals the summation of the  
elevation differences from A, B, and C (deab + debc + deca  0.0 1 
W  0.0 
= 0). In the observations-only technique, the number of  1200 
condition equation equals the redundancy of the model.  1 
 0.0 0.0 
 1000 
Condition Equation

C = deab + debc + deca = 0  500 0 0 

Q  0 1200 0 
 
Step 1. Determine the number of observation (n), the  0 0 1000
minimum number of observations (no), and the redun-
dancy (r = n - no) that satisfies the functional model. Step 2. Formulate the design matrix A and the
misclosure vector f. The design matrix and misclosure
Adjustment Model vector have dimensions c x n (1 x 3) and c x 1 (1 x 1).

n =3 where

no = 2 c = number of condition equations

r =1 n = number of observations

Compute the cofactor matrix (Q) which is the inverse of If the condition equations are linear, the elements of the
the weight matrix. In the level loop example the weight design matrix (A) equal the coefficients of each observa-
matrix is derived using the distance between leveling tion in the condition equation. If the condition equations
stations. The weight of each of observation is inversely are nonlinear, they must be linearized using a Taylor
proportional to the leveled distance. The dimensions of series expansion. The condition equations for the level
the cofactor and weight matrix are n x n (3 x 3). loop example are linear. The misclosure vector (f) equals
the negative of the condition equations.
where
C = deab + debc + deca = 0
n = number of observations
A = [ 1 1 1]
-1
Q=W
f = [-deab - debc - deca]
Q = cofactor matrix f = [ 10.234 - 2.324 - 7.821]

W = weight matrix f = [ 0.089]

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Step 3. The observational residuals are computed by parameters in terms of one observation. This method is
the following matrix multiplications. commonly employed by commercial software packages.
Figure 8-6 represents a survey where three ranges (dis-
k = (AQAt)-1f tances) were measured from known survey control sta-
tions (A, B, and C) to a hydrographic vessel (D). The
k = [3.2963E-5] unknown position of the vessel was computed using the
method of indirect observations. A minimum of two
v = QAtk ranges (distances) (no = 2) are required to determine the
unknown location of the vessel. The total number of
v = [ 0.016 0.040 0.033]t observations is three (n = 3) and the redundancy of the
system equals one (r = 1). The following steps outline
Step 4. The adjusted observations (l^) are computed the method of adjustment using indirect observations.
by adding the post-adjustment residuals (v) to the meas- Table 8-5 contains the observations, standard deviations,
ured observations. and coordinate information for the problem illustrated in
Figure 8-6.
de^ = de + v

 10.234 0.016
de^  2.324  0.040
   
 7.821  0.033

 10.218
de^  2.364 
 
 7.854 

The adjusted observations (de^) are utilized to determine if

the condition was satisfied. Computational errors or an
incorrect functional model can cause the adjusted observa-
tions not to satisfy the condition equations.

C = deab + debc + deca = 0

C = -10.218 + 2.364 + 7.854 = 0

Step 5. The estimated elevations of stations B and C

are computed using the known elevation of station A and
the adjusted differences in elevation (de^).

Elevation Estimates

B = A + deab Figure 8-6. Intersection problem

B = 232.150 m + (-10.218 m)
Step 1. Determine the number of observations (n),
B = 221.932 m the minimum number of observations (no), and the redun-
dancy (r = n - no) that satisfies the functional model.
C = A + deac
Adjustment Model
C = 232.150 m + (-7.854 m)
C = 224.296 m n =3

c. Indirect observations (v + B∆ = f). The indirect no =2

method includes observations and user-defined parame-
ters. Observation equations are developed using r =1

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Table 8-5
Intersection Example

Range (R) to Station D Range Standard Deviation

Station N (meters) E (meters) (meters) (σR) (meters)

A 2111613.416 3616819.580 8562.825 .500

B 2117118.247 3610160.570 8238.020 .600

C 2120373.830 3617852.048 258.714 0.5

The weight matrix is (w) computed by using the stochas- Design Matrix
tic properties of the measured ranges (σR). The weight is
considered to be inversely proportional to the variance.  δF1 δF1 
  δF NA Nd
 δND δED  δND
    (ND NA)2 (ED EA)2
 1
0 0   δF2 δF2 
 (σ2)  B  
 ad   δND δEd 
δF EA ED
 1  4.0 0 0   δF δF3 
W  0 0  W 0 3.0 0   3 δED
 (σ2)ad     δN δED  (ND NA)2 (ED EA)2
  0 0 4.0   D
 0 0
1 
 (σ2)ad 
  The numerical elements of the design matrix (B) are com-
puted by evaluating the partial derivatives (δFn/δND,
Step 2. In the method of indirect observations (v + δFn/δED) of the observation equations at the initial approx-
B∆ = f) the number of condition or observation equations imations (NoD, EoD) of the unknown parameters. The
is equal to the total number of observations (n = 3). The misclosure vector equals the negative of the observation
observation equations (Fn) are developed such that they equations. The misclosure vector (f) has dimensions
satisfy the functional model. The distance equation satis- n x 1 (3 x 1).
fies the functional model for the example in Figure 8-6.
Misclosure Vector
Observation Equations
F1 = [ (ND - NA)2 + (ED - EA)2 ]0.5 - RAD
2 2 0.5
F1 = RAD - [ (ND - NA) + (ED - EA) ] =0
f= F2 = [ (ND - NB)2 + (ED - EB)2 ]0.5 - RBD
2 2 0.5
F2 = RBD - [ (ND - NB) + (ED - EB) ] =0
F3 = [ (ND - NC)2 + (ED - EC)2 ]0.5 - RCD
2 2 0.5
F3 = RCD - [ (ND - NC) + (ED - EC) ] =0
 .9930 .1184
Each observation equation (F1,F2,F3) must be linearized B:  .3638 .9315
 
with respect to the unknown parameters (ND, ED) using a  .9973 .0734 
Taylor series expansion. The design matrix (B) is com-
prised of the linearized observation equations. The design  .1.053
f:  1.109 
matrix has dimensions n x no (3 x 2). The nonlinearity of  
the problem requires that initial approximations are com-  0.184 
puted for the unknown parameters. The initial approxi-
mations (NoD, EoD) for the hydrographic vessel were com- Step 3. The estimates of the unknown parameters
puted from stations A and B using the technique of range- (∆) and the residuals are computed by the following
range intersection. matrix manipulations. Since the problem is non-linear the
algorithm must be repeated (iterated) until the solution
NoD = 2,120,115 meters converges. This example required two iterations to con-
verge. The number of iterations is a function of data
EoD = 3,617,833 meters quality, initial approximations, and the functional model.
The condition that the sum of the squares of the residuals

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(vtwv) equals a minimum (φ) is utilized as a convergence ND = N1 + ∆(1,1) = 2,120,115.323 + 0.001 =

criterion. The parameter vector (∆) has dimensions no 2,120,115.324 m
x 1 (2 x 1). In nonlinear problems the parameter vector
must be added to the initial approximations to obtain the ED = E1 + ∆(2,1) = 3,617,834.107 + 0.004 +
adjusted estimates. 3,617,834.111 m

Iteration 1 d. General least squares (Av + B∆ = f). This is the

general case for the observations-only and indirect
∆ = (BtWB)-1 * BtWf method. In some problems, equations that satisfy the
functional model using the observations-only or indirect
observations method may be difficult to develop. In the
0.323 general case the condition equations can contain both
∆:   parameters and multiple observations. The algorithm for
1.107
this technique can be obtained by consulting an introduc-
tory adjustment textbook.
N1D = NoD + ∆(1,1) = 2,120,115 m + 0.323 m =
2,120,115.323 m 8-10. Error Analysis

E1D = EoD + ∆(2,1) = 3,617,833 m + 1.107 m = After the adjustment procedure, the data are examined for
3,617,834.107 m observational blunders. Blunders and systematic errors
should be identified and removed before the adjustment.
v = f - B∆ However, erroneous observations are not always recog-
nized before the initial adjustment procedure. To ensure
 0.601 that the final estimates are “free” of blunders, a blunder
v:  0.040 detection scheme should be implemented. The common
  blunder detection techniques are the global variance test,
 5.87 
data snooping method, tau test, and robust estimation.
φ1 = vtWv = 2.83 Commercial software packages commonly employ the
global and tau tests for the determination of blunders.
Iteration 2 a. Statistical inference. Statistical inference
involves the statement of a hypothesis. Statistical infer-
 .9930 .1185  ence is most commonly utilized to identify observational
B:  .3638 .9315  blunders within the adjustment. The adjusted data are
 
 .9976 .0694 tested or compared to determine if the hypothesis is
satisfied.
 0.601
f:  0.04 
  Hypothesis
 0.584
Ho: Adjustment estimates are “free” of blunders
0.001
∆:   Ha Blunders
0.004
Four outcomes are possible from hypothesis testing:
φ2 = 2.81
(1) Select the null hypothesis (Ho), when the null
If | φ1 - φ2|/φ1 0.01 terminate adjustment hypothesis is true (correct decision).

(2.83 - 2.81)/2.83 = 0.007 (2) Select the alternative hypothesis (Ha), when the
alternative hypothesis is true (correct decision).
0.007 0.01
(3) Select the alternative hypothesis (Ha), when in
Final Adjusted Coordinates of Station D fact the null hypothesis (Ho) is true (type I error).

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(4) Select the null hypothesis (Ho), when in fact the Xr2 = vtwv/σo2 = rσ2/σo2
alternative hypothesis (Ha) is true (type II error).
X2α,r, X2α/2,r, X2 1-α/2,r are critical values that are calculated
The significance value (α) is dependent on the probability from the chi square distribution based on a significance
of committing a type I error. The probability of commit- level alpha (α) and redundancy (r).
ting a type II error (1- β) is the result of accepting the
null hypothesis when in fact the alternative hypothesis is The failure of the global test suggests the possibility of a
true. The user must determine which error (type I or blunder; however, it does not identify the location of the
type II) will be the most costly. A significance level that blunder. Failure of the global test may also be the result
is very large (α= 0.1) would decrease the confidence level of incorrect weighting or an incorrect adjustment model.
(1-α). The smaller confidence level could result in the The global test should be used in conjunction with the
possible rejection of “good” observations. Therefore, if a data snooping method or robust estimation. If an empiri-
system had limited redundancy, a smaller significance cal method is used to determine the weights, the user
level may be warranted (α = 0.005). must determine if the computed values are realistic.
Otherwise, the global test may fail due to incorrect a
b. Global variance test. Some software packages priori weights. If the global test is rejected, the data
provide the user the opportunity to input a significance require inspection for blunders or incorrect weighting. If
level or probability value. The a posteriori reference the a posteriori reference variance passes the global test, it
variance is one of the results of adjustment. If the a does not guarantee the absence of blunders within the
priori reference variance is known, the a posteriori vari- adjustment. Therefore, the global test should only be
ance is tested to determine if it is consistent with the a used in conjunction with another analysis method.
priori variance. The global test is applicable only when
absolute weights were utilized in the adjustment. A two- c. Data snooping. The data snooping method
tailed or upper tail test is constructed to test the variances. requires the user to know the a priori reference variance.
The method is very effective when only one blunder is in
A Posteriori Reference Variance the network. The technique of data snooping sequentially
tests each standardized residual within the adjustment and
σ2 = (vtwv)/r determines if it exceeds a defined rejection threshold.
The standardized residual (v’) is defined as the observa-
vt = residual transposed tional residual divided by the residual’s standard devia-
tion. The rejection threshold is computed based on a
v = residual given significance level (αo) using the Fisher distribution.

r = redundancy Standardized Residual

v’ = v/σv
Two-Tailed Test
v’ = standardized residual
Ho : σ2 = σo2
σv = (σo) * (qvi)0.5
Ha : σ2 ≠ σo2
σo = a priori reference standard deviation
The two-tailed test fails if
qvi = the ith diagonal element of the residual
Xr2 X2α/2,r or Xr2 X2 1-α/2,r. cofactor matrix (Qvv)

Upper Tail Test Qvv = Q - B(BtWB)-1Bt

Ho : σ2 = σo2 Data Snooping Rejection Criteria

Ha : σ2 σo2 |v’| ( F(1-αo),1,oo)0.5

The upper tail test fails if Xr2 X2α,r If |v’| 3.29 @ αo = 0.001

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If the standardized residual exceeds the rejection qvi = residual of the ith cofactor element
threshold, it is considered an outlier. The suggested
significance value for the data snooping technique is αo = Tau Test Rejection Threshold
0.001. The rejection threshold corresponding to a signifi-
cance value of 0.001 is 3.29. Therefore, the absolute If v’ t
value of all standardized residuals (v’) that exceed 3.29
are identified as possible blunders. The data snooping Both the data snooping technique and tau test require the
technique is a univariate test that is very effective when computation of the residual cofactor matrix (Qvv). The
only one blunder is in the network. Therefore, only the determination of the residual cofactor matrix is computa-
standardized residual with the greatest value that exceeds tionally time consuming. To alleviate this time ineffi-
the rejection threshold is removed from the observations. ciency, the diagonal components can be computed. This
After removal of the possible blunder, the adjustment is is only viable when the observational weight matrix is
re-computed and the standardized residuals are tested for block diagonal. Another approach is the replacement of
additional blunders. The procedure is continued until all the standard deviation of the residual (σv) with the obser-
blunders have been removed from the network. vational standard deviation (σl). The residual standard
deviation is smaller than the observational standard
d. Tau test. The tau test is used when the a priori deviation.
reference variance is unknown. The tau test utilizes the
tau distribution to compute the critical values. The tau (t) |v|/σl |v|/σv
distribution can be derived from the t (student) distribu-
tion using the following formula: Therefore, an observation with a blunder may not be
flagged as a possible erroneous measurement because the
Tau Distribution standardized residual will be smaller. If the observational
standard deviation (σl) is substituted for the residual stan-
t = [(r)0.5 * tr-1]/[(r-1 + t2r-1)0.5] dard deviation (σv), it is recommended that the signifi-
cance value (α) be increased. Increasing the significance
r = redundancy value (α) will cause a decrease in the confidence level.

t = critical value from the t (student) distribution e. Robust estimation. The technique of robust esti-
based on a significance level (α) mation does not depend on the residual cofactor matrix
(Qvv) or the significance value (α). If the a priori refer-
The rejection threshold is computed given a significance ence variance is known, it is recommended that a global
value (α) and the adjustment redundancy (r). The variance test be performed for the first adjustment itera-
threshold is compared to the standardized residual. Since tion. The global test provides additional information on
the a priori reference variance is not known, the standard- the presence of blunders or inaccuracies in the adjustment
ized residual is computed using the a posteriori reference model or a priori weights. The robust estimation proce-
variance (σ2). If the standardized residual exceeds a dure changes the observational weights during each itera-
rejection threshold based on the tau distribution, the tion for those observations that exceed a predefined
observation is flagged as a blunder. The tau rejection threshold. The absolute value of the residuals divided by
thresholds are interpolated from tables or generated from the observational standard deviations (|v|/σl) are sequen-
computer subroutines. After removal of the blunder, the tially analyzed to determine if they exceed a rejection
adjustment is re-computed and the standardized residuals threshold. If the residual exceeds the rejection threshold,
are tested for additional blunders. The procedure is con- the observational weight is reduced using a decreasing
tinued until all blunders have been removed from the weight function. In essence, this technique removes
network. observations with large residuals from the adjustment. The
adjustment is continued until the solution converges.
Standardized Residual When the adjustment is completed all blunders should
have been removed. The following decreasing weight
v’ = v/σ (qvi)0.5 functions are commonly utilized in the technique of robust
estimation.
v’ = standardized residual

σ = a posteriori standard deviation

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Weighting Function 1 (2) Initial coordinate estimates. Some programs

require the user to input initial coordinate estimates. It is
All iterations: imperative that these values be realistic. If the initial
estimates are erroneous, the adjustment may not converge
wi+1 = wiexp-|vi/σi| if |v| 3 to the correct solution. Techniques like traverse balancing
and the weighted mean should be utilized to determine
wi+1 = wi if |v| 3 initial coordinates.

Weighting Function 2 (3) Data input. All data must be entered in the cor-
rect linear and angular units. Never input one variable
Iteration 1 (coordinates) in feet and another variable (distances) in
meters. Most software packages cannot accommodate
wi+1 = wi mismatched units.

Iteration 2 & 3 (4) Checking. Before the adjustment is computed,

all field, office, and computer generated input should be
wi+1 = wi(exp[(|vi/σi|)4.4])0.05 if |v| 3 checked by two individuals for blunders. Also, all known
systematic errors should be removed from the data (i.e.,
wi+1 = wi if |v| 3 meteorological data, collimation, and leveling corrections).

following iterations: b. Output. The majority of the manufacturers’ out-

put the a posteriori reference variance, standardized
wi+1 = (exp[-(|vi/σi|3])0.05 residuals, and error ellipse information. Many software
routines have blunder detection schemes that “flag” and
wi = the weight of the ith observation remove observations that are possible blunders. These
techniques of blunder detection are based on statistical
exp = exponential function tests like tau or data snooping. The drawback with these
methods is they are many times unreliable. Therefore, the
vi = observational residual user must develop a “horse sense” in the determination
and identification of blunders.
σi = observational standard deviation
(1) Global test. The global test is utilized to deter-
8-11. Interpretation and Analysis of Adjustment mine blunders. However, if absolute weights were not
Results used in the adjustment the results of the test are
meaningless.
The interpretation of adjustment results does not require
knowledge of adjustment theory or advanced mathematics. (2) Standardized residuals. The standardized residu-
The following section provides various “thumb rules” that als are an excellent indicator in determining blunders.
can be utilized to determine the quality and reliability of After all blunders have been identified and removed using
the adjusted data. Although many software routines pro- the manufacturers’ software the output should be exam-
vide error analysis or blunder detection options the user ined for additional blunders that were not located.
must carefully interpret the results of these techniques.
Data should not be rejected solely on the results provided (3) Error ellipse.
by these packages.
f. Error ellipse. The error ellipse provides a repre-
a. Input parameters. sentation of the precision of the adjusted parameters and
observations. The error ellipse consists of semimajor (a)
(1) Significance level (α). If the adjustment software and semiminor axes (b). The semimajor (a) and semi-
provides the flexibility of inputting a significance level minor (b) axes are precision estimates (σ) of the adjusted
(α) the user should choose a value of 0.05. This value parameters. The error ellipse can be utilized to determine
minimizes the probability of committing a type I and type the absolute or relative precision of parameters.
II error.

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8-12. Contract Monitoring b. Required submittal documents. The contracting

officer should require the contractor to supply the final
a. Recommendations. Contracts involving surveys adjustment for each project. The contractor should be
that are small in areal extent and require low accuracy required to supply a list containing any observations that
survey control (1:5,000) may not warrant a least squares were removed due to blunders. The contractor must
adjustment. In general, Fourth-Order surveys (1:5,000) do provide the Corps with a detailed analysis explaining the
not warrant adjustment. A compass rule adjustment or methodology performed in the adjustment, assumptions,
observational mean will suffice. All control surveys that and possible error sources.
are to be incorporated into the NGRS shall be performed
and adjusted using the guidelines established by the NGS.

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Chapter 9 as the subsoil adapts to new loads, concrete aging, or

Structural Deformation Monitoring foundation rock fatigue. Such deformation is not con-
sidered unsafe if it does not go beyond a predetermined
Surveys
critical value. Therefore, PICES observations are typi-
cally configured to observing relatively long-term move-
ment trends, including abnormal settlements, heaving, or
9-1. General lateral movements. Conventional geodetic survey meth-
ods from external points and of centimeter-level accuracy
The Corps of Engineers has constructed hundreds of are sufficient to monitor these long-term trends. Highly
dams, locks, levees, and other flood control structures accurate, short-term deflections or relative movements
which require periodic surveys to monitor long-term between monoliths due to varying temperature or hydrau-
movements and settlements or short-term deflections and lic loading are more rarely required. These may include
deformations. In USACE, these types of surveys are crack measurements or relative movements between mon-
generally referred to as “PICES Surveys” -- an acronym oliths over different hydraulic loadings. Relative move-
which derives from the directive Engineer Regulation ment deflections to the 0.01-inch accuracy level are
ER 1110-2-100, Periodic Inspection and Continuing Eval- common.
uation of Completed Civil Works Structures. This chapter
provides background guidance on the general require- c. Earthen embankment structures. Earthen or
ments for these surveys and describes some of the instru- embankment dams and levees obviously will deform
mentation and techniques available with which to perform altogether differently than concrete ones. With earthen
deformation surveys. Subsequent chapters provide spe- dams, the deformation is largely characterized as more
cific accuracy standards, specifications, frequencies, and permanent. The self weight of the embankment and the
procedural methods for performing various types of hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir water largely force
surveys. the fill material (and, in turn, the foundation if it too con-
sists of soil) to settle, resulting in a vertical deflection of
a. Structural deformation. Dams, locks, levees, the structure. The reservoir water pressure also causes
embankments, and other flood control structures are sub- permanent horizontal deformation perpendicular to the
ject to external loads that cause deformation and perme- embankment centerline. With earthen dams, elastic
ation of the structure itself, as well as its foundations. behavior is slight. PICES survey accuracy requirements
Any indication of abnormal behavior may threaten the are less rigid for earthen embankments, and traditional
safety of the structure. Careful monitoring of the loads construction survey methods will usually provide suffi-
on a structure and its response to them can aid in deter- cient accuracy. Typical PICES surveys include periodic
mining abnormal behavior of that structure. In general, measurement of embankment crest elevations and slopes
monitoring consists of both measurements and visual to monitor settlements and slope stability. For embank-
inspections, as outlined in ER 1110-2-100. To help to ment structures, survey accuracies of 0.1 foot are usually
ensure the safe monitoring of a dam, it should be perma- sufficient for monitoring long-term settlements and
nently equipped with proper instrumentation according to movements.
the goals of the observation, structure type and size, and
site conditions. Guidance on the instrumentation required d. Long-term deformation monitoring. Depending
to measure internal loads on a structure can be found in on the type and condition of structure, PICES monitoring
USACE technical manuals dealing with concrete struc- systems may need to be capable of measuring both long-
tures, earth and rock fill dams, and similar structures. term movement trends or short-term loading deformations.
Long-term measurements are far more common and
b. Concrete structures. It should be intuitive that somewhat more complex given their external nature.
deformations and periodic PICES observations will vary Long-term monitoring of a structure’s movement typically
according to the type of structure. Differences in con- requires observations to monitoring points on the structure
struction materials is one of the larger influences on how from external reference points. These external reference
a structure deforms. For example, concrete dams deform points are established on stable ground well removed from
differently than earthen or embankment dams. For con- the structure or its construction influence. These external
crete dams and other concrete flood control devices, reference points are inter-connected and are termed the
deformation is mainly elastic and highly dependent on “Reference Network.” The reference network must also
reservoir water pressure and temperature variations. Per- be monitored at less-frequent intervals to ensure these
manent deformation of the structure can sometimes occur

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reference points have not themselves moved. Traditional small gravity dams), the same result can be achieved by
geodetic survey instruments and techniques may be an orthogonal network of survey targets on the down-
employed to establish and monitor the reference network stream face. These targets are sighted by angle measure-
points, as described in Chapter 10. Procedures for ments, typically combined with optical distance
observing periodic PICES observations from the reference measurements, from reference points outside the dam.
points to the structure targets are covered in Chapter 12.
e. A more routine, less costly, and more frequent
9-2. Deformation Monitoring Survey Techniques monitoring process can be employed to monitor the short-
term behavior of dams by simply confining observation to
a. The general procedures to monitor the deforma- trends at selected points along the crest and sometimes
tion of a structure and its foundation involve measuring vertical lines. Such procedures involve angle measure-
the spatial displacement of selected object points (i.e., ment or alignment (supplementing the measuring installa-
target points) from reference points, themselves controlled tion) along the crest to determine horizontal displacement,
in position. When the reference points are located in the and leveling to determine vertical displacement. Even
structure themselves, only relative deformation can be with this monitoring process, it is essential to extend
determined. Micrometer joint measurements are relative leveling to some distance beyond the abutments. Alterna-
observations. Absolute deformation or displacement can tive methods to that described include settlement gauges,
be determined if the reference points are located outside hose leveling devices, or extensometers.
the actual structure, in the foundation or surrounding ter-
rain, and beyond the area that may be affected by the dam 9-3. Accuracy Requirements for PICES Surveys
or reservoir. Subsequent periodic observations are then
made relative to these absolute reference points. Assess- Table 9-1 provides general guidance on the accuracy
ment of permanent deformations requires absolute data. requirements for performing PICES surveys. These repre-
sent either absolute or relative movement accuracies on
b. In general, for concrete dams it is ideal to place structure target points that should be attained from survey
the reference points in a rock foundation at a depth observations made from external reference points. The
unaffected by the reservoir. Once permanently monu- accuracy by which the external reference network is
mented, these reference points can be easily accessed to established and periodically monitored for stability should
perform deformation surveys with simple measurement exceed these accuracies. Many modern survey systems
devices. Fixed reference points located within the vicinity (e.g., DGPS, electronic total stations, bar-code levels, etc.)
of the dam but outside the range of its impact are essen- are easily capable of meeting or exceeding the accuracies
tial to determination of the deformation behavior of the shown below. However, PICES accuracy criteria must be
structure. Thus, monitoring networks in the dam plane defined relative to the particular structure’s requirements,
should be supplemented by and connected to triangulation not the capabilities of a survey instrument or system.
networks and vertical control whenever possible.
a. For example, a good electronic total station sys-
c. The monitoring of dam or foundation deformation tem can measure movement in an embankment to the
must be done in a manner such that the displacement is 0.005-foot level. Thus, a long-term creep of, say
measured both horizontally and vertically (i.e., measure- 3.085 feet, can be accurately measured. However, the
ment along horizontal and vertical lines). Such measure- only significant aspect of the 3.085-foot measurement is
ments must include the foundation and extend as far as the fact that the embankment has sloughed “3.1 feet” --
possible into it. Redundancy is essential in this form of the 0.001-foot resolution (precision) is not significant and
deformation monitoring and is achieved through measur- should not be observed even if available with the
ing at the points intersecting the orthogonal lines of the equipment.
deformation network.
b. Relative crack or monolith joint micrometer meas-
d. If a dam includes inspection galleries and shafts, urements can be observed and recorded to 0.001-inch
deformation values along vertical lines can be obtained by precisions. This precision is not necessarily representative
using both hanging and/or inverted plumb lines and along of an absolute accuracy, given the overall error budget in
horizontal lines by traverses; both are standard practice the micrometer measurement system, measurement plugs,
for deformation monitoring. Where there are no galleries etc. Hydraulic load and temperature influences can radi-
or shafts (e.g., embankment dams, thin arch dams, or cally change these short-term micrometer measurements at

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Type B: POTENTIAL FAILURE SUSPECTED.

Table 9-1
Typical Accuracy Requirements for PICES Surveys Monitor structure continuously. After potential
solution to save structure is applied, continue with
Concrete Structures continuous monitoring until it is determined that
Dams, Outlet Works, Locks, Intake Structures: structure is stabilized.
Long-term movement 10 mm
(Geodetic survey methods)
Type C: DAMS OR RESERVOIRS UNDER-
GOING INITIAL IMPOUNDMENT.
Relative short-term deflections Gather ground truth data before impoundment
Crack/joint movements
procedures start. Monitor continuously until fail-
Monolith alignment 0.01 in. (0.2 mm)
(Precision micrometer alignments) ure is suspected or until impoundment procedures
have halted. Continue monitoring continuously
Vertical stability/settlement until it is determined that structure has stabilized
(Precise geodetic leveling) 2 mm
and will maintain as planned under load.
Embankment Structures
Earth-Rockfill Dams, Levees: Class II: MEDIUM RISK STRUCTURES NOT IN
DISTRESS.
Slope/crest stability 0.1 foot Such structures are of a category of risk such that
(Total station/DGPS)
monitoring every other year is prudent. Structures
Crest alignment 0.1 foot of this category are stable, but whose failure
(Total station/DGPS) would:
Settlement measurements 0.05 foot
(Differential leveling) - affect a population area;

Control Structures - result in a high dollar loss of downstream

Spillways, Stilling Basins, Approach/Outlet Channels, Reservoirs
property;
Scour/erosion/silting
(Hydrographic surveys) 0.2 to 0.5 foot - cause a devastating interruption of the services
provided by the structure.

the 0.01- to 0.02-inch level, or more. Attempts to observe Type A: LARGE STRUCTURES.
and record micrometer measurements to a 0.001-inch pre- i. Reservoirs.
cision with a ±0.01-inch temperature fluctuation is wasted ii. Dams with power plants.
effort.
Type B: SMALLER STRUCTURES.
9-4. PICES Classification for Determining Moni- i. Reservoirs and dams.
toring Frequency ii. Dams without power plants.
iii. Locks.
The following presents general guidance in determining
the frequency which periodic monitoring surveys must be Class III: LOWER RISK STRUCTURES NOT IN
performed, giving variable structure type, risk, and age. DISTRESS.
Such structures are of a category of risk such that
Class I: HIGH RISK STRUCTURES IN DISTRESS. monitoring every other year is prudent. Structures
The high risk of Class I structures warrants continuous of this category are stable, but whose failure
monitoring of the structure. would:

Type A: POTENTIAL FAILURE IMMINENT. - not affect a population area;

Gather data as can/if can/if prudent. Data are
very valuable for later analysis of why the struc- - not result in a high dollar loss of downstream
ture failed. Use any method available to gather property;
information and data without risk of life or inter-
ference in processes ongoing to save the structure - not cause a devastating interruption of the
and/or alert the population at risk. services provided by the structure.

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Type A: LARGE STRUCTURES. of an embankment may be relatively slow, with erosion

i. Reservoirs. progressing laterally and downward and then accelerating
ii. Dams with power plants. as the floodwaters rip through the breach.

Type B: SMALLER STRUCTURES. d. The records of dams indicate that earthfills have
i. Reservoirs and dams. been involved in the largest number of failures, followed
ii. Dams without power plants. by gravity dams, rockfills, and multiple and single arches.
iii. Locks. Considering the percentages, however, the arch dams
show a higher failure rate. Studies show that there are
Table 9-2 summarizes the PICES structure classification two predominant causes of damage which are:
for determining monitoring frequency.
• Construction defects.
9-5. Dam Safety
• Interstitial water that is inadequately controlled.
a. Minimizing the risk of dam failure is a primary
function of USACE employees involved with PICES
work. Existing USACE dams and reservoirs must be 9-6. Foundation Problems in Dams
periodically inspected so that their structural soundness
can be evaluated and reevaluated. a. Foundation problems may lead to breaching of the
dam. Differential settlement, sliding, high piezometric
b. In the course of time, dam structures may take on pressures, and uncontrolled seepage are common evi-
anisotropic characteristics. Internal pressures and paths of dences of foundation distress. Cracks in the dam, even
seepage may develop. Usually the changes are slow and minor ones, can indicate a foundation problem. Potential
not readily discerned by visual examination. Continuous erosion of the foundation must be considered. Clay or silt
monitoring of a dam’s performance will usually ensure in weathered joints can preclude grouting and eventually
detection of any flaws which may lead to failure. This swell the crack enlarging it and causing further stress.
must be done by personnel who know the signs of dis- Foundation seepage can cause internal erosion or solution.
tress. The best knowledge of the forces which cause fail- Erosion can leave collapsible voids. Actual deterioration
ure are gained by studying the postmortems of the failed may be evidenced by increased seepage, by sediment in
structures themselves. seepage water, or an increase in soluble materials dis-
closed by chemical analyses. Materials vulnerable to such
c. Analysis of the performances for the various erosion include such materials as dispersive clays, water
types of dams will show their relative suitability for con- reactive shales, gypsum, and limestone.
ditions which may be encountered at a given site. Each
type can be related generally to a certain mode of failure. b. Pumping from underground can cause foundation
A gravity dam may collapse only in the section which is settlement as the supporting water pressure is removed or
overstressed. A buttress dam may fall in domino fashion the gradient changed. Loading and wetting will also
through the successive collapse of its buttresses. The cause the pressure gradient to change, and may also cause
rupture of an arch may be sudden and complete. Failure settlement or shifting. The consequent cracking of the

Table 9-2
PICES Structure Classification

Structures in Distress Structures Not In Distress

Class I: High Risk Class II: Medium Risk Class III: Lower Risk

Continuous Monitoring Monitor Yearly or Every Other Year Monitor Every Other Year

Type A Potential Failure Imminent Type A Large structures Type A Large structures

Type B Potential Failure Suspected

Type C Dams or Reservoirs Type B Smaller structures Type B Smaller structures

Undergoing Initial
Impoundment

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dam can create a dangerous condition, especially in zone, cracking at zonal interfaces, soluble foundation
earthfills of low cohesive strength. rock, deteriorating impervious structural membranes,
inadequate foundation cutoffs, desiccation of clay fill,
c. Foundations with low shear strength or with steep slopes vulnerable to sliding, blocky foundation rock
seams of weak materials such as clay or bentonite may be susceptible to differential settlement, ineffective contact at
vulnerable to sliding. Shear zones can also cause prob- adjoining structures and at abutments, pervious embank-
lems at dam sites. The bedding plane zones in sedimen- ment strata, vulnerability to conditions during an
tary rocks and foliation zones in metamorphics are two earthquake.
common problems.
c. An embankment may be most vulnerable at its
9-7. Seepage interface with rock abutments. Several dam failures have
occurred during initial impoundment. Settlement in rock-
a. Water movement through a dam or through its fill dams can be significantly reduced if the rockfill is
foundation is one of the important indicators of the con- mechanically compacted. In some ways, a compacted
dition of the structure and may be a serious source of earth core is superior to a concrete slab as the impervious
trouble. Seeping water can chemically attack the com- element of a rockfill dam. If the core has sufficient plas-
ponents of the dam foundation. Constant attention must ticity, it can be flexible enough to sustain pressures with-
be focused on any changes such as in the rate of seepage, out significant damage.
settlement, or in the character of the escaping water.
Adequate measurements must be taken of the piezometric 9-10. Liquefaction
surface within the foundation and the embankment, as
well as any horizontal or vertical distortion of the abut- Liquefaction can occur during earthquakes. Hydraulic fill
ments and the fill. Generally, differential settlements dams are particularly susceptible to this type of damage.
caused by the dissolving of solid material develop slowly Liquefaction is a potential problem for any embankment
enough to provide advance warning of the need for any which has continuous layers of soil with uniform grada-
remedies. tion and of fine grain size. The Fort Peck Dam experi-
enced a massive slide on the upstream side in 1938,
b. Any leakage at an earth embankment may be which brought the hydraulic fill dam under suspicion.
potentially dangerous, since rapid erosion may quickly The investigation at the time focused blame on an incom-
enlarge an initially minor defect. petent foundation, but few hydraulic fills were built after
the 1930’s. Heavy compaction equipment became avail-
9-8. Erosion able in the 1940’s, and the rolled embankment dam
became the competitive alternative.
Embankments may be susceptible to erosion unless pro-
tected from wave action on the upstream face and surface 9-11. Concrete Deterioration
runoff on the downstream face. Riprap armor stone on
the upstream slope of an earthfill structure can protect Chemical and physical factors can age concrete. Visible
against wave erosion, but can become dislodged due to clues to the deterioration include: expansion, cracking of
wave action. This deficiency can usually be detected and random pattern, gelatinous discharge, and chalky surfaces.
corrected before serious damage occurs.
9-12. PICES Measurements on Other USACE
9-9. Embankment Movement Navigation and Flood Control Structures

a. In an older embankment dam, the condition of a. Concrete navigation lock monoliths and miter lock
materials may vary considerably. There may be small or gates. The Corps operates approximately 270 navigation
extensive areas of low strength. Location of these weak- lock chambers constructed of plain or reinforced concrete.
nesses must be a key objective of the evaluation of such PICES surveys may be required over many of these struc-
dams. Soluble materials are sometimes used in construc- tures to monitor potential problem areas. The frequency
tion, and instability in the embankment will develop as of these periodic surveys will be highly variable. Like-
these materials are dissolved over time. wise, not all structural components of a lock complex
(e.g., wall/monoliths, wing walls, gates, dam) may need to
b. Adverse conditions which deserve attention be monitored. These measurements are related to a list of
include: poorly sealed foundations, cracking in the core 10 functional distresses. Observations for distresses in

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miter lock gates may include one or more of the checking the measurements must be done and can be
following: facilitated by installing a manometer on either an existing
or new pipe connected to the reservoir. The measurement
Top anchorage movement range should extend at least as far as the dam crest,
Elevation change thereby allowing observation and judgment of the flood
Miter offset risk and assessment of peak inflows.
Bearing gaps
Downstream movement b. Temperature measurement. Temperature meas-
Cracks urement is required to determine the impact of tempera-
Leaks/boils ture variations on the structure itself, as well as whether
Dents precipitation consists of rain or snow and if applicable,
Abnormal noise or vibration during gate operation whether the snow melt period has begun. Temperature
Corrosion measurement should be done at least daily. Double
checking is not necessary, as other methods can be used if
b. Sheet pile structures. PICES observations for failure takes place. The thermometers should be placed at
distresses in sheet pile structures may include one or more various locations within the dam, either embedded in the
of the following: structure itself or within drillholes. Redundancy should
be provided for by using a greater number of thermome-
Misalignment ters than otherwise would be required.
Corrosion
Settlement c. Precipitation measurement. Precipitation meas-
Cavity formation urement should be done by using a precipitation gauge.
Interlock separation Daily readings are recommended. The gauging station
Holes does not need to be located at the dam site, but should not
Dents be too far away so as to not be representative of the pre-
Cracks cipitation level at the structure itself. Redundancy is not
necessary for precipitation measurement as gauges located
c. Rubble breakwaters and jetties. Any number of further away can often be used when the closer one fails.
measurements may be needed to monitor the condition of Every large structure has some form of seepage through
breakwater and jetties. These may involve either conven- the structure itself or its foundation, even if it has a grout
tional surveying or hydrographic methods. Typical obser- curtain. In concrete dams, seepage typically is small and
vations include measurements for the seaside and leeside limited to permeable areas of the concrete, joints, and
slopes and crest in each of the following categories: contact between rock and concrete. Any abnormal seep-
age is an immediate warning that something may be
Seaside/Leeside Slope: Crest/Cap: wrong with the structure or foundation. Seepage flows
Armor loss Breaching cause uplift pressure - pressure which must be monitored
Armor quality defects Armor loss in view of its critical impact on the overall stability of the
Lack of armor contact/interlock structure. In embankment (i.e., earthen) dams, seepage
Core exposure/loss Core exposure/loss flow through the structure itself is similar to that observed
Slope defects in its foundation as the material from which both are
made are pervious. Seepage flows not only cause uplift
9-13. Deformations in Large Structures pressure in these structures, but also pore-water pressure.
The pattern of seepage and water pressures on the struc-
Deformation of large structures (e.g., dams) is mainly ture (especially on the foundation and impervious core)
caused in part by the reservoir level. Other factors also has a significant impact on the behavior of the dam.
play a role in the deformation of the structure, including Therefore, seepage is critical and must be carefully moni-
temperature, self-weight of the material from which the tored as any abnormal rate may indicate a condition
dam is constructed, and earth pressure. A monitoring which is a serious threat to the overall stability and safety
system should therefore include regular measurements of of the structure.
the reservoir level and temperature and pressure data.
d. Seepage rate. The total seepage rate is the seep-
a. Reservoir level measurement. Reservoir levels age at the face of the structure taken as a whole. As a
today should be measured with pressure balances. Double whole, such rates can be assessed as to whether they are

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“normal.” Seepage rate can be measured volumetrically any discharge on them. Any variations in discharge may
by using a calibrated container and a stopwatch or a gaug- be indicative of a seepage problem.
ing weir or flume. Such methods are straightforward,
simple, and reliable; therefore redundancy is not neces- 9-14. Current Deformation Methods, Equipment,
sary. Partial seepage rates are taken in isolated zones of and Analysis Techniques
the structure found to be representative for the area exam-
ined. Such rates should be monitored periodically. In the This section describes the latest technology used for per-
course of monitoring seepage, if an abnormality (i.e., forming both relative and absolute deformation surveys.
change in normal seepage rate) is detected, the critical Many of the procedures and methods contained herein
zone and cause of the seepage is easier to identify. require extensive geodetic survey background, and are
applicable only to large, high head dams, or on structures
e. Chemical property analysis. If the structure is with unique problems. They should not be employed on
constructed of soluble or easily erodible material, the smaller structures or earthen embankments.
seepage should be monitored for turbidity and chemical
content also. Doing so will permit the assessment of the a. Deformation monitoring, analysis, and prediction
overall stability of the embankment and foundation are of a major and ever-growing concern in practically all
materials. fields of engineering and geoscience. Safety, economical
design of man-made structures, efficient functioning and
f. Pore-water pressure measurement. Structures fitting of structural elements, environmental protection,
usually are designed with specific pore-water pressure and development of mitigative measures in the case of
values that should not be exceeded. Pressure cells typi- natural disasters (land slides, earthquakes, liquefaction of
cally are designed or built into the structure themselves to earth dams, etc.) require a good understanding of causes
measure pore-water pressure. The linking together of (loads) and the mechanism of deformation which can be
several cells forms a profile for the structure. The greater achieved only through the proper monitoring and analysis
the number of measurement profiles and number of cells of deformable bodies.
per profile, the more useful the data obtained will be.
Even though pressure cells can be installed in structures b. The development of new methods and techniques
themselves, rehabilitation of existing ones is not always for the monitoring and analysis of deformations and the
practicable. Where pressure cells cannot be used to moni- development of methods for the optimal modeling and
tor pore-water pressure, the phreatic line in selected points prediction of deformations have been the subject of inten-
will be monitored. Standpipe piezometers mounted in the sive studies by many professional groups at national and
embankment at several cross sections should be used to international levels. Within the most active international
monitor the phreatic line. organizations which are involved in deformation studies
one should list:
g. Uplift pressure. Seepage underneath a structure
causes uplift pressure which can severely alter the stabi- • International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) with
lizing effect of the structure’s self weight. Uplift pressure its Study Group 6C which has significantly con-
can be reasonably controlled by a grout curtain and drain- tributed to the recent development of new
age holes, but uplift pressure and the physical effective- methods for the design and geometrical analysis
ness of these control measures should be carefully of integrated deformation surveys and new con-
monitored. Piezometers connected to a manometer are a cepts for global integrated analyses and modeling
reliable means to measure the uplift pressure in cross- of deformations;
sections and several points on the upstream and down-
stream face of the structure. • International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD) with its Committee on Monitoring of
h. Discharge measurement. If the foundation is Dams and their Foundations;
being drained, drainage discharge should be monitored by
either volumetric gauging or gauging weir. Such methods • International Association of Geodesy (IAG) with
are sufficiently reliable not to require redundancy. Any the very active Commission on Recent Crustal
change in flow rate may be indicative of clogging in the Movements which frequently organizes
drainage system. If possible, the discharge of any spring, international and regional symposia concerning
rivers, streams, flood control structure, etc. downstream of geodynamics, tectonic plate movements, and
the structure should be monitored to gauge the effect of modeling of regional earth crust deformation;

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• International Society for Mine Surveying (ISM) The studies of various professional groups, not only at the
with their very active Commission 4 on Ground international but also at the national level of individual
Subsidence and Surface Protection in mining countries, overlap resulting in the duplication of efforts in
areas; discovering methods and techniques which have already
been well known to other study groups. For example, in
• International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) the United States there is very little communication
with their overall interest in rock stability and between the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Army
ground control; and Corps of Engineers, U.S. Commission on Large Dams,
and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping.
• International Association of Hydrological Sci- All four organizations are involved separately in studies
ences (IAHS) which organizes international sym- on deformations of engineering structures and in the
posia (e.g., Venice 1984, Houston 1991) on development of guidelines for deformation monitoring.
ground subsidence due to the withdrawal of Even within the same organization or institution, one may
underground liquids (water, oil, etc.). find examples of two different professional groups, for
instance, geotechnical and structural engineers, who may
c. The FIG Study Group 6C has been one of the work on the same deformable object but do not exchange
most, if not the most, active international groups dealing information on their methods and the results of their
with practically all aspects of deformation monitoring and analyses.
analysis. Since 1975, the FIG Study Group 6C has
organized six international symposia with the last sympo- e. According to the most recent information obtained
sium held in Hanover in 1992. Although the activity of from the U.S. Committee on Large Dams, USACE is in
FIG in the development of new monitoring techniques is charge of 475 large dams out of a total of 5,469 large
biased, of course, toward geodetic surveying techniques, dams maintained currently in the United States. An addi-
its activity in the design and analysis of deformation tional 49 large dams are currently under construction.
surveys is more objective than that of any other profes-
sional group. In 1978, an ad hoc Committee on Defor- 9-15. Review of Monitoring Techniques and
mation Analysis was formed to deal with and clarify Instrumentation
various approaches and schools of thinking regarding the
geometrical analysis of deformation surveys including the a. The monitoring schemes include:
identification of unstable reference points. The work of
the Committee has resulted in the development of new • Monitoring of deformations, i.e., determination of
concepts for integrated monitoring systems (integration of the geometrical change in shape and dimensions
geodetic and geotechnical measurements) and for general- and rigid body translations and rotations (absolute
ized global analyses of integrated deformation surveys. and/or relative) of the monitored object; and

d. Most of the activities and studies of other associa- • Monitoring of acting forces (loads) and internal
tions and organizations focus, of course, on direct applica- stresses which can either be measured directly or
tions to their particular deformation problems. Although derived from measurements of temperature, pore
the accuracy and sensitivity criteria for the determination water pressure, water level, seepage, etc.
of deformation may considerably differ between various
applications, the basic principles of the design of monitor- b. In addition, laboratory and/or in situ deter-
ing schemes and their geometrical analysis remain the minations of physical properties of the deformable
same. For example, a study on the stability of magnets in material (e.g., moduli of elasticity, tensile strength, creep
a nuclear accelerator may require determination of relative parameters, porosity, etc.) are necessary for a proper
displacements with an accuracy of 0.05 mm while a set- design and evaluation of the behavior of the monitored
tlement study of a rock-fill dam may require only 10 mm structure. In seismically active areas, the monitoring
or larger. In both cases, although the monitoring tech- schemes must include special instrumentation for measur-
niques and instrumentation may differ, one may show that ing vibrations.
the same basic methodology in the designing and analysis
of the deformation measurements may be utilized. This c. This section reviews only the techniques used in
fact has not yet been fully understood by most of the monitoring the deformations although all the other above-
above-listed international research groups. There is a mentioned components of the monitoring schemes play an
general lack of communication and work coordination.

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equally important role in the analysis and interpretation of average distance between the object and reference points
deformations as discussed below. of 500 m, the absolute displacements of the object points
cannot be determined with an accuracy better than about
d. The measuring techniques and instrumentation for ±2 mm at the 95 percent probability level. In some cases
geometrical monitoring of deformations have traditionally this accuracy is not adequate. On the other hand, preci-
been categorized into two groups according to the two sion electro-optical geodetic instruments for electronic
main groups of professionals who use the techniques: distance measurements (EDM), with their accuracies of
±0.3 mm over short distances, may serve as extensom-
(1) Geodetic surveys which include conventional ter- eters in relative deformation surveys. Similarly, geodetic
restrial, photogrammetric, satellite positioning, and some leveling, with an achievable accuracy of better than
special techniques (interferometry, hydrostatic leveling, ±0.1 mm over distances of 20 m may provide better accu-
alignment, and other), and, racy for the tilt determination (equivalent to ±1 second of
arc) than any local measurements with electronic tilt-
(2) Geotechnical/structural measurements of local meters. New developments in three-dimensional coor-
deformations using tiltmeters, strainmeters, extensometers, dinating systems with electronic theodolites may provide
joint meters, plumb lines, etc. relative positioning in almost real time to an accuracy of
±0.05 mm over distances of several meters. The same
e. Each type of measurement has its own advantages applies to new developments in photogrammetric meas-
and drawbacks. Geodetic surveys, through a network of urements with the solid state cameras (CCD sensors).
points interconnected by angle and/or distance measure- The satellite GPS, which, if properly handled, offers a
ments, usually supply a sufficient redundancy of observa- few millimeters accuracy in differential positioning over
tions for the statistical evaluation of their quality and for a several kilometers, is replacing conventional terrestrial
detection of errors. They give global information on the surveys in many deformation studies and, particularly, in
behavior of the deformable object while the geotechnical establishing the reference networks.
measurements give very localized and, very frequently,
locally disturbed information without any check unless f. A full review of all the instruments and tech-
compared with some other independent measurements. niques available for deformation monitoring would far
On the other hand, geotechnical instruments are easier to exceed the scope of this manual. In view of the available
adapt for automatic and continuous monitoring than con- references listed in Appendix A, the material below is
ventional geodetic instruments. Conventional terrestrial limited only to some comments on the achievable accur-
surveys are labor intensive and require skilful observers, acy of the basic types of instruments which include
while geotechnical instruments, once installed, require electronic instrumentation for distance and angle measure-
only infrequent checks on their performance. Geodetic ments, surveying robots, measurements of tilt and inclina-
surveys have traditionally been used mainly for determin- tion, changes in distances and strain, photogrammetric
ing the absolute displacements of selected points on the methods, and the satellite GPS. It is assumed that the
surface of the object with respect to some reference points users of this manual possess the basic understanding of
that are assumed to be stable. Geotechnical measure- geodetic and geotechnical measuring techniques and do
ments have traditionally been used mainly for relative not require explanations of what is a theodolite, or a
deformation measurements within the deformable object hydrostatic level, or a tiltmeter. Additional information
and its surroundings. However, with the technological can be found in the references in Appendix A.
progress of the last few years, the differences between the
two techniques and their main applications are not as 9-16. Electronic Distance and Angle
obvious as 20 years ago. For example, inverted plumb Measurements
lines and borehole extensometers, if anchored deeply
enough in bedrock below the deformation zone, may serve a. Electronic theodolites. Over the last two decades,
the same way as, or even better than, geodetic surveys for the technological progress in angle measurements has
determining the absolute displacements of the object been mainly in the automation of the readout systems of
points. Geodetic surveys with optical and electromagnetic the horizontal and vertical circles of the theodolites. The
instruments (including satellite techniques) are always optical readout systems have been replaced by various,
contaminated by atmospheric (tropospheric and mainly photo-electronic, scanning systems of coded circles
ionospheric) refraction which limits their positioning with an automatic digital display and transfer of the read-
accuracy to about ±1 ppm to ±2 ppm (at the standard out to electronic data collectors or computers. Either
deviation level) of the distance. So, for instance, with the decimal units (gons) or traditional sexagesimal units of

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degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc may be selected for 1" in angle measurements can be achieved with precision
the readout. The sexagesimal system of angular units, electronic theodolites if three to five sets of observations
which is still commonly accepted in North America, is are taken in two positions (direct and reverse) of the
used throughout this section. The relationship between telescope. The requirement of two positions must always
the two systems is that 360˚ = 400 gons. be obeyed in order to eliminate errors caused by mechani-
cal misalignment of the theodolite's axial system. This
(1) As far as accuracy is concerned, electronic the- applies to both the old and most of the up-to-date theodo-
odolites have not brought any drastic improvements in lites even if the manufacturer claims that the errors are
comparison with precision optical theodolites. Some of taken care of automatically.
the precision electronic theodolites, such as the Kern E2
(discontinued production), Leica (Wild) T2002 and b. Three-dimensional coordinating systems. Two or
T3000, and a few others, are equipped with microproces- more electronic theodolites linked to a microcomputer
sor controlled biaxial sensors (electronic tiltmeters) which create a three-dimensional (3-D) coordinating (position-
can sense the inclination (misleveling) of the theodolite to ing) system with on-line calculations of the coordinates.
an accuracy better than 0.5" and automatically correct not The systems are used for the highest precision positioning
only vertical but also horizontal direction readouts. In and deformation monitoring surveys over small areas.
optical theodolites in which the inclination is controlled Leica (Wild) TMS and UPM400 (Geotronics, Sweden) are
only by a spirit level, errors of several seconds of arc in examples of such systems. If standard deviations of
horizontal directions could be produced when observing simultaneously measured horizontal and vertical angles do
along steeply inclined lines of sight. Therefore, when not exceed 1", then positions (x, y, z) of targets at dis-
selecting an electronic theodolite for precision surveys, tances up to 10 m away may be determined with the
one should always choose one with the biaxial leveling standard deviations smaller than 0.05 mm. Usually short
compensator. invar rods of known length are included in the measuring
scheme to provide scale for the calculation of coordinates.
(2) Human errors of pointing the telescope to the
target, centering errors, and environmental influences are c. Electronic distance measurements (EDM). Typi-
the main factors limiting the achievable accuracy. The cally, short range (a few kilometers), electro-optical EDM
environmental influence of atmospheric refraction is a instruments with visible or near infrared continuous radia-
particular danger to any optical measurements. The gradi- tion are used in engineering surveys, though some long
ent of air temperature, dT/dx, in the direction perpendicu- range (up to 60 km) electro-optical or microwave instru-
lar to the line of sight is the main parameter of refraction. ments are also available.
Assuming that a uniform temperature gradient persists
over the whole length S of the line of sight, the refraction (1) The accuracy (standard deviation) of EDM
error eref of the observed direction may be approximately instruments may be expressed in a general form as:
expressed in seconds of arc by:
σ = (a2 + b2S2)0.5 (9-2)
2
eref = 8"(SP/T )dT/dx (9-1)
where “a” contains errors of the phase measurement and
where P is the barometric pressure in millibars and T is calibration errors of the so-called zero correction (additive
the temperature in Kelvin (T = 273.15 + t˚C). If a constant of the instrument and of the reflector), while the
gradient of only 0.1˚C/m persists over a distance of value of “b” represents a scale error due to the afore-
500 m at P = 1000 mb and t = 27˚C, it will cause a direc- mentioned uncertainties in the determination of the refrac-
tional error of 4.4", which is equivalent to a 12-mm posi- tive index and errors in the calibration of the modulation
tional error of the target. One should always avoid frequency. Typically, the value of “a” ranges from 3 mm
measurements close to any surface that may have a dif- to 5 mm. In the highest precision EDM instruments, such
ferent temperature than the surrounding air (walls of as the Kern ME5000, Geomensor CR234 (Com-Rad,
structures or soil exposed to the sun's radiation, walls of U.K.), and Tellurometer MA200 (Tellumat, U.K.), a =
deep tunnels, etc.). If any suspicion of a refraction influ- 0.2 mm to 0.5 mm thanks to a high modulation frequency
ence arises, the surveys should be repeated in different and high resolution of the phase measurements in those
environmental conditions in order to randomize its effect. instruments.

(3) Generally, with well designed targets and proper (2) One recently developed engineering survey
methodology, an accuracy (standard deviation) better than instrument is Leica (Wild) DI2002 which offers a

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standard deviation of 1 mm over short distances. Over of high precision, the EDM instruments should be cali-
distances longer than a few hundred meters, however, the brated at least twice a year, or before and after each
prevailing error in all EDM instruments is due to the important project. The calibration must account for all
difficulty in determining the refractive index. Therefore, combinations of EDM-reflector pairings since each reflec-
all EDM measurements must be corrected for the actual tor may also have a different additive constant correction.
refractive index of air along the measured distance. An Additional errors, which are not included in the general
error of 1˚C or an error of 3 mb in barometric pressure error equation, may arise when reducing the results of the
causes a 1 ppm (part per million or 1 mm km-1) error of spatially measured distances to a reference plane depend-
the measured distance. An extremely careful measure- ing on the accuracy of the reduction corrections.
ment of the atmospheric conditions at several points along
the optical path must be performed with well calibrated (6) Recently, a few models of EDM instruments
thermometers and barometers in order to achieve the with a short pulse transmission and direct measurement of
1-ppm accuracy. If the meteorological conditions are the propagation time have become available. These
measured only at the instrument station (usual practice), instruments, having a high energy transmitted signal, may
then errors of a few parts per million may occur, particu- be used without reflectors to measure short distances (up
larly in diversified topographic conditions. In order to to 200 m) directly to walls or natural flat surfaces with an
achieve the accuracy better than 1 ppm, one has to either accuracy of about 10 m. Examples are the Pulsar
measure the meteorological conditions every few hundred 500 (Fennel, Germany) and the Leica (Wild) DIOR 3002.
meters (200 m - 300 m) along the optical path or to use
EDM instruments with a dual frequency radiation source. d. Total stations and survey robots.

(3) Only a few units of a dual frequency instrument (1) Any electronic theodolite linked to an EDM
(Terrameter LDM2 by Terra Technology) are available instrument and to a computer creates a total surveying
around the world. They are bulky and capricious in use station which allows for a simultaneous measurement of
but one may achieve with them a standard deviation of the three basic positioning parameters, distance, horizontal
±0.1 mm ±0.1 ppm. Due to a small demand, its produc- direction, and vertical angle, from which relative horizon-
tion has been discontinued. Research in the development tal and vertical positions of the observed points can be
of new dual frequency instruments is in progress. In determined directly in the field. Several manufacturers of
deformation measurements one may reduce somewhat the survey equipment produce integrated total stations in
influence of refraction by “calibrating” the distance obser- which the EDM and electronic angle measurement sys-
vations to the object targets by comparing the results with tems are incorporated into one compact instrument with
the “fixed” distances between stable stations of the refer- common pointing optics. Different models of total sta-
ence network. tions vary in accuracy, range, sophistication of the auto-
matic data collection, and possibilities for on-line data
(4) Influence of relative humidity may be neglected processing. One of the most recommended total stations
when using common electro-optical EDM instruments in for precision engineering surveys is the Leica (Wild)
moderate climatic conditions. The negligence of humid- TC2002 which combines the precision of the aforemen-
ity, however, may cause errors up to 2 ppm in extremely tioned electronic theodolite, Leica (Wild) T2002, with the
hot and humid conditions. Therefore, in the highest preci- precision EDM instrument, Leica (Wild) DI2002, into one
sion measurements, psychrometers with wet and dry ther- instrument with a coaxial optics for both the angle and
mometers should be used to determine the correction due distance measurements.
to water vapor content. One should always use rigorous
formulas to calculate the refractive index correction rather (2) For continuous or frequent monitoring of defor-
than diagrams or simplified calculation methods supplied mations, fully automatic monitoring systems based on
by the manufacturers. computerized and motorized total stations have recently
been developed. The first system was Georobot. The
(5) All EDM instruments must be frequently cali- recent advanced systems include, for example, the
brated for the zero correction and for scale (change in the Geodimeter 140 SMS (Slope Monitoring System) and the
modulation frequency). The zero correction usually sig- Leica (Wild) APS and Georobot III systems based on the
nificantly changes with time and may also be a function motorized TM 3000 series of Leica (Wild) electronic
of the intensity of the reflected signal. In some older theodolites linked together with any Leica (Wild) DI
EDM instruments, the zero correction may demonstrate series of EDM. These can be programmed for sequential
phase dependent cyclic changes. In engineering projects self-pointing to a set of prism targets at predetermined

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time intervals, can measure distances and horizontal and difference determination between two targets 200 m apart.
vertical angles, and can transmit the data to the office To minimize the atmospheric refraction effects, the meas-
computer via a telemetry link. Similar systems are being urements must be performed either reciprocally, with two
developed by other manufacturers of surveying equipment. theodolites simultaneously, or from an auxiliary station
The robotic systems have found many applications, partic- with equal distances to the two targets (similar methodol-
ularly in monitoring high walls in open pit mining and in ogy as in spirit leveling). The accuracy is practically
slope stability studies. Generally, the accuracy of direc- independent of the height differences and, therefore, is
tion measurements with the self-pointing computerized especially more economical than conventional leveling in
theodolites is less accurate (about 3 sec) than the meas- hilly terrain and in all situations where large height differ-
urements with manual pointing. ences between survey stations are involved. Motorized
trigonometric height traversing (reciprocal or with bal-
9-17. Leveling and Trigonometric Height anced lines of sight) with precision theodolites and with
Measurements the lines of sight not exceeding 250 m can give a standard
deviation smaller than 2 mm per km. With automatic
a. The old method of geometrical leveling with data collection and on-line processing of the measure-
horizontal lines of sight (using spirit or compensated ments, daily progress of up to 15 km may be achieved
levels) is still the most reliable and accurate, though slow, independent of the terrain configuration. The refraction
surveying method. With high magnification leveling error is still the major problem in further increasing the
instruments, equipped with the parallel glass plate accuracy of leveling. Research in this area continues.
micrometer and with invar graduated rods, a standard
deviation smaller than 0.1 mm per setup may be achieved 9-18. Use of GPS in Deformation Surveys
in height difference determination as long as the balanced
lines of sight do not exceed 20 m. In leveling over long a. The satellite GPS offers several advantages over
distances (with a number of instrument setups) with the conventional terrestrial methods. Intervisibility between
lines of sight not exceeding 30 m, a standard deviation of stations is unnecessary, thus allowing greater flexibility in
1 mm per km may be achieved in flat terrain. The afore- the selection of station locations than in the terrestrial
mentioned influences of atmospheric refraction and earth geodetic surveys. Measurements can be taken during
curvature are minimized by balancing the lines of sight night or day, under varying weather conditions, which
between the forward and backward leveling rods. A makes GPS measurements economical. With the recently
dangerous accumulation of refraction error, up to 15 mm developed rapid static positioning techniques, the time for
for each 100-m difference in elevation, may take place the measurements at each station is reduced to a few
along moderately inclined long routes due to unequal minutes. Reference EM 1110-1-1003.
heights of the forward and backward horizontal lines
above the terrain. b. Though already widely used in engineering and
geoscience projects, GPS is still a new and not perfectly
b. The recently developed Leica (Wild) NA2000 and known technology from the point of view of its optimal
NA3000 digital automatic leveling systems with height use and understanding of the sources of errors. The accu-
and distance readout from encoded leveling rods have racy of GPS is very often exaggerated by some authors
considerably increased the speed of leveling (by about who may not quite understand the difference between the
30 percent) and decreased the number of personnel short-term precision (repeatability) and actual accuracy of
needed on the survey crew. However, some users of the GPS.
digital level NA3000 complain that its compensating
system demonstrates systematic deviations in windy c. The accuracy of GPS relative positioning depends
weather and, therefore, cannot be classified as a high on the distribution (positional geometry) of the observed
precision level unless some improvements are introduced satellites and on the quality of the observations. There
by the manufacturer. are several sources of errors contaminating the GPS meas-
urements. These errors can be categorized into:
c. High precision electronic theodolites and EDM
equipment allow for the replacement of geodetic leveling (1) Signal propagation errors which include effects
with more economical trigonometric height measurements. of tropospheric and ionospheric refraction,
Using precision electronic theodolites for vertical angle
measurements and any short-range EDM instrument, one (2) Receiver related errors which include multipath
may achieve an accuracy better than 1 mm in height effects, variation in the antenna phase center, receiver

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noise, bias in the coordinates of the station being held lT (ti) + vT(ti) = lT(to) + ATBlc,
fixed in the data reduction process, etc., and
for all i, and
(3) Satellite related errors which include mainly
orbital errors. lG (ti) + vG(ti) = lG(to) + AGBlc + Ddη

d. Different types of errors affect GPS relative posi- for all i, (9-3)
tioning in different ways. Some of the errors may have a
systematic effect on the measured baselines producing sig- where dη is the vector of changes in scale and rotation
nificant scale errors and rotations. Due to the changeable parameters between the epochs to and ti, Bl is the matrix
geometrical distribution of the satellites and the resulting constructed by superimposing matrices B for all the sur-
changeable systematic effects of the observation errors, veyed points and all the epochs, and A is the design
repeated GPS surveys for the purpose of monitoring matrix relating observables to the deformation model.
deformations can also be significantly influenced (up to a The elements of the vectors c and dη are estimated using
few ppm) by scale and rotation errors which, if the least squares method and they are statistically tested
undetected, may contaminate the derived deformation for their significance.
parameters leading to a misinterpretation of the behavior
of the deformable body. A particular attention to the g. The influence of systematic errors in measure-
systematic influences should be paid when a GPS network ments over short distances (up to a few hundred meters)
is established along the shore of a large body of water is usually negligible and the horizontal components of the
and measurements are performed in a hot and humid GPS baselines can be determined with standard deviations
climate. of 3 mm or even smaller. Recent improvements to the
software for the GPS data processing allow for an almost
e. Experience with the use of GPS in various defor- real time determination of changes in the positions of
mation studies indicates that, with the available tech- GPS stations.
nology (receivers) and the distribution of the satellites in
1990-1991, the accuracy of GPS relative positioning over h. In 1991, USACE developed a fully automated
areas of up to 50 km in diameter can be expressed in system for high-precision deformation surveys with GPS.
terms of the variance of the horizontal components of the It was designed particularly for dam monitoring. In the
GPS baselines, over a distance S, as continuous deformation monitoring system (CDMS), GPS
antennas are located over points to be monitored on the
σ2 = (3 mm)2 + (10-6 S)2 structures. At least two other GPS antennas must be
located over reference points that are considered stable.
if the aforementioned systematic biases (rotations and The GPS antennas are connected to computers using a
change in scale of the network) are identified and elim- telemetry link. A prototype system used 10-channel
inated through proper modeling at the stage of the defor- Trimble 4000SL and Trimvec postprocessing software.
mation interpretation. The accuracies of vertical An operator can access the onsite computer network
components of the baselines are, usually, 1.5 to 2.5 times through a remote hook-up in the office. In 1989 the
less accurate than the horizontal components. system was installed at the Dworshak Dam on the Clear-
water River near Orofino, ID. The results show that
f. The solution for the systematic parameters may CDMS can give accuracies of 3 mm both horizontally and
be obtained by either (1) combining the GPS surveys of vertically over a 300-m baseline. One has to be aware,
some baselines (of a different orientation) with terrestrial however, that although GPS does not require the intervisi-
surveys of a compatible or better accuracy or (2) estab- bility between the observing stations it requires an unob-
lishing several points outside the deformable area (fiducial structed view to the satellites which limits the use of GPS
stations) which would serve as a “calibration network” or only to reasonably open areas. One should also remem-
(3) combining (1) and (2). These aspects must be consid- ber that there might be some yet undiscovered sources of
ered when designing GPS networks for any engineering errors (e.g., effects of high voltage power lines) in GPS
project. In the first case, for all the terrestrial lT observa- measurements. GPS certainly revolutionizes the geodetic
bles and for GPS observables lG one could write observa- surveys but still more research on its optimal use and on
tion equations for epochs to and ti in terms of the sources of errors in deformation surveys is needed. See
deformation model Bc (displacement function) in the also EM 1110-1-1003 for details on this system.
form:

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9-19. Photogrammetric Techniques continuous monitoring with real-time photogrammetry

becomes possible. Further development in this area is in
a. If an object is photographed from two or more progress.
survey points of known relative positions (known coor-
dinates) with a known relative orientation of the cam- 9-20. Alignment Measurements
era(s), relative positions of any identifiable object points
can be determined from the geometrical relationship a. Alignment surveys cover an extremely wide spec-
between the intersecting optical rays which connect the trum of engineering applications from the tooling industry,
image and object points. If the relative positions and through measurements of amplitude of vibrations of engi-
orientation of the camera are unknown, some control neering structures, to deformation monitoring of nuclear
points on the object must be first positioned using other accelerometers several kilometers long. Each application
surveying techniques. Aerial photogrammetry has been may require different specialized equipment.
extensively used in determining ground movements in
ground subsidence studies in mining areas, and terrestrial b. The methods used in practice may be classified
photogrammetry has been used in monitoring of according to the method of establishing the reference line,
engineering structures. The main advantages of using that is: (1) mechanical methods in which stretched wire
photogrammetry are: the reduced time of field work; (steel, nylon, etc.) establishes the reference line, (2) direct
simultaneous provision of 3-D coordinates; and, in prin- optical method (called also collimation method), in which
ciple, an unlimited number of points can be monitored. the optical line of sight or a laser beam “marks” the line,
The accuracy of photogrammetric point determination has and (3) diffraction method in which the reference line is
been much improved in the past decade, which makes it created by projecting a pattern of diffraction slits.
attractive for high precision deformation measurements.
c. All the above methods except mechanical are
b. Special cameras with minimized optical and film affected by atmospheric refraction, as expressed by
distortions must be used in precision photogrammetry. Equation 9-1. Therefore, in measurements requiring high
Cameras combined with theodolites (phototheodolites), for accuracy, the alignment must be repeated several times in
instance the Wild P-30 model, or stereocameras (two different environmental conditions.
cameras mounted on a bar of known length) have found
many applications in terrestrial engineering surveys d. The mechanical methods with tensioned wires as
including mapping and volume determination of under- the reference lines have found many applications includ-
ground excavations and profiling of tunnels. The ing dam deformation surveys. This is due to their sim-
accuracy of photogrammetric positioning with special plicity, high accuracy, and easy adaptation to continuous
cameras depends mainly on the accuracy of the deter- monitoring of structural deformations using inductive
mination of the image coordinates and the scale of the sensors over distances up to a few hundred meters. Accu-
photographs. The image coordinates may, typically, be racies of 0.1 mm are achievable.
determined with an accuracy of about 10 µm, though
3 µm is achievable. The photo scale may be approxi- e. The direct optical method utilizes either an optical
mately expressed as f/s, where f is the focal length of telescope and movable targets with micrometric sliding
the objective lens and s is the distance of the camera devices or a collimated (projected through the telescope)
from the object. Using a camera with, for instance, laser beam and movable photocentering targets. Besides
f = 100 mm at a distance s = 100 m, with the accuracy of the aforementioned influence of atmospheric refraction,
the image coordinates of 10 µm, the coordinates of the pointing and focusing are the main sources of error when
object points can be determined with the accuracy of using optical telescopes. The pointing error with properly
10 mm. Special large-format cameras with long focal designed targets varies from 15"/M at night in calm atmo-
length are used in close-range industrial applications of spheric conditions to 60"/M in daylight with average
high precision. For instance, the model CRC-1 (Geodetic turbulent conditions, where M is the magnification of the
Services, Inc., U.S.A.) camera with f = 240 mm, can give telescope.
sub-millimeter accuracy in “mapping” objects up to a few
tens of meters away. Recently, solid-state cameras with f. Special aligning telescopes with large magnifica-
charge couple device (CCD) sensors have become tion (up to 100x) are available from, among others,
available for close-range photogrammetry in static as well Fennel-Cassell (Germany) and Zeiss-Jena (Germany).
as in dynamic applications. With the new developments Aligning telescopes for the tooling industry and
in CCD cameras and digital image processing techniques, machinery alignment are available in North America from

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Cubic Precision. When the optical line of sight is rock layers around driven tunnels, slope stability, and
replaced by a collimated laser beam, then the accuracy of movements of structures with respect to the foundation
pointing may be considerably improved if special rocks. Depending on its particular application, the same
self-centering laser detectors, with a time integration of instrument may be named an extensometer, strainmeter,
the laser beam energy, are used. The use of laser allows convergencemeter, or fissuremeter.
for automation of the alignment procedure and for con-
tinuous data acquisition. When using the laser beam (1) The various instruments differ from each other
directly as the reference line, however, attention must be by the method of linking together the points between
paid to the stability of the laser cavity. A directional drift which the change in the distance is to be determined and
of the laser beam as high as 4"/˚C may occur due to the kind of sensor employed to measure the change. The
thermal effects on the laser cavity. This effect is links in most instruments are mechanical, such as wires,
decreased by a factor of M when projecting the laser rods, or tubes. The sensors usually are mechanical, such
through a telescope. as calipers or dial gauges. In order to adapt them to
automatic and continuous data recording, electric
g. In diffraction alignment methods, a pinhole source transducers can be employed using, for instance, linear
of monochromatic (laser) light, the center of a plate with potentiometers, differential transformers, and self-induc-
diffraction slits, and the center of an optical or tance resonant circuits. In general, when choosing the
photoelectric sensor are the three basic points of the align- kind of transducer for automatic data acquisition, one
ment line. If two of the three points are fixed in their should consult with an electronics specialist on which
position, then the third may be aligned by centering the kind would best suit the purpose of the measurements in
reticle on the interference pattern created by the diffrac- the given environmental conditions.
tion grating. It should be pointed out that movements of
the laser and of its output do not influence the accuracy (2) One should point out that the precision EDM
of this method of alignment because the laser serves only instruments, as described earlier with their accuracy of
as a source of monochromatic light placed behind the pin- 0.3 mm over short distances, may also be used as exten-
hole and not as the reference line. Therefore, any kind of someters particularly when the distances involved are
laser may be employed in this method, even the simplest several tens of meters long.
and least expensive ones, as long as the output power
requirements are satisfied. Various patterns of diffraction (3) If an extensometer is installed in the material
slits are used in practice. The highest accuracy and the with a homogeneous strain field, then the measured
longest range are obtained with the so-called Fresnel zone change l of the distance l gives directly the strain com-
plates which act as focusing lenses. For instance, rectan- ponent ε = l/l in the direction of the measurements. To
gular Fresnel zone plates with an electro-optical centering determine the total strain tensor in a plane (two normal
device were used in alignment and deformation measure- strains and one shearing), a minimum of three extensome-
ments of a 3-km-long nuclear accelerator giving relative ters must be installed in three different directions.
accuracy (in a vacuum) of 10-7 of the distance. In the
open atmosphere, the thermal turbulence of air seems to b. Wire and tape extensometers. Maintaining a con-
have a smaller effect when using the Fresnel zone plates stant tension throughout the use of the wire or tape
than in the case of direct optical alignment. The laser extensometer is very important. In some portable exten-
diffraction alignment methods have successfully been someters, the constant tensioning weight has been
applied in monitoring both straight and curved (arch) replaced by precision tensioning springs. One should be
dams using self-centering targets with automatic data careful because there are several models of spring ten-
recording. sioned extensometers on the market which do not provide
any means of tension calibration. As the spring ages,
9-21. Measurement of Extension (Change in Dis- these instruments may indicate false expansion results
tance) and Strain unless they are carefully calibrated on a baseline of con-
stant length, before and after each measuring campaign.
a. Types of extensometers. Various types of instru-
ments, mainly mechanical and electro-mechanical, are (1) Among the most precise wire extensometers are
used to measure changes in distance in order to determine the Kern Distometer (discontinued production) and the
compaction or upheaval of soil, convergence of walls in CERN Distinvar (Switzerland). Both instruments use
engineering structures and underground excavations, strain invar wires and special constant tensioning devices which,
in rocks and in man-made materials, separation between if properly calibrated and used, can give accuracies of

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0.05 mm or better in measurements of changes of dis- between the successive rings recording changes in dis-
tances over lengths from about 1 m to about 20 m. Invar tances between the pairs of rings with a claimed accuracy
is a capricious alloy and must be handled very carefully of 0.1 mm. Boreholes up to several hundreds of meters
to avoid sudden changes in the length of the wire. When long can be scanned.
only small changes in temperature are expected or a
smaller precision (0.1 mm to 1 mm) is required, then steel d. Interferometric measurements of linear displace-
wires or steel tapes are more comfortable to use. ments. Various kinds of interferometers using lasers as a
source of monochromatic radiation are becoming common
(2) Special high precision strainmeters of a short tools in precision displacement measurements. A linear
length (up to a few decimeters) are available for strain resolution of 0.01 µm, or even better, is achievable. One
measurements in structural material and in homogeneous has to remember, however, that interferometric distance
rocks. An example is a vibrating wire strain gauge avail- measurements are affected by atmospheric refractivity in
able from Rocktest (formerly Irad Gage). The instrument the same way as all EDM systems. Therefore, even if
employs a 150-mm steel wire in which the changeable temperature and barometric pressure corrections are
resonant frequency is measured. An accuracy of one applied, the practical accuracy limit is about 10-6 S
microstrain (10-6) is claimed in the strain measurements (equivalent to 1 µm per meter). Thermal turbulence of air
which corresponds to 0.15 µm relative displacements of limits the range of interferometric measurements in the
points over a distance of 150 mm. open atmosphere to about 60 m. The Hewlett Packard
Model 5526B laser interferometer has found many indus-
c. Rod, tube, and torpedo extensometers. Steel, trial and laboratory applications in the measurement of
invar, aluminum, or fiberglass rods of various lengths, small displacements and the calibration of surveying
together with sensors of their movements, may be used instruments.
depending on the application. Multiple point measure-
ments in boreholes or in trenches may be made using e. Use of optical fibre sensors. A new interesting
either a parallel arrangement of rods anchored at different development in the measurements of extensions and
distances from the sensing head, or a string (in series) changes in crack width employs a fully automatic exten-
arrangement with intermediate sensors of the relative someter which utilizes the principle of electro-optical
movements of the rods. distance measurements within fibre optic conduits. The
changes in length of the fibre optic sensors are sensed
(1) A typical accuracy of 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm may be electro-optically and they are computer controlled .
achieved up to a total length of 200 m (usually in seg-
ments of 3 m to 6 m). The actual accuracy depends on 9-22. Tilt and Inclination Measurements
the temperature corrections and on the quality of the
installation of the extensometer. When installing rods in a. Methods of tilt measurements.
plastic conduit (usually when installing in boreholes), the
friction between the rod and the conduit may significantly (1) The measurement of tilt is usually understood as
distort the extensometer indications if the length of the the determination of a deviation from the horizontal plane,
extensometer exceeds a few tens of meters. The dial while inclination is interpreted as a deviation from the
indicator readout may be replaced by potentiometric or vertical. Thus the same instrument that measures tilt at a
other transducers with digital readout systems. Telescopic point can be called either a tiltmeter or an inclinometer,
tubes may replace rods in some simple applications, for depending on the interpretation of the results.
instance, in measurements of convergence between the
roof and floor of openings in underground mining. (2) As discussed previously, geodetic leveling tech-
niques can achieve an accuracy of 0.1 mm over a distance
(2) Several models of torpedo borehole extensometers of 20 m, which would be equivalent to about 1.0" of
and sliding micrometers are available from different com- angular tilt. This accuracy is more than sufficient in most
panies producing geotechnical instrumentation. For engineering deformation measurements. Whenever a
example, Extensofor (Telemac, France) consists of a higher accuracy or continuous or very frequent collection
28-mm-diameter torpedo 1.55 m long with an inductance of information on the tilt changes is necessary, however,
sensor at each end. Reference rings on the casing are various in situ instruments are used, such as (a) engineer-
spaced within the length of the torpedo. The sensors and ing tiltmeters and inclinometers; (b) suspended and
reference rings form the inductance oscillating circuits. inverted plumb lines; and (c) hydrostatic levels. In addi-
The torpedo is lowered in the borehole and stopped tion, some other specialized instruments such as

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mercury/laser levels have been developed but are not stability at the Syncrude Canada tar sands mining
commonly used in practice and, therefore, are not operation.
reviewed in this section.
c. Suspended and inverted plumb lines. Two kinds
b. Tiltmeters and inclinometers. There are many of mechanical plumbing are used in controlling the stabil-
reasonably priced models of various liquid, electrolytic, ity of vertical structures: (1) suspended plumb lines and
vibrating wire, and pendulum type tiltmeters that satisfy (2) floating plumb lines, also called inverted or reversed
most of the needs of engineering surveys. Particularly plumb lines. Inverted plumb lines have an advantage over
popular are servo-accelerometer tiltmeters with a small suspended plumb lines in the possibility of monitoring
horizontal pendulum. They offer ruggedness, durability, absolute displacements of structures with respect to deeply
and low temperature operation. The output signal (volts) anchored points in the foundation rocks which may be
is proportional to the sine of the angle of tilt. The typical considered as stable. In the case of power dams, the
output voltage range for tiltmeters is ±5 V, which corre- depth of the anchors must be 50 m or even more below
sponds to the maximum range of the tilt. Thus the the foundation in order to obtain absolute displacements
angular resolution depends on the tilt range of the selected of the surface points. If invar wire is used for the
model of tiltmeter and the resolution of the voltmeter inverted plumb line, vertical movements of the investi-
(typically 1 mV). There are many factors affecting the gated structure with respect to the bedrock can also be
accuracy of tilt sensing. A temperature change produces determined. Caution must be used in installing plumb
dimensional changes of the mechanical components, lines. If the plumb line is installed outside the dam, a
changes in the viscosity of the liquid in the electrolytic vertical pipe of a proper inner diameter should be used to
tiltmeters, and changes of the damping oil in the pendu- protect the wire from the wind. The main concern with
lum tiltmeters. Drifts of tilt indications and fluctuations floating plumb lines is to ensure verticality of the bore-
of the readout may also occur. Therefore, thorough test- holes so that the wire of the plumb line has freedom of
ing and calibration are required even when the accuracy motion. The tank containing the float is generally filled
requirement is not very high. with water to which some antifreeze can be added. The
volume of the float should be such as to exert sufficient
(1) Tiltmeters have a wide range of applications. A tension on the wire. It should also be noted, however,
series of tiltmeters if arranged along a terrain profile may that in a float tank thermal convection displacements may
replace geodetic leveling in the determination of ground easily develop in consequence of thermal gradients which
subsidence. Similarly, deformation profiles of tall struc- may affect measurements to a considerable extent. Hence
tures may be determined by placing a series of tiltmeters in some cases, the whole tank should be thermally
at different levels of the structure. insulated.

(2) In geomechanical engineering, the most popular (1) Several types of recording devices that measure
application of tiltmeters is in slope stability studies and in displacements of structural points with respect to the
monitoring embankment dams using the torpedo (scan- vertical plumb lines are produced by different companies.
ning) type borehole inclinometers (usually the servo- The simplest are mechanical or electromechanical
accelerometer type tiltmeters). The biaxial inclinometers micrometers. With these, the plumb wire can be posi-
are used to scan boreholes drilled to the depth of an tioned with respect to reference lines of a recording (coor-
expected stable strata in the slope. By lowering the incli- dinating) table to an accuracy of ±0.1 mm or better.
nometer on a cable with marked intervals and taking read- Travelling microscopes may give the same accuracy.
ings of the inclinometer at those intervals, a full profile of Automatic sensing and recording is possible, for instance,
the borehole and its changes may be determined through with a Telecoordinator (Huggenberger, Switzerland) and
repeated surveys. Usually the servo-accelerometer incli- with a Telependulum (Telemac, France). An interesting
nometers are used with various ranges of inclination Automated Vision System has been developed by Spec-
measurements, for instance, ±6˚, ±54˚, or even ±90˚. If a tron Engineering. The system uses CCD video cameras
40-m-deep borehole is measured every 50 cm with an to image the plumb line with a resolution of about 3 µm
inclinometer of only 100" accuracy, then the linear lateral over a range of 75 mm. Several plumb lines at the Glen
displacement of the collar of the borehole could be deter- Canyon dam and at the Monticello dam in California have
mined with an accuracy of 2 mm. A fully automatic used this system.
(computerized) borehole scanning inclinometer system
with a telemetric data acquisition has been designed at the (2) Two sources of error which may sometimes be
University of New Brunswick for monitoring slope underestimated by users are: the influence of air currents

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31 Oct 94

and the spiral shape of wires. To reduce the influence of 9-23. Concluding Remarks on Monitoring
the air pressure, the plumb line should be protected within Techniques
a pipe (e.g., a PVC tube) with openings only at the read-
ing tables. This brief review of basic monitoring techniques indicates
that, from the point of view of the achievable instrumental
d. Optical plummets. Several surveying instrument accuracy, the distinction between geodetic and geotechni-
companies produce high precision optical plummets: cal techniques does not apply any more. With the recent
Leica (Wild) ZL (zenith) and NL (nadir) plummets which technological developments in both geodetic and geotech-
offer the accuracy of 1/200,000. Both can be equipped nical instrumentation, at a cost one may achieve almost
with laser. The atmospheric refraction is the major source any, practically needed, instrumental resolution and preci-
of errors. sion, full automation, and virtually real-time data process-
ing. Remotely controlled telemetric data acquisition
e. Hydrostatic leveling. If two connected containers systems, working continuously for several months without
are partially filled with a liquid, then the heights h1 and h2 recharging the batteries in temperatures down to -40˚C,
of the liquid in the containers are related through the are available and their cost is reasonable. Thus, the array
hydrostatic equation of different types of instruments available for deformation
studies has significantly broadened within the last few
h1 + P1 / (g1 r1) = h2 + P2 / (g2 r2) = const. years. This creates a new challenge for the designers of
the monitoring surveys: what instruments to choose,
where P is the barometric pressure, g is gravity, and r is where to locate them, and how to combine them into one
the density of the liquid which is a function of integrated monitoring scheme in which the geodetic and
temperature. geotechnical/structural measurements would optimally
complement each other.
(1) The above relationship has been employed in
hydrostatic leveling. The ELWAAG 001 (Bayernwerke, a. As far as the actual accuracy of deformation sur-
Germany) is a fully automatic instrument with a travelling veys is concerned, the main limiting factors are not the
(by means of an electric stepping motor) sensor pin which instrument precision but the environmental influences and
closes the electric circuit upon touching the surface of the ignorance of the users, namely:
liquid.
• The aforementioned atmospheric refraction.
(2) Hydrostatic leveling is frequently used in the form
of a network of permanently installed instruments filled • Thermal influences affecting the mechanical, elec-
with a liquid and connected by hose-pipes to monitor tronic, and optical components of the instruments
change in height differences of large structures. The (in any type of instrumentation) as well as the
height differences of the liquid levels are automatically stability of survey stations.
recorded. The accuracy ranges from 0.1 mm to 0.01 mm
over a few tens of meters depending on the types of • Local instability of the observation stations
instruments. The main factor limiting the survey accuracy (improper monumentation of survey stations and
is the temperature effect. To reduce this effect the instru- improper installation of the in situ
ment must either be installed in a place with small tem- instrumentation).
perature variations, or the temperature along the pipes
must be measured and corrections applied, or a double • Lack of or improper calibration of the
liquid (e.g., water and mercury) is employed to derive the instruments.
correction for this effect. For the highest accuracy, water
of a constant temperature is pumped into the system just • Lack of understanding by the users of the sources
before taking the readings. The instruments with direct of errors and of the proper use of the collected
measurement of the liquid levels are limited in the vertical observations.
range by the height of the containers. This problem may
be overcome if liquid pressures are measured instead of b. The problem of calibration is very often under-
the changes in elevation of the water levels. Pneumatic estimated in practice not only by the users but also by the
pressure cells or pressure transducer cells may be used. manufacturers. In long-term measurements, the

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instrument repeatability (precision) may be affected by absolutely necessary for checking the reliability of the
aging of the electronic and mechanical components result- measurements, especially in some critical parts of the
ing in a drift of the instrument readout. Of particular structure. One should bear in mind that any monitoring
concern are geotechnical instruments for which the users, instruments, even if they have been installed permanently,
in general, do not have sufficient facilities and adequate cannot rule out defects and failures. Thus, any monitor-
knowledge for their calibration. The permanently ing system should be sufficiently redundant. By redun-
installed instruments are very often left in situ for several dancy one means keeping parallel but separate sets of
years without checking the quality of their performance. instruments and, in addition, facilities for evaluating data
by double-checking, using alternative measurement meth-
c. The last aspect, the lack of understanding of the ods. Examples would be the determination of relative
sources of errors affecting various types of measurements displacements using alignment surveys versus displace-
and the proper data handling is, perhaps, the most danger- ments obtained from a geodetic monitoring network, the
ous and, unfortunately, the frequent case in measurements measurement of tilts with tiltmeters versus geodetic level-
of deformations in North America. The measurements, ing, etc. Thus, a properly designed monitoring scheme
and particularly processing of the geodetic surveys, are should have a sufficient redundancy of measurements
usually in the hands of self-proclaimed “surveyors” at the using different measuring techniques and such geometry
technician level or even without any formal education. In of the scheme that self-checking, through geometrical clo-
this case, even the most technologically advanced instru- sures of loops of measurements, would be possible. One
mentation will not supply the expected information. should stress that a poorly designed monitoring survey is
a waste of effort and money and may lead to a dangerous
9-24. Design of Monitoring Schemes misinterpretation.

a. When designing a monitoring network one has to c. The accuracy (at the 95 percent probability level)
remember that the main purpose of the monitoring sur- of the monitoring measurements should be equal to at
veys is: least 0.25 of the predicted value of the maximum defor-
mations for the given span of time between the repeated
• To check whether the behavior of the investigated measurements. However, once any abnormal deforma-
object and its environment follows the predicted tions are noticed, there is no limit, other than economic,
pattern so that any unpredicted deformations for the maximum possible accuracy required. The higher
could be detected at an early stage. the accuracy of the measurements, the easier it will be to
determine the mechanism of the unpredicted deformations.
• In the case of any abnormal behavior, to give an Thus, the monitoring schemes may require frequent updat-
account, as accurately as possible, of the actual ing and upgrading of the initial design over the duration
deformation status which could be used for the of the monitoring project.
determination of the causative factors which trig-
ger the deformation. d. Generally, the design of a monitoring scheme
includes, among many other aspects, the following tasks:
b. In the first case, the design of the monitoring
scheme must include stations at the points where maxi- • Identification of the parameters to be observed.
mum deformations have been predicted plus a few observ-
ables at the points which, depending on previous • Selection of locations for the monitoring stations
experience, could signal any potential unpredictable (both object and reference points if applicable).
behavior, particularly at the interface between the moni-
tored structure and the surrounding material. The amount • Determination (preanalysis) of the required accu-
of the expected deformations may be predicted using racy and of the measuring range.
either deterministic modeling (using, for instance, the
finite or boundary element methods), or empirical (statisti- • Determination of the required frequency of
cal) prediction models. Once any abnormal deformations repeated observations.
are noticed, additional observables have to be added at the
locations which would be indicated by the preliminary • Selection of the types of instruments and sensors
analysis of the monitoring surveys as being the most to be used (various alternatives).
sensitive for the identification of causative factors. Some
redundant monitoring instruments and points are • Design of testing and calibration facilities.

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• Design of the data management system. preferably 4, for vertical control, and 4, preferably 6, for
horizontal, and they should be connected together by
• Preparation of a scenario for instrumentation fail- observables, with as much redundancy as possible. Hori-
ure (design of redundancy). zontal displacements in a critical direction, usually per-
pendicular to the axis of dam, can be surveyed with
• Cost analysis and final decision on the selected alignment techniques if the reference points of the align-
monitoring scheme. ment survey are stable or their movements can be deter-
mined by other techniques, for instance, by inverted
e. Since each deformable object may require differ- plumb lines with a stable anchor point, or by geodetic
ent parameters to be observed, different instrumentation, methods. Vertical absolute displacements can be deter-
different accuracies, and different frequencies of the mined by geodetic leveling with respect to deeply
observation, detailed specifications will significantly vary anchored vertical borehole extensometers or to deep
not only from one type of object to another, but also for benchmarks located near the dam. Long leveling lines
the same type of object depending on the local surround- connecting the dam with benchmarks located several
ing conditions. Therefore, the following brief discussion kilometers outside the deformation zone are not recom-
on the first four tasks as listed above is very general and mended due to the accumulation of errors.
has been limited to typical conditions of concrete and
embankment dams only. (2) Relative movements. Deflections (inclinations)
of a dam are usually measured by direct or inverted
9-25. Basic Considerations in Designing Monitor- plumb lines. With reference to a horizontal line along the
ing Schemes for Large Dams axis of the dam, different alignment methods are used in
different levels of galleries to determine the relative
a. General deformation behavior of dams. Any dam movements between the blocks. Extensometers have now
is subjected to external and internal loads that cause become important instruments for measuring differential
deformation and permeability of the structure and its foundation movements. A combination of geodetic level-
foundation. Deformation and seepage are clearly a func- ing with suspended invar wires equipped with short read-
tion of such loads. Any sign of abnormal dam behavior ing scales at different levels of the dam and connected to
could signal a threat to dam safety. In view of the differ- borehole extensometers can supply all the needed infor-
ence between concrete and embankment dam behavior, a mation on the relative vertical movements as well as on
monitoring scheme cannot be organized in the same way the absolute vertical displacements and relative tilts.
for both types. In concrete dams, monitoring is essen-
tially a matter of observing behavioral trends in both (3) Foundation subsidence and tilts. They are meas-
elastic and plastic deformation. The work consists of ured with geodetic leveling, hydrostatic leveling, and
comparing measured deformation to the predicted normal tiltmeters. The last two are usually permanently installed
behavior, assessed through analysis or some other method. in galleries.
In embankment dams on the other hand, permanent defor-
mation trends should be closely monitored for any sign of (4) Strain measurements. Strain gauges are prefera-
abnormality. bly embedded in the concrete during construction,
installed on the faces of the dam after completion, or even
b. Identification of parameters to be observed in embedded in foundation boreholes.
concrete dams.
(5) Temperature. Temperature measurements should
(1) Absolute horizontal and vertical displacements. provide information on the thermal state of the concrete,
These measurements are particularly intended to deter- water temperature at various levels, and atmospheric
mine the small displacements of points representative of temperature. Temperature in the concrete is usually
the behavior of the dam, its foundation, and abutments measured by telethermometers (thermistors, thermo-
with respect to some stable frame. Geodetic surveys are couples, bi-metal thermometers) installed in the dam
often used for this purpose. The “absolute values” can be body.
obtained only if the reference points are stable. Here, the
GPS technique helps in establishing stations far enough (6) Uplift and leakage measurements. These meas-
from the dam to be outside of the deformation zone of the urements are generally carried out by nonspecific instru-
reservoir. In order to efficiently check their stability the ments. More elaborate devices may, however, be required
number of reference points must be not less than 3, to measure hydraulic pressure inside the rock. For

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leakage measurements, it is important to combine an causing horizontal movements and seepage. Its measure-
effective drainage system with these instruments. ment should coincide in time with measurement of the
deformations and seepage.
(7) Joint measurements. Measurements are justified
only in the case of joints separating two unsealed struc- d. Location of monitoring instruments. In addition
tures or to check grouting in dome or arch-gravity dams. to the general guidelines given above, for gravity dams,
Cracks are measured by the same methods, the instru- each block should have at least one point. Tilts of the
ments being installed on the surface. foundation should be measured at the center for small
structures, and at not less than three points for larger
(8) Water level measurements. Water level in a structures.
reservoir is one of the most important acting loads to a
dam. For physical interpretation its measurement should (1) For multiple-arch and buttress dams, monitoring
coincide in time with the measurements of other deforma- points should be located at the head and downstream toe
tion quantities. of each buttress. In the case of massive buttresses and
large arches, special attention should be paid to the foun-
c. Identification of parameters to be observed in dations of the buttresses. If the buttresses are tranversed
embankment dams. by construction joints, the behavior of joints should be
observed.
(1) Horizontal displacements. Horizontal displace-
ments of the crest and other important points of embank- (2) For arch-gravity dams and thick arch dams,
ment (berms, etc.) can be measured with geodetic absolute displacements of dam toe and abutments are
methods and alignment. The comments made for con- critical. For small structures, the deformation of the cen-
crete dams are also valid here. It is also possible to tral block is monitored. However, for large structures the
detect relative horizontal displacements of points inside measurement of deformations in each block is required.
the embankment by means of inclinometers.
(3) For thin arch dams, crest displacements in the
(2) Groundwater and pore water pressures. Ground- horizontal and vertical are required. Special attention
water and pore pressures are very significant in monitor- should be given to central cantilever, abutments, and
ing earth dams. The pattern of seepage and pore water abutment rock.
pressure, especially in the foundation and the impervious
core, has a significant impact on the normal behavior of e. Accuracy requirements.
embankment dams. Since pore water pressures should not
exceed design values, they must be carefully monitored, (1) No commonly accepted standards of accuracy
possibly with pressure cells. The greater the number of requirements exist. As aforementioned, the accuracy at
measurement profiles and the number of cells per profile, 95 percent probability should be equal to at least 0.25 of
the more useful the data obtained will be. the maximum expected deformation regular behavior, and
as high as possible for a discovered irregularity.
(3) Settlements. For those occurring in accessible
places, geodetic or hydrostatic leveling is customarily (2) For concrete dams, the accuracy for monitoring
used to determine the settlements. The settlements of the both horizontal and vertical displacements should typically
foundation, or of interior structural parts which are not range between 5 and 10 mm. For earth-rockfill dams, the
accessible (core, foundation contact), are detected through accuracy should be about 20-30 mm for horizontal dis-
settlement gauges. The settlements of individual layers of placements and 10 mm for settlements during construction
the embankment should be monitored. This can be done and operation. During operation, accuracies of 10-20 mm
through settlement gauges installed in the different layers. are normally required.

(4) Total pressure measurements. It is sometimes f. Frequency of measurements. The frequency of

necessary to check the total pressure inside the embank- periodic measurements depends on the age of the structure
ment or between the embankment and the foundation or and type of the monitoring system. If a fully automatic
adjacent structures. data acquisition system is used, the frequency of measure-
ments does not impose any problem because the data can
(5) Water level measurements. Water level in the be decoded at any preprogrammed time intervals without
reservoir is the most important load on an earth dam, any logistic difficulties and, practically, at no difference in

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the cost of the monitoring process. However, in most distances as opposed to angles, or an optimal combination
cases, the fully automated systems are not yet commonly of both).
used and the frequency of measurements of individual
observables must be carefully designed to compromise b. The optimum design of geodetic positioning net-
between the actual need and the cost. ICOLD gives the works has been the subject of intensive investigations and
following general guidelines: publications by many authors over the past two decades.
The optimization of geodetic positioning networks is
(1) Before and during construction, it may be useful aimed at obtaining the optimum positions of the geodetic
to carry out some geodetic and piezometric measurements points with the optimum accuracy, reliability, and econ-
of the abutments. omy of the survey scheme taken as the design criteria.
Design of deformation monitoring schemes is more com-
(2) All measurements should be made before the first plex and differs in many respects from the design of
filling is started (initial operation). The dates of the suc- positioning networks. The design is aimed at obtaining
cessive measurements will depend on the level the water optimum accuracies for the deformation parameters rather
has reached in the reservoir. The closer the water is to than for the coordinates of the monitoring stations using
the top level, the shorter will be the interval between the various types (geodetic and nongeodetic) observables with
measurements. For instance, one survey should be con- allowable configuration defects. The sensitivity of the
ducted when the water reaches one-fourth of the total monitoring scheme to detect deformations is introduced as
height; another survey when the water reaches midheight; more general than the accuracy design criterion. Very
one survey every tenth of the total height for the third recently, a separability concept has been added to the
quarter; one survey every 2 m of variation for the fourth design criteria (separation between different possible
quarter. Moreover, the interval between two successive deformation models).
surveys should never exceed a month until filling is
completed. c. There are practically two distinct optimal design
methods:
(3) During the operation of the structure, measure-
ments should be more frequent in the years immediately • Analytical.
following the first filling when active deformation is in
progress. For instance, geodetic surveys (more labor • Computer simulation (“trial and error”).
intensive) can be carried out four times a year, and other
geotechnical measurements can be made once every 1 to Both methods usually involve an iteration process. The
2 weeks. difference between them is that the former does not
require human intervention and provides, mathematically,
(4) After the structure is stable, which takes usually 5 the optimum results, while the computer simulation
to 10 years or more, the above frequencies can be reduced method (CSM) provides acceptable results but they are
by half. Not only the frequencies of measurement, but not necessarily optimal. The CSM requires the experi-
also the number of instruments read can be reduced ence of the designer but it can solve all the design prob-
according to what is learned during the first years of lems while the analytical methods have been limited to
operation. some particular solutions only.

9-26. Optimal Design of the Configuration and d. Recently, a CSM has been developed which does
Accuracy of the Monitoring Schemes not require any human intervention during a fully auto-
matic computational process from the moment of imput-
a. The general guidelines and restrictions regarding ting the initial data through the iterative step-by-step
the locations and accuracy of instrumentation, discussed upgrading of the design to the final design output.
above, still give room for choice (within the general Although the underlying theory for the design of geodetic
guidelines) of the final positions of, at least, some obser- networks has been developed quite extensively, its full
vation stations and accuracy of the observations. This power of practical application has not been demonstrated
concerns mainly the geodetic monitoring reference net- in any real-life examples. An efficient algorithm has not
works, which may provide different solutions for the existed until very recently. The major problem in this
accuracy of the observed displacements depending on the area was the inability of solving nonlinear matrix equa-
selected configuration of the connecting surveys, location tions involved in the network design. This problem has
of the reference stations, and type of observables (e.g., recently been solved at the University of New Brunswick

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(UNB) by developing a multiobjective analytical design scattered in time and space, in the simultaneous geometri-
methodology which allows for a fully analytical, multi- cal analysis of the deformation, comparing it with the
objective optimal design (optimal accuracy and sensitivity, prediction models, enhancing the prediction models
optimal reliability, and optimal economy) of integrated which, in turn, may be used in enhancing the monitoring
deformation monitoring schemes with geodetic and geo- scheme. The process is iteratively repeated until the
technical instrumentation. The method allows for a mechanism of deformation is well understood and any
simultaneous solution for the optimal configuration and discrepancies between the prediction models and actual
accuracy of the monitoring scheme according to the given deformations are properly explained.
criteria and restrictions concerning the locations of some
observation stations and required accuracy of the defor- b. Recently, the concept of global integration has
mation parameters. been developed in which all three — the geometrical
analysis of deformation and both methods of the physical
9-27. Analysis of Deformation Surveys interpretation — are combined into a simultaneous solu-
tion for all the parameters to be sought. The method still
Even the most precise monitoring surveys will not fully requires further elaboration, software development, and
serve their purpose if they are not properly evaluated and practical testing and, therefore, is not described in detail
utilized in a global integrated analysis as a cooperative in this manual.
interdisciplinary effort. The analysis of deformation sur-
veys includes: c. The deterministic and statistical modeling of
deformations have been used in the analysis of dam
• Geometrical analysis which describes the geome- deformations, at least in some countries, for many years.
trical status of the deformable body, its change in As aforementioned, the geometrical analysis has been
shape and dimensions, as well as rigid body done so far in a rather primitive way with geotechnical/
movements (translations and rotations) of the structural engineers analyzing separately the geotechnical
whole deformable body with respect to a stable observation data and surveyors taking care of the geodetic
reference frame or of a block of the body with survey observations. The geotechnical analyses have
respect to other blocks, and usually resulted only in a graphical display of temporal
trends for individual observables and the geodetic analysis
• Physical interpretation which consists of: (a) a would result in a plot of displacements obtained from
statistical (stochastic) method, which analyzes repeated surveys which, very often, would not be even
through a regression analysis the correlations properly adjusted and analyzed for the stability of the
between observed deformations and observed reference points. Over the past ten years, an intensive
loads (external and internal causes producing the study by the FIG working group has resulted in the devel-
deformation), and (b) a deterministic method, opment of proper methods for the analysis of geodetic
which utilizes information on the loads, properties surveys and has led to the development of the so-called
of the materials, and physical laws governing the UNB Generalized Method of the geometrical deformation
stress-strain relationship which describes the state analysis which can combine any type of observations
of internal stresses and the relationship between (geotechnical and geodetic) into one simultaneous analy-
the causative effects (loads) and deformations. sis. The developed methodology for the geometrical
analysis is given below followed by brief descriptions of
a. Once the load-deformation relationship is estab- the statistical and deterministic methods used in modeling
lished, the results of the physical interpretation may be the load-deformation relationship. Finally, the concept of
used for the development of prediction models. Through the hybrid physical analysis in which the statistical model-
a comparison of predicted deformation with the results of ing is combined with the deterministic method is
the geometrical analysis of the actual deformations, a described in more detail.
better understanding of the mechanism of the deforma-
tions is achieved. On the other hand, the prediction 9-28. Geometrical Analysis of Deformation
models supply information on the expected deformation, Surveys
facilitating the design of the monitoring scheme as well as
the selection of the deformation model in the geometrical a. Identification of unstable reference points. In
analysis. Thus, the expression integrated analysis means a most deformation studies, the information on absolute
determination of the deformation by combining all types movements of object points with respect to some stable
of measurements, geodetic and geotechnical, even if reference points is crucial. One problem which is

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frequently encountered in practice in the reference net- (2) Several software packages for geometrical analy-
works is the instability of the reference points. This may sis have been developed, for example, DEFNAN,
be caused either by wrong monumentation of the survey PANDA, and LOCAL. Some of them (e.g., DEFNAN)
markers or by the points being located still too close to are applicable not only to the identification of unstable
the deformation zone (wrong assumption in the design reference points, but to the integrated analysis of any type
about the stability of the surrounding area). Any unstable of deformations (to be discussed below), while others are
reference points must be identified first before the abso- limited to the analysis of reference geodetic networks
lute displacements of the object points are calculated. only.
Otherwise, the calculated displacements of the object
points and subsequent analysis and interpretation of the b. UNB Generalized Method for geometrical defor-
deformation of the structure may be significantly dis- mation analysis. In order to be able to utilize any type of
torted. Given a situation where points A, B, C, and D are geodetic and geotechnical observations in a simultaneous
reference points used to monitor a number of object deformation analysis, the UNB Generalized Method of the
points on a structure; if point B has moved but this is not geometrical analysis has been developed. The method is
recognized and it is used with point A to identify the applicable to any type of geometrical analysis, both in
common datum for two survey campaigns, then all the space and in time, including the earlier discussed detec-
object points and reference points C and D will show tion of unstable reference points and the determination of
significant changes in their coordinates even when, in strain components and relative rigid body motion within a
reality, they are stable. deformable body. It allows utilization of different types
of surveying data (conventional surveys and GPS meas-
(1) Over the past two decades several methods for the urements) and geotechnical/structural measurements. It
analysis of reference networks have been developed in can be applied to any configuration of the monitoring
various research centers within the activity of the afore- scheme as long as approximate coordinates of all the
mentioned FIG Study Group. There are basically two observation points are known. In practical applications,
schools of thought. One is based on the congruency test, the approach consists of three basic processes:
and the other is based on defining a datum for the second
epoch of measurements which is robust to unstable ref- • Identification of deformation models.
erence points. In the first case, a failure in the congru-
ency test is followed by a search for the new congruency • Estimation of deformation parameters.
test which has a minimum statistic. The test statistics are
calculated by removing points, one by one in turn, from • Diagnostic checking of the models, and final
the set of reference points until all the unstable points are selection of the “best” model.
identified. In the second case, a method has been devel-
oped at UNB which is based on a special similarity trans- A brief description of the approach is given below.
formation which minimizes the first norm of the vector of
displacements of the reference points. The approach can (1) The change in shape and dimensions of a 3-D
be performed easily for one-dimensional reference net- deformable body is fully described if 6 strain components
works and by an iterative weighting scheme for multi- (3 normal and 3 shearing strains) and 3 differential rota-
dimensional reference networks until all the components tions at every point of the body are determined. These
of the displacement vectors satisfy the condition: ∑ di deformation parameters can be calculated from the well-
= minimum. In each solution, the weights are iteratively known strain-displacement relations if a displacement
changed to be pi = 1/di. After the last iteration, the dis- function representing the deformation of the object is
placement vectors that exceed their error ellipses at known. Since, in practice, deformation surveys involve
95 percent probability identify the unstable reference only discrete points, the displacement function must be
points. The displacements obtained from the iterative approximated through some selected deformation model
weighted transformation are, practically, datum indepen- which fits the observed changes in coordinates (displace-
dent; i.e., that whatever minimum constraints have been ments), or any other types of observables, in the statisti-
used in the least squares adjustment of the survey cam- cally best way. The displacement function may be
paigns, the display of the transformed displacements will determined, for example, through a polynomial approxi-
always be the same. Thus the obtained graphical display mation of the displacement field.
represents the actual deformation trend which is used later
on in selecting the best fitting deformation model, as (2) The displacement function can be expressed in
described below. matrix form in terms of a deformation model Bc as:

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d(x,y,z,t-to) = (u,v,w)T = B(x,y,z,t-to) c (9-4) which require fitting of higher order polynomials or other
suitable functions. If time-dependent deformation para-
where d is the displacement of a point (x,y,z) at time t in meters are sought, then the above deformation models
respect to a reference time to; u,v,and w are components will contain time variables.
of the displacement function in the x-, y-, and z- direc-
tions, respectively, B is the deformation matrix with its (5) A vector l of changes in any type of observa-
elements being some selected base functions, and c is the tions, for instance, changes in tilts, in distances, or in
vector of unknown coefficients (deformation parameters). observed strain, can always be expressed in terms of the
displacement function. For example, the relationship
(3) For illustration, examples of typical deformation between a displacement function and a change ds in the
models (displacement functions) in 2-D analysis are given distance observed between two points i and j in two mon-
below. itoring campaigns may be written as:

(a) Single point displacement or a rigid body dis- dsij = [(xj - xi)/s] uj + [(yj - yi)/s)] vj -
placement of a group of points, say, block B with respect
to block A. The deformation model is expressed in the [(xj - xi/s)] ui - [(yj - yi)/s)] vi (9-9)
form of the following displacement functions:
where uj, vj, ui, and vi are components of the displacement
uA = 0, vA = 0; uB = ao and vB = bo (9-5) function at points (xj, yj, and xi,yi), respectively. For a
horizontal tiltmeter, the change dτ of tilt between two
where the subscripts represent all the points in the indi- survey campaigns may be expressed in terms of the verti-
cated blocks. cal component (w) of the displacement function as:

(b) Homogeneous strain in the whole body and dif- dτ = (∂w/∂x) sinα + (∂w/∂y) cosα (9-10)
ferential rotation. The deformation model is linear and it
may be expressed directly in terms of the strain compo- where α is the orientation angle of the tiltmeter.
nents (εx, εy, εxy) and differential rotation,ϖ, as:
(6) The functional relationships for any other types
u = εx x + εxyy - ϖy of observables and displacement functions are, in matrix
form, written as:
v = εxy x + εy y + ϖx (9-6)
l = AB l c (9-11)
(c) A deformable body with one discontinuity, say,
between blocks A and B, and with different linear defor- where A is the transformation matrix (design matrix)
mations in each block plus a rigid body displacement of B relating the observations to the displacements of points at
with respect to A. Then the deformation model is written which the observations are made, and B l is constructed
as: from the above matrix B(x, y, z, t-to ) and related to the
points included in the observables.
uA = εxAx + εxyAy - ϖA y
(7) If redundant observations are made, the elements
vA = εxyAx + εyAy + ϖAx (9-7) of the vector c and their variances and covariances are
determined through least-squares approximation, and their
and statistical significance can be calculated. One tries to find
the simplest possible displacement function that would fit
uB = a0 + εxB(x - x0) + εxyB(y - y0) - ϖB(y - y0) to the observations in the statistically best way.

vB = b0 + εxyB(x - x0) + εyB(y - y0) + ϖB(x - x0) (9-8) (8) The search for the “best” deformation model
(displacement function) is based on either a priori knowl-
where x0, y0 are the coordinates of any point in block B. edge of the expected deformations (for instance from the
finite element analysis) or a qualitative analysis of the
(4) Usually, the actual deformation model is a com- deformation trend deduced from all the observations taken
bination of the above simple models or, if more compli- together. In the case of the observables being the relative
cated, it is expressed by non linear displacement functions displacements obtained from geodetic surveys, the

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iterative weighted transformation of the displacements (10) The results of the geometrical analysis serve as
gives the best picture of the actual deformation trend an input into the physical interpretation and into the
helping in the spatial trend analysis. In the case of a long development of prediction models as discussed above.
series of observations taken over a prolonged period of
time, plotting of individual observables versus time helps 9-29. Statistical Modeling of the Load-Displace-
to establish the deformation trend and the deformation ment Relationship
model in the time domain. In the analysis, one has to
separate the known deformation trend from the superim- a. The statistical method establishes an empirical
posed investigated deformation. For example, in order to model of the load-displacement relationship through the
distinguish between the cyclic (seasonal) thermal expan- regression analysis, which determines the correlations
sion of a structure with a one-year period of oscillation between observed deformations and observed loads (exter-
and a superimposed deformation caused by other effects nal and internal causes producing the deformation). Using
which are, for instance, linear in time, all the measure- this model, the forecasted deformation can be obtained
ments can be analyzed through a least-squares fitting of from the measured causative quantities. A good agree-
the cyclic function ment between the forecasts and the measurements then
tells us that the deformable body behaves as in the past.
y = a1cos(ωt) + a2sin(ωt) + a3t + a4 + a5δ(ti) + ..., (9-12) Otherwise, as in the previous case, reasons should be
found and the model should be refined.
to the observation data, where ω = 2π/yr, and a3 is the
rate of change of the observation (extension, tilt, inclina- b. Interpretation by the statistical method always
tion, etc.). The amplitude and phase of the sinusoid can requires a suitable amount of observations, both of caus-
be derived from a1 and a2. The constant a4 is the ative quantities and of response effects. Let d(t) be the
y-intercept and the constants a5, ... are possible slips (dis- observed deformation of an object point at time t. For a
continuities) in the data series and δ(ti) is the Kronecker’s concrete dam, for example, it can usually be decomposed
symbol which is equal to 1 when t ≥ ti, with ti being the into three components:
time of the occurrence of the slip, and is equal to 0 when
t < ti. d(t) = dH(t) + dT(t) + dr(t) (9-13)

(9) Summarizing, the geometrical deformation analy- where dH(t), dT(t), dr(t) are the hydrostatic pressure com-
sis using the UNB Generalized Method is done in four ponent, thermal component, and the irreversible com-
steps: ponent due to the nonelastic behavior of the dam,
respectively. The component dH(t) is a function of water
(a) The trend analysis in space and time domains and level in the reservoir and can be modeled by a simple
the selection of a few alternative deformation models polynomial:
which seem to match the trend and that make physical
sense. dH(t) = a0 + a1H(t) + a2H(t)2 + ... + amH(t)m (9-14)

(b) The least-squares fitting of the model or models where H(t) is the elevation of the water in the reservoir.
into the observation data and statistical testing of the The component dT(t) can be modeled in various ways
models. depending on the information on hand. If some key tem-
peratures Ti(t), (i = 1, 2, ..., k) in the dam are measured,
(c) The selection of the “best” model that has as few then
coefficients as possible with as high a significance as
possible (preferably all the coefficients should be signifi- dT(t) = b1T1(t) + b2T2(t) + ... + bkTk(t) (9-15)
cant at probabilities greater than 95 percent) and which
gives as small a quadratic form of the residuals as If air temperature is used, the response delay of concrete
possible. dams to the change in air temperature should be consid-
ered. If no temperature is measured, the thermal compo-
(d) A graphical presentation of the displacement field nent can be modeled by a trigonometric function.
and the derived strain field.

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31 Oct 94

c. The irreversible component dr(t) may originate In principle, when the boundary conditions, either in the
from a nonelastic phenomena like creep of concrete or form of displacements or in the form of acting forces, are
creep of rock, etc. Its time-dependent behavior changes given and the body forces are prescribed, the differential
from object to object. It may be modeled, for example, equation can be solved. However, direct solution may be
with an exponential function. The following function is difficult, and numerical methods such as the finite ele-
appropriate for concrete dams: ment or boundary element of finite differences methods
are used. The finite element method (FEM) is the most
dr(t) = c1t + c2ln t (9-16) commonly used method in structural and geotechnical
engineering, particularly in modeling dam deformations.
The coefficients ai, bi, ci in the above equations are deter-
mined using the least-squares regression analysis. The c. The basic concept of the FEM is that the con-
final model suggests the response behavior of the different tinuum of the body is replaced by an assemblage of small
causative factors and is used for prediction purposes. elements which are connected together only at the nodal
points of the elements. Within each element a displace-
d. For an earth dam, the thermal effect is immaterial ment function (shape function) is postulated and the prin-
and the irreversible component becomes dominant. It ciple of minimum potential is applied, i.e., the difference
should be mentioned that the statistical method for physi- between the work done by acting forces and the deforma-
cal interpretation is applicable not only to observed dis- tion energy is minimized. Therefore, the differential
placements, as discussed above, but also to other operator L is approximated by a linear algebraic operator.
monitored quantities, such as stress, pore water pressure, Numerous FEM software packages are available in the
tilt of the foundation, etc. The only difference is that the market ranging significantly in prices depending on their
response function for each causative quantity may change. sophistication and adaptability to various types of material
behavior. One very powerful software package is
9-30. Deterministic Modeling of the Load-Defor- FEMMA (Finite Element Method for Multidisciplinary
mation Relationship Applications) developed at the UNB for 2-D and 3-D
finite element elastic, visco-elastic, and heat transfer anal-
a. The deterministic method provides information on yses of deformations. FEMMA has found many practical
the expected deformation from the information on the applications in dam deformation analyses, in tectonic plate
acting forces (loads), properties of the materials, and movements, in ground subsidence studies, and in tunnel-
physical laws governing the stress-strain relationship. ing deformations.

b. Deformation of an object will develop if an exter- d. In the deterministic modeling of dam deforma-
nal force is applied to it. The external forces may be of tions, the dam and its foundation are subdivided into a
two kinds: surface force, i.e., forces distributed over the finite element mesh. The thermal component dT and
surface of the body, and body forces, which are distri- hydrostatic pressure component dH are calculated sepa-
buted over the volume of the body, such as gravitational rately. Assuming some discrete water level in the reser-
forces and thermal stress. The relation between the acting voir, the corresponding displacements of the points of
forces and displacements d is discussed in many textbooks interest are computed. A displacement function with
on mechanics. Let d be the displacement vector at a respect to water level is obtained by least-squares fitting
point and f be the acting force. They are related as of a polynomial to the FEM-computed discrete displace-
ments. Then, the displacements at any water level can be
LTDLd + f = 0 (9-17) computed from the displacement function. In computation
of the thermal components, the temperature distribution
where D is the constitutive matrix of the material whose inside the structure should first be solved. Again, FEM
elements are functions of the material properties (e.g., could be used, based on some measured temperatures
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio) and L is a differen- (boundary conditions). Both the coefficient of thermal
tial operator transforming displacement to strain. If initial diffusivity and the coefficient of expansion of concrete are
strain ε0 and initial stress σ0 exist, the above equation required. The thermal components for the points of inter-
becomes est are calculated using FEM with computed temperature
at each nodal point. The total deformation is the sum of
LTDLd + (LTσ0 - LTDε0 ) + f = 0 (9-18) these two components plus possible action of some other

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31 Oct 94

forces, e.g., swelling of concrete due to alkali aggregate x = E0/E (9-19)

reaction which can also be modeled with FEM.
y = α/α0 (9-20)
e. FEM is, certainly, a powerful tool in the deter-
ministic modeling of deformations. One has to remember, where E0 and α0 are the values used in the deterministic
however, that the output from the FEM analysis is only as modeling.
good as the quality of the input and as good as the experi-
ence of the operator who must have a good understanding b. There must be a calibration of the constants of the
of not only the computer operation but, particularly, good material properties using the discrepancies between the
knowledge in the mechanics of the deformable bodies. measured displacements of a point at different epochs and
One should not treat FEM as a magic (black box) tool. that calculated from FEM. One must be aware, however,
that if the real discrepancy comes from other effects than
9-31. Hybrid Method of Deformation Analysis the incorrect values of the constants (e.g., non-elastic
behavior), the model may be significantly distorted.
a. As one can see from the above sections, interpre-
tation by statistical methods requires a large amount of c. Recently, as aforementioned, a concept of a
observations, both of causative quantities and of response global integration has been developed, where all three —
effects. Thus the method is not suitable at the early stage the geometrical analysis of deformations and both
of dam operation when only short sets of observation data methods of physical interpretation — are combined.
are available. In addition, some portions of the thermal Using this concept, deformation modeling and understand-
and hydrostatic pressure effects may not be separated by ing of the deformation mechanism can be greatly
the statistical modeling if the changes in temperature and enhanced.
in the elevation of water in the reservoir are strongly
correlated. The deterministic method proves very advan- 9-32. Automated Data Management of Deforma-
tageous in these aspects. The deterministic method is of tion Surveys
an a priori (design) nature. It uses the information on
geometric shape and material properties of the deformable a. Advantages and limitations of automation. In the
body and acting loads to calculate deformations. How- total effort of deformation monitoring, the quality of the
ever, due to many uncertainties in deterministic modeling analysis of the behavior of the object being monitored
such as an imperfect knowledge of the material properties, depends on the location, frequency, type, and reliability of
possibly wrong modeling of the behavior of the material the data gathered. The data concerned are any geotech-
(particularly when a nonelastic behavior takes place), and nical observable as well as any conventional geodetic
approximation in calculations, the computed displacements observable (angle, distance, or height difference). Apart
may depart significantly from the observed values d(t). In from the location and type of instrumentation, the fre-
this case, if, for example, a suspicion is that the discrep- quency and reliability of the data can be enhanced by
ancy is produced by uncertainties in Young’s modulus of employing an “automatic” system of data gathering or
elasticity, E, and the thermal coefficient of expansion, α, acquisition and processing (including the deformation
the deterministic model can be enhanced by combining it analysis). A data management system encompasses
with the statistical method, in the form everything that happens to the data from the instant at
which it is sensed to the time of analysis. Under ordinary
d(t) + v(t) = xdH(t) + ydT(t) + c1t + c2ln t (9-18) circumstances, the interval of time between sensing and
analysis may extend over several days or more. Under
where v(t) is the residual, dH(t) and dT(t) are the hydro- critical conditions, this may have to be nearly instanta-
static and thermal components, respectively, calculated neous in order to provide a warning, if necessary. The
from the deterministic modeling, and the last two terms volume of data may consist of only several items (in the
take care of the possible irreversible component. The simplest routine investigation) to many hundreds or thou-
functional model for the irreversible component may vary sands (in very complex, critical situations, particularly if
and can be changed by examining the residuals. The vibration behavior is of interest). The rate of sampling
unknowns x, y, c1, c2 are estimated from the observations may be annually, monthly, weekly, daily, hourly, or even
using the least-squares estimation. The coefficient x is a more frequently. The amount of human involvement may
function of Young’s modulus and y is a function of the range from total (a “manual” system) to virtually none (an
thermal expansion coefficient of concrete: “automatic” system). Neither extreme is practical. A

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manual system is labor intensive and liable to errors or (5) Often requires site-specific or custom compo-
blunders and is less flexible in the re-examination of data. nents that may be initially unproven.
An automatic system is attractive but has some limita-
tions. Although a “data acquisition system” strictly (6) Complexity may require an initial stage of
involves the gathering of data, the phrase has been used debugging.
by many to mean the whole system of data management.
The weighed advantages and limitations of an automatic (7) Specialized personnel may be required for regu-
data acquisition system are summarized in the following lar field checks and maintenance.
two lists.
(8) A manual method is required as an alternative
Advantages of an automatic data acquisition system are: (backup).

(1) Personnel costs for reading instruments and ana- (9) A reliable and continuous source of power is
lyzing data are reduced. required.

(2) More frequent readings are possible. (10) The system may be susceptible to damage by
weather or construction activity.
(3) Retrieval of data from remote or inaccessible
locations is possible. With an appropriate compromise between manual and
automatic functions, a properly designed and working
(4) Instantaneous transmission of data over long dis- system can readily minimize the effects of the limitations
tances is possible. mentioned above. Therefore, the advantages of an auto-
matic (really “semiautomatic”) system easily outweigh its
(5) Increased reading sensitivity and accuracy can be disadvantages.
achieved.
b. The ENEL system. In the ENEL system (Italian
(6) Increased flexibility in selecting required data can Ente Nazionale per l’Energia Elettrica), there are two
be provided. major subsystems: “Off-line” which serves as a central
storage of all data and “On-line” in which most of the
(7) Measurement of rapid fluctuations, pulsations, and activity takes place. It is the On-line portion that is of
vibrations is possible. interest and will be described here. Two minicomputers
are involved and are linked for the teletransmission of
(8) Recording errors are fewer and immediately data. The remote virtually duplicates the functions of the
recognizable. local, except for the actual capture of data. The local,
“ESSDI/L,” provides data acquisition, validation, process-
(9) Data can be stored electronically in a format suit- ing, storage, and transmission to other sites. Also, it
able for direct computer analysis. issues a warning if the observed effect differs from the
expected effect (as derived from deterministic modeling)
The limitations of an automatic system are: by more than an established tolerance.

(1) A knowledgeable observer is replaced by hard- c. The USBR system. This system is for the Cala-
ware, i.e., less frequent “intelligent” visual inspections. mus (Embankment) Dam managed by the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation. The main aspect of this system is the
(2) An excess of data could be generated, leading to a means of communication by telephone line or satellite
failure in timely response. link from the dam to various locations in the country.

(3) The data may be blindly accepted, possibly lead- d. The USACE system. This is a system used by the
ing to a wrong conclusion. St. Louis District, with respect to automated acquisition,
processing, and plotting of data. An example of typical
(4) There could be a high initial cost and, possibly, a dialogue encountered in using the minicomputer-based
high maintenance cost. system is given. Another system is under development,

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initially to deal with totally automating piezometers in various measurement points in the structure. Done rigor-
embankment dams, particularly with respect to local and ously using the method of least squares, the fitting pro-
district communication. vides a full statistical analysis of the trend with the
detection of outlying or erroneous data. It is possible to
e. The UNB system. A data management system derive a new series from two original series or to create a
was devised by UNB for use on an IBM PC AT compati- series from repeated geodetic campaigns (e.g., tilt derived
ble on-site microcomputer. It was created to replace a from leveling). The system can also show several series
manual system already in use for several years. In the of data simultaneously, without fitting, to provide a graph-
field, a programmed data collector provides for direct ical comparison of the series.
connection to (and sometimes control of) instrumentation
and for the keyboard entry for other equipment. The (3) The treatment of the data can be described as
system can also accommodate manually recorded data or follows: The geodetic data are treated traditionally in
data directly acquired from instrumentation. The raw data campaigns for adjustment (“C.A.”) and spatial trend anal-
are contained in observation files, archived for security, ysis (“S.T.A.”). Once the observations have been
and are processed or “reduced” (using calibration, test repeated a sufficient number of times, they can be treated
values, etc.) into data files which are then used by various as a time series (“T.S.A” time series analysis and plot,
analysis and display software. e.g., tilt from leveling; “S.S.A.” spatial series analysis and
plot, subsidence). Geotechnical series are treated in a
(1) In the field, there is a check file that is either similar manner (“T.S.P.” time series analysis and plot,
accessed during data collecting or available in hard copy. “S.S.P.” spatial series analysis and plot, e.g., borehole
The check file contains expected values predicted from profile changes). The time series analyses (“T.S.A.” and
stochastic (statistical) analyses of the data files and thus “T.S.P.”) are fitted with the sinusoid in the above equa-
provides for a warning in the field. A warning is also tion to separate seasonal effects from the long-term trend.
given in the processing if the currently processed value All of the trend analyses are automated by command files
differs from the most recent value in the data file, beyond which are set up to control fitting and automated plotting
a set tolerance. of several series in succession. All of the data can be
used together in simultaneous integrated geometrical anal-
(2) The major advantage of the UNB system is that yses following the UNB Generalized Method (e.g.,
any data or derived data, whether geotechnical or geodetic “D.M.”). If desired, several series can be plotted simulta-
(so long as it has been repeated in a suitable time series), neously, without fitting. Since both the observation files
can be brought together in the integrated deformation and the data files are ASCII text files, they are accessible
analysis of a structure. In the process, a time series is also through any text editor for manual entry or editing
analyzed for trend, with the separation of seasonal and and can be input to other applications.
long-term behavior. In the absence of actual temperature
information, the trend (“y,” the change in the value of an f. Desirable characteristics of an automated system.
observed or derived quantity) against time (“t,” in years) Overall, the desirable characteristics of a data manage-
is described by the following equation ment system for deformation surveys (including both
geotechnical and geodetic observables) include:
y = a1sinωt + a2cosωt + a3t + a4 + a5 + ...
(1) Data integrity (offering checks in the field and
in which later processing).

ω = 2π since a period of 1 year is assumed (2) Data security (automatic archiving and regular
data file backup).
a3 = the “rate” or long-term trend
(3) Automation of acquisition, processing, and
a5 .. = possible values of slips accounting for discon- analysis.
tinuities in the data series (a4 is also a slip, but
it is required so that the fitting is not unduly (4) Compatibility and integration with other
constrained) observables.

and from which the amplitude and phase can be derived (5) Flexibility in access to the data for possible man-
to provide a comparison of seasonal behavior among the ual entry and editing.

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(6) Data openness (useable by other software). (including the identification of the unstable reference
points) to the determination of the deformation model.
(7) Flexibility in the system to be easily modified to
accommodate additional instrumentation or other forms of d. General guidelines are required with respect to:
analysis. design of the integrated monitoring schemes, particularly
optimal choice of instrumentation, selection of the param-
(8) On-site immediate access to data or any of the eters to be monitored, the required accuracy, optimal
forms of analysis. location of the instruments, and frequency of
measurements.
(9) Near-real time results of trend or other analyses.
9-34. Monitoring Techniques and Their
(10) Testing and calibration is an integral component Applications
of the system.
a. With the recent technological developments in
9-33. Standards and Specifications for Dam both geodetic and geotechnical instrumentation, at a cost
Monitoring one may achieve almost any, practically needed, instru-
mental resolution and precision, full automation, and
a. Although there are significant differences between virtually real-time data processing. Remotely controlled
various countries in the quality of monitoring deformation, telemetric data acquisition systems, working continuously
there is no one country which can serve as an example for for several months without recharging the batteries in
others concerning all the three main aspects of dam defor- temperatures down to -40˚C are available at a reasonable
mation monitoring, i.e. monitoring techniques, design of cost. Thus, the array of different types of instruments
monitoring schemes, and analysis and management of the available for deformation studies has significantly broad-
collected observations. ened within the last few years. This creates a new chal-
lenge for the designers of the monitoring surveys: what
b. A few countries, mainly eastern European coun- instruments to choose, where to locate them, and how to
tries, during the time when they were still part of the combine them into one integrated monitoring scheme in
“communist block,” including China, developed some which the geodetic and geotechnical/structural measure-
national standards and specifications for dam defor- ments would optimally complement each other.
mations. Unfortunately, these specifications were
developed for practically unrealistic conditions under b. As far as the actual accuracy of deformation sur-
government dictatorship and ownership of all dams in veys is concerned, the main limiting factors are not the
their countries. Although some of the standards and spec- instrument precision but the environmental influences and
ifications may be technically acceptable, they would have negligence by the users, namely:
to be carefully reviewed and extensively modified for
practical use. Although there are some reputable books • Influence of atmospheric refraction (all optical
on specialized geodetic instrumentation, there is no and electro-optical measuring systems).
up-to-date manual or book which discusses all of the
aspects of geodetic monitoring surveys, particularly the • Thermal influences, affecting the mechanical,
design and processing of the geodetic monitoring electronic, and optical components of the instru-
networks. ments (in any type of instrumentation) as well as
the stability of survey stations.
c. Although it seems to be unrealistic and practically
impossible to prepare overall detailed standards and spec- • Local instability of the observation stations
ifications for dam monitoring at the national level, certain (improper monumentation of survey stations and
processes could, and perhaps should, be standardized, improper installation of the in situ
particularly: instrumentation).

(1) Calibration of instruments. • Lack of or improper calibration of the

instruments.
(2) Procedures for the integrated geometrical analysis
and data management from the moment of the data col-
lection, through the reduction of data and trend analysis

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• Lack of understanding by the users of the sources geodetic. This is dictated, perhaps, by the fact that the
of errors and of the proper reduction of the col- members of the ICOLD Committee on Monitoring Dams
lected observations. and Their Foundations are predominantly specialists in
geotechnical instrumentation with some obsolete views on
Most of the above-listed effects could be eliminated or the use geodetic techniques. With the exception of a few
drastically reduced if the monitoring surveys were in the individual dams, there is no country which takes full
hands of qualified professionals. advantage of the optimal combination of both techniques,
i.e., the concept of the integrated monitoring surveys
c. The problem of calibration is very often underes- developed within the activity of FIG. The biases toward
timated in practice, not only by the users but also by the one or another type of techniques are obviously produced
manufacturers. For long-term measurements, the instru- by a lack of specialists with full knowledge of both geo-
ment repeatability (precision) may be affected by aging of technical and geodetic measurements. This leads to the
the electronic and mechanical components resulting in a following:
drift of the instrument readout. Of particular concern are
geotechnical instruments for which the users, in general, (1) The concept of the integrated monitoring sys-
do not have sufficient facilities and adequate knowledge tems, in which the geotechnical and geodetic surveying
for their calibration. The permanently installed instru- techniques complement each other, should be made
ments are very often left in situ for several years without known to all the owners of large dams through the afore-
checking the quality of their performance. mentioned efforts of the national committees on large
dams and publication of guidelines.
d. The last aspect, the lack of understanding of the
sources of errors affecting various types of measurements (2) Monitoring schemes for all new dams should be
and the proper data handling is, perhaps, the most designed at the design stage of the dam.
dangerous and, unfortunately, the most frequent case in
measurements of deformations. The measurements and (3) As far as the new monitoring technologies are
processing of the monitoring data, particularly geodetic concerned, more research is still needed in:
surveys, are usually in hands of technicians who may be
experienced in the data collection, but have no educational (a) Optimal use of GPS.
background in handling and reducing the influence of
various sources of errors. In this case, even the most (b) Automation of data acquisition including the
technologically advanced instrumentation system will not optimal selection of electronic and optical transducers,
supply the expected information. comparison of their performance (sources of errors, dura-
bility), development of calibration methods, and
e. A worldwide review of the monitoring techniques
used in monitoring surveys indicates that, generally, there (c) Application of new technologies, for example the
are no significant differences between different countries use of the optic-fibre sensors, CCD sensors, etc.
in the employed instrumentation. There are, however, dif-
ferences in the accuracy requirements, the required fre- 9-35. Analysis and Modeling of Deformations and
quency of observations, and in the details concerning the Their Applications
use of the instruments. This is also true among USACE
districts. Strong biases toward either geodetic or geotech- a. Over the past 10 years there has been a signifi-
nical instrumentation have been developed in individual cant progress in the development of new methods for the
countries. The biases are correlated with the level of geometrical and physical analyses of deformation surveys.
educational background in geodetic surveys. For instance, FIG has been leading in the developments, particularly in
in Switzerland and Germany, where the standard of geo- the areas of integrated geometrical analysis of structural
detic surveying education and the number of specialists in deformations and combined integrated analysis. However,
surveying engineering are high, the geodetic surveying due to the aforementioned lack of the interdisciplinary
techniques play the dominant role in monitoring large cooperation and insufficient exchange of information, FIG
dams. Whereas, in the countries like Italy, France, and developments have not yet been widely adapted in prac-
U.K., where the education in surveying engineering does tice. Therefore, the general worldwide use of the geo-
not have a long-standing tradition, the geotechnical techni- metrical analysis methods is still poor, including even the
ques are mostly used. ICOLD seems to be biased toward basic analysis of geodetic monitoring networks. The latter
use of geotechnical/structural instrumentation rather than is of a particular concern in the United States where there

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31 Oct 94

is a shortage of qualified surveying engineers. The the integrated geometrical analysis, and for the finite
worldwide situation with the physical analysis is much element deterministic modeling and prediction of
better with most countries who utilize both deterministic deformations.
and statistical methods for modeling and interpreting
deformations at various levels of sophistication. How- b. The above comments lead to the following:
ever, most countries do not take full advantage of the
developments in the integration of the observed deforma- (1) The analysis of deformation surveys should be in
tions with deterministic models to enhance the latter ones. hands of interdisciplinary teams consisting of geotechni-
Also only few countries utilize the observed deformations cal, structural, and surveying engineers specialized in both
to develop prediction models through the regression anal- geometrical and physical analyses.
ysis. Italy seems to lead in the use of the combined sta-
tistical and deterministic modeling. Canada, within the (2) More use should be made of the concepts and
activities of FIG, leads in the development of new con- developed methodologies for the geometrical integrated
cepts in the global integrated analysis. For example, the analysis and combined deterministic/statistical modeling
UNB has developed new methodology and software for of deformations.

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Chapter 10 Table 10-1

Standards and Specifications Reference Network Relative Accuracy for Concrete and
Earthen Embankment Structures
for Deformation Monitoring
Reference Networks Linear Extent
of Network Concrete (mm) Embankment (mm)

Absolute External
10-1. General Scope Observations
100-1,000 m 5 15
This chapter details USACE standards and specifications 1 km - 5 km 20 50
for establishing external deformation monitoring reference
Relative Deflection
networks, from which periodic PICES observations are
Observations
made to structure object/target points. Also included are (Micrometers)
requirements and procedures for periodically monitoring 10 m 0.5 2
the stability of the reference network points. The stan- 100 m 1 13
dards and procedures for establishing reference networks Linear extent of deformation network is the maximum spatial dis-
are intended to support the Reference Line Ratio (RLR) tance between the two most widely separated points in the
technique, also known as the “Robertson Method,” of network.
periodic structural monitoring. The RLR/Robertson tech-
nique is recommended for most USACE PICES monitor-
ing applications and is further described in Chapter 11. a. From Table 10-1, the relative accuracies of refer-
ence points spaced at a typical distance of 1 km are 5 mm
a. Accuracy standards and specifications. The for a concrete structure and 15 mm for an embankment
accuracy standards developed in this chapter apply to structure. These relative accuracies can be readily
deformation surveys carried out by conventional, photo- achieved using careful geodetic survey techniques and
grammetric, and GPS survey methods. It is possible that instrumentation. This includes use of traditional theodo-
two or even three of these methods can be used together; lites and EDM, or full use of modern electronic total
therefore, the standards are based upon the magnitude of a stations. Centering errors are minimized through use of
detectable single point movement and are independent of forced-centering instrument/target mounts. Use of the
the method used. Alternately, the specifications sections RLR/Robertson method minimizes refractive errors in
are treated as a function of the procedures required, rather EDM measurement.
than by method used. Both the standards and specifica-
tions developed are adapted from a consolidation of b. The relative accuracies of alignment reference
information from various USACE commands and other points used for short-range deflection observations
deformation monitoring agencies. (usually with micrometers) are as indicated. The use of
forced-centering is critical for obtaining repeatability in
b. Geodetic survey methods. The standards and deflections, and the absolute relative accuracy indicated is
specifications are based on the determination of deforma- only representative should these points be used for
tions using traditional geodetic survey techniques and external monitoring.
equipment, as observed from reference networks. The
traditional geodetic survey accuracy “orders” (i.e., First- 10-3. Accuracy Requirements for Surveying
Order, Second-Order) do not apply to deformation surveys PICES Targets
since most horizontal and vertical observations are of
relatively short length (less than 1,000 m). Generally, Table 10-2 depicts the recommended accuracy by which
traditional geodetic First-Order techniques (not accuracy target points on the structure must be located during peri-
standards) are followed in PICES surveys. odic PICES surveys taken from the reference network.
Accuracies indicated are absolute -- relative to the entire
10-2. Reference Network Accuracy Standards reference network, not over a single line (which will be
far more precise).
Table 10-1 depicts the accuracy required in a reference
network to obtain the target accuracies outlined in a. Concrete structures. To obtain the indicated
Chapter 9. 10-mm accuracy, traditional geodetic survey procedures

10-1
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for PICES deformation surveys. The z coordinate can

Table 10-2
Typical Accuracy Requirements for PICES Surveys either be: local orthometric height if conventional survey
or conventional combined with photogrammetric survey
Concrete Structures observations are used; local Euclidean height if photo-
Dams, Outlet Works, Locks, Intake Structures grammetric survey observations are used only; or the local
ellipsoidal height if only GPS, GPS plus conventional,
Long-Term Movement 10 mm
(Geodetic survey methods)
and/or photogrammetric survey observations are used.

Relative Short-Term Deflections 10-5. First-Order 3-D Deformation Monitoring

Crack/Joint Movements Specifications
Monolith Alignment 0.01 in. (0.2 mm)
(Precision micrometer alignments)
The following sections detail the minimum specifications
Vertical Stability/Settlement that should be followed to achieve the reference network
(Precise geodetic leveling) 2 mm accuracies detailed in Table 10-1.
Embankment Structures
10-6. Network Design
Earth-Rockfill Dams, Levees

Slope/crest Stability 0.1 foot When designing a network for deformation monitoring, it
(Total station/DGPS) is important to keep in mind that: a structure and its
foundations form a whole that is embedded in the sur-
Crest Alignment 0.1 foot
rounding terrain which may also impact the observations;
(Total station/DGPS)
abnormal structural behavior may occur either quite
Settlement measurements 0.05 foot rapidly or gradually over time; and if abnormal deforma-
(Differential leveling) tion does occur, analysis of deformation measurement
data can help to identify its cause. Therefore, a network
Control Structures
design should be capable of monitoring both short- and
Spillways, Stilling Basins, Approach/Outlet Channels, Reservoirs
long-term influences, as well as be capable of distinguish-
Scour/Erosion/Silting ing between movement of the structure, its foundation,
(Hydrographic surveys) 0.2 to 0.5 foot and surrounding terrain. Analysis of behavior for the
short term consists of collection and analysis of specific
data frequently, while long-term behavioral analysis con-
are employed. Use of the RLR/Robertson method will sists of collecting and examining more differentiated data.
easily meet this accuracy standard. Relative accuracies Instrumentation and procedures for short-term analysis
over individual lines will be far more precise. Precise must be easy to operate and follow, providing measure-
EDM and/or electronic total stations with forced-centering ments that are relatively easy to interpret. Instrumentation
mounts are recommended for performing periodic and procedures for long-term analysis are conducted less
observations. often, therefore instrumentation and procedures are typi-
cally more sophisticated, often requiring the aid of spe-
b. Embankment structures. Most conventional pre- cialists in order to be done properly. The specific design
cise survey methods will provide the accuracies required of the deformation network can be used to determine the
for these structures. Force-centered electronic total sta- network configuration, instrumentation, and accompanying
tions are recommended, although tripod-mounted theodo- procedures to be followed.
lites/EDM will provide adequate results.
a. There are no existing PC-based software packages
10-4. Local Coordinate Systems for Reference specifically intended for deformation network design.
Network Surveys Even though this is the case, network adjustment software
using rigorous adjustment methods (e.g., method-of-least-
The specifications outlined in this chapter refer to a squares-based adjustment software) can be used to carry
3-D local coordinate system where x and y are the hori- out deformation network design through preanalysis of
zontal coordinates and z is the vertical (i.e., height) coor- alternative designs. Deformation network design is then
dinate. The X-Y grid system used is usually a local facilitated through a “sensitivity analysis” in which pre-
coordinate system or construction system. Connections to chosen movements are tested to determine if they are
geographic systems or SPCS are not required or needed detectable with the particular design alternative. Using

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network adjustment software in such a manner should be precision, reliability, and detectability of movements
left to those with experience in such and should not be because of the lack of redundant measurements. Subse-
done by the novice. quently, the network design for a network observed by
conventional survey methods is very critical. By contrast,
b. Recognizing the complexity and difficulties of a network observed by photogrammetry, GPS, or a combi-
using network adjustment software for deformation net- nation thereof typically provides a large number of
work design, the following empirical relationship was redundant measurements and its network design is not as
developed and will be used to determine the detectable critical. Regardless of this phenomenon, the empirical
single point movement possible in a particular deforma- relationships in Equations 10-1 through 10-4 are valid for
tion network design: deformation network design, exclusive of the method used
to monitor it, and will be used when practicable.
Sp = Pp * 2 (10-1)
10-7. Monumentation
where
A monument used for deformation monitoring is any
Sp = detectable single point movement structure or device which serves to define a point in the
deformation survey network. It must have long-term sta-
Pp = precision of the point position bility with respect to the area surrounding it of less than
0.5 mm both horizontally and vertically. A monument
Pp can be further defined based on the definition of the can be classified as either a reference point or an object
points position. For a 1-D (i.e., z) point position point. A reference point typically is not located on the
definition: deformation structure and is to be “occupied” during the
deformation survey. An object point is located on the
Pp = Sz (10-2) deforming structure and is to be “monitored” during the
deformation survey. The monumentation described in the
For a 2-D (i.e., x and y) point position definition: following paragraphs will be used for both horizontal and
vertical observations as these observations are taken dur-
Pp = (Sx2 + Sx2) (10-3) ing a typical deformation survey. Therefore, the use of
deeply set monuments used for either horizontal or verti-
For a 3-D (i.e., x, y, and z) point position definition: cal control surveys alone typically are not used in a defor-
mation network design and subsequent observations.
Pp = (Sx2 + Sy2 + Sz2) (10-4)
10-8. Reference Point Monuments
where
a. Reference points installed in the earth shall be
(for Equations 10-1, -2, and -3): installed so as to have a depth equal to at least twice the
depth of frost penetration in the project area. These refer-
Sx, Sy, Sz = estimated precision, at the 95 percent confi- ence points can be either a steel pipe pile or cast-in-place
dence level of the respective x, y, and z coordinates reinforced concrete pile (Figure 10-1 a and b). If a steel
pipe pile is used, the nominal diameter will be no less
c. In lieu of network adjustment software that use a than 20 cm, while the wall thickness will be no less than
rigorous method of adjustment, Equations 10-1 through that for standard weight pipe. If a cast-in-place reinforced
10-4 will be used as the basis for deformation network concrete pile is used, the nominal diameter will also be no
design. The explanation for the use of a detectable single less than 20 cm.
point movement for deformation network design should
be obvious: a network is less sensitive to the movement b. Installation of the reference point will be as
of one point (i.e., it is more sensitive to the movement of follows:
a group of points); therefore, the magnitude of a single
point is used to define the criteria for the deformation (1) Steel pipe pile. A steel pipe pile will be
network design for deformation surveys. installed by driving it until refusal. If refusal occurs at a
depth of less than twice the depth of frost penetration in
d. In a network observed by conventional survey the project area, the pile will be removed and its
methods, there can be weak areas with respect to the

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installation attempted in another location. Steel pipes g. Reference points installed in rock or concrete
placed in oversized predrilled holes and backfilled will shall consist of a stainless steel plate as described above,
not be used as reference points. except with a steel reenforcing bar stub welded to the
underside. For installation, a hole at least 50 percent
(2) Cast-in-place reinforced concrete pile. A cast-in- larger than the stub will be drilled into sound rock or con-
place reinforced concrete pile will be installed by first crete. The plate with the stub attached will be secured to
drilling a hole to at least twice the depth of frost pene- the rock or concrete using adequate epoxy adhesive to
tration in the project area. The cage of steel reinforcing completely fill the void between the stub and the rock or
bars used will have a cross-sectional area of steel to con- concrete.
crete of not less than 0.02. After the cage is formed, it is
placed in the hole. Concrete with a 28-day compressive 10-9. Object/Target Point Marks
strength of not less than 15 megaPascals is then poured
into the form. Precast reinforced concrete piles driven a. Object points installed in the earth will consist of
into predrilled holes or placed in oversized predrilled a nominal 3-m length of square steel hollow structural
holes and backfilled will not be used for reference points. section with a nominal side length of 5 cm and a wall
thickness not less than that for a standard weight square
c. If the length of line of observation is less 1 km, it steel hollow structural section (Figure 10-2). The base of
is preferable for the reference point to extend above the section is sharpened by cutting it at a 45-degree angle.
ground level to a convenient height (e.g., 1.5 m) where Welded approximately 15 cm from the base is one length
the equipment can be force centered. Typically, at the top of 10-mm-thick 20-cm-diameter circular helix with a pitch
of such a reference point pile, a stainless steel plate not of 7 cm. Welded to the top of the pipe is a steel plate
less than 2 cm thick is cast into the top of the pile using a not less than 5 mm thick. In the center of the plate a
minimum of four steel reinforcing bar anchors welded to 5/8-inch-11NC steel bolt onto which survey equipment is
the underside of the plate. In the center of the plate, a to be connected is drilled through and welded to the plate.
5/8-inch-diameter 11NC steel bolt is welded to the plate If practicable, some method (e.g., through the use of a
to allow for survey equipment to be attached. cap) should be used to protect the threads of the bolt
during the time survey equipment is not attached.
d. Where cold weather conditions dictate, an insula-
tion sleeve may need to be installed around the reference b. Object points set directly in rock or concrete may
point pile that extends above the ground. The installation be either a steel bolt onto or a steel insert into which
of a sleeve is to eliminate the possibility of temperature- survey equipment is force centered. The installation of
induced pile movements that may be the result of solar these types of object points will be as follows:
radiation (i.e., temperature variation due to time of day).
When this is the case, the sleeve should have an R value (1) Steel bolt. The steel bolt will be drilled through
of not less than 10. and welded to a 5-cm-diameter, 1-cm-thick steel plate. A
steel reinforcing bar stub of suitable length will be welded
e. For pipe piles terminating at or slightly below to the head of the bolt. A hole approximately 50 percent
ground level, a convex stainless steel plate and stub will larger than the stub will be drilled in sound rock or con-
be installed as described above. The plate will be convex crete. The plate with the stub attached will be secured to
as required for leveling observations and will have an the rock or concrete using adequate epoxy adhesive to
etched cross at the highest point of the convex surface for completely fill the void between the stub and the rock or
horizontal observation. It is recommended that such piles concrete. Once again, if practicable, some method (e.g.,
also have a cylindrical rim and cover around it for protec- through the use of a cap) should be used to protect the
tion. If a cylindrical rim and cover is used, it is further threads of the bolt during the time survey equipment is
recommended the cover be buried so as to be easily not attached.
recoverable with a metal detector, as well as to minimize
the chance of vandalism. (2) Steel insert. Steel inserts have been designed by
various manufacturers as off-the-shelf items. Manufac-
f. If possible, the reference points should be turer instructions for proper installation of the insert
installed at least a year prior to their use to minimize the should be followed.
effects of pile rebound and shrinkage. If this is not prac-
ticable, no less than a month prior to their use will
suffice.

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a. Targets used for angular measurement, either

horizontal, vertical, or both, will be either:

• Standard force-centered target sets designed for

one-second theodolites;

• Standard force-centered target set/prism combina-

tion used with a particular total station or theodo-
lite and EDM;

• A target made of the material from which typical

force-centered prisms are made;

• The monuments themselves.

b. Target set/prism combinations not matched to a

particular total station will not be used. Also, target set/
prism combinations for total stations which are noncoaxial
will be tilting target set/prism combinations so the target
set/prism can be tilted together to allow for alignment
with the line of observation.

c. Targets for taped distances will be the monuments

Figure 10-2. Hollow steel structure with helix base themselves.
object point
d. Targets for EDMs will be the prisms included
with the EDM. Prisms not matched to a particular EDM
c. Object points on materials (e.g., steel, masonry, will not be used.
etc.) other than described in the previous paragraphs will
be permanently affixed. For object points to be mounted e. Targets for spirit-leveled height difference mea-
on steel, a steel bolt welded to the steel may be suitable. surements will be the monuments themselves. If the
For masonry, or other material, a steel bolt, plate, and monuments are steel inserts, the targets will be stainless
rear stub or a steel insert may be suitable. steel plugs designed for the purpose. If more than one
plug is to be used on a project, the plugs will be of the
d. For all reference and object points installed, an same size.
applicable identifier (e.g., numeric or alphanumeric) will
be stamped on the point as appropriate. A permanent f. The preferred targets for photogrammetric-based
record will be kept of the identifier, description, location, deformation surveys typically consist of a white dot on a
and condition of each reference and object point. black background. The diameter of the white dot is
chosen so as to yield an average image diameter of
e. Further information on specific monument design 60 microns. The black background typically is five times
and installation is provided in EM 1110-1-1002. the diameter of the white target.

10-10. PICES Targets g. The targets for GPS-based deformation surveys

generally are the monuments themselves.
A target used for deformation monitoring is a device with
a well-defined aiming point which is placed vertically 10-11. PICES Instrumentation
over or attached to a monument. The purpose of a target
is to permit making measurements to the point over which The instruments typically used for deformation surveys
it is installed when the deformation survey network is are described in the following paragraphs.
observed. Such a device typically is installed only for the
period of the survey. In some cases, the monument may
be a target itself.

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a. If using an optical theodolite, it shall have a tele- one-minute data sampling. At the least, the receiver
scope magnification of 30 times or better, a plate level should be capable of recording the GPS carrier frequency,
with a sensitivity of 20 seconds per 2-mm graduation or receiver clock time, and signal strength for each data sam-
better, an automatic vertical circle compensator, and a ple. A receiver is required for each reference and object
coincident micrometer direct to 1 second or better. point. The same receiver/antenna combination should be
used for each setup.
b. If using an electronic theodolite, it will have the
same characteristics of an optical theodolite or better, but 10-12. Equipment Adjustment and Calibration
the circle reading system will be accurate to 3 seconds or
less. All equipment used for deformation monitoring surveys
will be maintained in adjustment and calibration between
c. Distances of 10 m or less can be measured with a use so as to minimize possible errors that may result from
steel or invar tape. An EDM will not be used to measure the equipment being out of adjustment. Manufacturer
distances less than 10 m. Distances of 30 m or less can specifications will be used as the basis for the adjustments
be measured with a tensioned steel tape, invar tape, or and calibrations.
invar wire which can be attached to the steel bolt or insert
directly, a subtense bar, or an EDM. An EDM is the a. No adjustments need be made to barometers, ther-
preferred instrument for distances beyond 30 m. Micro- mometers, and EDMs. Instead, systematic instrument
wave-based EDM systems will not be used. It is not errors will be determined by calibration and standardiza-
necessary to measure any distances with multiple wave- tion procedures and the associated observations made with
length-based instruments. the equipment will be corrected accordingly.

d. Barometers will be capable of 2-mm mercury b. If a tribrach is used, the only adjustment and
precision or better. Thermometers will be of 1 degree calibration necessary is to the optical plummet if so
Celsius readings or better. equipped.

e. If spirit leveling is done, the instrument will be an c. A metric camera will not be adjusted or calibrated
automatic level with telescope magnification of 40 times during a survey session. If adjustment or calibration need
or better, compensator with a sensitivity of 10-second per be done, it will be done only by personnel qualified in
2-mm level vial graduation, parallel plate micrometer such. The same applies for the image-coordinate meas-
capable of 0.1-mm readings. The compensator will be a urement devices. Such activities should be done as a
free suspension one and not a mechanical one so as to matter of habit at least once a year or more if necessary.
minimize the effect of possible electromagnetic fields.
The rod to be used should be an invar, double scale rod d. GPS equipment typically does not require adjust-
or one with a permanently attached circular level ment and calibration. If a piece of GPS equipment does
attached - both having graduations equal to the range of not appear to be operating correctly, the manufacturer
the parallel plate micrometer. should be consulted.

f. All equipment will have an optical plummet 10-13. Survey Procedures

either incorporated in it or be capable of being used with
a detachable tribrach that has an optical plummet. Formalizing a particular procedure to be followed that
meets all circumstances is difficult, but generalized proce-
g. When performing photogrammetric-based defor- dures can be developed and are detailed in the following
mation surveys, only metric cameras will be used. Typi- paragraphs.
cally, only one camera is necessary as it is moved from
station to station. The instrument used for image coor- a. Angle measurement with a theodolite. When
dinate measurement (e.g., monocomparator, stereo- using a theodolite for angle measurement, it will be accu-
comparator, or analytical stereocomparator) will be rately plumbed over the occupied point by either attaching
capable of 1-micron or better resolution. the theodolite to the point with a tribrach or using a tripod
and tribrach with an optical plummet, as applicable. Once
h. When performing GPS-based deformation sur- measurements are made, the level of the instrument will
veys, the receiver used will be at least geodetic quality, be checked. If found to be greater than 10 seconds, the
multichannel, single frequency, and capable of at least measurements will be done again with a leveled

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instrument. When an electronic theodolite is used, the instrument (i.e., HI) and height of the target (i.e., HT) to
level of the instrument will be kept to less than 2 minutes. at least 0.5 cm for later reduction of the distance to point
to point.
(1) The reticule should be focused first and then the
objective lens of the theodolite. d. Distance measurement with an EDM. If measur-
ing the distance with an EDM (including those
(2) If possible, observation should be limited to days incorporated within total stations), the EDM will be accu-
when the weather conditions are fairly neutral (e.g., rately plumbed and leveled over the point, or force-
cloudy day with a light breeze). Days with temperature centered. Observations with an EDM will not be
extremes should be avoided. If an instrument must be conducted over terrain where extremes may be present
used when the temperature is hot, it should be protected (e.g., across a valley or river) that under adverse weather
from the sun by an umbrella. conditions may produce large errors related to atmo-
spheric conditions and temperature along the lines of
(3) Observation of zenith angles, where necessary, observations. To this end, observations with an EDM
should be limited to between 10 in the morning and 3 in also should be limited to days when favorable atmo-
the afternoon in order to minimize the chance for vertical spheric conditions (e.g., slightly cloudy with a light
refraction. When elevation differences are determined by breeze) are prevalent. An EDM should never be operated
zenith angles with a theodolite, such equipment will not near external electromagnetic field producing sources.
be operated near high electromagnetic producing devices
(e.g., transformers, high voltage power lines, etc.). (1) Prior to its use, an EDM should be allowed to
“warm up” according to manufacturer specifications.
(4) Directions and zenith angles will be observed in Also, the EDM should be operated in the manufacturer
four rounds. In all theodolites, face left and face right recommended range of ambient temperatures (e.g., typi-
point and reads will be made on all targets. The excep- cally -20 and +40 °C) and with fully charged batteries.
tion is a few types of theodolites that have auto cali-
bration based on point and reads to one target. All (2) Prior to measurements with the EDM, the target
horizontal and vertical circle readings will be recorded prism will be set perpendicular to within 10 degrees of
manually or electronically to 0.1 second. the line of observation. When actual measurements are
made, the prism will be adjusted to maximize the strength
b. Distance measurement with a tape. Distances of the signal.
measured between monuments will be made point to point
whenever possible. When using a steel or wire invar (3) Each EDM measurement between object and tar-
tape, the uncorrected distance to the millimeter, tempera- get station will be done iteratively at least four times by
ture, tension applied, slope, unsupported length(s), and the resetting the instrument and performing the observation
standardization error of the tape will be recorded. If again.
unable to measure point to point, a tripod and theodolite
will be plumbed and leveled over the points and the dis- e. Pressure and temperature measurement. Pressure
tance measured between the trunnion axis of the setup. If and temperature will always be measured at the instru-
tensioned equipment is used, in addition to the previous ment stations and at the target station if it is a reference
measurements to be made, the uncorrected distance should network point (rather than an object point). (Note that the
be measured to 0.01 mm. Distance measurements made RLR/Robertson Method is independent of pressure/
by tape will be independently made at least two times by temperature measurements.) Temperature and pressure
repeating the setup required to make the measurements. will always be measured in a location shaded from the
sun, exposed to any wind, and at least 5 feet above the
c. Distance measurement with a subtense bar. If ground and away from the observer and instrument.
measuring the distance with a subtense bar, the subtense Corrections to temperature and pressure will never be
bar and theodolite will be plumbed and leveled over the applied when the observations are made, but will be
points defining each end of the line of observation as applied when the observations are reduced.
described in the previous paragraphs. The optical sight
will be used to set the subtense bar perpendicular to the f. Additional observation requirements. When
line of observation. The angle subtended by the subtense observations are made, in addition to the other standard
bar will be measured reiteratively four times by the information required for a survey, the following should be
theodolite. Do not forget to record the height of the recorded in the field book:

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(1) Pressure to 2 mm. sound HI measurement procedures, should be followed at

all times.
(2) Temperature to nearest 1 °C.
(10) When performing leveling operations, the coef-
(3) HI of ED and prism to 0.5 cm, HI of theodolite ficient of refraction determined for data and applicable for
and target to 0.5 cm if distance is measured, 0.5 mm if the observation period will be applied.
both distance and height differences are measured.
h. Photogrammetry operations. When performing
g. Leveling operations. When determining elevation photogrammetric-based deformation surveys, the metric
by precise spirit leveling, the following guidelines will be camera used will be mounted in or on a suitable camera
followed: platform (e.g., camera tripod). During exposure, move-
ment of the camera will be minimized. If using an air-
(1) Either one or two double-scale invar rods will be plane or helicopter for the platform, a camera with an
used. For short runs, traditional three-wire procedures are image motion compensator must be used. Typically, 5 to
allowable. 20 exposure stations are necessary to ensure sufficient
precision for the object point coordinates are determined.
(2) Level lines will be run in only one direction. To ensure the whole photo-taking portion of the survey is
performed correctly, it is highly recommended that only
(3) Either observed stadia or a cloth tape may be used experienced personnel be used for this phase of the sur-
to balance the foresight and backsight distances between vey. The photogrammetric reduction process also should
two deformation survey network points. If the distances be done by experienced personnel trained in image coor-
cannot be balanced, they will be recorded so that the dinate measurement with the appropriate equipment. If
height difference can be adjusted during data reduction. practicable, it is recommended that this process be auto-
mated in order to eliminate the possible gross errors pos-
(4) If using one level rod, it will be moved from sible with self-calibration. EM 1110-1-1000 should be
backsight to foresight as quickly as possible and readings referred to for more specifics on the photogrammetric
made. The readings will be recorded manually in the process.
field book or electronically to 0.01 mm.
i. GPS operations. When performing GPS-based
(5) The maximum length of the line of sight should deformation surveys, the procedures will be done in
not be more than 150 feet. accordance with EM 1110-1-1003.

(6) The line of sight will not be less than 1.5 feet j. Preprocessing of data. Preprocessing of data is
above the ground. done to minimize the amount of subsequent calculations
required and eliminate erroneous data.
(7) Leveling operations will be conducted under the
recommended favorable conditions cited for previous k. Preprocessing conventional survey data. Prepro-
instruments. Also, automatically leveled equipment will cessing of conventional survey data consists of applying a
not be operated near electromagnetic field generating rejection test at the time the observations are made in
sources as recommended in previous paragraphs for other order to reject probable outliers and atmospheric, instru-
instruments. HI of the theodolite and target will be mental, standardization, and geometric corrections so data
recorded as detailed herein. can be imported directly into subsequent adjustment soft-
ware. Gravity corrections typically do not need to be
(8) Trigonometric leveling as detailed in the para- applied due to the small areal extent of the data collec-
graphs on EDM operation can be used to determine height tion. Preprocessing of conventional survey observations
differences in lieu of spirit leveling. can either be done manually or by appropriate verified
and validated PC based programs.
(9) The importance of measuring the HI to the accu-
racies cited cannot be overemphasized. A blunder in the l. Preprocessing photogrammetric-based survey
measurement of the HI will transfer through subsequent data. Preprocessing of photogrammetric-based survey
measurements, reductions, and adjustment, giving inac- data will include the screening of measured image coor-
curate results. In an effort to measure the HI correctly, dinates in order to reject observations which are outliers
proper targets and HI measuring instruments, as well as and to determine 3-D object coordinates and associated

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variance-covariance matrix in the local coordinate system. • Correction due to the additive constant for the
Determination of the 3-D object coordinates should be particular EDM and prism combination.
accomplished by a computer-based bundle adjustment
program with self-calibration. Also, in the bundle adjust- • Correction due to the standardization error of the
ment, the focal length, horizontal position of the principal EDM.
point, and coefficients of radial lens, asymmetric lens, and
photographic lens distortion and photographic media • Geometric corrections, to include correction due
unflatness will be treated as weighted unknowns. If the to unequal HI for EDM, prism, theodolite, and
distance between exposure is kept to what is recom- target, arc distance to slope distance corrections,
mended, atmospheric refraction also will be neglected. If slope distance to horizontal distance correction,
using GPS observations in conjunction with the photo- and horizontal distance at station elevation to
grammetric process, the appropriate earth curvature cor- horizontal distance at reference elevation
rection will need to be applied. correction.

m. Preprocessing GPS survey data. Preprocessing of (3) If data collected with an automatic level are not
GPS survey data at a minimum will include determination rejected, a single height difference will be computed as
of the 3-D coordinate differences and associated variance- the mean of the height difference computed and the height
covariance matrix in the local 3-D coordinate system used difference computed from the right scale readings. If the
for all baseline observed and screening of these reduced foresight and backsight readings are unbalanced, the
vectors to eliminate possible outliers. Table 10-2 lists single height difference will be corrected for vertical
some rejection criteria for preprocessing deformation collimation error.
survey data, as well as action that can be taken if the data
do not pass the rejection criteria. n. Analysis of collected data. Prior to analysis of
collected data, the adjustment and localization of deforma-
(1) When a mean uncorrected distance is determined tion survey data typically are separated into the 2-D (i.e.,
using a steel or invar tape or steel tape, invar tape, or horizontal) and 1-D (i.e., vertical) components for analy-
invar wire measuring unit, the following corrections will sis. More frequently, though, analysis is being done on
be applied to determine true distance: 3-D vectors, especially when GPS-based deformation sur-
veys are being used.
• Temperature correction between the observed and
standardized tape distance (ignore if using an (1) The analysis of deformation survey data will
invar tape). include:

• Tension correction between the observed and • Adjustment of observations made in each epoch
standardized tape distance. in order to determine point coordinates, associated
variance-covariance matrices, and other informa-
• Correction due to the unsupported length(s) of the tion required for localization of the deformation.
tape.
• Localization of deformations between epochs in
• Slope correction if applicable. order to determine statistically significant point
movements.
• Correction due to standardization error.
(2) The first step in analysis of the collected data is
(2) If the distances collected with an EDM are not the survey adjustment. For conventional survey observa-
rejected, a single uncorrected distance will be computed tions, the standard deviations listed in Table 10-3 will be
as the mean of the four independent measured distances. used in the survey data adjustment.
When the mean uncorrected distance is determined, the
following corrections will be applied to determine true (3) For adjustments where conventional survey data
distance: and/or GPS survey observations are combined with photo-
grammetric survey observations, the localized 3-D
• Atmospheric corrections based on the atmospheric coordinates (i.e., x, y, z coordinates) and associated vari-
conditions during observation and standard atmo- ance-covariance matrix from the photogrammetric survey
spheric conditions.

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Table 10-2
Rejection Criteria For Preprocessing of Deformation Survey Data
Type of Type of Action to Follow if
Instrument Measurement Test Data are Rejected

Theodolite1 Angle 1. Reduced data must be less than 2 seconds from Re-observe the portion
or the mean reduced direction --> Otherwise, reject of the survey rejected
Subtense Bar1 Angle 2. Reduced zenith angle not being used to compute a height
or difference must be less than 4 seconds from the mean
Theodolite1 Elevation reduced direction --> Otherwise, reject
(Trigonometric 3. Reduced and corrected zenith angle not being used to compute
Leveling) a height difference must be less than 2 seconds from the mean
reduced and corrected zenith angle --> Otherwise, reject

Steel or Distance 1. Difference between two independently measured Remeasure the distance
Invar Tape distances must be less than 2 mm --> Otherwise, reject rejected

Steel Tape, Distance 1. Difference between two independently Remeasure the distance
Invar Tape, measured distances must be less rejected
or Invar Wire than 0.02 mm --> Otherwise, reject
Measuring Unit

EDM Distance 1. Maximum difference among the four independent Remeasure the distance
or measured distances must be less than rejected
EDM Elevation 5 mm --> Otherwise, reject
(Trigonometric
Leveling)

Automatic Elevation 1. Difference between readings on the left- and right- Re-observe the portion of
Level Setup hand scale must be within 0.25 mm of rod the survey rejected
constant --> Otherwise, reject
2. Difference between height difference determined from
the foresight and backsight readings on the left rod scale
and that determined from foresight and backsight readings
from the right scale must be less than 0.25 mm --> Otherwise, reject

Network of Elevation 1. Height difference misclosure in a loop must be less Formulate different loops
Level Setups than 3 mm * (K in km) --> (Minimum = 1 mm) to determine height differences
Otherwise, reject between points common to
loops which have been
rejected; or re-observe the
portion of the survey rejected

Level and HI 1. Difference between two independent readings must Remeasure the distance
Meter Rule be less than 0.5 mm --> Otherwise, reject rejected

Mono- Photo image 1. As applied by photogrammetry software for Remeasure image coordinates
comparator, coordinates hardware used --> Otherwise, reject
stereo- 2. Discrepancy between double measured image coordinates
comparator, or is less than 2 microns --> Otherwise, reject
stereo comparator

GPS Receivers Horizontal 1. Tests as detailed in EM 1110-1-1003 Re-occupy baseline

coordinates
and elevation

1
When performing these data reductions, no atmospheric, instrumental, standardization, and geometric corrections are necessary for
angular observation made with a theodolite, except in the case of zenith angles which are observed for the purpose of determining height
differences (in which case, earth curvature and refraction need be considered). Because a deformation survey is on a localized network,
skew-normal, arc-to-chord, and normal section to geodetic correction need not be applied.

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Table 10-3
Standard Deviations to be Used in Deformation Survey Data Adjustment
Measurement Standard Deviation (σ)1

Direction 2 arc seconds

Zenith Angles - when simultaneous or near simultaneous zenith angles in arc seconds,
are observed and corrected for earth curvature and computed (4 + ((61,879.5 * S)/(2 * R))2)
coefficient of refraction

Zenith Angles - when 1-way zenith angles are observed and corrected in arc seconds,
for earth curvature and computed coefficient of refraction (4 + ((123,759.0 * S)/(2 * R))2)

Zenith Angles - when 1-way zenith angles are observed and corrected in arc seconds,
for earth curvature and estimated coefficient of refraction (4 + ((206,265 * S)/(2 * R))2)

Distance measured with a steel or invar tape 2 mm

Distance measured with a steel tape, invar tape, or

invar wire measuring unit 0.02 mm

Distance measured with a subtense bar in mm, (2.25 + (5 * S2 * 10-3)2)

Distance measured with an EDM in mm, (25 + (2 * Ss * 10-3)2)

1
σ = estimated standard deviation
S = approximate horizontal distance in km
R = approximate radius of the earth = 6,370 km
Ss = approximate spatial distance in meters

observations and subsequent bundle adjustment and self- conventional survey observations are to be adjusted in a
calibration will be included. When only using photogram- network, the following additional information is required
metric survey observations, the free network constraints to be computed: redundancy number of each observation,
(i.e., inner constraints) will be used to define the datum. quadratic form of residuals for each observation type (i.e.,
When photogrammetric survey observations are combined directions, zenith angles, etc.), sum of redundancy num-
only with conventional survey observation, the datum will bers for each observation type, and the estimated variance
be defined by the constraints used in a conventional sur- factor for each observation type.
vey adjustment. When photogrammetric survey observa-
tions are combined only with GPS survey observations, (6) The adjustment will take place in two basic
the GPS survey observations will be used to define the steps. The first step is the adjustment of observations and
datum (e.g., location, orientation, scale). localization of deformations in the reference network.
The second is adjustment of observations and localization
(4) When GPS survey observations are adjusted, they of deformations in the entire network.
will be adjusted using either the GPS-based localized 3-D
coordinates or coordinate differences and associated (7) In the first step, all network reference points and
variance-covariance matrices in accordance with all observations directly connecting reference network
EM 1110-1-1003. points will be included in the adjustment. Table 10-4
details the ordinary minimum constraints to be used in the
(5) A rigorous form of adjustment (e.g., method of adjustment of conventional survey observations.
least squares) will be used in the network adjustment
software for reducing the deformation survey data. It will If standardized residuals are computed, the observations
be capable of computing the following: the point coordi- having values greater than 4 should be examined as pos-
nates and associated variance-covariance matrix, point sible blunders. Observations identified as blunders will be
error ellipses, standardized residuals for each observation, deleted from the adjustment and the adjustment redone.
quadratic form of the residuals, total redundancy of the The estimated global variance factor and estimated
network, and the estimated global variance factor. If only

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residuals and rescaling the input variances for each epoch

Table 10-4
Minimum Constraints to be Used in the Adjustment of of observation will be done as described in paragraph (7)
Conventional Survey Observations1 above.
Network Type Minimum Constraint
(10) For localization of deformations in the entire
1-D (i.e., z) z of 1 point held fixed network under step two, the same constraints shall be
applied for the epochs being analyzed. The tests detailed
2-D (i.e., x, y) x and y of 1 point held fixed herein will be applied. The final results of this step are
with distance azimuth of 2nd point held fixed
apparent movements of all object points and any excluded
(standard deviation of azimuth =
0.1") reference points and indications of whether or not these
point movements are statistically significant.
2-D (i.e., x, y) x and y of 2 points held fixed
without distance (11) The localization and subsequent tests described
are being applied to single points to determine their possi-
3-D (i.e., x, y, z) x, y, and z of 1 point held fixed
with distance azimuth and zenith angle to ble movement. Even though this is the case, such local-
2nd point held fixed ization and testing can be applied to movements of groups
of points if a priori information indicating they may have
zenith angle to 3rd point held fixed moved is available.
(standard deviation of azimuth and
zenith angles = 0.1")
10-14. Final Reports
3-D (i.e., x, y, z) x, y, z of 3 points held fixed
without distance A final report will be required for each deformation sur-
1
x = x horizontal value
vey or project done where results have been determined.
y = y horizontal value Any deviations from the specifications detailed in this
z = z vertical value (i.e., elevation) manual will be included in this report.

NOTE: 2-D and 3-D network minimum constraints shall be applied a. The final report will include figures with plan or
to opposite sides of the network.
cross-sectional views showing the outline of the structure,
location of deformation network points and their names.
variance factors for each observation type for the adjust- All reference points shown in the figures will be denoted
ment should be near 1. If they are less than 0.5 or by one symbol, while all object points will be denoted by
greater than 2.0, all of the input variances should be a different symbol. Point movements will be plotted as
rescaled by a ratio of the estimated variance factor of vectors with their associated error bars and/or error
observation type divided by the estimated global variance ellipses. Statistically significant movements will be
factor and the adjustment rerun. All epochs of observa- flagged. Only displacements between two chosen epochs
tion should then be adjusted in the same manner with will be plotted on a given figure. Displacement contours
regard to the constraints applied, standardized residuals will not be plotted.
and scale of the input variances.
b. The final report will include a tabular summary of
(8) The results will be examined to ensure the refer- each network adjustment and at a minimum the following
ence points are stable between epochs. Any reference information relative to the adjustments made:
points which are not found to be stable will be excluded
from the reference network. • The constraint applied.

(9) For the second step involving adjustment of • The names of points used.
observations and localization of deformations in the entire
network, the constraints will be either (a) all reference • The adjusted point coordinates to the nearest
network points found to be stable are held fixed or (b) all 0.1 mm.
reference network points found to be stable forming a free
network of points. The first option will result in a very • The standard deviations of point coordinates to the
constrained adjustment. Examination of the standardized nearest 0.1 mm.

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31 Oct 94

• The dimensions of error bars to the nearest • The constraints applied in the two network
0.1 mm at the one standard deviation level for adjustments.
1-D network points, dimensions of the axes of the
error ellipses to the nearest 0.1 mm at the one • The names of points used.
standard deviation level plus orientation angle to
the nearest 0.1 degree for 2-D network points, and • The apparent displacements to the nearest 1 mm
dimensions of the axes of the error ellipses to the and associated direction to the nearest 0.1 degree.
nearest 0.1 mm plus out-of-plane angles to the
nearest 0.1 degree for 3-D network point • The dimensions of error bars to the nearest
coordinates. 0.1 mm at the one standard deviation level for
1-D network point displacements, dimensions of
• The quadratic form of the residuals. the axes of the error ellipses to the nearest 0.1 mm
at the one standard deviation level plus orientation
• The total redundancy of the network. angle to the nearest 0.1 degree for 2-D network
point displacements, and dimensions of the axes of
• The estimated global variance factor. the error ellipses to the nearest 0.1 mm plus out-
of-plane angles to the nearest 0.1 degree for 3-D
If the network adjustments use only conventional survey network point displacements.
observations, in addition to the above, the following will
be required in the final report: d. The final report will include figures showing 1-D
cumulative displacements of critical points in critical
• The redundancy number for each observation. directions versus time. Examples of critical cumulative
displacements include movements in the downstream and
• The standardized residuals for each observation. vertical directions of a small number of points on the
crest of a dam or movements in the downhill and vertical
• The quadratic form of residuals for each observa- directions of a small number of representative points in a
tion type (e.g., directions, zenith angles, distance, earthen dam or levee. The error bar associated with each
etc.). displacement will be plotted with these displacements.
Data from all deformation analyses performed on the
• The sum of redundancy numbers for each obser- project will be included. Statistically significant
vation type. cumulative displacements will be flagged.

• The estimated variance for each observation type.

c. The final report will include another summary

table of each localization of deformations. Such a table
will include:

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Chapter 11 modulation wavelength. Thus, certain instruments have

Deformation Monitoring resolutions finer than 0.001 m.

11-3. DME Error Sources

11-1. General This section refers specifically to error sources, which is
an inherent property of the instrument itself and is in
This chapter provides guidance for performing field meas- addition to external factors, such as plumbing and meas-
urements in support of the RLR technique of periodic urements of refractive index. These systematic errors are
structural monitoring. This method provides a direct usually written as (a) mm + (b) mm/km, where (a) and
measurement of displacement as a function of time, and (b) are maximum values for a particular instrument.
has fewer problems of evaluation than most other types of
instrumentations. The Robertson method is broken down a. Constant instrument error. The (a) portion of the
into two parts: the initial setup of the control network, error is a combination of several small errors, which are
and the periodic measurement to determine movement. independent of the length of the line being measured.
An EDM or total station and trilateration techniques are The more important of these are:
used for this type of deformation monitoring.
(1) Instrument resolution. Resolution is a property
11-2. DME of the instrument that results from its original design. In
the case of DME, it might be defined as the smallest
All modern DME measure distance by timing, in an change in distance to a target that causes a corresponding
indirect fashion, how long it takes light to make a round change in the reading obtained from the instrument. The
trip to a reflector. By knowing the velocity of light, the resolution can be no finer than the scale or digital display
distance may be calculated from 2d = vt, where d is the can read. However, a display that can be read to a milli-
distance to the reflector, v is the velocity of light, and t is meter is no assurance that the resolution of the instrument
the time required for light to travel to the reflector and is also a millimeter.
back. Light travels 1 foot in approximately a nanosecond.
Therefore, other methods must be used to avoid the prob- (2) Cyclic or delay line error. If the manner in
lems of timing a pulse to a small fraction of a nanosec- which the light is modulated distorts the sinusoidal pattern
ond. In surveying a continuously operating source of of the outgoing beam or if the phase comparison tech-
light is used, and this light is modulated in a known way nique of measuring the returning beam is less than per-
(i.e., the light is turned off and on in a regular fashion). fect, a cyclic error will occur. The error is named cyclic
The modulation wavelength λm is determined by the rate because it repeats itself every modulation wavelength. If
at which the light is modulated and by the velocity at the effective modulation wavelength of a particular instru-
which the light is traveling. A measurement is then made ment is 10 m and the cyclic error for a measurement of
of the phase difference between the light proceeding 6 m is 4 mm, then the cyclic error at 16, 26, and 36 m
toward the reflector and that returning. In an instrument would also be 4 mm. At the same time, the instrument
built with a 20-m-modulation wavelength, the same result might have zero cyclic error at 1, 11, and 21 m. A deter-
would be obtained every 10 m. For example, if an mination of cyclic error consists of making comparative
answer of 3.462 m resulted from a measurement (with a measurements throughout a modulation wavelength.
20-m-modulation wavelength), the operator would not
know if the complete answer would be 3.462, 13.462, (3) Instrument-reflector calibration. When a DME is
23.462, or 2,183.462 m. It would then be necessary to received from the manufacturer, one or more reflectors
switch to a longer modulation wavelength. If the new are usually received at the same time, and these have
wavelength were 10 times longer, the instrument would be been assigned a calibration constant by the manufacturer.
able to determine the correct value of the figure in the This constant is to be added or subtracted from a distance
tens place. To determine the figure in the hundreds place, reading in order to obtain a correct distance. In most
the wavelength would again be increased ten times. This cases, the constant is sufficiently accurate for routine
procedure would be repeated until the entire distance was work. However, for greater precision or for reflectors
resolved. Some instruments require five or six modula- that are obtained from other sources, it is necessary to
tion frequencies to resolve ambiguities completely. By determine accurately the constant of each reflector. Fig-
using the phase comparison method, instruments can be ure 11-1 shows two reflectors, both of which are mounted
built that measure to better than one-thousandth of a

11-1
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

(Figure 11-2). It might be likened to the waves around a

stone dropped into water. However, the wave front may
be distorted in passing through the modulator, and then a
portion of the wave may be ahead or behind the remain-
der. In Figure 11-2, the instrument sees both reflectors as
equidistant because the phase of the modulated wave is
the same for both. If the instrument is moved in azimuth
slightly, the distance that is read would change. This type
of error may be detected simply by multiple pointing at a
reflector. If different pointings yield different results, it
may be necessary to take several readings in the field,
swinging off the target and then back until two or three
sets of readings agree well. Practice in the field may help
eliminate this problem as an experienced operator tends to
point and adjust an instrument in the same way for each
measurement.

Figure 11-1. Reflector calibration

at the same distance from the measuring instrument.

Because the reflectors are at different positions with their
mounts, they give different readings for the same distance.
The difference between the true distance and the reading
obtained with a particular reflector is the instrument-
reflector constant.

(4) Offset. The reflector calibration includes two

sources of error. The first error is caused by the reflec-
tor not being optically above the point over which it is
plumbed. The second error is caused by the DME electri-
cal center, the point from which the instrument measures,
not being over the point over which it is plumbed. How-
ever, both errors are corrected when the instrument-
reflector combination is calibrated. On the other hand, if
the electrical center of the instrument should shift as the
Figure 11-2. Pointing error
electronics age, the instrument-reflector constant would no
longer compensate for this shift, and an offset error would
result. Even so, it is possible to measure the magnitude (6) Total error. The previous sections have treated
of the offset error. At weekly intervals, simply measure a individually the various types of errors in the (a) portion
short line (100 m) using the same reflector (the line that may be present in DME. However, the total error
should be outside so that the instrument will be subject to (a) is all that is desired.
a variety of temperatures). If each measurement is made
using the same procedures, the differences in length in b. Measurement dependent errors. The second (b)
excess of the resolution error are due to changes in the portion of the error is due to the short- and long-term
offset or electrical center of the DME. Temperature and variations in the frequency standard used to control the
pressure corrections must be made to these measurements. modulation frequency. This is usually a quartz crystal,
Offset changes of 5 mm may occur in some instruments. which may or may not be mounted with a small oven for
temperature control. The only proper method of checking
(5) Pointing error. The modulation wave front issu- this frequency is by using a properly calibrated electronic
ing from a properly designed and operating instrument is counter. Some manufacturers provide a connector on the
at all points equidistant from the center of the instrument instrument so that the frequency may be easily monitored.

11-2
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31 Oct 94

11-4. Atmospheric Corrections zero and keep a record of temperature and pressure to be
applied later as a correction.
a. Refractive index. The accuracy of measurements
made with DME depends not only upon the instrument b. Measurement of temperature and pressure. When
itself but also upon a knowledge of the velocity of light absolute accuracy in measuring is required, such as when
along the measuring path. Techniques to be discussed a baseline is laid out, temperature and pressure measure-
later reduce this dependence to a minimum in the case of ments play a vital part. The magnitude of the errors
measuring movements in large structures, but in order to possible from the incorrect application of temperature and
make absolute measurements, it is vital to have an accu- pressure corrections are: a change of 1 °C or a change of
rate knowledge of the refractive index of the air along the 2.5 mm (0.1 inch) of Hg will cause a 1 ppm change in
line being measured. The refractive index is simply a the observed distance.
measure of how much light is slowed down in traveling
through a medium other than a vacuum. Some represen- (1) Pressure measurements should be made at both
tative refractive indices used with modern DME are given ends of the line, and the mean of the two values used in
in the following table. the refractive index equation. If it is not possible to place
barometers at both ends of the line, place the barometer at
the instrument end, and use the elevations of the two ends
Wavelengths Refractive
(micrometers) Source Index together with the pressure measured at the instrument to
calculate the pressure at the other end.
0.48 Xenon arc 1.0003101
0.63 HeNe laser 1.0003002 (2) Temperature is much more difficult to measure
0.84 GaAs laser 1.0002947 properly. The measuring equipment must be well
0.91 GaAs diode 1.0002936
(infrared)
shielded from the sun’s radiation. This can be accom-
plished by enclosing the thermometer in a reflective insu-
lating shield. However, this permits the heat to build up
These refractive indices are at standard conditions (tem- within the shield, and thus a small fan or some other
perature °C, pressure 760 mm of mercury, Hg). For any means must be used to move air over the temperature
other conditions of temperature and pressure, a new sensing device so that the true air temperature is read.
refractive index may be found from Also, temperatures measured at the end points of a line
near the ground are a poor indication of the true tempera-
na = 1+[(ng-1)/(1+T/273.2)]*(P/760) ture along the line. Studies have shown that during the
day, temperatures near the ground are much warmer than
where those 30 m above the ground. A 5 oC difference is not
uncommon. At night the reverse is true; temperatures
T = temperature, °C near the ground are cooler than those above. Unfor-
tunately, many lines to be measured in deformation sur-
P = pressure, mm of Hg veys are more than 30 m above the ground over most of
their lengths. Thus, temperature measurements are one of
Generally the atmospheric corrections are supplied in the the major sources of error in the accurate determination of
form of a handy circular slide rule, tables, or a simple distance.
nomogram, which gives a parts-per-million correction
depending on temperature and pressure. This correction (3) In measuring dams or other large structures,
may be either dialed into the instrument or applied refractive index errors are less important because displace-
directly to the measured distance. The procedure in most ment values are needed; therefore relative rather than
cases would be to measure both temperature and pressure absolute distances may be used.
at each end of the line. The temperatures and pressures
must then be meaned, and parts-per-million correction 11-5. Ratios
must be determined from the appropriate source. Then,
this correction must be dialed into the instrument before a Index errors (temperature and pressure measuring errors)
measurement can be made. In the case of work on dams, have been shown to limit the accuracy of DME. How-
this procedure could prove to be awkward. In most cases, ever, even when temperature and pressure are measured
it would be simpler to set the parts-per-million dial to properly, errors still occur because it is difficult or

11-3
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31 Oct 94

impossible to measure other than at the end points of the

line. Further, refractive index measurements are both
time consuming and expensive. This section discusses
techniques for reducing refractive index errors in measure-
ments of large structures by using ratios, or reference
lines. There are two important rules when using DME:

Rule 1: Refractive index errors, resulting from end

point measurements of temperature and pressure, tend to
be the same for all lines measured from one point within
a short period of time.

Rule 2: The ratios of observed distances, measured

from one point within a short period of time, are constant.
Figure 11-3. Ratio of two lines
Note: For both rules, a short period of time is 30 min-
utes or less. application of the refractive index corrections. These are
called observed ratios, and they have been formed from
a. In Figure 11-3, lines AB and AC are measured lines that have had no temperature or pressure corrections
from a common point. Rule 1 states that if refractive applied. Rule 2 states that the observed ratio is constant.
index measurements are made at points A, B, and C This means that the observed ratio of two lines measured
within a short period, the errors in the measurements tend today will agree with the observed ratio of the same two
to be the same at all three points. If the true temperature lines measured months or years later. This will be true
along line AB is 20 °C, but the mean of measurements even though the observed lengths of the individual lines
made at A and B is 24 °C (a condition typical of day- have changed greatly because of changes in atmospheric
time), then the mean of temperature measurements at the conditions between the two sets of measurements. The
end points of line AC would also be expected to be 4 °C observed ratios will not, however, be the same as the
higher than the true temperature along that line. Because corrected ratios unless certain conditions are met. To
1 °C is approximately equivalent to 1 ppm of distance, understand this, let us assume for a moment that an
both lengths will be in error by 4 ppm. However, if the instrument has been set upon a hilltop. In the valley
measured length of AB is divided by the measured length below, two points have been selected that are equidistant
of AC, the resulting ratio will equal the ratio of the true from the hilltop stations and are at the same elevation.
lengths. Thus, the ratio of two measured lengths will be The observed distances to the two points would appear
more accurate than either of the lengths that were used to the same because the distances are equal and both lines
form the ratio. For example, AB was measured to be pass through roughly the same atmosphere. A point is
2,839.611 m, and AC was measured to be 2,241.487 m. then selected that is the same distance from the hilltop
Their ratio is AB/AC = 1.26684250. Both lines were in station as the other points, but with a higher elevation.
error by 4 ppm because of temperature-measuring errors; When the observed distances are recorded, the two lengths
therefore, the true lengths were AB = 2,839.611 + 0.0114 to the valley points are the same, but the observed length
(4 ppm) and AC = 2,241.487 + 0.0090 (4 ppm). The to the higher elevation point is shorter. Because air den-
ratio of the true lengths is 2,839.6224/2,241.4960 = sity decreases with elevation, the light traversing the
1.26684250, the same as the ratio of measured lengths. higher line travels faster and returns sooner. The instru-
ment then shows the distance to be shorter. Two lessons
b. When ratios are formed from measurements that can be learned from this. The first lesson is that if the
have had refractive index corrections applied, they will be mean elevations of two lines measured from a point are
called corrected ratios. The property of the corrected the same, the ratio of the observed distances is equal to
ratio is that it is very accurate. From corrected ratios, the ratio of the corrected distances. In the example
angles may be computed that are frequently within a few above, the observed distances to the valley points are the
tenths of an arc second of their true values. same, and the ratio of the two observed lengths is 1. The
true lengths to the two points are the same so that the
c. A second set of ratios can be obtained from the ratio of the corrected lengths is also 1. This is often the
same measurements by using the data before the case with dams where the alignment markers along the

11-4
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

crest of the dam are all within a few meters of the same f. The use of ratios yields angles as a result, and the
elevation. This property of observed ratios will be used angles determined from the ratios are more accurate than
later on. those determined from the lengths alone because a ratio is
more accurate than either of the lengths from which it is
d. The second lesson is that when the elevations of derived.
the end points to which measurements are being made are
different, the ratio of observed lengths is not the same as g. When the angles of a triangle do not sum to 180,
the ratio of corrected (true) lengths because the refractive the triangle may be adjusted by taking one-third of the
indices along the two lines are different. Even though it difference between 180 and the sum of the angles and by
is not accurate, the observed ratio does not change with applying it as a correction to each angle. With ratios, a
time and it may be used to detect changes in position. correction may be made to each ratio.
Furthermore, the observed ratio may be corrected by
means of an atmospheric model. 11-6. 2-D Deformation Monitoring

e. In many respects, ratios have properties similar to Sometimes it is not practical to do First- or Second-Order
those of angles. In triangulation, the sum of the three 3-D deformation monitoring. Measurements of move-
angles of a triangle must equal 180, and a knowledge of ments in large structures can be made very accurately, in
two angles permits calculation of the third. Similarly, the two dimensions, by using trilateration techniques. The
product of three ratios obtained from a triangle must equal work consists of two phases, the control network and the
1, and a knowledge of two ratios permits calculation of structure itself.
the third. In Figure 11-4, the triangle shown has sides A,
B, and C as measured from vertices 1, 2, and 3. The a. The control network. In monitoring possible
ratio measured from vertex 1 is A1/B1, using a counter- movements of structures, points on the structure must be
clockwise convention (A1/B1 rather than B1/A1) with the related to points that have been selected for stability,
subscript designating the vertex from which the ratio was usually at some distance from the structure itself. These
measured. Two other ratios, B2/C2 and C3/A3, may also will be called control points, and all movements of the
be measured. If the measurements are perfect, A1 = A3, structure will be related to one or more of them. It is
B1 = B2, C2 = C3, and A1/B1 * B2/C2 * C3/A3 = 1. If important that the control points not move, and for this
the measurements are not perfect (the usual case), the reason, they should be placed in geological stable posi-
degree to which the product failed to equal 1 is a measure tions. They should also afford a good geometry for trilat-
of the precision of the measurements. If only two ratios eration measurements. Good geometry, in turn, consists
were measured, the third may be calculated. For exam- of measuring along the line where movement is expected.
ple, A1/B1 = C2/B2 * A3/C3. Angles may be calculated For example, if measurements of upstream or downstream
directly from the ratios by using a modified cosine movements are required, the control point should be
formula. located either upstream or downstream. Further, the
point should be at a sufficient distance from the structure
so that the end points, as well as the center, can be moni-
tored with good geometry. In Figure 11-5, a dam is
shown with both an upstream and a downstream control
monument. Geometrically, measurements from the
upstream side of the dam will be poor, while those from
the downstream side will be much stronger. If movement
in two dimensions is desired, a point off the end of the
dam should also be chosen (see Figure 11-5). For best
results, the angle of intersection (θ) should be 90 degrees.
Two selections of control figures are shown in
Figure 11-6.

(1) A final criterion for the selection of control mon-

uments is intervisibility. Because the control figure also
provides a means of correcting for refractive index, the
points selected for control at the ends of the dam must be
visible from the upstream and/or downstream points.
Figure 11-4. Ratios in a triangle

11-5
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Figure 11-5. Control monuments (c) for a dam

(2) In trilateration, lengths to an unknown station

Figure 11-6. Strong and simple control figures
from each of two control points will give the position of
the unknown station in two dimensions. Measurements
from three control stations will give three positions of the (0.1 inch) of Hg will cause an error in length of 1 ppm.
unknown station, and may be used as a check of survey These errors may be minimized by considering the ratio
accuracy. Figure 11-6a shows a good control figure for of two lines that have been measured within 30 minutes
the measurement of a dam. In the control figure, A, B, of each other. The errors of each line tend to be the same
C, and D are control monuments. All are intervisible. so that taking a ratio greatly reduces the magnitude of the
Point P is an unknown station on the dam and is meas- error. This may be shown by again referring to Fig-
ured from control points A, B, and C. Positions of P are ure 11-6a. Point P has been selected as a reference point.
calculated from measurements of lines AP and BP, from Its position was chosen so that it would be in stable
lines BP and CP, and from lines AP and CP. The agree- ground, it would be visible from the other control points,
ment between the three positions obtained for point P is a and the lines to it from the other control points would
measure of the accuracy of the survey. pass through atmospheric conditions similar to those from
the control points to unknown positions on the dam.
(3) When measurements are made of lines exceeding
600 m, a major source of error is the inability to deter- (4) The first time a dam is visited to make trilatera-
mine accurately the refractive index along the line. An tion measurements, both ratios and conventional measure-
error in temperature of 1 °C or in pressure of 2.5 mm ments are made to determine the shape and size of the

11-6
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

control figure. The simplest example would be the trian- Choose one of the sides of the triangle to serve as a base-
gular figure shown in Figure 11-6b. All control line, and use the mean length as the scale for the triangle.
monuments should be occupied by the DME. At each In this example, AB has been chosen and its length is
point, measurements should be made to all of the other 2,774.586 m. Next, by using the sine formula and the
control monuments within a short period of time. In the angles determined from ratios, the other two sides may be
case of the triangle ABC in Figure 11-6b, monument A determined:
would be occupied and lengths AC and AB measured.
Careful refractive index readings should also be taken at 2,774.586/sin C = BC/sin A = AC/sin B
both ends of each line as it is measured. Similar mea-
surements should then be made as the DME occupies BC = 734.481 AC = 2,547.443
stations B and C. Each line should then be reduced to the
level of spheroid and have the refractive index corrections (6) The angles obtained by these methods are of the
applied. A typical set of measurements for triangle ABC highest accuracy. The scale, however, is only as accurate
is: as the mean of the two measurements of the baseline.
Fortunately, this is not a serious problem with measure-
Length (in m) Ratio ments of dams because changes in lengths are desired
rather than the absolute lengths themselves.
A to C 2,547.447 AC/AB 0.9181349
B 2,774.589 (7) The final task in establishing the control network
is to assign coordinates to A, B, and C. These may be
B to A 2,774.583 BA/BC 3.7776155 fitted into an existing network, or a local control net may
C 734.480 be set up for the project.

C to B 734.478 CB/CA 0.2883212 (8) At a later date, the control figure may once again
A 2,547.430 be occupied. The same procedure may be used, and the
angles determined and compared with those obtained
(AC/AB)*(BA/BC)*(CB/CA) = 1.0000018 during the first survey. This, however, requires the use of
temperature and pressure measuring devices each time the
Adjusted Angles figure is surveyed.

A 15° 05’ 47.84" (9) NOTE: An easier method is to use the observed
B 64° 35’ 55.08" ratios, for these do not require knowledge of the refractive
C 100° 18’ 17.08" index. Remember that the observed ratios remain con-
stant, and thus comparison of observed ratios from the
By way of comparison, angles calculated from the mean first survey with observed ratios from the second survey
lengths would be: is sufficient to determine whether any of the control mon-
uments have moved. In fact, measurements of tempera-
A 15° 05’ 47.59" ture and pressure need only be made of the control lines
B 64° 35’ 53.76" in order to give the proper scale to the figure. And these
C 100° 18’ 18.65" measurements need only be made the first time a project
is surveyed. From that time on, only observed distances
Note: lengths are spheroid distances in meters. are required. In addition, all of the measurements from
the control monuments to stations on the dam will be
The adjusted angles determined from corrected ratios are observed distances. Measurements of temperature and
more accurate than the angles determined from the means pressure are not necessary.
of the lengths of the sides because ratios are more accu-
rate than the lengths of which they are composed. b. Points on the dam. When positions have been
established for the monuments in the control figure,
(5) It may be seen from the above example that the observed ratios will be used to determine the refractive
result of working with ratios is angles, and that in effect index corrections for measurements of points on the dam.
very accurate triangulation is being carried out using Referring again to Figure 11-6b, the lines AC, AB, and
DME. As in the case of triangulation, a base line is BC have been corrected for refractive index and may be
necessary to determine the scale when ratios are used. used as reference lines. For measurements from control

11-7
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

monument A, either AC or AB may be used as a refer-

ence line. A good reference line is one which traverses
approximately the same atmosphere as is found along the
lines to points on the dam and is almost the same length
or longer. If we call the corrected length of the reference
line Rcorr and the observed length of the same line Robs,
the following equation may be written

Robs x k = Rcorr

Where k is a constant owing to the atmospheric condi-

tions along the line at the time it was measured. Because
the reference line has been selected to travel through
approximately the same atmosphere as that to points on
the dam, we may say that k is also the atmospheric con-
stant for lines measured to the dam. If Pobs is the
observed length to a point on the dam, then the corrected
distant, Pcorr, may be found from

Pobs x k = Pcorr

This technique enables the surveyor to correct for

refractive index without using temperature and pressure
measuring equipment. However, k is not really a con-
stant. It changes slowly with time. For this reason, it
must be remeasured at approximately 30-minute intervals,
and it must be assumed it changes in a linear fashion. Figure 11-7. Use of a reference line

(1) The following example will detail the previous

Table 11-1
phenomena. In Figure 11-7, the DME has been set up at Measurement Taken (Example Deformation Survey)
A. Measurements are made of AC, AP1, AP2, AP3, and
Refractive
again AC.
Observed Index Corrected
To Length Constant Distance
After the observed lengths have been reduced to the level Station Time (Dobs) (k) (Dcorr)
or the spheroid, the measurements from control monument *
A were recorded as listed in Table 11-1. C 1330 2,547.326 1.0000459 2,547.443
P1 1335 2,477.075 1.0000454 2,477.187
P2 1340 2,407.354 1.0000449 2,407.462
The first and last measurements are of AC. The length of P3 1345 2,445.152 1.0000445 2,445.261
AC is known and is used as a reference line to calculate *
C 1350 2,547.331 1.0000440 2,547.443
the value of the refractive index constant. At first, the
*
constant was 1.0000459 (2,547.443/2,547.326), but Note: AC is the reference line
because of changes in the atmosphere, it changed to
1.0000440 (2,547.443/2,547.331). The value of k at inter- (2) Any length in a control figure may serve as a
mediate times may be found by assuming that the change reference line, although some lines will be better than
was linear. Thus, a value of k may be found for the others. From A, AB would also serve. From B however,
times when P1, P2, and P3 were measured. Applying the BC would be a better choice than BA because it passes
appropriate value of k to the observed length, Dobs, of AP1 through an atmosphere similar to that found in measuring
gives 2,477.075 * 1.0000454 = 2,477.187 as its corrected from B to P1, P2, and P3.
length, Dcorr.

11-8
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

c. Reduction to the spheroid. Mention has been

made of reducing lines either to the level or the spheroid.
In very accurate work where lines exceed 1 km, the sur-
face upon which a survey is being made can no longer be
considered a plane. If distances are reduced to the level
and used to calculate angles, the angles thus obtained may
not agree with angles obtained from a theodolite. Further,
the position of a point calculated from the lengths to two
control monuments may not agree with the position of the
same point when measured from two other control monu-
ments. To prevent problems of this type, figures with line
lengths in excess of 1 km should be reduced to the
spheroid instead of the level. The equation to be used is

[D1 (e2 e1)] [D1 (e2 e1)]

Ds R
(R e2) (R e1)

where

Ds = Spheriod chord distance

R = Earth radius (6,372,000 meters)

D1 = Observed distance from the DME

Figure 11-8. Fictitious dam

e1 = Elevation + H.I. of the instrument

Table 11-2
e2 = Elevation + H.I. of the reflector Elevations for Example Deformation Survey
Point Elevation (m above sea level)
d. RLR deformation survey example. The example
survey developed in the following paragraphs combines A1 410.724
the principles developed for RLR method of deformation A2 410.718
monitoring. This section will combine these elements to A3 410.706
show how they may be used for a precise survey of a A4 410.721
A5 410.712
dam. A6 411.245
C1 419.911
(1) A diagram of the control setup and dam are C2 413.275
shown in Figure 11-8. Control pedestals have been set at C3 463.701
C4 521.537
points C1, C2, C3, and C4. Markers A1 through A6 have T1 329.623
been set along the crest of the dam, and T1 and T2 have T2 329.394
been set near the toe of the dam. Elevations have been
measured to obtain the list in Table 11-2.
(3) On a separate occasion, the following lengths
(2) Each of the control monuments were occupied were measured from C3 (Table 11-3).
with an EDM, and measurements were made to the other
three control monuments. Temperatures and pressures Measurements began with the control figure. Either C1
were also taken at both ends of the lines. After measur- or C2 could have been used for a reference line, but in
ing the control lines, the lengths to stations on the dam this case C1 has been chosen. Because it was the refer-
were measured from three of the control monuments. ence line, it was measured before and after the remaining
Temperatures and pressures were not taken for these lines. control lines. This practice helped to check for both drift

11-9
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Table 11-3 Table 11-4

Measurements from C3 for Example Deformation Survey Measurements from C1 for Example Deformation Survey
Observed Mean Mean Observed Mean Mean
Distance Temp. Press. Distance Temp. Press.
# To Time DS (meters) (° C) (inches Hg) # To Time DS (meters) (° C) (inches Hg)

1 C1 0930 1,081.105 16.4 28.26 19 C2 1400 566.212 19.0 28.28

2 C4 0935 945.032 16.4 28.09 20 C3 1405 1,081.095 18.8 28.20
3 C2 0940 703.788 17.0 28.27 21 C4 1410 989.418 18.5 28.09
4 C1 0945 1,081.104 16.7 28.26 22 C2 1415 566.215 18.8 28.28
5 C1 1025 1,081.101
6 A1 1035 968.241
7 A2 1045 924.456 Table 11-5
8 C1 1050 1,081.103 Measurements from C4 for Example Deformation Survey
9 A3 1100 882.721
10 A4 1115 843.323 Observed Mean Mean
11 C1 1120 1,081.104 Distance Temp. Press.
12 A5 1130 806.626 # To Time DS (meters) (° C) (inches Hg)
13 A6 1145 772.950
14 C1 1150 1,081.104 23 C1 0835 989.446 6.1 28.85
15 C1 1300 1,081.100 24 C2 0840 1,138.277 6.1 28.87
16 T1 1305 872.886 25 C3 0845 945.050 5.8 28.78
17 T2 1315 836.021 26 C1 0850 989.445 6.2 28.85
18 C1 1300 1,081.097 27 C1 0900 989.444
28 A1 0905 1,031.587
29 A2 0915 1,042.973
30 A3 0925 1,057.756
in the instrument and in the atmospheric conditions. 31 C1 0930 989.438
When the control lines were completed, the operator next 32 A4 0940 1,075.788
measured to points on the dam. Forty minutes had 33 A5 0945 1,096.925
elapsed after completion of the contour line measurements 34 A6 0955 1,120.924
35 C1 1000 989.432
before the field party with reflectors were set up on the 36 T1 1010 981.303
dam. Because the reference line should be measured 37 T2 1020 987.682
approximately every 30 minutes, the observed distance to 38 C1 1025 989.431
C1 was again measured (measurement 5). A reflector
was left unattended at C1 because it was no longer neces- (6) Later that day, monument C2 was occupied and
sary to read the temperature and pressure. Remember measurements were taken. These measurements are
temperature and pressure measurements are made only on shown in Table 11-6 and completed the field measure-
the control lines and only when a study is made for the ment phase.
first time at a particular dam. The next time the dam is
visited, perhaps 6 or 12 months later, it will not be neces-
Table 11-6
sary to measure refractive index. Possible movement in
Measurements from C2 for Example Deformation Survey
the control figure may be checked at that time by a com-
parison of ratios of observed distances. Observed Mean Mean
Distance Temp. Press.
# To Time DS (meters) (° C) (inches Hg)
(4) Measurements were made that same afternoon
from C1. Only the control lines were measured. Three 39 C1 1230 566.225 8.1 29.04
sets of positions will be obtained for the stations on the 40 C4 1235 1,138.273 7.6 28.87
41 C3 1240 703.799 7.8 28.97
dam from C2, C3, and C4. Measurements from C1 42 C1 1245 566.225 8.3 29.04
would do little to improve the accuracy of these positions 43 A1 1250 398.146
in the upstream-direction. Table 11-4 gives the lengths 44 A2 1300 337.350
from C1 recorded for that session. 45 A3 1310 276.652
46 C1 1315 566.225
47 A4 1320 216.070
(5) A week later, monument C4 was occupied and 48 A5 1330 155.828
measurements were taken. These measurements are 49 A6 1335 96.436
shown in Table 11-5. 50 C1 1345 566.224

11-10
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

(7) The first step in the data reduction is to reduce all Observed Corrected
the lines (DS) to the spheroid. This has been done and is C2 Distance Distance
shown in Table 11-7. # To Time Dobs (meters) (meters)
39 C1 1230 566.149 566.147*
Table 11-7 40 C4 1235 1,133.149 1,133.027*
Corrected Line Lengths 41 C3 1240 701.942 701.940*
42 C1 1245 566.149 (566.146)
Observed Corrected 43 A1 1250 398.112 398.110
C3 Distance Distance 44 A2 1300 337.318 337.316
# To Time Dobs (meters) (meters) 45 A3 1310 276.622 276.621
46 C1 1315 566.149 (566.146)
1 C1 0930 1,080.143 1,080.156* 47 A4 1320 216.041 216.040
2 C4 0935 943.188 943.201* 48 A5 1330 155.797 155.796
3 C2 0940 701.931 701.940* 49 A6 1335 96.408 96.408
4 C1 0945 1,080.142 1,080.155* 50 C1 1345 566.148 (566.146)
5 C1 1025 1,080.141 (1,080.155)
Note: * - Denotes length corrected from temperature and pres-
6 A1 1035 966.724 966.736
sure measurements. ( ) - Denotes true length.
7 A2 1045 922.873 922.884
8 C1 1050 1,080.141 (1,080.154)
9 A3 1100 881.068 881.078
10 A4 1115 841.599 841.609 (8) When the lines have been reduced to the
11 C1 1120 1,080.142 (1,080.154) spheroid, the next step is to define the size and shape of
12 A5 1130 804.828 804.837 the control figure, in this case a doubly braced quadri-
13 A6 1145 771.115 771.124
14 C1 1150 1,080.142 (1,080.154)
lateral. There are several ways to do this. One way is,
15 C1 1300 1,080.138 (1,080.154) since the figure contains four triangles, these may be indi-
16 T1 1305 862.473 862.486 vidually treated in the same manner as the triangle in
17 T2 1315 825.111 825.125 Figure 11-6a.
18 C1 1320 1,080.135 (1,080.154)
Observed Corrected Another way would be to use the means of the six lines
C1 Distance Distance in the figure and adjust these by means of a quadrilateral
# To Time Dobs (meters) (meters)
adjustment. This is the technique that was used in the
19 C2 1400 566.136 566.144* present case to obtain the following adjusted lengths:
20 C3 1405 1,080.133 1,080.149*
21 C4 1410 984.112 984.128*
C1 to C2 566.146 meters
22 C2 1415 566.139 566.147*
C1 to C3 1,080.154
Observed Corrected C1 to C4 984.134
C4 Distance Distance
# To Time Dobs (meters) (meters)
C2 to C3 701.940
C2 to C4 1,133.029
23 C1 0835 984.140 984.137*
C3 to C4 943.202
24 C2 0840 1,133.034 1,133.030*
25 C3 0845 943.206 943.203*
26 C1 0850 984.139 984.136* (9) The control figure may be fit into an existing
27 C1 0900 984.138 (984.134) coordinate system or a local system may be devised just
28 A1 0905 1,025.543 1,025.540 for the dam. For the fictitious dam, a local system was
29 A2 0915 1,036.993 1,036.992
used. C4 was selected as a starting point and was
30 A3 0925 1,051.857 1,051.858
31 C1 0930 984.132 (984.134) assigned coordinates of x = 1,000.000 and y = 1,000.000.
32 A4 0940 1,069.987 1,069.991 The coordinates of C3 were then chosen to place C3 at a
33 A5 0945 1,091.232 1,091.238 distance of 943.202 m from C4; they are x = 1,943.202
34 A6 0955 1,115.403 1,114.411 and y = 1,000.000; The placement of C4 and C3 has
35 C1 1000 984.126 (984.134)
determined the scale and orientation of the figure. Using
36 T1 1010 962.289 962.297
37 T2 1020 968.747 968.756 the positions of C3 and C4 and the appropriate lengths,
38 C1 1025 984.125 (984.134) the positions of C1 and C2 can be determined to be:

(Continued)

11-11
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

C1: x = 1,366.527 (14) Finally, with the corrected lengths and the coor-
y = 1,913.333 dinates of the control monuments from which they were
measured, it is possible to calculate the positions of the
C2: x = 1890.936 points on the dam. Because three lengths were measured
y = 1699.991 to stations on the crest of the dam, three solutions will be
obtained. Geometrically, some solutions will be superior
(10) NOTE: The establishment of the control to others. For stations at the toe of the dam, only one
figure needs be done only once. From that time on, it solution is possible.
is only necessary to check for movements of the con-
trol monuments. This may be done by comparing (15) In Table 11-9, positions of the crest and toe
observed ratios taken at some later time with the orig- markers are given for various line combinations, In the
inal set. case of the crest markers, an adjusted position is also
given.
(11) Returning to Table 11-7, one may now calculate
the corrected lengths Dcorr to the stations on the top and (16) If desired, alignment may be determined from
toe of the dam from the control monuments. This is done positions. Using the crest stations A1 and A6 as end
by using reference lines to make refractive index points, the alignment of A2 through A5 is given in
corrections. Table 11-10. T1 and T2 are also included in the align-
ment to help monitor any tilt in the dam. Alignment done
(12) Measurements 15 through 18 from Table 11-7 from positions is not affected by curved dams, by bends,
are given in Table 11-8. or by differences in elevations.

Table 11-8 Table 11-9

Changes of Correction Factor with Time Crest and Toe Station Positions
C3 Dobs Correction Dcorr* Station X Y From
# To Time (meters) Factor (meters)
A1 1,533.713 1,875.726 C2 to C3
15 C1 1300 1,080.138 1.0000148 (1,080.154) 1,533.710 1,875.720 C2 to C4
16 T1 1305 862.473 1.0000155 862.486 1,533.705 1,875.723 C3 to C4
17 T2 1315 825.111 1.0000169 825.125 1,533.709 1,875.722 Adjusted
18 C2 1320 1,080.135 1.0000135 (1,080.154) A2 1,590.161 1,852.688 C2 to C3
1,590.158 1,852.682 C2 to C4
* () denotes true length. 1,590.153 1,852.685 C3 to C4
1,590.157 1,852.684 Adjusted
A3 1,646.583 1,829.648 C2 to C3
1,646.588 1,829.656 C2 to C4
(13) At 1300, when the distance to C1 was meas- 1,646.594 1,829.652 C3 to C4
ured, the observed distance, Dobs, was found to be 1,646.589 1,829.653 Adjusted
1,080.138 m. This line, C3 to C1, is a part of the control A4 1,703.041 1,806.615 C2 to C3
1,703.038 1,806.609 C2 to C4
figure, and its correct length has been determined to be
1,703.033 1,806.613 C3 to C4
1,080.154 m. The atmospheric correction at 1300 may 1,703.037 1,806.612 Adjusted
then be found by dividing. The correction is 1,080.154/ A5 1,759.465 1,783.585 C2 to C3
1,080.138 = 1.0000148. Later, at 1320, the atmospheric 1,759.467 1,783.588 C2 to C4
correction has become 1.0000176. Assuming the change 1,759.470 1,783.584 C3 to C4
1,759.468 1,783.586 Adjusted
in correction has been linear as a function of time over
A6 1,815.919 1,760.547 C2 to C3
the 20-minute interval, we may calculate the correction 1,815.915 1,760.542 C2 to C4
factor at 1305 and 1315 when observed distances were 1,815.912 1,760.545 C3 to C4
measured to T1 and T2. Multiplying the observed dis- 1,815.915 1,760.544 Adjusted
tance by the corresponding atmospheric correction gives T1 1,568.152 1,776.672 C3 to C4
T2 1,608.187 1,754.053 C3 to C4
the corrected distance, DC, to T1 and T2. Thus in
Table 11-7, the values in parenthesis in column 5 are the
correct or true lengths of reference lines, and the values
without an asterisk or parenthesis are the corrected lengths
that have been calculated from reference lines.

11-12
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Table 11-10
Alignment
Distance Distance
Station from A1 (meters) off Line (meters)*
A2 60.968 0.00
A3 121.919 - 0.001
A4 182.888 + 0.001
A5 243.836 - 0.004
T1 +78.691
T2 +84.505

* + = Downstream.
- = Upstream.

11-13
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Chapter 12 compensatory auto-collimation leveling instruments with

Periodic Deflection and Settlement fixed or attached parallel plate micrometers, observing
invar double (offset) scale metric rods with supporting
Measurement Surveys (PICES)
struts. In general, one to three fixed reference points
(bedrock benchmarks) are used to check for potential
movement of various points on the structure. One of the
12-1. General reference points (situated well away from the structure) is
held fixed with all subsequent PICES vertical changes
This chapter presents guidance for performing field meas- tabulated relative to this fixed reference point. Normally
urements used to determine horizontal deflections and an arbitrary elevation is assumed (i.e., 100.000 m); thus
vertical settlements/displacements in structures monitored the entire structure is on an arbitrary reference datum.
under the USACE PICES program. This material is Vertical ties between reference bedrock benchmarks are
intended to supplement and complement EM 1110-2-4300 performed only to monitor potential movement on the
and should be used in conjunction with the guidance in reference points -- and to enable selection of the best
that reference. Portions of this guidance is in the form of reference point to hold fixed when two or more deep
contract specifications, as are used for contracting some bedrock benchmarks (DBMs) are available. PICES settle-
aspects of PICES surveys. Standards and specifications ment surveys are made infrequently, normally at 6- to
for performing precise vertical settlement measurements, 18-month intervals, or sometimes not at all unless there is
crack/joint measurements, and micrometer alignment a suspicion of structural distress.
surveys are covered. These standards are taken from
specifications developed by the Jacksonville District in the b. PICES leveling shall be performed in confor-
early 1980s. They were used for both in-house and con- mance with the methods and accuracy specifications con-
tracted PICES surveys, and were attached to contract tained in NOAA Manual NOS NGS 3, Geodetic Leveling.
scopes of work. They are generally representative of Minor variations therefrom are contained within these
most USACE deformation monitoring requirements; how- specifications. Those performing PICES survey work are
ever, they may not be applicable for PICES surveys on all expected to be thoroughly familiar with the contents of
USACE structures. this reference manual. Other applicable references
include: ER 1110-2-1806, EM 1110-2-1911, EM 1110-2-
12-2. PICES Settlement Monitoring Surveys - 2300, and EM 1110-1-1904. This last reference provides
General guidelines for calculations of vertical displacements and
settlement of soil under shallow foundations supporting
This section covers standards and specifications for per- various types of structures and under embankments.
forming precise differential leveling surveys, as required
to monitor settlements in concrete and embankment struc- 12-4. Required/Expected Accuracy of Vertical
tures. The standards described are developed around pre- Measurements Using Differential Leveling
cision leveling instruments used for long-distance geodetic
leveling runs -- typically compensator (self-leveling) in- Settlement measurement accuracies, relative to the pre-
struments with parallel plate micrometers and dual-scale sumed rigid deep bedrock benchmarks, should be on the
invar rods with supporting struts. For many structures order of +/-0.002 m, depending upon the leveling dis-
where level runs are relatively short, this high precision tances involved, stability of the reference benchmark,
equipment and procedures represents “overkill”-- adequate short-term vertical movement in the structure, and other
results may be obtained with more traditional leveling factors. The differential leveling procedures employed
methods (e.g., three-wire or even single-wire observa- should yield 0.001 m (short term) accuracies for most
tions). Recent improvements in electronic total stations typical structures. High precision geodetic leveling proce-
and development of bar code leveling methods are dures have been modified to meet specific PICES accu-
expected to radically change precise vertical survey racy requirements.
techniques.
12-5. Definitions
12-3. Vertical Settlement Measurements Using
Precise Leveling Techniques The following definitions apply to differential leveling
monuments, instruments, and procedures:
a. Vertical settlement is determined by precision
differential leveling methods performed using

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31 Oct 94

Structure Settlement Point: any point on a structure to a. Recording formats. Any acceptable version of
which differential leveling is run. May be a disc the NGS Micrometer Leveling form may be used -- an
(Benchmark or BM), survey marker disc, grouted 8.5-inch by 11-inch loose-leaf format. Field books and
bronze plug with insertable caps, etc. data recorders are also acceptable. Level sketches and
abstracts shall also be prepared on 8.5- by 11-inch size
DBM: Deep (bedrock) Benchmark. loose-leaf paper. A sample recording form is shown in
Figure 12-1.
RDBM: Reference Deep (bedrock) Benchmark. This
is the same as a DBM except that this mark is that b. Observing procedures. Precise differential level-
held fixed for relative movement analysis. ing methods shall conform to the general methods out-
lined in Chapter 3 of NOAA Manual NOS NGS 3, as
Double Run/Double Rod (DR/DR) Leveling: for new modified herein for either double rod, single rod, or spur
PICES projects or for re-observing misclosures from leveling. All level lines between RDBMs, DBMs, and
single run/double rod leveling. structure monitoring BMs shall be run using SR/DR pre-
cise leveling methods. DR/DR leveling methods are
Single Run/Double Rod (SR/DR) Leveling: for recur- required only on new PICES projects or when single run
ring PICES projects, i.e., one-way leveling. Primary lines do not meet external misclosure tolerances.
leveling procedure employed for most projects.
c. Single or Double Run/Double Rod leveling
Spur Leveling: one-way single rod leveling used for procedures.
tying in points in a close proximity. Spurred from
main DBM or RDBM Single Run/Double Rod level (1) Sections shall not exceed 1 km in length.
line.
(2) Each section shall start and end with the head
Internal Misclosure: results from Double Run/Double rod (Rod A) on the BM or reference point. This prevents
Rod leveling (forward/backward runs). an accumulation of rod index errors due to an uneven
number of setups.
External Misclosure: comparing single run or spur
leveling results with data obtained on previous PICES (3) The head rod (Rod A) is always observed first
observations. on each setup, whether backsight or foresight.

12-6. PICES Project Requirements and Instruc- (4) The instrument is leveled with the telescope
tions for Settlement Observations pointing toward the head rod (Rod A) -- thus alternating
toward the backsight and foresight at alternate instrument
Project instructions for continuing PICES projects will stations.
generally list (in tabular form on previous PICES reports)
those structural settlement points requiring updated eleva- (5) The line of sight between instrument and rod
tions (or differential changes from previous readings), and should always be higher than 0.5 m above the ground
the specific RDBM to be held fixed. Specific leveling surface. Maximum line of sight distance shall not be
routes will be at the discretion of the field party chief, as greater than 40 m.
is the need for single run or double run leveling. Con-
struction requirements for either new deep bedrock bench- (6) Any given setup will be re-observed if the dis-
marks or new structural settlement monitoring points will agreement between the left and right side scale elevations
be detailed if required. on either rod exceeds 0.25 mm for that setup.

12-7. Instrumentation and Equipment (7) Backward and forward stadia distances can differ
Requirements by no more than 2 m per setup and 4 m accumulated
along a section. (Note: 1-m tolerance for spur leveling.)
The instrumentation used should meet the requirements
for First-Order geodetic leveling -- employing either spirit (8) Turning plates should not be used on turf;
levels or compensator levels with micrometers, or bar driven turning pins will be required in this type of terrain.
code levels.

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Turning plates should only be used on pavement or hard MINIMUM M: 1 mm @ K less than 0.33 km
packed soil and only when absolutely necessary.
Rerun if in excess.
d. General connections between RDBM and DBM
for existing PICES projects. g. Instrument calibration requirements.

(1) Use SR/DR leveling via shortest route between (1) Precise level rods and the instrument will be lab
RDBMs and DBMs. calibrated/maintained at least annually.

(2) Double run only if external misclosures exceed (2) C-factor collimation calibration. The C-factor
tolerances. shall be determined at the beginning of each PICES struc-
ture observation in accordance with the procedures out-
(3) Ensure direct route from RDBM to structure lined in Section 3 of NOAA Manual NOS NGS 3. The
monitoring points. C-factor determination is done according to Kukkamaki’s
method and is also referred to as the Peg Test. The
e. Spur leveling techniques or open-ended lines. C-factor shall conform to the reject/readjustment criteria
of Table 3-1 of NOAA Manual NOS NGS 3 which is
(1) Use single rod only (Rod A). 0.005 cm/m. Daily C-factor calibrations are not essential
provided the instrument is consistently falling within
(2) Up to three instrument setups are allowable. (If 0.004 cm/m and backsight/foresight distances (individual
more than three, double run back to starting BM and setup and accumulated) stay within 1 m/2 m, respectively.
verify internal misclosure.) In any event, C-factor calibrations shall be performed at
least twice weekly when performing continuous leveling
(3) Start spur from a rigid BM and not from a TBM. at a single PICES structure; upon commencing leveling at
a new structure; or daily if the C-factors exceed pre-
(4) Keep backsight/foresight distances within 1 m -- scribed limits. (See Figure 12-2.)
individual and accumulated.
12-8. Leveling Computations and Reductions
(5) Multiple foresight shots are allowable from a
single backsight assuming distances are allowable. a. Micrometer leveling data sheets will be checked
Record similar to conventional leveling. in the field by an independent person (initial sheet accord-
ingly), with the resultant differential elevation (DE) for
(6) Verify external misclosure on site -- re-observe, each run clearly noted, along with pertinent plug offset
as required, using DR/DR methods. characteristics, if any, and accumulated stadia lengths per
circuit/section. Misclosure tolerances will thus, by this
(7) Single rod leveling methods may be employed for manner, be field verified/confirmed; accordingly, there
main connection lines between DBMs and BMs, should shall be no further office verification of the basic observa-
such methods prove to be more efficient. tional data sheets -- the validity of internal/external clo-
sures having been made in the field.
(8) Observing and recording methods are similar to
conventional leveling procedures, as modified for microm- b. Field sketches of level circuits/section/loops/spurs
eter leveling. shall clearly show observed elevation differences, leveling
direction, and stadia distances, all taken directly from the
f. Internal misclosure tolerances. Newly established (checked) micrometer leveling recording forms. From
points or for re-observations when external misclosures such a sketch, elevations may be easily carried forward
reject on single runs. from the RDBM -- an essential computation in verifying
external misclosures and should be stapled to all the data
MISCLOSURE TOLERANCE = M = +3 mm √K sheets acquired for an individual PICES structure. Eleva-
tions carried forward (from the RDBM) may be listed on
where K is measured in kilometers a separate sheet, (i.e., an abstract).

If K < 1,000 m, then M = +3 mm × √K

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12-9. Office Computations, Reductions, and e. Record elevations to the nearest ten-thousandth
Adjustments (0.0001) m on final reported elevations and settlement
changes. Presumptions of higher short-term or long-term
Presuming the above field computations, checks, and accuracies are unwarranted, given procedural methods,
sketches are adequately performed, no formal office rever- misclosure tolerances, and potential settlement of DBMs
ification of field data need be performed. Only a verifica- and structures. Elevations (and elevation differences) on
tion of the abstracted elevations should be required -- and field sketches and abstracts should be tabulated to the
compiling these values into the current PICES report. nearest 0.0001 m.
Examples of settlement tabulations and graphical plots
showing historical trends are found in EM 1110-2-4300. 12-10. PICES Micrometer Alignment Deflection
Measurements-General
a. In general, no rigorous least squares (condition)
type adjustments are necessary for PICES projects of This section describes the techniques and specifications
limited magnitude wherein no sophisticated weighting for measuring relative deflections using theodolites and
method is effective. Redundant elevations (i.e., computed precision micrometer caliper targets. Micrometer deflec-
from different loops on circuits from the RDBM) may be tion measurements will yield accuracies that are far super-
simply averaged (meaned) regardless of lengths run. ior to geodetic techniques described in previous chapters;
Since most PICES structures will involve single run lines however, these deflection measurements are relative and
run directly from the RDBM, final adjusted structure not necessarily absolute movements. Accordingly,
elevations are simply algebraic accumulations of DEs micrometer measurements are intended to monitor rela-
from the RDBM -- using field verified sketch/abstract tively short-term deflections in a structure monolith, wall,
data. tower, etc., due to varying hydraulic head, temperature,
curing, or other physical effect. Forced-centering of both
b. More sophisticated leveling adjustment procedures the instrument and micrometer target is critical if accurate
may be necessary in the case of: repeatability is desired. Supplemental information on
micrometer deformation observations is found in
• Newly established projects. EM 1110-2-4300.

• Settlement anomalies (DBM or structure points). 12-11. Micrometer Deflection Observations

• Abnormal movement of RDBMs or DBMs. Short-term horizontal deflections or deformations of

points on structural sections can be easily monitored by
• Redefinition of RDBM using past data. observing alignment variations with a precision theodolite
relative to (presumed) fixed points on a baseline not influ-
c. Tabulate carried forward elevations or averaged enced by the structure. In essence, the deflection of a
elevations, from the field sketch/abstract, holding the point relative to a fixed baseline is observed either by
historical RDBM fixed and computing changes in eleva- micrometer target methods or by observing the actual
tion from prior PICES observations. Anomalies should be deflection angle directly (and computing the relative
noted on the PICES report tabulation. Recommendations lateral movement indirectly). The theodolite and refer-
to change the RDBM (to another DBM) should be noted ence target(s) must be set up on concrete instrument
and pursued accordingly. stands using rigid forced-centering devices. Structure
monitoring target points (or plugs) are normally set
d. Reported elections of screw-in (or male insert) (grouted) within ±0.5 inch from the reference baseline
structural reference points (i.e., females) should clearly from which deflections are referred.
identify the type of male insert employed on the PICES
report for the structure. Such identification (by male part/ 12-12. References
serial number) is critical if male insert elevations are
eccentric to the female plug. Monitoring of such types of Added background on relative deflection measurement
points should be avoided in the future -- in lieu of stan- techniques are described in EM 1110-2-4300.
dard bronze discs where no vertical eccentricity problems
exist. (Loss of a male insert nullifies all future PICES
settlement comparisons.) Pending eventual conversion to
standard discs, recordation of male inserts is critical.

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12-13. Expected Deflection Observation 12-16. Observing Procedures

Accuracies
a. Theodolite and target are force-center mounted
Given the centering limitations of a precision theodolite, on each end of the reference baseline. Baselines typically
cross hair delineations, theodolite vertical alignment limi- range from 100 to 1,000 feet in length, depending on the
tations, and numerous other factors, absolute horizontal structure. The baseline is established perpendicular to the
deflections can be measured to approximately ±0.01 inch direction in which deflection observations are required.
over typical distances involved. This value is relative to
the fixed alignment baseline on which the theodolite and b. After force-centering the theodolite, accurately
reference target are set. In some instances (e.g., along level theodolite to its reversing point -- relevel to the
lock walls) this fixed baseline may not be perfectly stable, reversing point before each observation. This theodolite
and this may further degrade the ultimate accuracy of leveling/releveling procedure is critical. In addition,
measuring deflections in individual structural sections. In parallax is removed from the theodolite’s cross hairs. The
addition, other short-term effects may mask the relative reference target on the opposite end of the reference line
accuracy of deflection observations. These include short- is aligned by forced-centering, and ensuring the target is
term temperature changes (sun-cloud), power plant aligned vertically over the plug center.
machinery, lock operation, etc. Observers should exercise
judgment regarding the ultimate accuracy of micrometer c. The theodolite’s vertical hair is centered on the
measurements when local conditions are impacting reference target and five (5) alignment deflections are
observations. observed with the theodolite in Direct position only. For
each observation, initial on the reference target, drop
12-14. PICES Micrometer Alignment Require- vertical line of sight, and move the alignment micrometer/
ments and Instructions target to collimation with T-2. Radios may be required
for communication between the instrument man and
PICES alignment requirements for each structure will be micrometer operator. Ensure micrometer device is as
listed in tabular form on project instructions -- identifying level as possible. Also record pertinent structural load
the baseline reference points (instrument/target stands), and temperature conditions.
the deflection points to be observed, and structure loading
requirements (e.g., lock fill elevations). Requirements for d. Observe five deflections with the alignment
establishing new alignment points and constructing refer- micrometer in the LEFT position (i.e., micrometer is to
ence baseline instrument/target stands will be detailed as left of baseline as viewed from the theodolite’s position).
required.
e. Rotate alignment micrometer 180 degrees to its
12-15. Instrumentation Requirements RIGHT position, and observe five deflections (theodolite
is still in Direct position). Relevel theodolite (to its
a. Wild T-2 or T-3 theodolite with forced-centering reversing point) before sighting on the reference target.
tribrach. Other similar instruments (e.g., total stations) (Leveling of the micrometer is critical on the lateral axis.)
may be used.
f. Always run the micrometer against the spring.
b. Targets: Inverted “V” or conic plug inserts. After each deflection observation, the micrometer should
be backed off a few hundredths of an inch.
c. Alignment micrometer with forced-centering plug
insert. Inverted “V” or conic targets mounted on microm- g. Read alignment micrometer to nearest ±0.001
eter. See EM 1110-2-4300 for details on forced-centering (thousandth) inch.
monument construction and monolith alignment marker
design. h. Determine the mean of both LEFT and RIGHT
micrometer observations (five each) to nearest 0.001 inch.
d. Recording format. Use a standard field survey The difference between the mean of the LEFT set and the
book for both observations, computations, and adjustments mean of the RIGHT should not exceed ±0.02 (two-
of data. hundredths) inch. If the difference between the two

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31 Oct 94

means does exceed this limit then both the LEFT and d. The sum of the micrometer LEFT and RIGHT
RIGHT set must be reobserved. Large variations proba- means will not necessarily total to 1.000 inch, given the
bly indicate poor target centering, parallax not eliminated, micrometer index errors.
or mislevelment of the theodolite.
e. Office tabulations. Simply tabulate field-com-
i. Check internal rejection criteria. Reject if mea- puted deflection values onto the PICES report. Note all
surement is +0.02 inch from the mean. local conditions (i.e., water level, temperature, etc.) for
each observed deflection. See sample recording formats
j. Check external rejection criteria. Check previous in EM 1110-2-4300.
PICES report for potential blunders.
12-18. PICES Crack and Joint Measurement
k. There are no micrometer calibration requirements Procedure - General
during observations since reversing the micrometer to the
LEFT and RIGHT positions eliminates index error in the This section describes absolute micrometer joint or crack
device. measurement procedures using micrometers. Relative
displacement techniques are not covered -- see EM 1110-
l. There is no need to reverse the theodolite, given 2-4300. PICES crack/joint observations are measured
the small vertical deflections involved, and higher errors relative to grouted bronze plugs set 12 inches (±) on
inherent from other sources. If significant vertical deflec- center across a concrete crack or structural construction
tions are involved, then non-verticality of the theodolite joint where periodic monitoring is required. Monitoring
could inject errors. Also, the vertical cross hair should be points are usually set on each adjacent monolith. Moni-
periodically checked and adjusted, in accordance with the toring is performed periodically for long-term trends or
manufacturer’s manual. The theodolite itself should be during short-term load deformation studies. Often, three
serviced and calibrated annually. plugs are set across each crack or joint in a triangular
pattern. In most cases, two opposite plugs set perpendicu-
12-17. Field Computations and Reductions lar to the joint/crack plane will be adequate. Expected
short-term accuracy is on the order of ±0.0005 inch, rela-
a. The final left/right deflection angle will be com- tive to the fixed calibration reference bar. Errors due to
puted in the field after each alignment observation, and the nonalignment (vertical) of the crack plugs relative to
noted in the field survey book. Accordingly, no office one another could affect observational accuracy (and long-
recomputations will be required. All field reductions shall term repeatability) upwards of ±0.01 inch. Given all of
be independently checked in the field. the above errors and uncertainties, estimated long-term
crack measurement accuracy is at the ±0.005- to
b. From the meaned micrometer LEFT/RIGHT read- 0.010-inch level, totally independent of short-term
ings, compute the adjusted deflection as follows: movements in the structure due to load or temperature
influences.
Deflection = D = (ML - MR)/Z
12-19. PICES Requirements and Instructions
where
Crack and joint measurement requirements are typically
D = “+” RIGHT deflection off baseline to structure listed in tabular form, including instructions for varying
point as viewed from theodolite position hydraulic head levels against the monoliths, if applicable.
Requirements and instructions for setting new monitoring
ML = mean of five LEFT micrometer readings on points will be provided as required. Structure loading
baseline requirements will also be provided for each new observa-
tion point specified.
MR = mean of five RIGHT micrometer readings on
baseline 12-20. Instrument and Equipment

c. Round adjusted deflection to the nearest a. Inside micrometer. Any standard machine
0.01 inch. tooling inside micrometer may be used for crack

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31 Oct 94

measurements. Precision calipers may also be employed Observed uncorrected

in lieu of an inside micrometer. micrometer length: 11.454 inches

b. Inside micrometer calibration bar. A 12-inch g. Ensure dial range is within 0.025-inch microme-
center to center standard reference may be used for all ter setting range to avoid misreadings and ensure rela-
micrometer observations. An independent recalibration of tively constant spring tension.
this bar is necessary to monitor long-term stability.
12-22. Micrometer Calibration Bars
c. Plug inserts. Stainless steel threaded half-inch
inserts are used and inserted into the dual or triad points a. The calibration bar is used to ensure the micro-
across monolith joints or cracks. Inserts are stamped to meter is accurate by verifying a 12.000-inch center to
ensure consistent use on periodic measurements. The center distance. The calibration bar should be kept
0.500-inch O/D inserts should be precision machined to shaded. Calibrate caliper and/or micrometer prior to
an accuracy of ±0.001 inch and verified by micrometer PICES structure observation, using an independent refer-
measurement. ence. Single meaned forward/backward micrometer posi-
tions on the calibration bar should be observed/recorded
12-21. Crack Measurement Techniques to the nearest 0.001 inch.

a. Insert plug pins and measure crack or joint dis- b. Example of calibration for Starrett Micrometer
tance using an inside micrometer or caliper. (similar operation required for Helios Caliper).

b. Read micrometer/caliper values to nearest FORWARD BACKWARD

0.001 inch. Micrometer 11.475 11.475
Dial -0.021 -0.020
c. Read in both directions (i.e., reverse micrometer Reading 11.454 11.455
ends) between crack plugs and mean result to nearest
0.001 inch. Meaned calibration reading = 11.454 inches

d. Hold micrometer ends as low as possible on each CALIBRATION CORRECTION

plug pin. Gently rotate each end for minimum distance (Nominal calibration bar length) 12.000
observation. - (Calibration reading) -11.454
Calibration correction 00.546 inch
e. Readings in each direction should not vary by
more than ±0.001 inch unless it can be verified that the c. The above micrometer and caliper calibration
crack plugs are grossly misaligned vertically. This can be correction is applied to all subsequent crack readings.
verified by raising the micrometer at both ends to confirm
nonverticality of the grouted plugs. Do not attempt to d. Typical crack observation (Starrett Inside
interpolate between 0.001-inch values. Record a single Micrometer). Typical field book entry:
minimum reading for each direction and mean as
required. Cross Florida Barge Canal
Inglis Lock & Spillway
f. The following applies to an inside micrometer
with dial: Lock micrometer to nearest 0.025-inch division Points: IL19N4 to IL19N5
and use dial indicator to obtain minimum distance. (Max-
imum reading on scale which is subtracted from the preset 19 July 1984 0845 am
micrometer value): Mic - Bergen
Notes - Noles, Bergen
Example: T - 86o F, Rain
Lock full @ 36.0’ elev.
Micrometer set at: 11.475 inches
Maximum dial scale
reading (minimum distance): -0.021 inch

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FWD BACK i. Standard field survey books for both observations

11.475 Mic 11.475 and corrected/adjusted lengths are normally used for
-0.019 Dial -0.020 record keeping.
11.456 11.455 Mean = 11.456 inch
12-23. Periodic Calibration Requirements on
Calibration correction = +0.546 inch Micrometer

Corrected plug reading = 12.002 inches a. Independent annual calibrations should be per-
(IL19N4 to IL19N5) formed on the following components:

The corrected plug-to-plug reading (12.002) may be • Inside micrometer or calipers.

directly inserted on PICES tabulation report; no further
adjustments are required. • Reference calibration bar.

e. Typical plug pin convention for Triad Crack/Plug • Threaded 1/2-inch plug inserts.
Configurations. Three marked pins shall be used in the
same plug upon each PICES revisit, per the following b. Calibrations should be checked over the normal
convention: temperature range which these devices are subject to in
order to determine if expansion (temperature dependent)
“L” Lowest numbered crack plug corrections become significant.
“H” Highest numbered crack plug
“b” “Blank,” in medium numbered crack plug c. There is no method for eliminating the error due
to nonverticality of the plugs other than using identical
i.e. Inglis Lock inserts on each visit. Use of inside/outside precision
calipers will eliminate most independent calibration
PLUG PLUG requirements other than the calipers themselves and
IL19N4 “L” ensure true roundness and alignment of the threaded plug
IL19N5 Blank inserts. The need for a reference calibration bar may also
IL19N6 “H” be eliminated.

f. Normally, only one forward/reverse observation 12-24. Data Computations and Reductions
will be required for each pair of plugs, approximately a 1-
to 2-minute procedure. Additional observations under a. All PICES observations and reductions shall be
different structural loading conditions or temperature performed and verified in the field, directly into the field
conditions will not be performed unless specifically survey book. Micrometer data are corrected for calibra-
requested in the project instructions. In cases where tion constants as shown above. Quick comparisons
observations are taken over varying points in time or should be made with previous PICES observations to
condition, they will not be meaned, given the external preclude against blunders.
structural variability of the measurements. (All PICES
observations are only valid for the finite period in which b. Office processes are not required other than tabu-
they are taken given the external influences, primarily by lating field reduced distance onto PICES reports and
the structure and to a lesser extent the instrumentation computing changes from past readings. Standard forms
employed. This applies to vertical, horizontal, and align- for periodic crack measurements are also found in
ment observations also). EM 1110-2-4300.

g. Internal rejection criteria are ±0.001 inch between 12-25. PICES: Horizontal EDM Observations-
each direction reversal and ±0.001 inch from nominal General
calibration bar constant. Failure to obtain agreement in
each direction may be due to nonverticality of the plugs, The following procedures apply to structural deformation
in which case no re-observations are necessary. observations utilizing EDMs. EDMs include either stand-
alone or electronic total stations. Distances to structural
h. There are no external rejection criteria other than monitoring points are observed from one or more rigid
a blunder check using prior PICES observations (reports). instrument stands or tripods over “fixed” points. The

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31 Oct 94

positioning of the fixed points is not influenced by move- Since most PICES projects involve relatively short EDM
ment of the structure and is presumed to be static. The lengths (i.e., between 100 and 1,000 m), errors due to
fixed points constitute a local baseline for each structure. poorly observed atmospheric corrections and slope/
Structural movement is then determined relative to these horizontal reductions are relatively insignificant (less than
external points. The external reference points are set such 1-3 mm) compared to EDM instrument limitations and
that the relative movement vector being measured is gen- instrument/reflector centering uncertainties, among others.
erally perpendicular to the structure’s probable plane of In some instances, over rigid forced-centering bases, accu-
failure. The field method for obtaining the EDM mea- racies may be obtained down to the 0.003 m level.
surements for PICES is referred to as the RLR/Robertson
Method, as detailed in prior chapters. The RLR method 12-27. PICES Requirements and Instructions
will provide sufficient relative accuracy measurements for
most USACE structural monitoring applications. This Requirements for recurring PICES EDM observations will
section describes the general procedures used in meas- be received in either tabular or plan form, detailing the
uring actual distances with typical EDM equipment. lengths to be observed to each particular structural moni-
Establishment of the reference network and periodic toring point. A single length implies a unit vector com-
measurement procedures are covered. The RLR method parison. Requirements for establishing new monitoring
requires no EDM calibration or meteorological conditions points and constructing reference instrument stands will
correction. Rather, the distance between two fixed points be detailed as necessary.
(baseline distance) at the structure is measured and com-
pared to the published distance (distance recorded in the a. The EDM instrument must be paired with speci-
PICES tabulation). If there is a difference upon compari- fic (numbered) reflector.
son of the two distances, then either change the ppm
reading on the instrument to match the published distance b. Both the instrument and reflector should be
or compute the ratio of the measured distance to the pub- mounted using forced-centering devices. Wild tribrachs
lished distance. The distances to the structure points are with standard target level vials may be used to level tri-
then measured. If measurements are made for more than brach housing over plugs. Threaded aluminum rods for
30 minutes, the baseline distance must be checked and the direct insert in monitoring plugs may be used to support
above procedure repeated if there is a difference between reflectors.
the measured and published distances. Continue measur-
ing distances to structure points. Distances measured c. Engineer scales may be used for measuring
using the option where the ppm is adjusted to match the instrument/reflector heights over base, as needed for
published distances can be entered directly into the tabula- slope/horizontal distance reduction.
tion, and the change and cumulative change computed and
also entered into the tabulation. d. Standard Wild-type tripods with Wild tribrachs
should be used for nonforced-centering mounts. Use of
12-26. Required Accuracy tripods is not recommended for PICES work due to diffi-
culty in accurately plumbing instrument/reflector over
The estimated accuracy of any individual EDM length marks.
observation measured over typical distances is ±0.002 to
0.005 m. This estimate is based on potential error sources e. Standard field survey books may be used for
involving: recording all observations, computations, and reductions.

• EDM rated precision point centering limitations -- 12-28. General EDM Observing Procedures for
instrument and reflector. Lines Less Than 1,000 M in Length

• Atmospheric corrections and reductions, or varia- a. Only Wild interchangeable tribrachs shall be used
tions during RLR method. such that the instrument/reflector may be readily inter-
changed without affecting centering of the tripod/tribrach
• Short-term structural deformations occurring dur- mount. Any other type of equipment shall be considered
ing actual PICES measurement process. unacceptable.

• Numerous other factors well documented in geo- b. Only one instrument/reflector combination shall
detic reference texts and manuals. be used for a particular line. The serial numbers of the

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

instrument and reflector shall be recorded for each obser- this process. If no movement is detected during this final
vation to ensure and verify this fact. check, then the entire observation process shall be
repeated.
c. Accurately centering instruments, reflectors, or
tribrachs over the marks is one of the most critical pro- f. In precise surveys, towers, stands, and tripods
cesses involved in short-range EDM observations. In must be substantial. The use of driven stakes or some
order to ensure that centering errors are minimized, the type of quick setting cement or dental plaster for tripod
following procedures should be followed for all structural leg support may be required. Catwalks, support away
deformation EDM work. from tripod legs, may be necessary under some soil or
platform conditions to ensure that the instrument/reflector
(1) Wild tribrachs shall be accurately plumbed using is unaffected by motion around it.
the built-in optical plummet. Optical plummets shall be
calibrated at the beginning of each project using the pro- g. When relatively short reflector rods are screwed
cedures outlined in the manufacturer’s manual. Failure to directly into grouted plugs, it is critical that the same rod
perform/certify/record this calibration process can be is used for each successive PICES project. Therefore, the
grounds for rejecting all subsequent EDM data obtained rod number should be recorded such that this rod is
with an uncalibrated tribrach. always used at a particular plug. Reflector HI’s should be
kept as low as possible to minimize potential nonvertical-
(2) Tripod heads shall be aligned as nearly horizontal ity of the rods.
as is possible, prior to final centering procedures.
12-29. EDM Observing Repetitions
(3) Final tribrach leveling and centering shall be
performed using a level vial from either a mounted theod- a. Five (5) repeated observations should normally
olite or a standard Wild target. The built-in bull’s-eye be taken, or approximately 30 seconds of observations. A
level is not considered accurate enough for this process second series of 5 observations shall be taken after
and should only be used for rough tripod head alignment. repointing on the target. Consult manufacturer’s recom-
All centering leveling vials should be calibrated at the mendations for additional guidance.
beginning of each project and this fact so recorded during
that process. b. Record repeated observations to the least count
on the EDM -- the nearest 0.001 or 0.0001 m. Mean the
(4) In general, all tripod/tribrach centering shall be result to the same degree of precision.
performed to an accuracy of ±1 mm.
c. Distances need only be observed in one direction
(5) When using a tripod in lieu of forced-centering, when the instrument is set up on positive centered con-
and weather conditions permit, optical centering may be crete instrument stands. Measure both directions when
checked using a standard plumb bob. Significant dis- using tripod supports. On some projects, double measur-
agreement (say more than 1 mm) would be grounds for ing need only be performed if a one-way distance devi-
immediately recalibrating all optical plummets and level ated over 5 mm from previous PICES observations.
vials.
d. Distances between fixed instrument stands, if
d. Once tripods and tribrachs have been accurately required, shall be observed in both directions.
centered over each end of the line, then the EDM instru-
ment and reflector may be inserted into the tribrachs e. The following observations shall be made for
without further adjustment. Extreme care shall be taken each EDM distance measured.
to avoid disturbing the tribrach centering during the inser-
tion and measurement process. Since each line may be • Heights of instrument and reflector (HI/HR) shall
measured in both directions, the instrument/reflector be accurately measured and recorded at each end
swapping process shall be carefully executed to avoid -- to nearest 0.01 foot.
disturbance of the centering alignment.
• Instrument stands with elevations determined
e. Upon completion of all observations from a par- relative to domed plugs must be corrected
ticular tripod, a final level and centering check shall be accordingly when HI measurements are relative
performed to ensure no movement has occurred during to the plug base.

12-12
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

• The EDM instrument shall have the electro- • System constant.

optical center calibrated and marked such that
accurate instrument heights may be determined • Horizontal eccentricities (if any).
for each observation. Likewise, the optical center
of the reflector shall be equally calibrated and • Slope to horizontal correction.
marked.
b. No corrections to sea level need be applied in
f. The previously determined system constant for an PICES projects involving short lines (i.e., less than
EDM shall be recorded in the field book for each obser- 1,000 m) or projects near sea level (e.g. in Florida). Final
vation. Accordingly, the instrument and reflector serial reduced slope distances (corrected for atmospheric obser-
numbers must be noted in the field book to ensure the vations) shall be reduced to horizontal distances using the
calibrated pair is correct. Incorrect instrument/reflector elevation differences determined from differential levels.
serial numbers and system constant will result in rejection Zenith distances (vertical angles) are rarely used for deter-
of all data. mining EDM elevations. Accurate heights of instruments
are critical; accordingly, these values shall be precisely
g. The rigid reflector rod number, when used, must measured for each observation (using a rod scale or other
be recorded in the field book. equally accurate method). Field notes and computation/
reduction recording forms shall show the application
h. Figure 12-3 depicts a typical field EDM observa- and/or consideration of all the correction factors described
tion and reduction. above. Reduced horizontal lengths should be checked and
initialed in the field.
12-30. Internal EDM Rejection Criteria
c. In some cases where only relative vector move-
a. The spread from the mean of the observations ment is being monitored, slope-horizontal reductions need
(2 sets of 5) shall not vary by more than 0.002 m. If not be applied if distances are relatively long and HIs are
0.002 m is exceeded, re-observe the series. of average amounts.

b. Measurements taken in both directions should 12-32. Office Computations and Adjustments
agree to 0.002 m after measurements are corrected for
slope and atmospheric conditions, as required. Since incoming field observations are fully corrected and
reduced to horizontal, no further office adjustment of the
12-31. EDM Computations, Reductions and individual length observation is necessary. PICES report
Adjustments tabulations are performed in the standard manner showing
single lengths plus relative changes from past
a. In performing the procedures outlined above, final observations.
corrected horizontal distances will be computed and ver-
ified/checked in the field. The following corrections/
reductions will be performed/corrected in the field:

12-13
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Figure 12-3. Horizontal EDM observation

12-14
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Appendix A ER 1110-345-710
References Drawings

ER 1130-2-307
A-1. Required Publications Dredging Policies and Practices

Public Law 92-367 ER 1130-2-315

Public Law 92-367, “The Dam Inspection Act” Navigation Charts for Inland Waterways

Public Law 92-582 EP 25-1-1

Public Law 92-582 (86 STAT. 1278), “Public Buildings-- Index of Publications
Selection of Architects and Engineers”
EP 310-1-6
EFARS Graphics Standards Manual
Engineer Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement
EM 1110-1-1000
FM 5-82D/CM Photogrammetric Mapping
Commander’s Manual: 82D
Topographic Surveyor EM 1110-1-1002
Survey Markers and Monumentation
FM 5-232
Topographic Surveying EM 1110-1-1003
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System Surveying
FM 5-233
Construction Surveying EM 1110-1-1005
Topographic Surveying
TM 5-237
Surveying Computer’s Manual EM 1110-1-1807
Standards Manual for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
TM 5-441 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) Systems
Geodetic and Topographic Surveying
EM 1110-1-1904
TB 5-803-3-1 Settlement Analysis
Guidelines for the Preparation of Automated Map Data
Bases at Army Installations (Draft) EM 1110-2-1003
Hydrographic Surveying
ER 405-1-12
Real Estate Handbook EM 1110-2-1908
Instrumentation of Earth and Rock-Fill Dams
ER 1110-2-100
Periodic Inspection and Continuing Evaluation of Com- EM 1110-2-1911
pleted Civil Works Structures Construction Control for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams

ER 1110-2-1150 EM 1110-2-2300
Engineering and Design for Civil Works Projects Earth and Rock-Fill Dams, General Design and Construc-
tion Considerations
ER 1110-2-1200
Plans and Specifications for Civil Works Projects EM 1110-2-4300
Instrumentation for Concrete Structures
ER 1110-2-1806
Earthquake Design and Analysis for Corps of Engineers
Projects

A-1
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

American National Standards Institute 1979 Mikhail and Ackermann 1976

American National Standards Institute. 1979. “Line Mikhail, Edward M., and Ackermann, Friedrich E. 1976.
Conventions and Lettering,” ANSI Y 14.2 - 1979, Observations and Least-Squares, IEP Series Civil Engi-
Engineering Drawings and Related Documentation Prac- neering, New York.
tices, New York.
1
National Geodetic Survey 1988
American National Standards Institute 1980 National Geodetic Survey. 1988. “Guidelines for Sub-
American National Standards Institute. 1980. “Drawing mitting GPS Relative Positioning Data to the National
Sheet Size and Format,” ANSI Y14.1-1980, Engineering Geodetic Survey,” Rockville, MD.
Drawings and Related Documentation Practices, New
York. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1981
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association. 1981.
Sensing 1989 NOAA Manual NOS NGS 3, “Geodetic Leveling.”
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sens-
ing. 1989. “ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large Scale Office of Management and Budget 1990
Maps,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sens- Office of Management and Budget. 1990 (19 Oct).
ing, pp. 1068 and 1070. “Coordination of Surveying, Mapping, and Related Spatial
Data Activities,” Circular No. A-16, Washington, DC
Bureau of the Budget 1947
Bureau of the Budget. 1947 (17 June). “United States Photogrammetry for Highways Committee 1968
National Map Accuracy Standards,” U.S. Bureau of the Photogrammetry for Highways Committee. 1968. “Ref-
Budget. erence Guide Outline: Specifications for Aerial Surveys
and Mapping by Photogrammetric Methods for High-
1
Federal Geodetic Control Committee 1984 ways,” U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington,
Federal Geodetic Control Committee. 1984. “Standards DC
and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks,”
Rockville, MD. U.S. Bureau of Land Management 1947
U.S. Bureau of Land Management. 1947. “Manual of
1
Federal Geodetic Control Committee 1988 Instruction for the Survey of Public Lands of the United
Federal Geodetic Control Committee. 1988 (Reprinted States.”
with Corrections: 1 Aug 1989). “Geometric Geodetic
Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Using GPS A-2. Related Publications
Relative Positioning Techniques (Preliminary),” Rockville,
MD. Bossler and Challstrom 1985
Bossler, J. D., and Challstrom, C. W. 1985. “GPS
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee 1980 Instrumentation and Federal Policy.”
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee. 1980. “Input
Formats and Specifications of the National Geodetic Data Department of Defense 1987
Base.” “Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984 -
Its Definition and Relationships with Local Geodetic
Leick and Lambert 1990 Systems.” 1987. DMA Technical Report 8350.2.
Leick, Alfred, and Lambert, Steven. 1990. GPS Satellite
Surveying, John Wiley, New York. Federal Emergency Management Agency 1991
Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1991. “Guide-
_____________________________ lines and Specifications for Study Contractors, Flood
1 Insurance Study,” FEMA 37, Washington, DC.
Reference may be obtained from the U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, National Ocean Service, 1315 East West Highway,
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3282.

A-2
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Hothem And Fronczek 1983 Soler and Hothem 1988

Hothem, L. D., and Fronczek, C. J. 1983. “Report on Soler, T., and Hothem, L. 1988. “Coordinate Systems
Test and Demonstration of Macrometer Model V-1000 Used in Geodesy - Basic Definitions and Concepts,” Jour-
Interferometric Surveyor,” Federal Geodetic Control nal on Surveying and Engineering, American Society of
Committee. Civil Engineers.

Hothem and Williams 1985

Hothem, L. D., and Williams, G. E. 1985. “Factors to
be Considered in Development of Specifications for
Geodetic Surveys Using Relative Positioning GPS
Techniques.”

A-3
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Appendix B NAVSTAR . . . . . . . . NAVigation Satellite Timing

Glossary and Ranging
NGRS . . . . . . . . . . . National Geodetic Reference
System
B-1. Abbreviations NGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Geodetic Survey
NGVD 29 . . . . . . . . . National Geodetic Vertical
A-E . . . . . . . . . . . Architect-Engineer Datum 1929
BIH . . . . . . . . . . . Bureau International de l’Heure NOAA . . . . . . . . . . . National Oceanic and
BM . . . . . . . . . . . Benchmark Atmospheric Administration
CCD . . . . . . . . . . Charge Couple Device NOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Ocean Service
CDMS . . . . . . . . . Continuous Deformation Monitoring OCONUS . . . . . . . . . Outside the Continental United
System States
CONUS . . . . . . . . CONtinental United States OMB . . . . . . . . . . . . Office of Management
CORPSCON . . . . . CORPS CONvert and Budget
CSM . . . . . . . . . . Computer Simulation Method PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . personal computer
CTP . . . . . . . . . . . Conventional Terrestrial Pole RLR . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference Line Ratio
CW . . . . . . . . . . . Civil Works RMS . . . . . . . . . . . . root mean square
DGPS . . . . . . . . . . Differential Global Positioning SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International System of Units
System SPCS . . . . . . . . . . . . State Plane Coordinate System
DME . . . . . . . . . . Distance Measuring Equipment TBM . . . . . . . . . . . . temporary benchmark
DoD . . . . . . . . . . . Department of Defense TEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Army Topographic
EDM . . . . . . . . . . Electronic Distance Measurement Engineering Center
EFARS . . . . . . . . . Engineer Federal Acquisition TM . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transverse Mercator
Regulation Supplement 2DRMS . . . . . . . . . . Two standard deviation root
E&D . . . . . . . . . . Engineering and Design mean square
FEM . . . . . . . . . . Finite Element Method USACE . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
FGCC . . . . . . . . . Federal Geodetic Control USC&GS . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey
Committee UTM . . . . . . . . . . . . Universal Transverse Mercator
FGCS . . . . . . . . . . Federal Geodetic Control VERTCON . . . . . . . . VERTical CONversion
Subcommittee WGS 84 . . . . . . . . . . World Geodetic System of 1984
FGDC . . . . . . . . . Federal Geographic Data Committee
FOA . . . . . . . . . . . Field Operating Activity B-2. Terms
GIS . . . . . . . . . . . Geographic Information System
GPS . . . . . . . . . . . Global Postioning System Abberation of Light (Astronomic)
GRS 80 . . . . . . . . Geodetic Reference System of 1980 The apparent displacement in position of a stellar body
HARN . . . . . . . . . High Accuracy Regional Networks due to the velocity of light combined with the motion of
HI . . . . . . . . . . . Height of Instrument the earth itself.
IDT . . . . . . . . . . . Indefinite Delivery Type
IGLD 55 . . . . . . . . International Great Lakes Datum Absolute Accuracy
of 1955 Accuracy that is determined by a specific reference to a
IGLD 85 . . . . . . . . International Great Lakes Datum value.
of 1985
MHW . . . . . . . . . . mean high water Absolute GPS
MLLW . . . . . . . . . mean lower low water Operation with a single receiver for a desired position.
MLW . . . . . . . . . . mean low water This receiver may be positioned to be stationary over a
MSL . . . . . . . . . . mean sea level point. This mode of positioning is the most common
MSL 1912 . . . . . . Mean Sea Level Datum of 1912 military and civil application.
NAD 27 . . . . . . . . North American Datum of 1927
NAD 83 . . . . . . . . North American Datum of 1983 Accidental Error
NADCON . . . . . . . North American Datum Conversion Error that is accidentally incurred in a measurement.
NATO . . . . . . . . . North Atlantic Treaty Organization Unlike systematic errors, accidental errors are not gov-
NAVD 88 . . . . . . . North American Vertical Datum erned by fixed laws. The theory of probability is based
of 1988

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31 Oct 94

on the occurrence of these errors, which are just as likely Astronomical latitude applies only to positions on the
to be positive as negative. earth and is reckoned from the astronomic equator (0°),
north and south through 90°. Astronomical latitude is the
Accuracy latitude which results directly from observations of celes-
A measurement’s degree of conformity or perfection. tial bodies, uncorrected for deflection of the vertical.
Accuracy relates to the quality of a result and is
distinquished from precision which relates to the quality Astronomical Longitude
of the operation by which the result is obtained. Arbitrarily chosen angle between the plane of the celestial
meridian and the plane of an initial meridian. Astronomi-
Adjustment cal longitude is the longitude which results directly from
Adjustment is the removal of discrepancy errors. This observations on celestial bodies, uncorrected for deflection
adjustment forms a coordinated and correlated system of of the vertical.
stations.
Astronomical Triangle
Agonic Line A “reference triangle” formed by arcs of great circles
A line, on the earth’s surface, with zero magnetic declina- connecting the celestial pole, the zenith, and a celestial
tion. Equivalently, it is the locus of all points, on the body. The angles of the astronomical triangles are: at
earth’s surface, at which magnetic north and astronomic the pole, the hour angle; at the celestial body, the paral-
north coincide. It is a particular case of an isogonic line. lactic angle; at the zenith, the azimuth angle. The sides
are: pole to zenith, the co-latitude; zenith to celestial
Altimeter body, the zenith distance; and celestial body to pole, the
An instrument that measures approximate elevations or polar distance.
approximate differences of elevation.
Atmospheric Refraction
Altitude Refraction of light from a source outside the atmosphere.
The vertical angle between the plane of the observer’s Also called astronomic refraction. Light from a star or
true horizon and a line to the object. planet passes through the entire depth of the atmosphere
before reaching the surface of the earth. Refraction
Angle of Depression causes the ray to follow a curved path concave toward the
A negative altitude. surface.

Angle of Elevation Azimuth

A positive altitude. The horizontal direction of a line clockwise from a refer-
ence plane, usually the meridian. Often called forward
Angular Misclosure azimuth to differentiate from back azimuth.
Difference in the actual and theoretical sum of a series of
angles. Azimuth Angle
The angle less than 180° between the plane of the celes-
Apparent Time tial meridian and the vertical plane with the observed
Time that is directly determined from measurements, i.e., object, reckoned from the direction of the elevated pole.
based on the true place of the sun. Apparent time is In astronomic work, the azimuth angle is the spherical
usually adjusted to remove effects of refraction and aber- angle at the zenith in the astronomical triangle which is
ration from the measurements. Two kinds of apparent composed of the pole, the zenith, and the star. In geo-
time are in common use: apparent sidereal time and detic work, it is the horizontal angle between the celestial
apparent solar time. pole and the observed terrestrial object.

Archiving Azimuth Closure

Storing of documents. Difference of the two values derived by different surveys
or along different routes. Usually, one value is derived
Astronomical Latitude by computations using the measurements made during the
Angle between the plumb line and the plane of celestial survey (traverse, triangulation, or trilateration); the other
equator. Also defined as the angle between the plane of is an adjusted or fixed value determined by an earlier or
the horizon and the axis of rotation of the earth.

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31 Oct 94

more precise survey or by independent, astronomical Basic Control

observations. The horizontal and vertical control used for Third-Order
or higher order accuracy. It is determined in the field and
Backsight permanently marked or monumented for further surveys.
1. (traversing) A sight on a previously established trav-
erse or triangulation station and not the closing sight on Bearing
the traverse. 2. (leveling) A reading on a rod held on a The direction of a line within a quadrant, with respect to
point whose elevation has been previously determined and the meridian. Bearings are measured clockwise or coun-
not the closing sight of a level line. terclockwise from north or south, depending on the
quadrant.
Barometric Leveling
Determining differences of elevation from differences of Bearing Determination
atmospheric pressure observed with a barometer. By the The correct description of a bearing. It is not adequate to
application of certain corrections and the use of what is describe a line or bearing as simply northeast or south-
sometimes termed the barometric formula, a difference of west. All bearings meant for USACE applications need
atmospheric pressure at two places is transformed into a to be described as to any degrees, minutes, and seconds in
difference of elevations of those places. If the elevation the direction in which the line is progressing. The accu-
of one station above a datum (as sea level) is known, the racy of the calculation is dependent on exact measure-
approximate elevations of other stations can be known by ments. The bearing states its primary direction, north or
barometric leveling. By using barometers of special south, first and then the angle, east or west.
design, and including several stations of known elevation
in a series of occupied stations, the accuracy of the eleva- Benchmark
tions determined for the new stations is increased. Cor- A relatively permanent material object, natural or artifi-
rections are applied for temperature, latitude, index of cial, on a marked point of known elevation. Usually
barometer, closure of circuit, diurnal variation in atmos- designated a BM, such a mark is sometimes qualified as a
pheric pressure, etc. Barometric leveling determined permanent benchmark or PBM to distinguish it from a
differences in height are determined by measuring the temporary or supplementary benchmark designated as
differences in atmospheric pressure at various elevations. TBM. TBMs are marks of less permanent character and
Air pressure is measured by mercurial or aneroid barome- are intended to serve for only a comparatively short
ters, or a boiling point thermometer. Although the degree period of time.
of precision obtainable through this method is not as great
as either of the other methods mentioned, it is a method Best Fit
by which to rapidly obtain relative heights at points which To represent a given set of points by the corresponding
are at fair distances apart from each other. It is a method points of a smooth function, curve, or surface.
that has been widely used in reconnaissance and explor-
atory surveys where more exacting measurements will be Bipod
made later or are not required. A two-legged structure used for supporting an instrument
or survey signal at a height convenient for the observer.
Baseline
1. Resultant three-dimensional vector V between any two Bluebook
stations. Generally given in earth-centered Cartesian Another term for the “FGCS Input Formats and Specifica-
coordinates where V = (∆x, ∆y, ∆z). 2. The primary tions of the National Geodetic Data Base.” This is one of
reference line in a construction coordinate system. many guidelines to follow for geodetic control surveys.

Base Net Blunder

Expansion of geometric figures from a baseline to a line A mistake or error caused by mental confusion, careless-
of the main scheme of a triangulation net. ness, stupidity, ignorance, or some other factor. Exam-
ples of blunders are: reading a horizontal circle wrong by
Base Points a whole degree; neglecting to record a whole tape length
The beginning points for a traverse that will be used in in a traverse; and reversing the numerals in recording a
triangulation or trilateration. measurement. It would also apply to the number recorded

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

as the result of observing on the wrong target or from the three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-
wrong control point. handed system.

Bureau International de l’Heure (BIH) Cartesian System

Coordinates the measurements of time by national obser- A coordinate system consisting of N straight lines (called
vatories and provides an internationally acceptable, com- the axes) intersecting at a common point (called the ori-
mon time. It is also responsible for maintaining the gin). The nth coordinate (1≤n≤N) of a point is the
international atomic second, i.e., providing to users a unit distance between that point and the hyperplane determined
of time, the second, against which other standards can be by all axes but the nth, and measured parallel to the nth
calibrated. As part of its function, it calculates the posi- axis. Alternatively, a set of N families of N-1 dimension-
tion of the earth’s axis of rotation with respect to points al hyperplanes such that members of the same family
on the earth and changes in the earth’s rate of rotation. have no line in common, while members of different
The Bureau was founded in 1919 and its offices since families intersect in one and only one line. The coordi-
then have been at the Paris Observatory. By an action of nates of a point are then the set of values of the parame-
the International Astronomical Union, the BIH ceased to ters determining the N hyperplanes passing through that
exist on 1 January 1988 and a new organization, the Inter- point. The units in which distances are measured need
national Earth Rotation Service (IERS) was formed to not be the same along all the axes, and the axes need not
deal with determination of the earth’s rotation. The time- intersect at right angles. A Cartesian coordinate system
keeping portion of the BIH was transferred to the Bureau (CCS) for which the units of distance are different in
International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). different directions is sometimes erroneously called an
affine CCS. If all the axes intersect at right angles, the
Cadastral Survey system is called a rectangular CCS or simply a CCS.
Relates to land boundaries and subdivisions, and creates Otherwise, it is called an oblique CCS. Distances are
units suitable for transfer or to define the limitations of usually measured from the hyperplane to the point and are
title. The term cadastral survey is now used to designate assigned a positive or a negative value according to some
the surveys of the public lands of the U.S., including specified convention.
retracement surveys for identification and resurveys for
the restoration of property lines; the term can also be Celestial Equator
applied properly to corresponding surveys outside the A great circle on the celestial sphere with equidistant
public lands, although such surveys are usually termed points from the celestial poles. The plane of the earth’s
land surveys through preference. equator, if extended, would coincide with that of the
celestial equator.
Calibration
Determining the systematic errors in an instrument by Celestial Pole
comparing measurements with an instrument of nearly A reference point at the point of intersection of an indefi-
correct measurements. The correct value is established nite extension of the earth’s axis of rotation and the
either by definition or by measurement with a device apparent celestial sphere.
which has itself been calibrated against a device consid-
ered correct. Frequently used instruments are usually Celestial Sphere
calibrated using a measuring device (a working standard) An imaginary sphere of infinite radius with the earth as a
which has itself been calibrated. Working standards are center. It rotates from east to west on a prolongation of
calibrated by comparing them with another calibrated set the earth’s axis.
called laboratory standards, and these in turn are cali-
brated by comparison with the primary standard. Also Central Meridian
called standardization. However, that term is now used to 1. The line of constant longitude at the center of a grati-
mean the imposition of a standard on otherwise diverse cule. The central meridian is used as a base for con-
processes and products. structing the other lines of the graticule. 2. The meridian
used as y-axis in computing tables for a State Plane Coor-
Cartesian Coordinates dinate system. The central meridian of the coordinate
A system with its origin at the center of the earth and the system usually passes close to the geometric center of the
x- and y-axes in the plane of the equator. Typically, the region or zone for which the tables are computed but, to
x-axis passes through the meridian of Greenwich, and the avoid using negative values, is given a large positive
z-axis coincides with the earth’s axis of rotation. The value which must be added to all x-coordinates. 3. That

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 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

line, on a graticule, which represents a meridian and Circuit Closure

which is an axis of symmetry for the geometric properties Difference in some measured function of location from
of the graticule. the measurements or calculations carried out for points
along a line that begins and ends at the same point.
Chain
Equal to 66 feet or 100 links. The unit of length pre- Circumpolar Star
scribed by law for the survey of the U.S. public lands. A star in any given latitude which never goes below the
One acre equals 10 square chains. The chain derives its horizon; hence its polar distance must be less than the
name from the Gunter’s chain, which was widely used in given latitude. In astronomy only those stars with a polar
early surveys and had the form of a series of links con- distance of less than 10 are considered in practical
nected together by rings. problems.

Chained Traverse Clarke 1866 Ellipsoid

Observations and measurements performed with tape. A rotational ellipsoid with: semi-major axis = 20,926,062
feet (6,378,206.4 m), semi-minor axis = 20,855,121 feet
Chaining (6,356,583.8 m), flattening (derived) = 1/294.978. This
Measuring distances on the ground with a graduated tape ellipsoid has been in use since 1880, in the U.S., for
or with a chain. The term taping is now preferred if a calculating triangulation. The metric values were calcu-
tape is used. Although the chain has been superseded by lated using Clarke’s legal meter of 1866, and were used
the graduated tape for making land and other surveys, the in the past in tables based on this ellipsoid. Values based
term “chaining” has continued in use in some surveying on the value 0.304 800 47 for the ratio of the foot to the
organizations and in places where reference is to surveys meter:
of the public lands of the U.S. For the corresponding
operation in other surveys, the term taping is preferred. semi-major axis 6,378,274 m
In chaining, the persons who mark the tape’s ends are semi-minor axis 6,356,650 m.
called chainmen.
Closed Traverse
Chart Datum Starts and ends at the same point or at stations whose
For referring soundings of a datum to a chart. It is usu- positions have been determined by other surveys.
ally taken to correspond to a low-water elevation, and its
depression below mean sea level is represented by the Coefficient of Refraction
symbol Zo. Since 1989, chart datum has been imple- The ratio at the point of observation to the angle, at the
mented to mean lower low water for all marine waters of center of the earth between the point of observation and
the U.S., its territories, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the point observed.
and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Collimation
Chi-square Testing A physical alignment of a survey target or antenna over a
Test whether the classification of data can be ascribed to mark.
chance or to some underlying law.
Collimation Error
Chronometer The angle between the actual line of sight through an
A portable timekeeper with compensated balance, capable optical instrument and the position the line would have in
of showing time with extreme precision and accuracy. a perfect instrument.

Circle Position Compass Rule

A prescribed setting (reading) of the horizontal circle of a The correction to be applied to the departure (or latitude)
direction theodolite, to be used for the observation on the of any course in a traverse has the same ratio to the total
initial station of a series of stations that are to be misclosure in departure (or latitude) as the length of the
observed. course has to the total length of the traverse. Also called

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Bowditch’s rule. The compass rule is used when it is line; the latter is the term for a line drawn on a map.
assumed that the misclosure results as much from errors However, the distinction is ignored by some writers.
in measured angles as from errors in measured distances.
Care must be used in applying the rule because there is Control
no general agreement on the sign to be used for the mis- 1. The coordinated and correlated dimensional data used
closure; the corrections must be applied with signs deter- in geodesy and cartography to determine the positions and
mined by the particular conventions in use. elevations of points on the earth’s surface or on a carto-
graphic representation of that surface. 2. A collective
Compensator term for a system of marks or objects on the earth or on a
Keeps the line of sight horizontal regardless of the tilt map or a photograph whose positions or elevation, or
(within limits) of the rest of the instrument. It consists of both, have been or will be determined.
at least one optical element (prism, mirror, or train of
prisms or mirrors) suspended in such a way as to keep its Control Densification
orientation with respect to the direction of gravity fixed. The addition of control throughout an established control
It may be suspended by fine wires of invar or by flexible region.
tapes, or it may be attached as the bob of a pendulum.
Then gravity keeps the component from rotating with the Control Monuments
rest of the instrument when the instrument is tilted Existing local control or benchmarks that may consist of
slightly. The arrangement of rotating and nonrotating any Federal, state, local or private agency points.
components is such that a horizontal ray entering the
objective lens of a tilted telescope is deflected by the Control Point
compensator just enough that it passes through the center A point with assigned coordinates used in other dependent
of the reticle and thence through the ocular to the surveys. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for
observer. The compensator of most self-leveling instru- control station. However, a control point need not be
ments can compensate for about 10’ of tilt in the instru- realized by a marker on the ground.
ment. It replaces the sensitive spirit level formerly
attached to the telescope and thereby does away with the Control Survey
need to compensate manually for tilt. A leveling instru- A survey which provides coordinates (horizontal or verti-
ment equipped with a compensator is frequently referred cal) of points to which supplementary surveys are
to as an automatic level. However, the terms compensa- adjusted.
tor leveling instrument or self-leveling instrument are
preferred. Control Traverse
A survey traverse made to establish control.
Confidence Level
Accuracy based on a known distribution function; e.g., the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP)
normal distribution function or bivariate normal distribu- The origin of the WGS 84 Cartesian system is the earth’s
tion function. Errors are stated as some percentage of the center of mass. The Z-axis is parallel to the direction of
total probability of 100 percent; e.g., a 90 percent confi- the CTP for polar motion, as defined by the Bureau of
dence level. International de l’Heure (BIH), and equal to the rotation
axis of the WGS 84 ellipsoid. The X-axis is the intersec-
Conformal tion of the WGS 84 reference meridian plane and the
Map projection that holds true shapes at any points but CTP’s equator, the reference meridian being parallel to
exaggerates the area. the zero meridian defined by the BIH and equal to the
X-axis of the WGS 84 ellipsoid. The Y-axis completes a
Contour right-handed, earth-centered, earth-fixed orthogonal coor-
An imaginary line on the ground with all points thereof at dinate system, measured in the plane of the CTP equator
the same elevation above or below a specified surface of 90 degrees east of the X-axis and equal to the Y-axis of
reference. The definition is illustrated by the shore line the WGS 84 ellipsoid.
of an imaginary body of water whose surface is at the
elevation represented by the contour. A contour forming Coordinate Transformation
a closed loop round lower ground is called a depression A mathematical or graphic process of obtaining a modi-
contour. Contour should not be confused with contour fied set of coordinates. Transformation is completed

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through some combination of rotation of coordinate axes arc of hour circle between the celestial body and the
at their point of origin, modification of scale along coordi- equator; it is positive when the body is north of the equa-
nate axes, or change of the size of geometry of the refer- tor and negative when south of it. It corresponds to lati-
ence space. tude on the earth and with right ascension forms a pair of
coordinates which defines the position of a body on the
CORPSCON celestial sphere.
(Corps Convert) Software package (based on NADCON)
capable of performing transformations between NAD 83 Deflection of the Vertical
and NAD 27 geographical coordinates, CORPSCON also The angular difference, at any place, between the upward
converts between State Plane Coordinates System (SPCS), direction of a plumb line (the vertical) and the perpen-
geographical coordinates, and Universal Transverse dicular (the normal) to the reference spheroid. This
Mercator (UTM) coordinates; thus eliminating several difference seldom exceeds 30 seconds. Often expressed
steps in the total process of converting between grid coor- in two components, meridian and the prime vertical.
dinates on NAD 27 and NAD 83. Inputs can be either in
geographic, UTM, or SPCS coordinates. This program Deflection Traverse
can also be used to convert between grid and geographic Direction of each course measured as an angle from the
coordinates on the same datum. direction of the preceding course. A deflection traverse is
usually an open traverse.
Crandall Method
The misclosure in azimuth or angle is first distributed in Deformation Monitoring
equal portions to all the measured angles. The adjusted Observing the conditions of dams. It is necessary to keep
angles are then held fixed and all remaining corrections accurate records of normal occurrences to differentiate
distributed among the measurements of distance through between possible hazards and normal changes.
the method of weighted least-squares.
Departure
Cross sections The orthogonal projection of a line, on the ground, onto
A survey line run normal to the alignment of a project, an east-west axis of reference. The departure of a line is
channel, or structure. the difference of the meridional distances or longitudes of
the ends of the line. It is east, or positive, and is some-
Culmination times called the easting, for a line whose azimuth or
The instant when any point on the celestial sphere is on bearing is in the northeast or southeast quadrant. It is
the meridian of an observer. When it is on that half of west, or negative, and is sometimes called the westing, for
the meridian containing the zenith, it is called the upper a line whose azimuth or bearing is in the southwest or
transit; when it is on the other half, it is called the lower northwest quadrant. It is abbreviated as dep. in notes.
transit.
Differential GPS
Curvature Process of measuring the differences in coordinates
1. The rate at which a curve deviates from a straight line. between two receiver points, each of which is simulta-
2. The vector dt/ds, where t is the vector tangent to a neously observing/measuring satellite code ranges and/or
curve and s is the distance along that curve. 3. The rate carrier phases from the NAVSTAR GPS constellation.
at which a curved surface deviates from a flat surface in a The process actually involves the measurement of the
particular direction. difference in ranges between the satellites and two or
more ground observing points. The basic principle is that
Datum the absolute positioning errors at the two receiver points
Any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such will be approximately the same for a given instant in
quantities which serve as a reference or base for other time. The resultant accuracy is extremely high. This type
quantities. of positioning can be performed in either a static or kine-
matic mode.
Declination
The angle, at the center of the celestial sphere, between Differential Leveling
the plane of the celestial equator and a line from the The process of measuring the difference of elevation
center to the point of interest (on a celestial body). Decli- between any two points by spirit leveling.
nation, conventionally denoted by δ, is measured by the

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Direction Earth Curvature

1. The angle between a line or plane and an arbitrarily The curvature of an ellipsoid representing the earth. In
chosen reference line or plane. At a triangulation station, surveying over short distances, if the earth’s curvature
observed horizontal angles are referred to a common needs to be taken into account at all, representing the
reference line and termed horizontal direction. They are earth by a sphere is adequate.
usually collected into a single list of directions, with the
direction of 0° placed first and the other directions Easting
arranged in order of increase clockwise. 2. A line, real The distance eastward (positive) or westward (negative) of
or imaginary, pointing away from some specified point or a point from a particular meridian taken as reference. (It
locality toward another point. Direction has two mean- is common practice to use positive westings instead of
ings: that of a numerical value and that of a pointing negative eastings.)
line. Two lines must be specified for the first definition
to be valid; only one line need be specified for the second Eccentricity
meaning. 3. An indication of the location of one point The ratio of the distance from the center of an ellipse to
with respect to another without involving the distance its focus on the semimajor axis.
between the two points. It is usually thought of as a short
segment (of a straight line between the two points) having Ecliptic
one end at one of the points and having an arrow-like The intersection of the plane of the earth’s orbit with the
symbol at the other end. Note that a direction is not an celestial sphere.
angle.
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
Direct Leveling Pulsing of phase comparison to determine a distance.
The determination of differences of elevation through a
continuous series of short horizontal lines. Vertical dis- Elevation
tances from these lines to adjacent ground marks are The height of an object above some reference datum.
determined by direct observations on graduated rods with
a leveling instrument equipped with a spirit level. Ellipsoid
Formed by revolving an ellipse about its minor axis. An
Distance Angle ellipsoid is defined by the length of its semimajor axis a
An angle in a triangle opposite a side used as a base in and its flattening f, where: f = (a-b)/a and b = length of
the solution of the triangle, or a side whose length is to be the semiminor axis. The most commonly used ellipsoids
computed. in North America are: Clarke 1866, Geodetic Reference
System of 1980 (GRS 80), World Geodetic System of
Dumpy Level 1972 (WGS 72), and World Geodetic System of 1984
The telescope permanently attached to the leveling base, (WGS 84). Prior to January 1987, GPS operated with
either rigidly to or by a hinge that can be manipulated by reference to WGS 72. Since January 1987, it has been
a micrometer screw. referenced to WGS 84. For most purposes, GRS 80 and
WGS 84 can be considered identical.
Dynamic Height
That vertical distance between the point Pn on the earth’s Ellipsoid Height
surface and the point Po on the geoid which is given by The elevation h of a point above or below the ellipsoid.
the function (g/τ45) dH (the integral being taken from
Po to Pn), in which g is the value of gravity acceleration Elongation
along the path of integration, τ45 is the value of gravity at That point in the apparent movement of a circumpolar star
45° latitude, as calculated from a standard gravity for- when it has reached the extreme position east or west of
mula, and dH is the increment of vertical distance along the meridian.
the path of integration. Also called dynamic number.
Emulsion
Earth-Centered Ellipsoid A suspension of either light-sensitive silver salts, Diazos,
Center at the earth’s center of mass and minor axis coin- or photopolymers, in a colloidal medium which is used
cident with the earth’s axis of rotation. for coating films, plates, and papers.

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Ephemeris Time Finite Element Method

The uniform measure of time defined by the laws of Obtaining an approximate solution to a problem for which
dynamics and determined in principal from the oribital the governing equations and boundary conditions are
motions of the planets, specifically in the orbital motion known. The method divides the region of interest into
of the earth as represented by Newcomb’s “Tables of the numerous, interconnected subregions (finite elements)
Sun.” over which simple, approximating functions are used to
represent the unknown quantities. The basic idea origi-
Equation of Time nated in the early 1900’s as a method of solving for
The algebraic difference in hour angle between apparent strains in bridges and buildings. It was further developed
solar time and mean solar time, usually labeled + or - as for analyzing the structure of aircraft in the early 1950’s.
it is to be applied to mean solar time to obtain apparent The method, supported by rigorous mathematical theory,
solar time. has now been applied to problems in heat flow, hydrau-
lics, geodynamics, and other disciplines.
Equinox
One of the two points of intersection of the ecliptic and Fixed Elevation
the celestial equator, occupied by the sun when its decli- Adopted, either as a result of tide observations or previ-
nation is 0°. ous adjustment of spirit leveling, and which is held at its
accepted value in any subsequent adjustment.
Error
1. The difference between the measured value of a quan- Foresight
tity and the theoretical or defined value of that quantity: 1. An observation of the distance and direction to the
ε(error) ≡ y (measured) - y (theoretical). 2. The differ- next instrument station. 2. (transit traverse) A point set
ence between an observed or calculated value of a ahead to be used for reference when resetting the transit
quantity and the ideal or true value of that quantity. or line or when verifying the alinement. 3. (leveling)
Logically, definitions (1) and (2) are distinctly different. The reading on a rod that is held at a point whose eleva-
In practice, they are equivalent except for the second tion is to be determined.
definition’s allowing calculated values to be used instead
of measured values. Free Adjustment
1. An adjustment in which the number of unknowns is
Error Ellipse greater than the number of independent equations relating
Containing a specified percentage of randomly distributed the unknowns to observations. Such an adjustment has, in
points or having a specified value for the quadratic form general, no unique solution. More or less arbitrary condi-
[(ξ / σx)² - 2ρ (ξ / σx) (η/ σy) + (η/ σy)²] / (1 - ρ²), in tions must therefore be imposed on the unknowns to
which σx and σy are the standard deviations of x and y, obtain a unique solution. 2. An adjustment in which the
respectively, and ρ is the correlation coefficient. Also number of unknowns is greater than the number of inde-
called an ellipse of error and contour ellipse. Unless pendent equations relating the unknowns to observations,
specifically stated otherwise, the distribution is assumed to but there are just enough conditions imposed on the
be bivariate Gaussian. unknowns to produce a unique solution. 3. The adjust-
ment of a network containing no fixed quantities. 4. An
Error of Closure adjustment in which the rank of the normal matrix, exclu-
Difference in related measurements of the true or fixed sive of that part associated with Lagrangian multipliers, is
value of the same quantity. equal to the order of the normal matrix. 5. An adjustment
of geodetic coordinates in which, if the number of points
Exterior Angle with unknown coordinates is N, there are 3N unknowns
One of the angles lying outside a pair of parallel lines in 3-space (or 2N unknowns in 2-space) and there are 6
intersected by a third line. (or 3) condition equations. Also called adjustment using
minimal constraints or inner adjustment.
External Accuracy
A measure of the closeness of a set of values, measured
or calculated, to the true value.

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Frequency Geodetic Control

The number of complete cycles per second existing in any Established and adjusted horizontal and/or vertical control
form of wave motion. in which the shape and size of the earth (geoid) have been
considered in position computations.
Geocentric Coordinates
1. One of a set of three coordinates, of a point, in a geo- Geodetic Coordinates (φ, λ, Η)
centric coordinate system. The coordinates are commonly Angular latitudinal and longitudal coordinates, usually
represented by (λ, φ’, r) where λ, the longitude, is the referenced to some defined ellipsoid of revolution.
angle from a reference plane through the polar axis to the
plane containing the polar axis and the point; φ’, the Geodetic Height
geocentric latitude, is the angle from the equatorial plane The perpendicular distance from a specified ellipsoid
to the radius vector to the point; and r, the geocentric (reference ellipsoid) to the point of interest. Note that
distance or geocentric radius, is the distance of the point geodesists distinguish sharply between geodetic height,
from the center. The letter ψ is frequently used instead of which is measured along the perpendicular to the refer-
φ’. Note that the origin (intersection of polar axis and ence ellipsoid, and elevation, which is measured along the
equatorial plane, or center of reference ellipsoid if one is vertical to the reference surface. Conventionally, h is
used) need not be at the earth’s center of mass or geomet- used for geodetic heights, H for elevations.
ric center. The complete set of three geocentric coordi-
nates is also called a geocentric position. 2. One of a set Geodetic Latitude
of coordinates designating the location of a point by The angle which the normal at a point on the reference
means of (a) the angle from the plane of the celestial spheroid makes with the plane of the geodetic equator.
equator to a line from the center of the earth to the point Geodetic latitudes are reckoned from the equator, but in
and (b) the angle from the plane of a selected, initial the horizontal-control survey of the U.S. they are com-
geodetic meridian to that line. The first angle is called puted from the latitude of station Meades Ranch as pre-
the geocentric latitude. The term geocentric longitude is scribed in the North American Datum of 1927.
not used for the second angle because that angle is the
same as the geodetic longitude. This definition properly Geodetic Leveling
applies only to the exceptional case where the plane of The observation of the differences in elevation by means
the equator passes through the center of the earth and the of a continuous series of short horizontal lines of sight.
polar axis of the reference ellipsoid coincides with the Vertical distances from these lines to adjacent ground
earth’s polar axis. 3. The longitude and latitude of a marks are determined by direct observations on graduated
point (on the earth’s surface) relative to the center of the rods with a leveling instrument equipped with a spirit
earth. The earth’s center of mass is usually meant. level or pendulum apparatus (compensator) that senses the
vertical/ horizontal directions. This is the most accurate
Geodesic Line method of determining elevations.
Shortest distance between any two points on any mathe-
matically defined surface. A geodesic line is a line of Geodetic Longitude
double curvature, and usually lies between the two normal The arbitrarily chosen angle between the plane of the
section lines which the two points determine. If the two geodetic meridian and the plane of an initial meridian. A
terminal points are in nearly the same latitude, the geo- geodetic longitude can be measured by the angle at the
desic line may cross one of the normal section lines. It pole of rotation of the reference spheroid between the
should be noted that, except along the equator and along local and initial meridians, or by the arc of the geodetic
the meridians, the geodesic line is not a plane curve and equator intercepted by those meridians. In the U.S., geo-
cannot be sighted over directly. However, for conven- detic longitudes are numbered from the meridian of
tional triangulation the lengths and directions of geodesic Greenwich, but are computed from the meridian of station
lines differ inappreciably from corresponding pairs of Meades Ranch as prescribed in the North American
normal section lines. Datum of 1927. A geodetic longitude differs from the
corresponding astronomical longitude by the amount of
Geodesy the prime vertical component of the local deflection of the
Determination of the size and figure of the earth (geoid) vertical divided by the cosine of the latitude.
by such direct measurements as triangulation, leveling,
and gravimetric observations.

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Geodetic North Gravimeter

1. That direction, along a tangent to a meridian on an Registers variations in the weight of a constant mass
oblate, rotational ellipsoid representing the earth, which is when the mass is moved from place to place on the earth.
approximately that of astronomic north. Also called true It is subjected to the influence of gravity at those places.
north, although that term is usually applied only to astro-
nomic north. 2. The direction of a vector parallel to the Gravity
minor axis of an oblate, rotational ellipsoid and directed Viewed from a frame of reference fixed in the earth,
approximately toward astronomic north. acceleration imparted by the earth to a mass which is
rotating the earth. Since the earth is rotating, the acceler-
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80) ation observed as gravity is the resultant of the accelera-
The following set of numbers adopted in 1979 by the tion of gravitation and the centrifugal acceleration arising
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics: from this rotation and the use of an earthbound rotating
frame of reference. It is directed normal to sea level and
a 6 378 137 meters to its geopotential surfaces.
GM 98 600.6 x 109 m3/s²
J2 (- C20) -0.001 082 63 Greenwich Meridian
ω 729 211.5 x 10-11 radians/s. The astronomic meridian through the center of the Airy
transit instrument of the Greenwich Observatory, Green-
a is the length of the semimajor axis of an equipotential, wich, England. By international agreement in 1884, the
rotational ellipsoid, GM is the product of the gravitational Greenwich meridian was adopted as the meridian from
constant G by the mass M of the earth, and C20 is the which all longitudes, worldwide, would be calculated.
coefficient of the second-degree Legendre function in the Observations to maintain the Greenwich meridian as
representation V of the earth’s gravitational potential V = reference are no longer made at the Airy transit or, for
(GM/a) Σn [(a/r) n+1 Σ n {(Cnm cos mλ + Snm sin mλ) Pnm that matter, at the Greenwich Observatory. Instead, they
(sin φ)}], in which r is geocentric distance, φ is geocentric are made (1986) at Herstmanceaux Observatory, England,
latitude, and λ is geodetic longitude. ω is the angular rate and the observations made there are reduced, by calcula-
of rotation of the ellipsoidal body. tion, to the equivalent values at the Airy transit. A
meridian close to that of Greenwich but used as a refer-
Geographic Coordinates ence for determining time internationally is maintained by
1. A general term for either a geodetic or an astronomic the Bureau International de l’Heure. Although the defini-
coordinate. Also called a terrestrial coordinate. The pair tions of the Greenwich meridian and of the meridian used
of geographic coordinates is also called a geographic as reference for times are valid, neither provides a fixed
location or a geographic position. 2. One of a pair of reference for either longitude or time. The meridian of
coordinates which specify the angle between a specified Greenwich changes its position with respect to meridians
line and a meridional plane and the angle between that at other observatories because of geological changes in
line and an equatorial plane. the region surrounding the Greenwich Observatory. The
meridian provided by the Bureau International de l’Heure
Geoid is affected by the errors in time signals from the stations
An equipotential surface approximating the earth’s surface monitored by the Bureau.
and corresponding with mean sea level in the oceans and
its extension through the continents. In other words, the Grid Azimuth
geoid would coincide with the surface to which the The angle, in the plane of projection, between a straight
oceans would conform over the entire earth if the oceans line and the line (y-axis), in a plane rectangular coordinate
were set free to adjust to the combined effect of the system, representing the central meridian. In the State
earth’s mass attraction and the centrifugal force of the Plane Coordinate System established by the U.S. Coast
earth’s rotation. and Geodetic Survey, grid azimuths were reckoned from
south (0°) clockwise through 360°. To reduce geodetic
GPS (Global Positioning System) azimuth to grid azimuth, a quantity [y2 - y1) (2x’ + x2’)]/
The NAVSTAR satellites in six different orbits, five (6 ro sin 1") should be subtracted from the geodetic azi-
monitor stations and the user community. muth if the line is more than 7 km long and if full

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accuracy is wanted. (xi’, yi are the coordinates of the Heliotrope

points whose azimuth is wanted, and the denominator is a One or more plane mirrors so mounted at the station
constant for the coordinate system of a particular State being sighted upon, that the sun’s rays can be reflected to
and is given in the tables of plane rectangular coordinates any one observing station.
for that State). While essentially a map-related quantity, a
grid azimuth may, by mathematical processes, be trans- Histogram
formed into a survey-related or ground-related quantity. A graphical representation of a frequency function. The
frequency of occurrence is indicated by the height of a
Grid Inverse rectangle whose base is proportional to the interval within
The computation of length and azimuth from coordinates which the events occur with the indicated frequency.
on a grid.
Horizontal Control
Grid Meridian Determines horizontal positions only, with respect to
1. That line, in a grid on a map, parallel to the line rep- parallels and meridians or to other lines of reference.
resenting the central meridian or y-axis. 2. That line, in
a rectangular, Cartesian coordinate system applied to a Horizontal Refraction
map, parallel to the line representing the y-axis or central A natural error in surveying. The result of the horizontal
meridian. bending of light rays between a target and an observing
instrument causes this refraction. Usually caused by the
Gulf Coast Low Water Datum (GCLWD) differences in density of the air along the path of the light
Used as chart datum for the coastal waters of the Gulf rays, resulting from temperature variations.
Coast of the U.S. It is defined as mean lower low water
when the tide is of the mixed type and as mean low water Hour Angle
when the tides are diurnal. The datum was abandoned by Angular distance west of a celestial meridian or hour
the National Ocean Survey in 1980 and replaced by mean circle; the arc of the celestial equator, or the angle at the
lower low water for the region involved. celestial pole, between the upper branch of a celestial
meridian or hour circle and the hour circle of a celestial
Gunter’s Chain body or the vernal equinox, measured westward through
A measuring device once used in land surveying. It was 360°.
composed of 100 metallic links fastened together with
rings. The total length of the chain is 66 feet. Also Hour Circle
called a four-pole chain. Invented by the English astrono- Any great circle on the celestial sphere whose plane is
mer Edmund Gunter about 1620, it is the basis for the perpendicular to the plane of the celestial equator.
chain and link, units of length used in surveying the pub-
lic lands of the USA. The original form of the chain has Index Error
been replaced by metallic tapes or ribbons graduated in 1. A systematic error caused by misplacement of an
links and chains, but the new forms are still called chains. index mark or zero mark on an instrument having a scale
or vernier, so that the instrument gives a nonzero reading
Gyrotheodolite when it should give a reading of zero. This is a constant
A built-in gyroscopic compass to measure angles with error. 2. The distance upward (or downward) from the
respect to that North indicated by the compass. Also foot of a leveling rod (the lowest horizontal surface) to
called a gyro-azimuth theodolite, gyroscopic meridian- the nominal origin (theoretical zero) of the scale.
indicating instrument, gyro-meridian indicating instrument
and gyroscopic theodolite. The instrument is particularly Indirect Leveling
useful in mines and other places (such as the far north) The determination of differences of elevation from verti-
where direction is difficult to establish by other means. cal angles and horizontal distances, as in trigonometric
leveling; comparative elevations derived from values of
Hachures atmospheric pressure determined with a barometer, as in
Portraying relief by short, wedge-shaped marks radiating barometric leveling; and elevations derived from values of
from high elevations and following the direction of slope the boiling point of water determined with a hypsometer,
to the lowland. as in thermometric leveling.

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Interior Angle Invar

An angle between adjacent sides of a closed figure and An alloy of iron containing about 64% iron, 36% nickel,
lying on the inside of the figure. The three angles within and small amounts of chromium to increase hardness,
a triangle are interior angles. manganese to facilitate drawing, and carbon to raise the
elastic limit, and having a very low coefficient of thermal
International Foot expansion (about 1/25 that of steel). It was invented by
Defined by the ratio 30.48/100 m. C. Guillaume of the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (Paris). It is used wherever a metal does not
International Great Lakes Datum of 1955 change its dimensions appreciably with temperature as
(IGLD 55) desired. For this reason, it or a similar alloy has replaced
Vertical reference datum used in the Great Lakes and steel in surveyor’s tapes and wires, and particularly in
their connecting waterways. those tapes and wires used for measuring geodetic base-
lines. It is also used for the scale of some leveling rods,
International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 in first-order leveling instruments, and in pendulums.
(IGLD 85)
The adjustment of IGLD 55 used data collected from Isogonic Chart
1982-1988. The most significant change is in elevations A system of isogonic lines, each for a different value of
assigned to water levels. The water levels established for the magnetic declination.
Canadian zoning restrictions and U.S. flood insurance
purposes will not change. The implementation and publi- Isogonic Line
cation of IGLD 85 occurred in January 1992, and should A line drawn on a chart or map and connecting all points
be used for at least 25 years. representing points on the earth having equal magnetic
declination at a given time. Also called an isogonal.
International System of Units (SI)
A self-consistent system of units adopted by the general Kinematic Survey Methods
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as a Requires two receivers recording observations
modification of the then-existing metric system, changed simultaneously. It is often referred to as dynamic survey-
in 1983. ing. As in stop-and-go surveying, the reference receiver
remains fixed on a known control point while the rover
Interpolation Method receiver collects data on a constantly moving platform.
1. Determination of an intermediate value between given Unlike stop-and-go surveying, kinematic surveying tech-
values, from some known or assumed rate or system of niques do not require the rover receiver to remain motion-
change of values between the given ones. Equivalently, less over the unknown point. The observation data are
determination of the value of a function y = f(x) for later postprocessed by computer to calculate relative
some arbitrarily specified value of x, given values (y1, x1) vector/coordinate differences to the roving receiver.
and (y2, x2) such that the arbitrary value of x lies between
the two given values. 2. The process or technique of Laplace Azimuth
obtaining an estimate of the value of a quantity at a speci- A geodetic azimuth derived from an astronomic azimuth
fied time t, given that data useful for obtaining the esti- by use of the Laplace equation.
mate are available for times both before and after t. This
definition seems to be part of the jargon of control engi- Laplace Condition
neering, in which it is called smoothing. Arises from the fact that a deflection of the vertical in the
plane of the prime vertical will give a difference between
Intersection astronomic and geodetic longitude and between astro-
Determining the horizontal position of a point by observa- nomic and geodetic azimuth. Conversely, the observed
tions from two or more points of known position. Thus differences between astronomic and geodetic values of the
measuring directions that intersect at the station being longitude and of the azimuth may both be used to deter-
located. A station whose horizontal position is located by mine the deflection in the plane of the prime vertical.
intersection is known as an intersection station.
Laplace Equation
Intervisibility Expresses the relationship between astronomic and geo-
When two stations can see each other in a survey net. detic azimuths in terms of astronomic and geodetic

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longitudes and geodetic latitude. Thus Laplace correction Local Hour Angle
= (λA - λG) sin φG. Angular distance measured on the celestial equator
between the celestial meridian and the hour circle that
Laplace Station passes through the object. The local hour angle repre-
A triangulation or traverse station at which a Laplace sents physically the amount of rotation of the celestial
azimuth is determined. At a Laplace station both astro- sphere, since the object was last on the observer’s celes-
nomic longitude and astronomic azimuth are determined. tial meridian, and is always measured westward 0° to
360° from the celestial meridian.
Least Count
The finest reading that can be made directly (without Loop
estimation) from a vernier or micrometer. A pattern of measurements in the field, so that the final
measurement is made at the same place as the first
Least Squares Adjustment measurement.
The adjustment of the values of either the measured
angles or the measured distances in a traverse by deter- Loop Traverse
mining the corrections so that the sum of the squares of A closed traverse that starts and ends at the same station.
the corrections is a minimum.
Lovar
Length of Closure An alloy having a coefficient of expansion between that
The distance defined by the equation: of steel and that of invar but costing considerably less
[(closure of latitude)2 + (closure of departure)2]0.5 than invar.

Level Magnetic Bearing

Any device sensitive to the direction of gravity and used The angle with respect to magnetic north or magnetic
to indicate directions perpendicular to that of gravity at a south and stated as east or west of the magnetic meridian,
point. e.g., N 15°E.

Level Datum Magnetic Meridian

A level surface to which elevations are referred. The 1. The vertical plane in which a freely suspended, sym-
generally adopted level datum for leveling in the U.S. is metrically magnetized needle, influenced by no transient,
mean sea level. For local surveys, an arbitrary level artificial, magnetic disturbance, will come to rest. 2. The
datum is often adopted and defined in terms of an curve, on the earth’s surface at all points of which the
assumed elevation for some physical mark (benchmark). vertical plane described in the preceding definition is
tangent to the curve. 3. The direction, at any point, of
Level Net the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.
Lines of spirit leveling connected together to form a sys-
tem of loops or circuits extending over an area. Map
A conventional representation, usually on a plane surface
Line of Sight and at an established scale, of the physical features (natu-
1. The straight line between two points. This line is in ral, artificial, or both) of a part or whole of the earth’s
the direction of a great circle, but does not follow the surface by means of signs and symbols and with the
curvature of the earth. 2. The line extending from an means of orientation indicated.
instrument along which distant objects are seen, when
viewed with a telescope or other sighting device. Map Accuracy
The accuracy with which a map represents. Three types
Local Coordinate System of error commonly occur on maps: errors of representa-
The origin is within the region being studied and used tion, which occur because conventional signs must be
principally for points within that region. used to represent natural or man-made features such as
forests, buildings, and cities; errors of identification,
Local Datum which occur because a nonexistent feature is shown or is
Defines a coordinate system which is used only over a misidentified; and errors of position, which occur when an
region of very limited extent. object is shown in the wrong position. Errors of position

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are commonly classified into two types: errors of hori- Misclosure

zontal location and errors of elevation. A third type, 1. In general, the amount by which a value (of a quan-
often neglected, is errors of orientation. tity) obtained by surveying fails to agree with a value (of
the same quantity) determined, e.g., by an earlier survey,
Map Scale an arbitrarily assigned starting value, or from theory.
The ratio of a specified distance, or the average ratio of Also called closure, closing error, and error of closure.
specified distances, on a map to the corresponding dis- 2. In leveling, the amount by which the two values for
tance or distances on the ellipsoid used in making the the elevation of the same benchmark, derived by different
map (i.e., used in the map projection). surveys, by the same survey made along two different
routes, or by independent measurements, fail to exactly
Mean Angle equal each other. The misclosure may occur in a line of
Average of the angles. leveling beginning and ending on different benchmarks
whose elevations are held fixed, or beginning and ending
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) on the same benchmark. 3. (traversing) The amount by
The average height of all lower low waters recorded over which a value for a component of the location (of a trav-
a 19-year period. It is usually associated with a tide erse station) obtained by computation fails to agree with
exhibiting mixed characteristics. another value for the component as determined by a set of
measurements over the same or a different route. Also
Mean Sea Level Datum called closure, error in closure, traverse error in closure,
Adopted as a standard datum for heights or elevations. closure in position, total closure, and misclosure in posi-
The Sea Level Datum of 1929, the current standard for tion. The traverse may run between two stations whose
geodetic leveling in the U.S., is based on tidal locations are held fixed or it may begin and end at the
observations over a number of years at various tide sta- same station. In either case, there are two values for the
tions along the coasts. location of the final station: one known before the trav-
erse was computed and the other obtained by computation
Mean Sea Level Datum of 1912 (MSL 1912) using the measurements made on the traverse. The differ-
MSL 1912 was the last adjustment before the Sea Level ence between these is the misclosure. It may be resolved
Datum of 1929 was established and only included level into misclosure in latitude, misclosure in longitude (depar-
lines of the U.S. ture), or both. Although the definition calls for the differ-
ence (computed value minus measured value), in practice
Meridian Angle the difference may be taken either way and corrections
Angular distance east or west of the local celestial applied in an ad hoc manner.
meridian, the arc of the celestial equator, or the angle at
the celestial pole, between the upper branch of the local Monument
celestial meridian and the hour circle of a celestial body, Indication of the position on the ground of a survey sta-
measured eastward or westward from the local celestial tion. In military surveys, the term monument usually
meridian through 180°, and labeled E or W to indicate the refers to a stone or concrete station marker containing a
direction of measurement. special bronze plate on which the exact station point is
marked.
Metric Unit
Belonging to or derived from the c.g.s. or SI system of NADCON
units. The National Geodetic Survey developed the conversion
program NADCON (North American Datum Conversion)
Micrometer to provide consistent results when converting to and from
1. In general, any instrument for measuring small dis- North American Datum of 1983. The technique used is
tances or angles very accurately. 2. In astronomy and based on a bi-harmonic equation classically used to model
geodesy, a device, for attachment to a telescope or micro- plate deflections. NADCON works exclusively in geo-
scope, consisting of a mark moved across the field of graphical coordinates (latitude/longitude).
view by a screw connected to a graduated drum and
vernier. If the mark is a hairlike filament, the micrometer
is called a filar micrometer.

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Nadir North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27)

The point on the terrestrial sphere directly beneath the The initial point of this datum is located at Meades
observer and directly opposite to the zenith; the lowest Ranch, Kansas. Based on the Clarke spheroid of 1866,
point. the geodetic positions of this system are derived from a
readjustment of the triangulation of the entire country, in
National Geodetic Vertical Datum 1929 which Laplace azimuths were introduced.
(NGVD 29)
Adopted as the standard geodetic datum for heights, based North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83)
on an adjustment holding 26 primary tide stations in Covers all of North America and extends into Greenland.
North America fixed. The latest general adjustment is the NAD 83 was developed by coordinated efforts between
NGVD 29. Portions of the upper Mississippi River are the countries covered by the system, and essentially com-
referenced to the previous (1912) general adjustment. A pleted by 1988. The datum of the North American
new readjustment is currently in progress, and will be Datum 1983 geodetic system is, for practical purposes,
termed the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 equivalent to that of the World Geodetic System 1984.
(NAVD 88) when completed. NGVD is not the same as Coordinates of points in the system are not, however, the
mean sea level. same because they are determined by including in the
adjustment besides data from the TRANSIT (Navy Navi-
National Map Accuracy Standards gation Satellite System), data from traverses, triangulation,
Set by the U.S., specifying the accuracy required of topo- and the GPS.
graphic maps published by the U.S. at various scales.
The standards for horizontal accuracy specify that for North American Vertical Datum of 1988
maps at scales larger than 1:20,000, 90% of all (NAVD 88)
well-defined features (with the exception of those Defined by only one tidal station in Quebec, Canada.
unavoidably displaced by exaggerated symbolization) shall NAVD 88 is the new datum and before its advent, all
be located within 1/30 inch (0.85 mm) of their geographic leveling was referred to NGVD 1929.
locations as referred to the graticule, while for maps pub-
lished at scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, 1/50 inch Northing
(0.50 mm) is the criterion. The standards for vertical A linear distance, in the coordinate system of a map grid,
accuracy specify that 90% of all contours and elevations northward from the east-west line through the origin (or
determined from contour lines shall be accurate to within false origin).
one-half of the basic contour interval. Errors (of contours
and elevations) greater than this may be decreased by Observed Angle
assuming a horizontal displacement within 1/50 inch May or may not have been corrected for local conditions
(0.50 mm). only, at the point of observations.

National Tidal Datum Epoch Observer’s Meridian

A period of 19 years adopted by the National Ocean A celestial meridian passing through the zenith at the
Survey as the period over which observations of tides are point of observation and the celestial poles.
to be taken and reduced to average values for tidal
datums. The epoch is designated by giving the year the Occultation
period began and the year it ended, e.g., National Tidal Applied to a geodetic survey technique which employs the
Datum Epoch of 1941 through 1959. principle of occultation where repeated observations are
made on an unknown position, accurately timed with
Network similar observations at another unknown station, and
Interconnected system of points. Although there are mathematically reducing these data to determine the exact
different networks of horizontal and vertical control, they geodetic position of the unknown stations.
are all based on data observed with instruments oriented
to the earth’s gravity field. Open Traverse
Begins from a station of known or adopted position, but
Non-SI units does not end upon such a station.
Units of measurement not associated with International
System of Units (SI).

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Optical Micrometer heights is obtained from the following equation: h = H +

Consists of a prism or lens placed in the path of light N where h = ellipsoidal height, H = orthometric height,
entering a telescope and rotatable, by means of a gradu- and N = geoidal height.
ated linkage, about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
optical axis of the telescope axis. Also called an optical-- Parallax
mechanical compensator. The device is usually placed in The apparent displacement of the position of a body, with
front of the objective of a telescope, but may be placed respect to a reference point or system, caused by a shift in
immediately after it. The parallel-plate optical microme- the point of observation.
ter is the form usually found in leveling instruments.
Personal Equation
Optical Plummet The time interval between the sensory perception of a
A small telescope having a 90° bend in its optical axis phenomenon and the motor reaction thereto. A personal
and attached to an instrument in such a way that the line equation may be either positive or negative, as an
of sight proceeds horizontally from the eyepiece to a point observer may anticipate the occurrence of an event, or
on the vertical axis of the instrument and from that point wait until he actually sees it occur before making a
vertically downward. In use, the observer, looking into record. This is a systematic error, treated as the constant
the plummet, brings a point on the instrument vertically type.
above a specified point (usually a geodetic or other mark)
below it. An optical plummet is not affected by wind and Personal Error
is therefore superior to the plumb line in this respect. Caused by an individual’s personal habits, his inability to
Most modern theodolites have an optical plummet built perceive or measure dimensional values exactly, or by his
into the base of the instrument, so that the upright section tendency to react mentally and physically in a uniform
of the optical axis of the plummet coincides with the manner under similar conditions.
vertical axis of the theodolite. The eyepiece is usually
located near the base. Philadelphia Leveling Rod
Having a target but with graduations so styled that the rod
Order of Accuracy may also be used as a self-reading leveling rod. Also
Defines the general accuracy of the measurements made called a Philadelphia rod. If a length greater than 7 feet
in a survey. The order of accuracy of surveys is divided is needed, the target is clamped at 7 feet and raised by
into four classes labeled: first order, second order, third extending the rod. When the target is used, the rod is
order, and fourth or lower order. read by vernier to 0.001 foot. When the rod is used as a
self-reading leveling rod, the rod is read to 0.005 foot.
Origin
1. That point, in a coordinate system, which has defined Photogrammetry
coordinates and not coordinates determined by measure- Deducing the physical dimensions of objects from mea-
ment. This point is usually given the coordinates (0,0) in surements on photographs of the objects. Also called
a coordinate system in the plane and (0,0,0) in a coordi- rarely and erroneously, metrical photography. A modifier
nate system in space. In surveying, when a plane rectan- is customarily used with the term to indicate the type of
gular coordinate system is used, the coordinates of the radiation causing the photographic image when this is not
origin are often given large, positive values. These values light, e.g., X-ray photogrammetry, infrared photogramme-
are called false easting (or false westing) and false north- try, and acoustic photogrammetry. The principal applica-
ing (or false southing). 2. The point to which the coordi- tion of photogrammetry is to the mapping of the earth’s
nates (0,0,0,....0) are assigned, regardless of the location surface, but it is also used for mapping the surface of
of that point with respect to the axes of the coordinate other bodies in the solar system, for recording the geom-
system. 3. The point from which coordinates of other etry of architectural and archaeological objects, for
points in the coordinate system are reckoned. 4. (of a making anthropometric measurements, and in many other
datum) A point whose coordinates are defined and are sciences and technologies.
part of a datum (usually a geodetic datum). The origin is
usually a survey station. Picture Point
A terrain feature easily identified on an aerial photograph
Orthometric Height and whose horizontal or vertical position or both have
The elevation H of a point above or below the geoid. A been determined by survey measurements. Picture points
relationship between ellipsoid heights and orthometric

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are marked on the aerial photographs by the surveyor, and Quadrangle

are used by the photomapper. Consisting of four specified points and the lines or line
segments on which they lie. The quadrangle and the
Planetable quadrilateral may define the same shape. They differ in
A field device for plotting the lines of a survey directly that the quadrangle is defined by four specified points, the
from observations. It consists essentially of a drawing quadrilateral by four specified lines or line-segments.
board mounted on a tripod, with a leveling device
designed as part of the board and tripod. Quad Sheet
Slang for a USGS 1:24,000-scale map.
Planimetric Feature
Item detailed on a planimetric map, i.e. fire hydrant. Random Error
Produced by irregular causes whose effects upon indivi-
Plumb Line dual measurements are governed by no known law con-
The line of force in the geopotential field. The continu- necting them with circumstances and which therefore can
ous curve to which the direction of gravity is everywhere never be subjected to computation a priori. Sometimes
tangential. called an irregular error or, more commonly, an accidental
error. The theory of elemental errors assumes that a
Positional Error random error is assumed to be composed of an infinite
The amount by which the actual location of a cartographic number of independent, infinitesimal errors, all of equal
feature fails to agree with the feature’s true position. magnitude, each as likely to be positive as negative. In
practice, a random error is composed of an indefinitely
Precision large number of finitely small errors, each as apt to be
The amount by which a measurement deviates from its positive as negative. With these assumptions,
mean. probabilities can be associated with the results of the
method of least squares, and it is to the elimination of
Prime Meridian random errors only that the method of least squares prop-
The meridian of longitude 0°, used as the origin for meas- erly may be applied.
urement of longitude. The meridian of Greenwich, Eng-
land, is almost universally used for this purpose. Range Pole
A simple rod, round or octagonal in section, 6 to 8 feet
Prime Vertical long, 1 inch or less in diameter, fitted with a sharp-
The vertical circle through the east and west points of the pointed shoe of steel and usually painted alternately in red
horizon. It may be true, magnetic, compass, or grid and white bands at 1-foot intervals. It may be made of
depending upon which east or west points are involved. wood or metal. It is used to line up a point of a survey
or to show the observer at the theodolite the location of a
Project Control point on the ground.
Used for a specific project.
Readings
Project Datum The number obtained by noting and/or recording that
Used for a specific project. number which an instrument indicates is a result of the
measurement.
Projection
A set of functions, or the corresponding geometric con- Real-time
structions, relating points on one surface to points on 1. Represented as a real quantity rather than as an imagi-
another surface. A projection allows every point on the nary quantity. This is usually the case in relativistic
first surface to correspond exactly to one point on the mechanics; the other three, space-like coordinates are then
second surface. A projection differs from a map projec- imaginary quantities. However, many scientists treat the
tion in that the latter deals only with situations in which space-like coordinates as real and the time as imaginary.
one surface is an ellipsoid and the other a developable 2. Very close to the instant of observation or other activ-
surface. ity. 3. Reported or recorded at the same time as they are

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happening. 4. Absence of delay in getting, sending, and the substance called the refractive index. (Relativistic
receiving data. bending by a gravitational field is not refraction.)

Reciprocal Leveling Rejection Criterion

Measuring vertical angles or making rod readings from Set of rules and guidelines established for rejecting infor-
two instrument positions for the purpose of compensating mation, basically used in adjustments.
for earth curvature, the effects of atmospheric refraction,
and some instrument misadjustments. Relative Accuracy
1. The square root of the average of the sum of the
Rectangular Coordinate Systems squares of the differences between (a) a set of measured
Coordinates on any system in which the axes of reference or calculated values and (b) a set of corresponding correct
intersect at right angles. values, divided by the average value of the set; i.e., rela-
tive accuracy is equal to the accuracy divided by the
Rectification (of datums) average value of the set. This is a useful quantity
Producing, from a tilted or oblique photograph, a photo- because it is dimensionless and independent of the units
graph from which displacement due to tilt has been in which the measurements were made. 2. A quantity
removed. Also called transformation. A photograph may expressing the effect of random errors on the location of
be rectified optically, graphically, or mathematically. The one point or feature with respect to another. In particular,
optical method is the most common. The photograph is (a) an evaluation of the effect of the random errors in
given the same orientation with respect to an unexposed points on a map with respect to the graticule, excluding
photographic film or plate as the ground plane had to the any errors in the graticule or the coordinate system of the
photograph when the picture was taken. The image on graticule; or (b) an evaluation of the effect of random
the photograph is then projected onto the emulsion to errors in determining the location of one point on a map
reverse, in effect, the original process by which the photo- with respect to another point on the same map.
graph was taken. Graphical rectification involves plotting
selected points from the photograph onto another sheet, Repeating Theodolite
using a graphical method of correcting for displacement Designed so that the sum of successive measurements of
because of tilt. Neither method compensates for radial an angle can be read directly on the graduated horizontal
displacement caused by relief. Mathematical rectification circle. The vertical axis of rotation is represented physi-
uses a computer as intermediary between the original cally by two concentric spindles. One of these lets the
photograph and the rectified image, correcting not only alidade be rotated independently of the horizontal circle
for nonverticality of the photograph but also, in suitable and the other, by a clamp, lets the alidade and the hori-
cases, for relief-caused displacement. zontal circle rotate together. Also called a double-center
theodolite, reiteration theodolite, engineer’s transit, and
Redundant Measurements repeating instrument. The value of the angle is obtained
Overabundant or excess measurements. by dividing the total arc passed through (the final reading
on the circle, plus an appropriate multiple of 360°) in
Reference Meridian, Magnetic making the series of measurements by the number of
Based on the magnetic pole. times the angle has been measured. In theory, the repeat-
ing theodolite is an instrument capable of giving very
Reference Meridian, True precise results; in practice, it does not give results as
Based on the astronomical meridian. satisfactory as those obtained with a direction theodolite.

Reference Point Resection

Used as an origin from which measurements are taken or Determining the location of a point by extending lines of
to which measurements are referred. Also called a datum known direction from that point to two other known
point. points. Equivalently, a procedure of determining the loca-
tion by extending lines making known angles with a third
Refraction line whose position and length are known. The procedure
The bending of sonic or electromagnetic rays by the sub- may be done on the ground using lines of sight as the
stance through which the rays pass. The amount and lines extended, or may be done geometrically by plotting
direction of bending are determined by a characteristic of the points and drawing the lines to scale on a sheet, or

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may be done algebraically by using the coordinates, fiducial mark on the front end of a tape, or on that end of
angles, etc., of the points and lines involved. the tape which is in use at the time, measured forward to
the point, on the mark or monument, to which the particu-
Right Ascension lar distance is being measured. A setup is usually very
The angular distance measured eastward on the equator small when measuring a baseline with stakes for support-
from the vernal equinox to the hour circle through the ing the tape put in place before measuring begins. If the
celestial body, from 0 to 24 hours. distance between stakes is too great, the tape will not
reach from stake to stake, and setups must be measured.
Sea Level Datum of 1929 If portable supports such as bucks are used, there will
Adopted as a standard datum for heights. The sea level is seldom be need for measuring setups. Setups are positive
subject to some variations from year to year, but, as the corrections to taped distances. 5. The positions given
permanency of any datum is of prime importance in any those parts of a stereoscopic plotting instrument which are
engineering work, a sea-level datum after adoption should, adjustable but remain fixed while the instrument is in use.
in general, be maintained indefinitely even though differ-
ing slightly from later determinations of mean sea level Sidereal Day
based on longer series of observations. The interval of time from a transit of the (true) vernal
equinox across a given meridian to its next successive
Self-leveling Level transit across the same meridian.
The line of sight is automatically maintained horizontal by
means of a built-in pendulum device. Sidereal Time
Time based upon the rotation of the earth relative to the
Semimajor Axis vernal equinox.
The line from the center of an ellipse to the extremity of
the longest diameter; i.e., one of the two longest lines Solar Day
from the center to the ellipse. The term is also used to 1. The interval of time from the transit of either the sun
mean the length of the line. or the mean sun across a given meridian to the next suc-
cessive transit of the same body across the same meridian.
Semiminor Axis 2. The duration of one rotation of the sun.
The line from the center of an ellipse to the extremity of
the shortest diameter; i.e., one of the two shortest lines Spheroid
from the center to the ellipse. The term is also used to A mathematical figure closely approaching the geoid in
mean the length of the line. form and size. Used as surface of reference for geodetic
surveys.
Sexagesimal System
Notation by increments of 60. As the division of the Spirit Level
circle into 360°, each degree into 60 minutes, and each A closed glass tube (vial) of circular cross section. Its
minute into 60 seconds. center line forms a circular arc, its interior surface is
ground to precise form and filled with ether or liquid of
Setup low viscosity, enough free space being left for the forma-
1. In general, the situation in which a surveying instru- tion of a bubble of air or gas.
ment is in position at a point from which observations are
made; e.g., measurements made at the last setup. 2. The Stadia Constant
actual physical process of placing a leveling instrument The sum of the focal length of a telescope and the dis-
over an instrument station. 3. The surveying instrument tance from the vertical axis of the instrument on which
itself when in position at a point from which observations the telescope is mounted to the center of the objective
are made. This last definition may be empty; in any lens system. Also called the anallactic constant and
event, its usage with this precise meaning seems to be anallatic constant. It is not a constant for internally
rare. The terms instrument station and setup, especially in focusing telescopes.
leveling, are often used interchangeably. However, if any
distinction is made, setup is considered to be the instru- Stadia Traverse
ment when mounted or set up over the instrument station Distances are determined using a stadia rod. A stadia
or point on the ground which is on the axis of rotation of traverse is suited to regions of moderate relief with an
the instrument. 4. The horizontal distance from the adequate network of roads. If done carefully, such a

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traverse can establish elevations accurate enough for com- containing a narrow slit. The film is moved along behind
piling maps with any contour interval now standard. the slit, or the slit is moved over the surface of the film,
at a rate compensating for the movement of the object.
Standard Error This method of image-motion compensation is much used
The standard deviation of the errors associated with phys- in aerial photograph.
ical measurements of an unknown quantity, or statistical
estimates of an unknown quantity or of a random Structural Deformation Studies
variable. Not only observations of the changes in the dam structure
but the monitoring tries to answer the question of why
Systematic Error these occurrences happen.
The algebraic sign and, to some extent, magnitude bear a
fixed relation to some condition or set of conditions. In Subtense Bar
other words, an error which is, in theory at least, predict- Carrying two easily visible marks a fixed, known distance
able and therefore is not a random error. Systematic apart and used for determining the distance from an
errors are regular and therefore can be determined a observer to the bar by means of the angle subtended at
priori. They are usually eliminated from a set of observa- the observer by the marks on the bar. The marks are
tions before applying the method of least squares to often placed on fittings mounted at the ends of the bar
reduce or eliminate random errors. They are classified as and connected by invar wires under slight but constant
theoretical (external) errors, instrumental errors, and tension. This counteracts the effect of temperature on the
personal errors, according to their origin and nature. distance between marks. In use, the subtense bar is
mounted horizontally on a tripod and centered over the
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) mark to which distance is to be determined. The angle
A reference coordinate system used by the various states subtended at the observing instrument is measured and
of the U.S. automatically converted by the instrument to distance.
The observer reads off the distance, not the subtended
Strength of Figure angle.
A number relating the precision with which lengths of
sides in a triangulation network can be determined, to the Tangent Plane Grid System
sizes of the angles, the number of conditions to be satis- The origin at the point of tangency. Usually the origin is
fied and the distribution of baselines and points of fixed designated 10,000 N and 10,000 E, or some similar
location. Strength of figure, in triangulation, is not based amounts, to keep all coordinates positive. This system
on an absolute scale but rather is an expression of relative never extends for any great distance.
precision. The number is really a measure of a network’s
weakness, because the number increases in size as the Taping
strength decreases. By summing the values obtained for Measuring a distance on the earth, using a surveyor’s
the simple figures composing a triangulation network, the tape. The persons who mark the two ends in taping are
strength of figure of the network is obtained. Because a called contact men or, particularly when measuring base-
triangulation network is usually composed of several lines, tape men or tapemen. The term taping is used in
different sets of simple figures, comparable numbers for this sense in all surveys except in those of the public
the different sets can be obtained, and the route giving the lands of the U.S.; in those surveys, for historical and legal
strongest total network can then be selected for calculat- reasons, the terms chaining and chainmen are preferred.
ing lengths. Reconnaissance for a proposed triangulation
network is usually done under instructions that specify Three-wire Leveling
limiting values of the strength of figure for the best and Three horizontal lines are used. The scale on the leveling
second-best chains of triangles between adjacent base- rod is read at each of the three lines and the average is
lines; the sites for stations and for baselines are selected used for the final result.
accordingly. Where desirable, the length of a section may
be reduced by inserting an additional baseline, and the Topographic Map
numbers for strength of figure reduced accordingly. Showing the horizontal and vertical locations of the natu-
ral and man-made features represented. Also called a
Strip Photography relief map. A topographic map is distinguished from a
Using a strip camera. The image of an object moving planimetric map by the presence, in the former, of sym-
with respect to the camera is focused onto a surface bols showing relief in measurable form. A topographic

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map usually shows the same features as a planimetric map Traverse

but uses numbered contour lines or comparable symbols 1. A route and the sequence of points on it at which
to show mountains, valleys, and plains. In the case of observations or measurements are made.
hydrographic charts, it uses symbols and numbers to show 2. A route, the sequence of points on it at which mea-
depths in bodies of water. A topographic map differs surements are made, and the measurements themselves.
from a hypsographic map in that, on the latter, vertical 3. The process by which a route and a sequence of points
distances are shown with respect to the geoid, while on of measurement on it are established.
the former, vertical distances may be referred to any
suitable and specified surface. Triangulation
The points whose locations are to be determined, together
Transformation with a suitable number (at least two) of points of known
Converting a position from Universal Transverse Mercator location, are connected in such a way as to form the
(UTM) or other grid coordinates to geodetic, and vice vertices of a network of triangles. The angles in the
versa; from one datum and ellipsoid to another using network are measured and the lengths of the sides (i.e.,
datum shift constants and ellipsoid parameters. the distances between points) are either measured (at least
one distance must be measured or calculated from known
Transit points) or are calculated from measured angles and meas-
The apparent passage of a star or other celestial body ured or calculated distances. The sides having measured
across a defined line of the celestial sphere, as a meridian, lengths are called baselines. Classically, only a very few
prime vertical, or almucantar. The apparent passage of a short baselines are in the network; these are connected by
star or other celestial body across a line in the reticule of the sides of triangles of normal size by a sequence of
a telescope, or some line of sight. The apparent passage triangles of increasing size. Triangulation permits sites
of a smaller celestial body across the disk of a larger for stations and baselines favorable for use both from
celestial body. The transit of a star across the meridian topographic and geometric considerations to be selected.
occurs at the moment of its culmination, and the two It is well adapted to the use of precise instruments and
terms are sometimes used as having identical meanings; methods and can yield results of great accuracy and preci-
such usage is not correct, even where the instrument is in sion. It has been used generally where the region to be
perfect adjustment. At the poles, a star may have no surveyed was large. The term can be considered as
culmination but it will transit the meridians. including not only the actual operations of measuring
angles and baselines, and the reduction of the data, but
Transit Rule also the reconnaissance which precedes those operations
The correction to be applied to the departure (or latitude) and any astronomic observations which are required.
of any course has the same ratio to the total misclosure in
departure (or latitude) as the departure (latitude) of the Tribrach
course has to the arithmetical sum of all the departures The three-armed base of a surveying instrument in which
(latitudes) in the traverse. The transit rule is often used the foot screws used in leveling the instrument are placed
when it is believed that the misclosure is caused less by at the ends of the arms. Also called a leveling base or
errors in the measured angles than by errors in the leveling head. Some surveying instruments have a
measured distances. It meets the assumptions on which it four-armed base or quadribrach in which are the foot
is based only when the courses are parallel to the axes of screws. Tribrachs are used instead of quadribrachs for
the coordinate system used. Care must be taken in apply- control surveys because they do not introduce strains into
ing the rule because there is not universal agreement on the base of the instrument; quadribrachs do. Some strains
what sign should be used for the misclosure. tend to change the instrument’s orientation in azimuth
during the measuring.
Transverse Mercator Projection
The central meridian, or a pair of lines virtually parallel Trigonometric Leveling
to the central meridian, is mapped into a straight line and The determination of differences of elevation trigonomet-
exactly to scale. It is essentially the same as a Mercator rically from observed vertical angles and measured or
map-projection preceded by a rotation of the ellipsoid computed horizontal or inclined distances.
through 90° about a major axis. Equivalently, it is the
same as a Mercator map-projection calculated for a cylin-
der with axis in the equatorial plane.

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Trilateration (positioning) constructed and numbered that it may be read in either

Method of position determination using the intersection of direction is termed a folding vernier.
two or more distances to a point.
VERTCON
Universal Transverse Mercator Acronym for vertical datum conversion. VERTCON is
A worldwide metric military coordinate system rarely the computer software that converts orthometric heights
used for civil works applications. from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 and vice versa.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey (USC&GS) Vertical Adjustment Residual

Now known as National Ocean Service (NOS). Difference in measured and predicted vertical
observations.
U.S. Survey Foot
The unit of length defined by the relationship Vertical Angle
1 foot ≡ (1/3)(3,600/3,937) m. Established by the An angle in a vertical plane. One of the sides of a verti-
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey as published in its Bulle- cal angle is usually either (a) a horizontal line in the
tin No. 26 (5 April 1893). vertical plane or (b) a vertical line in that plane. In case
(a), the angle is then called, also, the angular elevation or
Variance-Covariance Matrix angular depression or altitude. In case (b), it is also
A matrix whose element in row i and column j is the called the zenith angle. The vertical angle between two
average value of (xi - µi)(xj - µj), where xi and xj are ran- lines, neither of which is horizontal or vertical, is usually
dom variables with average values µi and µj, respectively. obtained by a combination of two vertical angles as
The elements along the main diagonal are called the vari- defined previously.
ances of the corresponding variables; the elements off the
main diagonal are called the covariances. Vertical Circle
1. A great circle of the celestial sphere, through the
Variance of Unit Weight zenith and nadir. Vertical circles are perpendicular to the
Arbitrary scale factor multiplied by the variance-covari- horizon. 2. A graduated disk mounted on an instrument
ance matrix to obtain the weight matrix. in such a manner that the plane of its graduated surface
can be placed in a vertical plane. It is primarily used for
Vernal Equinox measuring vertical angles in astronomical and geodetic
That point of intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial work.
equator, occupied by the sun as it changes from south to
north declination, on or about March 21. Same as first as Vertical Datum
Aries; first point of Aries; March equinox. Any level surface (as for example mean sea level) taken
as a surface of reference from which to reckon elevations.
Vernier Although a level surface is not a plane, the vertical datum
An auxiliary scale sliding against and used in reading a is frequently referred to as the datum plane. Also called
primary scale. The total length of a given number of datum level, reference level, reference plane, vertical
divisions on a vernier is equal to the total length of one control datum, vertical geodetic datum.
more or one less than the same number of divisions on
the primary scaled. The vernier makes it possible to read Vertical Refraction
a principal scale (such as a divided circle) much closer That component of refraction occurring in a vertical
than one division of that scale. If a division on the pri- plane. Two kinds of vertical refraction affect surveying:
mary scale is longer than a single division on the vernier, that caused by the curvature of the atmospheric layers of
it is a direct vernier; if a division on the vernier is the different densities (important principally in aerial photo-
longer, it is a retrograde vernier, so called because its grammetry), and that caused by temperature gradients
numbers run in the opposite direction from those on the near the ground (important principally in spirit leveling
primary scale. The direct vernier is the usual type and is and trigonometrical leveling).
used in reading the circles on an engineer’s transit and on
a repeating theodolite. Two verniers extending and num- Weight
bered in opposite directions from the same index form a The force with which a planet or satellite attracts a body
double vernier, used in reading a circle having gradua- on its surface. In particular, the force with which the
tions numbered in both directions. A single vernier so earth attracts a body on its surface. The weight is equal

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to the product of the mass of the body by the acceleration and reversed, end for end. Also called a Y-level and
imparted by gravity. It should not be confused with the wye-type leveling instrument. The wye level was
mass of the body (as the U.S. Bureau of Standards does). invented in 1740 by J. Sissons. The adjustments made
Note that the body must be on the surface of the planet or possible by this mounting are peculiar to the instrument.
satellite or attached to it in some manner. Otherwise the The wye level is one of two general classes of leveling
body does not participate in the rotation of the attracting instruments, the other being represented by the dumpy
body. level.

Weighted Mean Zenith

1. The sum of the products of each number in a set {X} The point where an infinite extension of a plumb (verti-
multiplied by a corresponding number in a set (w), this cal) line, at the observer’s position, pierces the celestial
sum being divided by the sum of the numbers in set (w); sphere above the observer’s head.
i.e., the weighted mean X(W) is given by (ΣwX)/(Σw).
The quantities w are often defined so that they lie Zenith Angle
between 0 and +1 and Σw = 1. Also called the weighed Measured in a positive direction downward from the
arithmetic mean. 2. If X is a continuous function with observer’s zenith to the object observed. Also called
the known probability density p(X), then the weighted zenith distance and colatitude. It is usually denoted by ζ
mean of X is the integral of [p(X)X]dX. or by z. The former is preferred except when it may be
confused with the deflection of the vertical (also usually
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) denoted by ζ).
A set of constants specified by the U.S. Department of
Defense in 1984 and consisting of the following con- Zenith Distance
stants: a datum, the coordinate system of which has its The complement of the altitude, the angular distance from
origin at the earth’s center of mass; the coordinates, in the zenith of the celestial body measured along a vertical
that datum, of a number of points around the world; con- circle.
stants for transforming from other datums to the System’s
datum; and values determining the earth’s gravity-
potential.

Wye Level
Having the telescope and attached spirit level supported in
wyes (Y’s) in which it can be rotated about its longitudi-
nal axis (collimation axis) and from which it can be lifted

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Appendix C
Guide Specification

GUIDE SPECIFICATION

FOR

DEFORMATION MONITORING AND CONTROL SURVEYING ACTIVITIES

INSTRUCTIONS

1. General. This guide specification is intended for use in preparing Architect-Engineer (A-E) contracts for
control survey services. These specifications are applicable to all surveying and mapping contracts used to
support US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) civil works design, construction, operations, maintenance,
regulatory, and real estate activities. This guide specification is intended for contracts which are obtained using
PL 92-582 (Brooks Act) qualification-based selection procedures.

2. Coverage. This guide specification contains the technical standards and/or references necessary to specify
control survey requirements. This guide supports all types of control surveying performed on USACE projects.

3. Applicability. The following types of negotiated A-E contract actions are supported by these instructions:

a. Fixed-price control survey service contracts.

b. Indefinite delivery type (IDT) control survey contracts.

c. A multi-discipline surveying and mapping IDT contract in which control survey services is a line item
supporting other surveying, mapping, and/or photogrammetry services.

d. A work order or delivery order placed against an IDT contract.

e. Design and design-construct contracts that include incidental surveying and mapping services (including
Title II services). Both fixed-price and IDT contracts are supported by these instructions.

4. Contract Format. The contract format outlined in this guide follows that prescribed in the current edition of
the Engineer Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement (EFARS). The contract format is designed to support
PL 92-582 (SF 252) qualification-based A-E procurement actions.

5. General Guide Use. In adapting this guide specification to any project, specific requirements will be changed
as necessary for the work contemplated. Changes will be made by deletions or insertions within this format.
With appropriate adaptation, this guide form may be tailored for direct input in the Standard Army Automated
Contracting System (SAACONS). Clauses and/or provisions shown in this guide will be renumbered during
SAACONS input.

6. Insertion of Technical Specifications. Engineer Manual (EM) 1110-1-1004, Deformation Monitoring and
Control Surveying should be attached to and made part of any service contract for control surveying. This
manual contains complete specifications and quality control criteria for the total (field-to-finish) execution of
these surveys.

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a. Technical specifications for control surveying that are specific to the project (including items such as the
scope of work, procedural requirements, and accuracy requirements) will be placed under Section C of the SF
252 (Block 10). The prescribed format for developing the technical specifications is contained in this guide
specification. Project-specific technical specifications will not contain contract administrative functions -- these
should be placed in more appropriate sections of the contract.

b. Technical specifications for other survey functions required in a control survey services contract should
be developed from other Civil Works Construction Guide Specifications applicable to the surveying and mapping
discipline required.

c. Standards and other specifications should be checked for obsolescence and for dates and applicability of
amendments and revisions issued subsequent to the publication of this specification. Use Engineer Pamphlet
(EP) 25-1-1, Index of USACE/OCE Publications. Maximum use should be made of existing EM’s, Technical
Manuals, and other recognized industry standards and specifications.

d. Throughout Section C of this guide, the specification writer must elect a contract performance method:

(1) The Government designs the survey occupation/observing schedule.

(2) The contractor designs his performance method based on the criteria given in EM 1110-1-1004.

Selection of the first method depends on the survey expertise of the specification writer. This method also
transfers much of the contract risk to the Government. The second method is the preferred contract procedure.

7. Alternate Clauses/Provisions or Options. In order to distinguish between required clauses and optional
clauses, required clauses are generally shown in capital letters. Optional or selective clauses, such as would be
used in a work order, are generally in lower case. In other instances, alternate clauses/provisions may be
indicated by brackets "[ ]" and/or clauses preceded by a single asterick "*". A single asterick signifies that a
clause or provision which is inapplicable to the particular section may be omitted, or that a choice of clauses
may be made depending upon the technical surveying and mapping requirement. Clauses requiring insertion of
descriptive material or additional project-specific specifications are indicated by either ellipsis or underlining in
brackets (e.g., "[. . .]" "[____]"). In many instances, explanatory notes are included regarding the selection of
alternate clauses or provisions.

8. Notes and Comments. General comments and instructions used in this guide are contained in asterisk blocks.
These comments and instructions should be removed from the final contract.

9. Indefinite Delivery Type (IDT) Contracts and Individual Work Order Assignments. Contract clauses which
pertain to IDT contracts, or delivery orders thereto, are generally indicated by notes adjacent to the provision.
These clauses should be deleted for fixed-price contracts. In general, sections dealing with IDT contracts are
supplemented with appropriate comments pertaining to their use. Work orders against a basic IDT contract may
be constructed using the format contained in Section C of this guide. This contract section is therefore
applicable to any type of surveying service contracting action.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph Contract Section or Paragraph

A SECTION A: SOLICITATION/CONTRACT FORM

B SECTION B: SERVICES AND PRICES/COSTS

C SECTION C: STATEMENT OF WORK

C.1 GENERAL
C.2 LOCATION OF WORK
C.3 TECHNICAL CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
C.4 WORK TO BE PERFORMED
C.5 SUBMITTAL REQUIREMENTS
C.6 PROGRESS SCHEDULES AND WRITTEN REPORTS

D SECTION D: CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION DATA

E SECTION E: SPECIAL CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS

F SECTION F: CONTRACT CLAUSES

G SECTION G: LIST OF ATTACHMENTS

H SECTION H: REPRESENTATIONS, CERTIFICATIONS,

AND OTHER STATEMENTS OF OFFERERS

I SECTION I: INSTRUCTIONS, CONDITIONS,

AND NOTICES TO OFFERERS

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THE CONTRACT SCHEDULE

SECTION A

SOLICITATION/CONTRACT FORM

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Include here Standard Form 252 in accordance with the instructions in EFARS.
********************************************************************************************

SF 252 -- (Block 5): PROJECT TITLE AND LOCATION

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Sample title for fixed-price contract:
********************************************************************************************

PRIMARY GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEYS IN SUPPORT OF SITE PLAN MAPPING FOR

PRELIMINARY
CONCEPT DESIGN OF FAMILY HOUSING COMPLEX BETA, FORT ___________________,
VIRGINIA.

PRIMARY GEODETIC REFERENCE SURVEYS FOR BOUNDARY DEMARCATION SURVEYS OF

__________________[PROJECT], ______________________, OHIO.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Sample title for indefinite delivery type contract:
********************************************************************************************

INDEFINITE DELIVERY CONTRACT FOR PROFESSIONAL PRECISE SURVEYING SERVICES IN

SUPPORT
OF VARIOUS *[CIVIL WORKS] [MILITARY CONSTRUCTION] PROJECTS *[IN] [ASSIGNED TO]
THE
____________________________________ DISTRICT.

SECTION B

SERVICES AND PRICES/COSTS

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The fee schedule for control survey services should be developed in conjunction with the preparation
of the independent government estimate (IGE) along with the technical specifications. Procedures for
determining unit costs are described in EM 1110-1-1004. Determination of estimated unit costs/prices should
conform to the detailed analysis method, or "seven-item breakdown," as described in this manual and other
USACE publications. The fee schedule should follow the general unit price example format shown below,
which is more fully described in EM 1110-1-1004. Select only those line items applicable to a particular
contract or project. A separate fee schedule for each option period should be developed and negotiated
during contract negotiations and included with the contract during initial award.

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Daily Rate Schedule Example: For IDT contracts, a unit quantity for each line item would normally be
negotiated. Actual quantities would be used on a fixed price contract. Daily units of measure (U/M) may be
modified to hourly or other nominal units if needed. Prices may also be scheduled on a work unit basis
(e.g., linear miles, feet, per section, area, etc.) as described in EM 1110-1-1004.
********************************************************************************************
Price per Control Point/Station Schedule Example:

ITEM DESCRIPTION QUAN U/M U/P AMOUNT

0001 Horizontal Control Station, [1] Station

2nd Order, Class I

0002 Horizontal Control Station, [1] Station

2nd Order, Class II

0003 Horizontal Control Station, [1] Station

3rd Order, Class I

0004 Horizontal Control Station, [1] Station

3rd Order, Class II

0005 Vertical Control Station, [1] Station

2rd Order, Class I

0006 Vertical Control Station, [1] Station

2nd Order, Class II

0007 Vertical Control Station, [1] Station

3rd Order

00XX

Daily Rate Schedule Example:

ITEM DESCRIPTION QUAN U/M U/P AMOUNT

0001 Registered/Licensed Land [1] Day

Surveyor -- Office

0002 Registered/Licensed Land [1] Day

Surveyor -- Field

0003 Civil Engineering Technician -- [1] Day

Field Party Supervisor
(Multiple Crews)

0004 Engineering Technician [1] Day

(Draftsman) -- Office/Field

0005 Supervisory Survey Technician [1] Day

(Field)

0006 Survey Technician -- [1] Day

Instrument Man/Recorder

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0007 Surveying Aid -- [1] Day

Rodman/Chainman
(Conventional Surveys)

0008 [Two][Three][Four][___] - [1] Day

Man GPS Survey Party
[___] GPS Receiver(s)
[___] Vehicle(s)
[___] Computer(s)

0009 Additional GPS Receiver [1] Day

0010 [___] - Man Automated [1] Day

(Electronic)
Survey Party

0011 [___] - Man Conventional [1] Day

Horizontal
Control Survey Party

0012 [___] - Man Conventional [1] Day

Vertical
Control Survey Party

0013 Station Monuments [1] EA

[Disk Type]
[Construction Materials]

0014 Survey Computer (Office) [1] Day

0015 CADD Processing & Plotting [1] Day

0016 Professional Geodesist [1] Day

Computer
(Office)

0017 Blue Line Prints [1] SQ

FT

00XX

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SECTION C

STATEMENT OF WORK

C.1 GENERAL. THE CONTRACTOR, OPERATING AS AN INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR AND NOT

AN AGENT OF THE GOVERNMENT, SHALL PROVIDE ALL LABOR, MATERIAL, AND EQUIPMENT
NECESSARY TO PERFORM THE PROFESSIONAL CONTROL SURVEYING *[AND MAPPING WORK]
*[FROM TIME TO TIME] DURING THE PERIOD OF SERVICE AS STATED IN SECTION D, IN
CONNECTION WITH PERFORMANCE OF *[___________________] SURVEYS *[AND THE
PREPARATION OF SUCH MAPS] AS MAY BE REQUIRED FOR *[ADVANCE PLANNING,] [DESIGN,]
[AND CONSTRUCTION] [or other function] [ON VARIOUS PROJECTS] *[specify project(s)] . THE
CONTRACTOR SHALL FURNISH THE REQUIRED PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT, INSTRUMENTS, AND
TRANSPORTATION AS NECESSARY TO ACCOMPLISH THE REQUIRED SERVICES AND FURNISH TO
THE GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND OTHER DATA TOGETHER WITH SUPPORTING MATERIAL
DEVELOPED DURING THE FIELD DATA ACQUISITION PROCESS. DURING THE PROSECUTION OF
THE WORK, THE CONTRACTOR SHALL PROVIDE ADEQUATE PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION AND
QUALITY CONTROL TO ASSURE THE ACCURACY, QUALITY, COMPLETENESS, AND PROGRESS OF
THE WORK.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The above clause is intended for use on an IDT contract for control survey services (as applicable).
It may be used for fixed-price service contract by deleting appropriate IDT language and adding the specific
project survey required. This clause is not repeated on individual delivery orders.
********************************************************************************************

C.2 LOCATION OF WORK.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following clause for a fixed-scope contract or individual work order.
********************************************************************************************

C.2.1. A *[PROJECT CONDITION] [PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS] [____] [specify type] CONTROL
SURVEY IS REQUIRED AT [_______________] [list project area or areas required]. *[A GENERAL
LOCATION MAP OF THE PROJECT AREA IS ATTACHED AT SECTION G OF THIS CONTRACT.]

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following when specifying an indefinite delivery contract for control surveying.
********************************************************************************************

C.2.2. CONTROL SURVEYING SERVICES WILL BE PERFORMED IN CONNECTION WITH

PROJECTS *[LOCATED IN] [ASSISGNED] TO THE [___________________] DISTRICT. *[THE
___________________ DISTRICT INCLUDES THE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS WITHIN *[AND
COASTAL WATERS] [AND RIVER SYSTEMS] ADJACENT TO:]

*___________________________________________________________
[list states, regions, etc.]

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********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Note also any local points-of-contact, right-of-entry requirements, clearing restrictions, installation
security requirements, etc.
********************************************************************************************

C.3 TECHNICAL CRITERIA AND STANDARDS.

REFERENCE STANDARDS:

C.3.1. U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS ENGINEER MANUAL (EM) 1110-1-1004, DEFORMATION
MONITORING AND CONTROL SURVEYING. THIS REFERENCE IS ATTATCHED TO AND MADE
PART OF THIS CONTRACT (SEE SECTION G).

C.3.2. U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS EM 1110-1-1002, SURVEY MARKERS AND

MONUMENTATION. *[THIS REFERENCE IS ATTACHED TO AND MADE PART OF THIS CONTRACT.
(SEE CONTRACT SECTION G).]

C.3.3. *U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR SURVEYS,
MAPS, ENGINEERING DRAWINGS, AND RELATED SPATIAL DATA PRODUCTS *(cite current
regulation).

C.3.4. *[Local Drafting Standards containing sheet sizes, types, formats, etc.]

C.3.5. *[List other applicable reference standards which are listed in Appendix A of EM 1110-1-1004 and
may be applicable to the project.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Reference may also be made to other applicable Engineer Manuals, CADD Standards, or other
standard criteria documents. Such documents need not be attached to the Contract; if attached, however,
reference should be made to their placement in contract Section G.
********************************************************************************************

C.4 WORK TO BE PERFORMED. SPECIFIC PROCEDURAL, TECHNICAL, AND QUALITY CONTROL

REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL SURVEYING *[AND MAPPING SERVICES] TO BE PERFORMED
UNDER THIS CONTRACT ARE LISTED IN THE PARAGRAPHS BELOW. UNLESS OTHERWISE
INDICATED IN THIS CONTRACT *[OR IN DELIVERY ORDERS THERETO], EACH REQUIRED
SERVICE SHALL INCLUDE FIELD-TO-FINISH EFFORT PERFORMED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS IN EM 1110-1-1004.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following clauses throughout paragraph C.4 may be used for either fixed-prices surveying
service contracts, IDT work orders under an IDT surveying contract, or IDT where contract survey services
are part of a schedule of various survey disciplines. Fixed-scope contracts: Detail specific hydrographic
surveying and mapping technical work requirements and performance criteria which are necessary to
accomplish the work. IDT contracts and work orders thereof: Since specific project scopes are indefinite at
the time a basic contract is prepared, only general technical criteria and standards can be outlined. Project or
site-specific criteria will be contained in each delivery order, along with any deviations from technical
standards identified in the basic IDT contract. The clauses contained herein are used to develop the general
requirements for a basic IDT contract. Susequent delivery orders will reference these clauses; adding
project-specific work requirements as required. Delivery order formats should follow the outline established
for the basic IDT contract.
********************************************************************************************

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C.4.1. GENERAL SURVEY REQUIREMENTS. SURVEYS WILL BE PERFORMED USING CONTROL

SURVEY METHODS. SUCH METHODS WILL BE MADE IN STRICT ACCORDANCE WITH THE
CRITERIA CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1004, EXCEPT AS MODIFICED OR AMPLIFIED HEREIN. THE
METHOD USED WILL BE *[CARRIER PHASE BASED GPS SURVEY METHODS UTILIZING STATIC
*[STOP-AND-GO] *[KINEMATIC] *[PSEUDO-KINEMATIC] TECHNIQUES *[OR COMBINATIONS
THEREOF]] *[CONVENTIONAL SURVEY METHODS]. *[CONVENTIONAL SURVEY METHODS WILL
BE USED TO DENSIFY SUPPLEMENTAL POINTS RELATIVE TO ESTABLISHED GPS STATIONS.]

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: For fixed-scope contracts and/or delivery orders, use the following types of clauses to detail the
general work specifications. Terminology would be appropriately modified to cover the type of survey to be
done. A general description of the project and any unique purpose of the survey may also be added.
********************************************************************************************

C.4.2. HORIZONTAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS. NEW *[PRIMARY] STATIONS SHALL BE

ESTABLISHED TO A *[_________]-ORDER, *[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION
*[OR ____ PART IN _________]. *[SUPPLEMENTAL POINTS SHALL BE ESTABLISHED TO A
*[__________]-ORDER, *[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION. HORIZONTAL
ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS SPECIFIED FOR NEWLY POSITIONED STATIONS SHALL BE BASED
ON A FREE (UNCONSTRAINED) ADJUSTMENT OF SURVEY OBSERVATIONS AND SHALL MEET
THE RELATIVE ACCURACY AND/OR LOOP MISCLOSURE CRITERIA INDICATED IN EM 1110-1-1004.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Note that accuracy classifications and related contract quality control and acceptance are based on a
free adjustment of the work -- not a constrained adjustment to fixed/existing control. If using GPS to
establish primary control, it is often the case that GPS will often give horizontal accuracies exceeding those
of the control used to establish the GPS point, especially if the basic control (i.e., reference control) has been
established by conventional survey techniques. Horizontal accuracy classifications exceeding Second-Order,
Class I (i.e., 1:50,000) will not normally be specified for USACE control work.
********************************************************************************************

C.4.3. VERTICAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS. NEW *[PRIMARY] STATIONS SHALL BE

ESTABLISHED TO A
*[_________]-ORDER, *[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION *[OR ____ PART IN
_________]. *[SUPPLEMENTAL POINTS SHALL BE ESTABLISHED TO A *[__________]-ORDER,
*[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION. VERTICAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS
SPECIFIED FOR NEWLY POSITIONED STATIONS SHALL BE BASED ON A FREE (UNCONSTRAINED)
ADJUSTMENT OF SURVEY OBSERVATIONS AND SHALL MEET THE RELATIVE ACCURACY
AND/OR LOOP MISCLOSURE CRITERIA INDICATED IN EM 1110-1-1004.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: When using GPS techniques to establish vertical elevations, extreme caution must be employed -- its
application for engineering and contruction work is limited. Refer to EM 1110-1-1003 prior to developing
specifications for GPS vertical control densification.
********************************************************************************************

C.4.4. PROCEDURAL OBSERVATION REQUIREMENTS. NETWORK DESIGN, STATION

OCCUPATION REQUIREMENTS, BASELINE REDUNDANCIES, AND CONNECTION REQUIREMENTS
TO EXISTING NETWORKS SHALL FOLLOW THE CRITERIA GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1004, EXCEPT AS
MODIFIED IN THESE SPECIFICATIONS.

C-9
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: At this point, indicate any exceptions, modifications, and/or deviations from the criteria in EM 1110-
1-1004. The specification writer may optionally elect to have the contractor design his observing procedures
in accordance with general EM 1110-1-1004 criteria. Alternatively, specific baselines or stations requiring
occupation may be specified. Use of either option depends on the surveying experience/expertise of the
specification writer. The preferred method is to allow the maximum flexibility for the contractor to
determine the most optimum network design (interconnections, traverses, loops, spurs, etc.). In specifying
baselines/points that have been monumented, contingencies should be allowed for resetting marks and/or
eccentric observations due to obscured satellite visibility.
********************************************************************************************

C.4.5. *SPECIFIC BASELINES TO BE MEASURED.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the above clause only if the government specification writer is designing the network.
********************************************************************************************

*(1) THE FOLLOWING BASELINES SHALL BE OBSERVED ON THIS PROJECT: [...] *[list specific
station-station baselines and any requirements for redundant observations]

*(2) THESE BASELINES ARE INDICATED BY [...] *[specify line symbol] ON THE ATTACHED MAP
IN SECTION G.

C.4.6. NEW STATIONS TO BE *[MONUMENTED AND] OCCUPIED.

(1) THE FOLLOWING *[...] *[indicate number of] STATIONS ARE TO BE OCCUPIED AND
POSITIONED USING *[indicate survey method] SURVEY TECHNIQUES: *[list/tabulate new station name
and/or area designation, accuracy requirements (order/class), redundant occupations, etc.]

(2) THE NEW STATION *[GENERAL LOCATIONS] ARE INDICATED WITH A *[...] *[indicate map
symbol used] ON THE ATTACHED MAP. *[ACTUAL STATION LOCATION WITHIN THE GENERALLY
DEFINED AREA SHALL BE SELECTED BY THE CONTRACTOR AND SHALL BE LOCATED SUCH
THAT ADEQUATE INTERVISIBILITY (AS REQUIRED) IS AFFORDED.]

C.4.7. EXISTING NETWORK CONTROL STATIONS TO BE OCCUPIED AND CONNECTED.

(1) A TOTAL OF *[...] *[specify number of] EXISTING HORIZONTAL CONTROL STATIONS WILL
BE USED TO REFERENCE HORIZONTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THIS SURVEY. A LISTING OF THESE
FIXED POINTS *[IS SHOWN BELOW] [IS SHOWN IN ATTACHMENT G.*] FIXED COORDINATES ARE
*[NAD 27] [NAD 83] [WGS 84 GEOCENTRIC] [...].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: List each existing control station(s) or, alternately, refer to a map or tabulation attachment in
contract Section G.
********************************************************************************************

(2) A TOTAL OF *[...] [specify number] VERTICAL CONTROL STATIONS (BENCHMARKS) WILL
BE OCCUPIED AND USED TO CONTROL AND/OR PROVIDE VERTICAL ORIENTATION REFERENCE
TO VERTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THIS SURVEY. A LISTING OF THESE FIXED BENCHMARKS *[IS
SHOWN BELOW] [IS SHOWN IN ATTACHMENT G*]. ELEVATIONS FOR ALL FIXED BENCHMARKS
ARE BASED ON *[NGVD 29] [IGLD-55] [NAVD 88] [IGLD-85] [...] DATUM.

C-10
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: List or reference attachment for existing benchmarks.
********************************************************************************************

(3) REQUIRED BASELINE CONNECTIONS TO EXISTING CONTROL ARE SHOWN *[IN SECTION
G]. THESE FIXED POINTS WILL BE USED IN PERFORMING A FINAL CONSTRAINED ADJUSTMENT
OF ALL NEW WORK. HORIZONTAL POINTS ARE INDICATED BY A [...], VERTICAL POINTS BY A
[...], COMBINED POINTS BY A [...], AND NEW BASELINES BY A [...].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the above clause when existing control points to be connected are specified in the contract.
********************************************************************************************

(4) ALL HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MONUMENTS ARE KNOWN TO BE IN PLACE AS OF

*[date]. DESCRIPTIONS FOR EACH POINT *[ARE ATTACHED AT CONTRACT SECTION G]. THE
SOURCE AGENCY AND ESTIMATED ACCURACY OF EACH POINT ARE INDICATED ON THE
DESCRIPTION. *[IF VISIBILITY BETWEEN POINTS IS OBSCURED FROM AN EXISTING STATION TO
ONE TO BE ESTABLISHED BY THIS CONTRACT, THEN A NEW MARK SHALL BE SET AT THE
RATE FOR ITEM [___] IN SECTION B.] *[THE CONTRACTOR’S FIELD REPRESENTATIVE SHALL
IMMEDIATELY NOTIFY THE GOVERNMENT’S CONTRACTING OFFICER’S REPRESENTATIVE IF
EXISTING CONTROL POINTS HAVE BEEN DISTURBED AND/OR CONDITIONS ARE NOT AS
INDICATED IN THE FURNISHED DESCRIPTIONS].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following clause(s) only when network design and observation schedule/sequence will be
determined by the contractor.
********************************************************************************************

(5) UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED IN THESE INSTRUCTIONS, AT LEAST *[ONE] [TWO]

[THREE] [___] EXISTING (PUBLISHED) CONTROL STATIONS MUST BE OCCUPIED IN THE
NETWORK. CONNECTION METHODS AND REDUNDANCY ARE AT THE CONTRACTOR’S OPTION.
PRIOR TO USING ANY CONTROL POINTS, THE MONUMENTS SHALL BE CHECKED TO ENSURE
THAT THEY HAVE NOT BEEN MOVED OR DISTURBED.

C.4.8. NEW STATION MONUMENTATION, MARKING, AND OTHER CONTROL REQUIREMENTS.

(1) ALL STATIONS SHALL BE MONUMENTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH EM 1110-1-1002,

SURVEY MARKERS AND MONUMENTATION. MONUMENTATION FOR THIS PROJECT SHALL BE
TYPE *[...] FOR HORIZONTAL AND TYPE *[...] FOR VERTICAL, PER EM 1110-1-1002 CRITERIA.
*[MONUMENTATION SHALL BE DEFINED TO INCLUDE THE REQUIRED REFERENCE MARKS AND
AZIMUTH MARKS REQUIRED BY EM 1110-1-1004.] *[ALL MONUMENTS FOR NEW STATIONS ARE
CURRENTLY IN PLACE AND DESCRIPTIONS ARE ATTACHED AT SECTION G.]

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Deviations from EM 1110-1-1004 should be indicated as required. USACE project control rarely
requires supplemental reference/azimuth marks -- the optional specification clauses below should be tailored
accordingly.
********************************************************************************************

*(2) AT EACH STATION, ANGLE AND DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS SHALL BE MADE

BETWEEN A NETWORK STATION AND REFERENCE MARKS AND AZIMUTH MARKS SET WHICH
WERE ESTABLISHED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS SET FORTH IN EM 1110-1-1004.
ANGULAR AND DISTANCE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES FOR REFERENCE/AZIMUTH MARKS

C-11
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS SET FORTH IN FGCS STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS FOR GEODETIC CONTROL NETWORKS. ALL OBSERVATIONS SHALL BE
RECORDED IN A STANDARD FIELD BOOK.

*(a) FOR REFERENCE MARKS, TWO (2) DIRECTIONAL POSITIONS ARE

REQUIRED (REJECT LIMIT +10-SECOND ARC) AND WITH STEEL TAPING PERFORMED TO THE
NEAREST +0.01 FOOT.

*(b) FOUR DIRECTIONAL POSITIONS ARE REQUIRED TO AZIMUTH

MARKS. THE REJECT LIMIT FOR A 1-SECOND THEODOLITE IS +5 SECONDS. AZIMUTH MARK
LANDMARKS SHALL BE EASILY DEFINED/DESCRIBED NATURAL FEATURES OR STRUCTURES
WHICH ARE OF SUFFICIENT DISTANCE TO MAINTAIN A *[+ ___]-SECOND ANGULAR ACCURACY.
*[_______-ORDER ASTRONOMIC AZIMUTHS SHALL BE OBSERVED TO AZIMUTH MARKS.]

*(c) A COMPASS READING SHALL BE TAKEN AT EACH STATION TO

REFERENCE MONUMENTS AND AZIMUTH MARKS.

C.4.9. STATION DESCRIPTION AND RECOVERY REQUIREMENTS.

(1) STATION DESCRIPTIONS AND/OR RECOVERY NOTES SHALL BE WRITTEN IN

ACCORDANCE WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1002. [FORM *[_______]
SHALL BE USED FOR THESE DESCRIPTIONS.] DESCRIPTIONS SHALL BE *[WRITTEN] [TYPED].

(2) DESCRIPTIONS *[ARE] [ARE NOT] REQUIRED FOR *[EXISTING] [AND/OR NEWLY
ESTABLISHED] STATIONS.

(3) RECOVERY NOTES *[ARE] [ARE NOT] REQUIRED FOR EXISTING STATIONS.

C.4.10. MINIMUM OCCUPATION TIMES FOR OCCUPIED BASELINES. BASELINES SHALL BE

OCCUPIED FOR A PERIOD OF TIME WHICH IS CONSISTENT WITH THE SPECIFIED ACCURACY
REQUIREMENT FOR THE PROJECT AND/OR PARTICULAR NEW STATION/LINE. SPECIFIC
OCCUPATION TIMES CONSISTENT WITH THE ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS ARE BASED ON THE
PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE SURVEY, AS DETAILED IN EM 1110-1-1004. UNLESS
OTHERWISE STATED IN THESE SPECIFICATIONS, THE CRITERIA SHOWN IN THIS MANUAL SHALL
BE FOLLOWED FOR EACH PROJECT AND/OR OBSERVED BASELINE.

C.4.11. TYPE AND NUMBER OF SURVEYING EQUIPMENT TO BE DEPLOYED.

(1) THE CONTRACTING OFFICER RESERVES THE RIGHT TO REQUEST PUBLISHED

DOCUMENTATION ON THE ACCURACY/QUALITY OF THE HARDWARE/SOFTWARE USED FOR
THIS PROJECT. REPORTS PUBLISHED BY THE FGCS MAY BE REQUIRED. ALL SURVEY
EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE USED UNDER THIS *[CONTRACT] [ASSIGNMENT] SHALL BE
SUBJECT TO REVIEW BY THE CONTRACTING OFFICER. EQUIPMENT SUBJECT TO REVIEW SHALL
INCLUDE:

(a) *[SPECIFIC SURVEYING EQUIPMENT. . . EDM, TOTAL STATION,

LEVEL, ETC.]
(b) *[SPECIFIC SURVEYING EQUIPMENT]
(. . .)

*(2) A MINIMUM OF [. . .] *[SPECIFIC PIECE(S) OF SURVEYING EQUIPMENT] SHALL BE

CONTINUOUSLY AND SIMULTANEOUSLY DEPLOYED DURING THIS *[ASSIGNMENT] [PROJECT].

C-12
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

C.4.12. FIELD OBSERVING RECORDING PROCEDURES.

(1) FIELD LOG *[SHEETS] [FORMS] [NOTES] SHALL BE COMPLETED FOR EACH STATION OF
EACH SESSION AND SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNMENT. MINIMUM DATA TO BE INCLUDED ON
THESE FIELD LOG RECORDS ARE DESCRIBED IN CHAPTER 7 OF EM 1110-1-1004.

(2) RAW SURVEY DATA, BASELINE REDUCTION DATA, AND ADJUSTMENT SOLUTIONS
SHALL BE RECORDED AND SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNMENT ON *[_____-INCH FLOPPY DISKS]
[A PREAPPROVED MEDIUM].

(3) IT SHALL BE THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CONTRACTOR TO ASSURE THAT AMPLE

OBSERVATIONS ARE CONDUCTED SO THAT ALL POINTS ARE INTERCONNECTED IN A
COMPLETE INTERCONNECTING NETWORK OR TRAVERSE SURVEY AND/OR IN ACCORDANCE
WITH THE REQUIRED BASELINE MEASUREMENTS SPECIFIED HEREIN. *[ADEQUATE FIELD
COMPUTATIONAL CAPABILITY SHALL EXIST IN ORDER TO VERIFY MISCLOSURES PRIOR TO
SITE DEPARTURE.]

C.4.13. BASELINE DATA REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS.

(1) SOFTWARE FOR PROCESSING THE SURVEY DATA SHALL BE SUBJECT TO APPROVAL BY
THE CONTRACTING OFFICER. ALL SOFTWARE MUST BE ABLE TO PRODUCE FROM THE RAW
SURVEY DATA RELATIVE POSITION COORDINATES *[AND CORRESPONDING VARIANCE-
COVARIANCE STATISTICS WHICH IN TURN CAN BE USED AS INPUT TO THE NETWORK
ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMS].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Baseline output statistics are generally specified only when least squares adjustments are required,
and then only if the specified adjustment software utilizes such statistics.
********************************************************************************************

(2) BASELINE PROCESSING SHALL BE COMPLETED FOR ALL BASELINES AND SELECTED
FOR USE IN THE FINAL NETWORK ADJUSTMENT BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF THE STATISTICAL
DATA AND RELATIVE SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN POINTS. TEST CONSTANTS GIVEN
FOR A PARTICULAR SOFTWARE SYSTEM SHALL BE COMPARED TO THE PROCESSED RESULTS
AND ANY SUSPECT BASELINE THAT DOES NOT MEET THE CRITERIA SHALL BE REOBSERVED
OR NOT INCLUDED IN THE FINAL ADJUSTMENT. BASELINE ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION
CRITERIA ARE CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1004.

C.4.14. FINAL ADJUSTMENT REQUIREMENTS. SURVEY TRAVERSE LOOPS AND NETWORKS

SHALL BE ADJUSTED AND EVALUATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE PROCEDURES AND
CRITERIA IN CHAPTER 8 OF EM 1110-1-1004. FINAL VECTOR MISCLOSURES MAY BE
PROPORTIONATELY DISTRIBUTED AMONG THE OBSERVED BASELINES USING EITHER
APPROXIMATE OR LEAST SQUARES ADJUSTMENT TECHNIQUES DESCRIBED IN CHAPTER 8 OF
EM 1110-1-1004.

(1) ADJUSTMENTS ARE NORMALLY PERFORMED USING *[SPCS] [UTM] [GEOGRAPHIC]

[GEOCENTRIC] [ELLIPSOID] [OTHER] COORDINATES. TRANSFORMED FINAL ADJUSTED
HORIZONTAL DATA SHALL BE EXPRESSED IN *[SPCS] [UTM] [GEOGRAPHIC] [GEOCENTRIC]
[ELLIPSOID] [OTHER] COORDINATES, AND SHALL BE REFERENCED TO *[NAD 27] [NAD 83]
[PROJECT] DATUM. FINAL COORDINATES SHALL BE TABULATED IN *[METERS] [FEET] [OTHER]
TO ONLY *[_____] DECIMAL POINTS OF PRECISION. *[FINAL ADJUSTED VERTICAL DATA SHALL
BE SHOWN AS ORTHOMETRIC HEIGHTS ON *[NGVD 29] [NAVD 88] [OTHER] VERTICAL DATUM.

C-13
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

SURVEY DEVELOPED ELEVATIONS SHALL BE ROUNDED TO THE NEAREST *[1/100 TH OF A]

[1/10 TH OF A] [1/2 OF A] [OTHER] *[METER] [FOOT].]

(2) AN ADJUSTMENT ANALYSIS SHALL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

(a) TRAVERSE LOOPS SHALL BE ANALYZED RELATIVE TO THE INTERNAL CLOSURE

CRITERIA GIVEN IN TABLE 3-1 *[OR 3-2] OF EM 1110-1-1004. INTERNAL ACCEPTABILITY OF THE
WORK WILL BE BASED ON THE MAGNITUDE OF THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL VECTOR
MISCLOSURES RELATIVE TO THE LOOP LENGTH. SUCH LOOP CLOSURE ANALYSIS WILL BE
CONSIDERED THE INTERNAL, MINIMALLY CONSTRAINED, FREE ADJUSTMENT. LOOPS/LINES
WITH INTERNAL MISCLOSURE RATIOS IN EXCESS OF THOSE SPECIFIED IN THIS CONTRACT
SHALL BE REOBSERVED. MISCLOSURES BETWEEN EXTERNAL FIXED CONTRAL MAY BE
DISTRIBUTED USING THE APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION METHODS GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1004.
FINAL CONSTRAINED ACCURACY ESTIMATES WILL BE BASED ON RELATIVE MISCLOSURES AT
FIXED POINTS.

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following clauses apply only to rigorous least squares adjustment techniques. Note that EM
1110-1-1004 does not require that a rigorous least squares adjustment be performed for USACE control
work. The guide writer must establish the technical requirement for such an adjustment to be performed for
USACE control work and modify the clauses in this section accordingly.
********************************************************************************************

(b) *WHEN A FREE (OR MINIMALLY CONSTRAINED) LEAST SQUARES ADJUSTMENT IS

PERFORMED ON THE BASELINE VECTORS, A CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THIS INTERNAL
ADJUSTMENT SHALL BE DERIVED AND EVALUATED AGAINST THE MINIMUM ALLOWABLE
STANDARDS SHOWN IN CHAPTER 8 OF EM 1110-1-1004 FOR THE GIVEN REQUIRED ACCURACY.
THIS FREE ADJUSTMENT, ALONG WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE BASELINE REDUCTION DATA FOR
THE SURVEY, WILL BE USED IN EVALUATING THE CONTRACTUAL ACCEPTABILITY OF THE
OBSERVED NETWORK. STATION *[_____________] SHALL BE HELD FIXED AND ANALYZED
RELATIVE TO THE CRITERIA CONTAINED IN CHAPTER 8 OF EM 1110-1-1004. THE VARIANCE OF
UNIT WEIGHT FOR THE MINIMALLY CONSTRAINED NETWORK ADJUSTMENT SHALL CONFORM
TO THE CRITERIA GIVEN IN CHAPTER 8 OF EM 1110-1-1004. RELATIVE LINE ACCURACIES SHALL
BE COMPUTED FOR PAIRS OF POINTS ON THE NETWORK USING STATISTICAL DATA CONTAINED
IN THE FREE ADJUSTMENT. THESE RELATIVE LINE ACCURACIES SHALL NOT EXCEED THE
REQUIRED ACCURACY CLASSIFICATIONS PRESCIBED FOR THE WORK. STATIONS/BASELINES/
NETWORK AREAS WITH FREE ADJUSTMENT RELATIVE ACCURACIES NOT MEETING THE
REQUIRED CRITERIA MUST BE REOBSERVED; IT IS THEREFORE CONTINGENT ON THE
CONTRACTOR TO ENSURE THAT MISCLOSURE TOLERANCES ARE CHECKED IN THE FIELD.

(c) *A CONSTRAINED LEAST SQUARES ADJUSTMENT WILL BE PERFORMED HOLDING

*[FIXED] [PARTIALLY CONSTRAINED] THE COORDINATES OF THE STATIONS LISTED UNDER THE
EXISTING CONTROL CLAUSE IN THIS CONTRACT SECTION. FOR THE PURPOSE OF THESE
SPECIFICATIONS, BOTH FULLY CONSTRAINED AND PARTIALLY CONSTRAINED POINTS ARE
REFERRED TO AS "FIXED" POINTS. *[IF USING ELLIPSOID BASED VALUES, THE CONSTRAINED
LEAST SQUARES ADJUSTMENT SHALL USE MODELS WHICH ACCOUNT FOR THE REFERENCE
ELLIPSOID FOR THE REFERENCE CONTROL, THE ORIENTATION AND SCALE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE SURVEY AND NETWORK CONTROL DATUMS, GEOID-ELLIPSOID RELATIONSHIPS,
AND DISTORTIONS AND/OR RELIABILITY IN THE NETWORK CONTROL.]

C-14
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: A variety of free and/or constrained adjustment combinations may be specified. Specific stations to
be held fixed may have been indicated in a prior contract section or the contractor may be instructed to
determine the optimum adjustment, including appropriate weighting for constrained points. When fixed
stations are to be partially constrained, then appropriate statistical information must be provided -- either
variance-covariance matrices or relative positional accuracy estimates which may be converted into
approximate variance-covariance matrices in the constrained adjustment.
********************************************************************************************

[1] WHEN DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF CONSTRAINED ADJUSTMENTS

ARE PERFORMED DUE TO INDICATIONS OF ONE OR MORE FIXED STATIONS CAUSING UNDUE
BIASING OF THE DATA, AN ANALYSIS SHALL BE MADE AS TO RECOMMENDED SOLUTION
WHICH PROVIDES THE BEST FIT FOR THE NETWORK. ANY FIXED CONTROL POINTS WHICH
SHOULD BE READJUSTED (TO ANOMALIES FROM THE ADJUSTMENT(S)) SHOULD BE CLEARLY
INDICATED IN A FINAL ANALYSIS RECOMMENDATION.

[2] THE FINAL ADJUSTED HORIZONTAL AND/OR VERTICAL COORDINATE

VALUES SHALL BE ASSIGNED AN ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE ADJUSTMENT
RESULTS AND IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE CRITERIA INDICATED IN TABLE 3-1 AND/OR TABLE
3-2 OF EM 1110-1-1004. THESE CLASSIFICATIONS SHALL INCLUDE BOTH THE RESULTANT
GEODETIC/CARTESIAN COORDINATES AND THE SURVEY RESULTS. THE FINAL ADJUSTED
COORDINATES SHALL STATE THE 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE REGION OF EACH POINT AND THE
(TWO-SIGMA) RELATIVE LINE ACCURACY BETWEEN ALL POINTS IN THE NETWORK.

(3) FINAL ADJUSTED COORDINATE LISTING SHALL BE PROVIDED ON HARD COPY *[AND
ON] *[___] [specify] COMPUTER MEDIA].

(4) *A SCALED PLOT SHALL BE SUBMITTED WITH THE ADJUSTMENT REPORT SHOWING
THE PROPER LOCATIONS AND DESIGNATIONS OF ALL STATIONS ESTABLISHED.

C.5 SUBMITTAL REQUIREMENTS:

C.5.1. SUBMITTAL SCHEDULE: THE COMPLETED SURVEY REPORT SHALL BE DELIVERED

WITHIN *[____ DAYS AFTER NOTICE TO PROCEED IS ISSUED] *[BY calendar date].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Include a more detailed submittal schedule breakdown if applicable to project.
********************************************************************************************

C.5.2. SUBMITTED ITEMS: SUBMITTALS SHALL CONFORM TO THOSE SPECIFIED IN EM 1110-

1-1004 *[EXCEPT AS MODIFIED HEREIN].

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Reference EM 1110-1-1004 for type survey submittal requirements. Modify and/or add items as
required.
********************************************************************************************

C.5.3. PACKING AND MARKING: COMPLETED WORK SHALL BE PACKAGED TO PROTECT THE
MATERIALS FROM HANDLING DAMAGE. EACH PACKAGE SHALL CONTAIN A TRANSMITTAL
LETTER OR SHIPPING FORM, IN DUPLICATE, LISTING THE MATERIALS BEING TRANSMITTED,
BEING PROPERLY NUMBERED, DATED, AND SIGNED. SHIPPING LABELS SHALL BE MARKED AS
FOLLOWS:

C-15
EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DISTRICT, ___________________________________

ATTN: __________________________________________________
*[include office symbol and name]
CONTRACT NO. __________________________________________
*[DELIVERY ORDER NO. __________________________________]
[STREET/PO BOX] _______________________________________
*[complete local mailing address]

*HAND-CARRIED SUBMISSION SHALL BE PACKAGED AND MARKED AS ABOVE,

AND DELIVERED TO THE FOLLOWING OFFICE ADDRESS:

__________________________________________________________
*[insert office/room number as required]

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: In this section, also reference any automated data submittal requirements for survey observations, if
applicable.
********************************************************************************************

C.6 PROGRESS SCHEDULES AND WRITTEN REPORTS.

C.6.1. *PREWORK CONFERENCE:

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Detail any requirements for a prework conference after contract award, including requirements for
preparing written reports for such conferences.
********************************************************************************************
SECTION D

CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION DATA

SECTION E

SPECIAL CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS

SECTION F

CONTRACT CLAUSES

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Detailed guidance for preparing the above contract sections is contained in EFARS.
********************************************************************************************

SECTION G

LIST OF ATTACHMENTS

G.1. U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS EM 1110-1-1004, DEFORMATION MONITORING AND

CONTROL SURVEYING . THIS REFERENCE IS ATTACHED TO AND MADE PART OF THIS
CONTRACT.

C-16
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: List any other attachments called for in contract Section C or in other contract sections. This
includes items such as:
a. Marked-up project sketches/drawings.
b. Station/monument descriptions or recovery notes.
c. Lists of connections to existing network.
d. Lists of fixed (existing) stations to be connected with and adjusted to.
e. Drafting standards.
f. CADD standards.
********************************************************************************************

SECTION H

REPRESENTATIONS, CERTIFICATIONS, AND OTHER

STATEMENTS OF OFFERERS

SECTION I

INSTRUCTIONS, CONDITIONS, AND NOTICES TO OFFERERS

********************************************************************************************
NOTE: See EFARS for guidance in preparing these clauses/provisions.
********************************************************************************************

C-17
 EM 1110-1-1004
31 Oct 94

Appendix D made to FOA surveying and mapping points-of-contact

CORPSCON Technical Documentation concurrently with this documentation. CORPSCON was
designed to be easily used by those with minimal com-
and Operating Instructions
puter experience. The following documentation gives
detailed instructions for installing and running
CORPSCON. If problems with the program are encoun-
D-1. General tered, contact:

a. Background. The National Geodetic Survey Director

developed the conversion program NADCON (North U.S. Army Topographic Engineering Center
American Datum Conversion) to provide consistent results ATTN: CETEC-TD-GS, (Reference CORPSCON)
when converting to and from North American Datum of 7701 Telegraph Road
1983 (NAD 83). The technique used is based on a Alexandria, Virginia 22310-3864
bi-harmonic equation classically used to model plate (703) 355-2766
deflections. NADCON works exclusively in geographical
coordinates (Latitude/Longitude). D-3. Program and Data Files

(1) The U.S. Army Topographic Engineering Center a. CORPSCON consists of the following program
(TEC) created a more comprehensive program CORPS- files that must be present to run the program:
CON (Corps Convert), which is based on NADCON
(NADCON operates within CORPSCON). In addition to CORPSCON.EXE CORPS27.EXE
transformations between NAD 83 and NAD 27 geograph- CORPS83.EXE CORPSNAD.EXE
ical coordinates, CORPSCON also converts between State CORPSUTM.EXE CORPSCON. S27
Plane Coordinates Systems (SPCS), geographical coordi- CORPCON. S83 CORPSCON.HLP
nates, and Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordi-
nates, thus eliminating several steps in the total process of b. The information file, READ.ME, contains
converting between grid coordinates on NAD 27 and grid information on installing and running CORPSCON. The
coordinates on NAD 83. Inputs can be in either geogra- following data files are required to perform datum conver-
phic, UTM, or SPCS coordinates (SPCS 27 X and Y or sions in CONUS, HAWAII, and PR/USVI:
SPCS 83 northing and easting). This program can also be
used to convert between grid and geographic coordinates CONUS.LAS CONUS.LOS
on the same datum. PRVI.LAS PRVL.LOS
HAWAII.LAS HAWAII.LOS
(2) The Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee
(FCGS) has adopted NAD 83 as the official horizontal c. The following data files are required for conver-
datum for U.S. surveying and mapping activities per- sions in Alaska:
formed or financed by the Federal Government. The
FGCS also stated that, NADCON will be the standard ALASKA.LAS ALASKA.LOS
conversion method for all mathematical transformations STLRNC.LAS STLRNC.LOS
between NAD 83 and NAD 27. For further information STGEORGE.LAS STGEORGE.LOS
reference Chapter 4 of this EM. STPAUL.LAS STPAUL.LOS

b. Coverage. The current version performs datum d. FOAs are being sent data files depending on their
conversions for the continental U.S. (CONUS), including geographic locations. However, any of the above geo-
the 200-mile commercial zone (CONUS_EXT), Puerto graphic databases can be obtained upon request from the
Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands (PR/USVI), Alaska, and Hawaii. office listed in paragraph D-2.
This program does not provide conversion to High
Accuracy Reference Networks (HARN’s). D-4. Hardware Requirements

D-2. Source of Program and Assistance An 80286 (or higher) processor Microsoft Disk Operating
System (MS-DOS) based personal computer with a math
Copies of CORPSCON can be obtained from the address coprocessor is required to run this program. A hard disk
below. An initial distribution of CORPSCON will be drive is recommended, but not required. Conversions

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31 Oct 94

from floppy drives take considerably longer. At least one (1) At the C:\> prompt, create the CORPSCON
megabyte of disk space (floppy or hard disk) is needed to directory by typing:
accommodate the program files, datum model files, and
input/output files; and at least 52 kilobytes of Random MD C:\CORPSCON <ENTER>
Access Memory (RAM) is needed for program execution.
The CORPSCON program and data files are mailed on (2) Change to the CORPSCON directory by typing:
5.25-inch 1.2 megabyte floppy disks (other media are
available from the office listed in paragraph D-2). CD C:\CORPSCON <ENTER>
CORPSCON is compatible with most PC monitors,
although color monitors (EGA and VGA) provide the (3) Place the CORPSCON floppy disk in the A drive
most favorable and easily discernible menu display. If a (or B). Note CORPSCON is on a high-density disk. Be
printer is to be used, it must be interfaced through the certain that your computer has a high-density drive.
parallel port (LPT1 or LPT2) in order to be recognized by
the program. (4) At the C:\CORPSCON> prompt, copy the files
into the CORPSCON directory by typing:
D-5. Software Requirements
C0PY A:*.*<ENTER>
a. This program requires MS-DOS, version 3.0 or
higher. Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) programs, (5) At the C:\CORPSCON> prompt, type:
such as Side Kick, have in the past interfered with the
proper execution of CORPSCON. The result of this inter- DIR <ENTER>
ference has been erroneous results; therefore it is
recommended that the user halt TSR programs prior to to verify that the files listed in paragraph (2) were pro-
executing CORPSCON. Also, other programs that use perly copied.
DOS shells, such as spreadsheets and word processors,
must be completely terminated before running D-7. Operating Instructions
CORPSCON.
a. Change to the drive/directory containing the pro-
b. Your CONFIG.SYS file must contain the state- gram files. Type CORPSCON and hit the enter key to
ment “FILES=20” thus allocating a sufficient number of start the program. A single screen menu will be dis-
open files needed for program execution. Consult your played with three windows, “CORPSCON Main Menu,”
DOS manual for further information on how to check “Send Data,” and “Console Window.”
and/or modify your CONFIG.SYS file.
NOTE: An identification message at the top of
D-6. Installation Procedures the menu should read “CORPSCON v3.0.” If the
message has a number lower than 3.0 or the menu has
a. Disk requirements. The CORPSCON program “Beta CORPSCON v3.0,” then this is an older version
and data files should be copied to a hard disk, if avail- of CORPSCON and it should be disregarded.
able, for faster program performance and to ensure ample
disk space. If a hard disk is not available, then the pro- b. The “CORPSCON Main Menu” has three basic
gram can be run from a high density floppy disk drive (at functions that can be selected by typing the highlighted
least 1.2 megabytes capacity). This requires that the numeric (1, 2, or 3) which is located by that respective
CORPSCON program and data files for CONUS and function. The “Input Data Format” specifies the coordi-
PR/USVI be copied onto a single high density floppy nate system in which the original coordinates are in. The
disk. A hard disk is required if the Alaska data files are “Output Data Format” specifies the coordinate system in
being used. which the original coordinates are to be converted.
CORPSCON displays a listing of supported coordinate
b. Hard disk installation. The following instructions systems when either of these two options in the “CORPS-
assume you will install CORPSCON on your C drive in a CON Main Menu” is selected. Using the cursor keys
directory named CORPSCON. If you wish to install it on (Up/Down) the user can move through the different sys-
another drive or another directory, change the drive and/or tems. Hitting the Enter key selects the coordinate system
directory designations as appropriate.

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which is blinking. Below is a representation of that For geographic coordinate entry:

menu.
Enter Input Coordinate..
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 1 - Enter Latitude: 00 00 00.00000
| Select the Input Data Format | 2 - Enter Longitude: 000 00 00.00000
| | 3 - Enter Name:
| 1 - State Plane, NAD 27 |
| | 0 - To Accept Above Point
| 2 - State Plane, NAD 83 |
| | Enter Selection -
| 3 - UTM Coord., NAD 27 |
| | For plane coordinate entry:
| 4 - UTM Coord., NAD 83 |
| |
Enter Input Coordinate..
| 5 - Geographic Coordinates, NAD 27 |
| |
1 - Enter Easting (X): 0.000
| 6 - Geographic Coordinates, NAD 83 |
2 - Enter Northing (Y): 0.000
| |
3 - Enter Name:
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
0 - To Accept Above Point
c. If selecting either of the grid coordinate systems,
CORPSCON prompts the user for units (U.S. Foot, Inter- Enter Selection -
national Foot, or Meters) and the UTM or state plane
zone. To select a state plane zone (in NAD 27 or Selections are made by selecting the numeric associated
NAD 83), CORPSCON will display a menu in the con- with the entry. For example, to enter the station name
sole window. Using the Page-Up and Page-Down keys type 3, and then start typing in the name.
and cursor keys, a user can quickly move through several
pages of zones and select an individual zone to be used in NOTE: A maximum of twenty characters can be used
the conversion. Selection is made by moving the high- for the name.
lighted cursor over the intended zone and hitting the
<Enter> key. e. After entering the coordinates, the values should
be checked before pressing the 0, to be certain that the
NOTE: Throughout the CORPSCON program, the numbers are correct. Pressing 0 starts the conversion
bottom line of the main screen changes showing the computation. If changes need to be made, type the selec-
user the commands (i.e. function keys) that are valid. tion number corresponding to the invalid number and
reenter the proper coordinate.
d. The “Input Data Source” specifies the type or
format of input data. As above, the selection of this NOTE: Points in the Alaska Aleutians that lie in east
option displays a menu of supported input data sources. longitude, i.e., Shimya, must be entered as a west lon-
Utilization of the cursor keys combined with the <Enter> gitude exceeding 180 degrees. For example, a longi-
key allows the user to select a format. Below is a repre- tude of 174" 05’ 12" East would be entered as 185"
sentation of that menu. 54’ 48". Also, west longitude, for all points within the
U.S. and its territories, is assumed positive.
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Select the Input Source for the Data | f. All other selections in the data source menu will
| 1 - From Keyboard (Manual Entry) | prompt the user for a file upon start of the conversion.
| 2 - From Batch File (ASCII Format) |
| 3 - From NGS Bluebook (*80*/*81*) |
The formats of these files vary depending on the type of
| 4 - From GeoLab File | file. The “From Batch file (ASCII format)” is the most
| 5 - From Fillnet File | common and general format. These files can be created
+--------------------------------------------------------------+ outside of CORPSCON with other programs, e.g., word
processors, spreadsheets, etc., that can make an ASCII
The “From Keyboard” option prompts the user in the con- file. There are two formats that exist for an ASCII batch
sole window for a single point to convert upon start of the file, examples of each are listed below:
conversion. A sample of that display is as follows:

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For geographic coordinates: NAME: Test Site Record 1 of 1.

INPUT OUTPUT
;This is a sample file LAT: 38 44 00.00000 N: 6953015.83296
;Agency: USATEC LON: 077 08 00.00000 E: 11872752.62967
;Project: Sample File,
;NAD 83 Geographic Coordinates
Convergence DD(A) & Scale Factor (K)
Test Site,38 44 0.0,77 8 0.0111 A: 00 51 10.65989
K: 0.999950422
For grid coordinates:
NOTE: After viewing the coordinates in the console
;This is a sample file window, hit the <ESC> key to continue. No printing
;Agency: USATEC will occur until the user has finished viewing the coor-
;Project: Sample File, dinates in the console window.
;NAD 83 State Plane Zone 4501,U.S FOOT
Test Site,11872752.0,6953015.832
j. The “To Printer” option sends the data directly to
Comment lines have a “;” in the first colunm of that line. the printer in a publishable format.
There is no limit on the number of comment lines a file
can have. CORPSCON disregards any line starting with a k. The “To Printer File” option sends the same pub-
“;”. The actual data in the ASCII file are broken down lishable format as above to a user specified file. When
into three fields separated by commas. The first field con- selecting this option, CORPSCON will prompt the user
tains a twenty-character name. The format of the next for a filename in which to write this format.
two fields depends on whether the data are plane or geo-
graphic coordinates. For geographic coordinates, the sec- l. Using either of the above two output options (to
ond field contains the latitude (φ) and the third contains the printer or a printer file), CORPSCON creates a speci-
the longitude (λ) of the station. The latitude and longi- fic format that consists of a file header followed by a
tude fields contain three values: degrees, minutes, and listing of the input and output data. The header states the
seconds. Each value is separated by a space. In order for form of the inputs (e.g., NAD 27 state plane) and the
CORPSCON to function properly, there must be a value outputs (e.g., NAD 83 geographic). The input coordinates
for each field (even if zero). For plane coordinates, the are listed under the “Input” column and the output coordi-
second field contains the easting (x) and the third field nates are similarly listed under the “Output” column. If
contains the northing (y). state plane or UTM values are used for input or output,
then the convergence and scale factor are listed under the
g. Another file format that CORPSCON can use are coordinates. If a datum conversion is made from
Bluebook files with *80* and *81* records. Also, CORP- NAD 27 to NAD 83, or vice versa, then the datum shift,
SCON can strip geographic coordinates from GeoLab and in meters, is shown under the coordinates. If the inputs
Fillnet output files. This capability is based on GeoLab and outputs for a datum conversion are in state plane
version 1.82s (* .lis files) and Fillnet version 3.00 (*.fop coordinates, then the state plane coordinate shift, in feet,
files). Outputs generated from different versions of these is shown after the datum shift.
software packages may not be recognized by CORPSCON
if the vendor has not retained common output formats m. The “To Data File” option sends an abbreviated
between version releases. output format to another file. This is an important change
from previous versions of CORPSCON in that only the
h. The “Send Data” menu allows the user to specify point name and converted coordinates are written to the
what output formats will be created. There are four data file. The exception to the previous statement is that
options: “To Console,” “To Printer,” “To Printer File,” the first four or five lines in the file are comment lines of
and “To Data File.” The highlighted letter toggles these the format:
options on and off, which are, respectively, C, P, F,
;Software: CORPSCON v3.0, Agency: USATEC
and D.
;Project: Sample File,
;Orig. Coord. on NAD 83 Geographic Coordinates
i. The “To Console” option displays the original ;Trans.Coord. NAD 83 State Plane Zone 4501, U.S. FOOT
and converted coordinates in the console window (the Test Site,11872752.62967, 6953015.83296
third area located on the screen). Using the <Page-Up>
and <Page-Down> keys a user can cycle through the When selecting this option, CORPSCON will prompt the
points. Below is an example of that option. user for a file name in which to write this format.

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31 Oct 94

n. CORPSCON has several other options that are (5) The <F4> key starts the conversion.
briefly explained below.
D-8. Error Messages
(1) The <ESC> key is used to exit CORPSCON.
CORPSCON is designed to prompt the user for most
(2) The <F1> key displays a help screen that a user cases in which a system or runtime error occurs. These
can cycle through by using the <Page-Up> and errors are as follows:
<Page-Down> keys.
a. No math co-processor. A math co-processor
(3) The <F2> key allows the user to change the proj- (hardware item) must be installed in the computer to run
ect title and agency that appears in the printouts. the program.

Printout Titles b. No input file. A file with the name specified was
Project Name: Sample File not found; enter the correct file name or create the file
Company Name: USATEC
before running CORPSCON. Check to be certain that the
file and program CORPSCON are in same directory and
Pressing the <ESC> key in this menu retains the current
subdirectory.
name listed.
c. Printer error. The program is unable to send the
(4) The <F3> key creates a batch file (which the user
output to the printer. Check the following:
is prompted for) while in CORPSCON. Depending on
the input format specified (geographic or plane coordi-
-printer connection
nates) the user is prompted with the manual input
-printer turned on
sequence as described previously. The difference is that
-printer interfaced through the parallel port
after typing 0 to select the point, the user is prompted
-paper in printer
again for another point. This process continues until the
-printer in “on-line” or “ready-to-print” status
user hits the <ESC> key to close the batch file.

D-5