FIELD REPORT

1. Introduction
The main area of field work is concentrated mainly on the Quarternary , Siwaliks and
Gondowana aged regions of a state of India, West Bengal between Nepal and Bhutan and
Bangladesh. The Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya is characterised by a frontal imbricate zone in the
footwall of the MBT that repeats the siwalik section multiple times. Out of sequence thrusts
are observed within this imbricate zone on the surface breaking faults north of the MFT in the
Darjeeling sub-Himalaya. It is very difficult for us to understand the various geological features
such as beds, bedding plane , morphology but it will become very effective when we see all of
them in front of our eyes. In the beginning phase, when we are just building our geological
knowledge, our basic concepts must be very clear for which geological field visit trip is
essentially required.

2. Location -
The study of our field area is mainly derjeeling-sikkim Himalaya. The long and lat of the location where the field
conducted mainly are

Disgtrict town……..

3. Toposheet no.-
The toposheets which used in field as a guide are-a) NG45-7 b) NG45-8 C) NG45-9 ( link-
https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/india/ )
Toposheet of jalpaiguri

Toposheet of kanchenjungha
 Toposheet of kishanganj

3 .Area accessibility –
Getting to Sikkim, Darjeeling or Duars:
To get to Sikkim ,Darjeeling or Duars, the nearest airport is Bagdogra, near Siliguri in North Bengal, which is 124 km
and approximately four hour’s drive from Gangtok,2 ½ Hours to Darjeeling. Indian Airlines, Jet Airways, Spice Jet, Go
Air are linked with Bagdogra connecting other major airport in India .Bhadrapur airport in Nepal is about 2hrs west of
Bagdogra airport.
Bagdogra Airport (IXB):Bagdogra has also become international airport since 2009, when Druk Air, Bhutan’s National
carrier started operating flights from Bagdogra. Twice a week, Druk Air flies from Paro to Bangkok or vice versa, making
stop in Bagdogra.
There are several flights from Delhi and Kolkata, some of which also operate via Guwahati, Assam.
The flights are operated by Air India (formerly Indian Airlines), Jet Airways, Spice Jet.
By Train:The nearest rail head for Darjeeling, Sikkim or Kalimpong region is NJP (New Jalpaiguri) or Siliguri Town,
both of these have a number of trains connecting them to Kolkata and other major cities of India. However for visiting
Dooars area, depending on the area, you plan on visiting, important trains also stop at main station such as New
Alipurduar and New Cooch behar.

General topography of derjeeling-sikkim Himalaya-

To a larger extent, in Himalayas regions, climate and history are shaped by its topography.Landscape of any towns
and cities in the Himalayan zone are synonymous with hills and mountains. Generally, the varying degree of altitude
largely influence the climate rather than the latitude.
The topography of these region can be aptly compared to a huge and steep staircase, which rises from the foothills
(Doars) at 100 m (328 Feet) above sea level, to a snowy peak above 7000 m (22,966 Feet) . Within a distance of 220
kilometres, one can pass from Sub tropical of Doars to sub temperate of  Darjeeling, Kalimpong and Gangtok and to
the alpine regions of Lachung, Yumuthang and alpine highland of Lamune, Thangsing and Dzongri  while doing
 Goechala Trek in Sikkim.Darjeeling, Kalimpong and Gangtok  are located in Mahabharat range or lesser Himalayas
ranges. And the  foot hill to these regions are assigned to the  flood plain of North Bengal popularly called Doars.

A .Temp-

Temperatures vary with altitude. At Darjeeling town, maximum temperature is recorded in August (26.7°C) and minimum
m January and February (0°C). Kalimpong located at a lower elevation has moderate temperature. At Kalimpong the
highest maximum temperature (30.9°C) is recorded in August and the minimum (2.2°C) m January. In the Terai the
highest maximum (39°C) is recorded m May and the lowest
minimum (3.9°C) m January. The annual mean maximum
temperature for Darjeeling District is 16.7°C and the annual mean
minimum temperature is 10.2°C.

B .Wind direction
The upper winds over the Himalaya are predominantly westerly
during November to May. At 56 the upper level, these winds are
invariably strong and may attain to the intensity of gale or hurricane.
With the setting in of the Monsoon (in early June), the westerly wind
is replaced by the South and S.E. monsoon winds. The moisture
bearing monsoon winds occasionally rise to great heights. In such
cases, the air current over the East Himalaya often becomes
southernly or south-easternly.

Over Darjeeling and Tarai, calm conditions are frequent, but it is not so over Kalimpong. This may be due to the
difference in aspects of the hills. At Darjeeling, the average wind speed does not generally exceed 10 Km/hour. The mean
velocity is higher at Kalimpong and lower in the TaraiSurface winds of Darjeeling District are generally from the east.
But during winter months the prevailing wind direction is E-NE. During the monsoon (June to September), the prevailing
direction is from E-SE.

C. Rainfall
Darjeeling enjoys monsoon rain and the rainfall is quite heavy throughout the district. The average rainfall varies
considerably from place to place, being dependent on a number of local conditions such as the configuration and height of
mountain features. Rainfall is quite heavy at the foot-hill regions overlooking the plains and particularly heavy at the
eastern hills and foot-hills where over 4-,000 mm. of annual rainfall are recorded (¥ide Fig.45 ). The regions located
behind the hills in the north generally get lesser rainfall dwe to rain shadow effect. Such regions occur at the northern side
of Manibhanjan—Senchal spur and north Rishila. The average annual rainfall of Darjeeling District is 2,812.2 mm. July is
the month of heaviest rain.
Average annual rainfall in different parts of Darjeeling District and the height of the stations

D .Vegetation-
Phytogeographically, the Darjeeling Himalaya is a part of the Eastern Himalayan Province that in turn is one of the
thirteen provinces of the Eastern Asiatic regional centre of endemism (Hooker 1896). The Eastern Himalayan Province
lies almost wholly within the Indian subcontinent lying between 270 30‟N to 290 30‟N and 830 00‟E to 920 00‟E. It
includes Nepal east of Kali river (830 00‟E) and extends to southeastern Tibet (the Tsangpo valley east of 920 00‟E). It
includes all the mountainous country east of the Kali River and north of the Bramhmaputra - Ganges flood plains.
Floristically, the Eastern Himalaya is one of the richest regions in the world and is literally considered a botanist‟s
paradise and has thus, attracted a large number of plant hunters and botanists during the last three centuries (Don 1821,
Das 1995). Phytogeographically, it forms a meeting ground of the Indo-Chinese and Indo-Malaysian tropical lowland
flora, the Sino-Himalayan East Asiatic flora and the Western Himalayan flora comprising about 9000 species with a high
percentage of endemic plants (Chatterjee 1940, Puri et al 1983, Myers 1990, Wilson 1983, Das 1995, Bhujel 1996). This
province along with KhasiManipur has the richest flora of the Indian subcontinent with the exception of Myanmar (Rao
1964). A comprehensive travelogue through the dense and magnificent forest and vegetation of this region is rather
difficult to conceive due to the nature of Himalayan terrain and intricacy of the plant cover comparable to almost that of
the tropical rainforest in some of the river valleys (Bhattacharya, 1992). Although, the Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya forms
a very small part of this province covering an area of only 9020 sq km of a total area of 1,22,802 sq. kms (Negi, 1990) it
shows a remarkable richness and variety in its flora. None other than Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker introduced the beauty and
the floristic richness of this region to the outside world for the first time. The occurrences of a variety of physiographic,
climatic and edaphic conditions often aided by biotic factors are responsible for such richness and variety. The
configuration of the hills and mountains, pattern of rainfall distribution over the lower, middle and upper ranges and high
humidity have a great role in determining the type of vegetation of the area (Fig. No. 6). The evenly distributed, highly
humid climate is regarded as tree producing which is conducive to tree growth and as such the timber line or the upper
vegetation in this sector goes up to 4750 m a.s.l. (Sahni, 1981).The altitude of the various hill ranges varies markedly and
usually there is a distinct correlation between altitude and vegetation. Thus, altitude is one major factor that determines
the range of distribution of different plant species and the associations that they form at different elevation ranges. Various
workers have put forth the classification of the vegetation of this region and it includes workers like Gamble (1875),
Hooker (1896), Cowan and Cowan (1929), Champion (1936), and Kanai (1963), Rao (1964), Sahni (1981), Jain (1983),
Jain and Rao (1983), Bhujel (1996). These authors have essentially classified the 'flora and vegetation' according to
altitudinal ranges, although they differ considerably in detail.
The Tropical Vegetation: High temperature and heavy rainfall characterize this zone resulting in the propagation of dense
vegetation. The tropical vegetation is characterized by the presence of deciduous forests with Shorearobusta as a dominant
species. Bhujel (1996) further divided it into four sub types: a. Riverain forest b. Sal forest c. Dry mixed forest d. Wet
mixed forest The Riverain forests: It can be observed in small patches along the riverbeds of Teesta, Rangit, Balasan,
Mahanadi, Sukuna, Relli, Chel, Lesh, Gish, Jaldhaka, Sevoke and Mechi. The forests remain dominated and perennial
plants being dominated by shrubs and climbers. The common tree species found in this region include, Meliosmapinnata,
Albiziaprocera ,Albizialebbeck, Acacia lenticularis, Alstoniascholaris , Lagerostroemiaparviflora with acacia catechu.
andDalbergiasissoo occurring as distinct patches in planted forests. Saccharumspontaneum, Mikaniamicrantha,
Clerodendrumjaponicum , C. infortunatum , Buddlejaasiatica, Oroxylumindicum, Globbamacroclada cover the forest
floor. Sal (Shorearobusta) forest: Shorearobusta. is the conspicuous species growing in Lower Siwalik `Dry‟ Terai and
Bhabarsal belt, ridges, spurs and well-drained loamy plains. The main associates of sal in this region include
Terminaliaalata, Aglaialawii, Duabangagrandiflora, Eugenia kurzii, Dilleniapentagynai.,Chukrasiatabularis,
Meliosmapinnata, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Tetramelesnudiflora, Stereospermumchelonoides and
Anthocephaluschinensis along with Pavettaindica, Clerodendrumjaponicum, Phlogacanthusthyrsiflorusn and
Barleriacristata. Pinusroxburghii a normal inhabitant of the temperate to subtropical region can be also be seen associated
with species like Shorearobusta, Ficusoligodo and Pheonixhumilis in some drier valleys. Remnants of the once
magnificent sal forests which has given way to the need of agricultural land can be seen along the banks of the River
Rangeet. The Dry mixed forest: This forest is represented
by the presence of Gmeliaarborea, Tetramelesnudiflora,
Beilschmiediadalzellii, Erythrinastricta, Bombaxceiba,
Alstonianerifolia, Merremiaemarginat, M. hederacea,
Artocarpuslacucha, Eugenia kurzii etc. Wet mixed forest:
Semi-evergreen trees along with a very large number of
shrubs, climbers and herbs dominate the wet mixed forest.
This zone is rich in epiphytes and stem-parasites giving it a
distinct characteristic. The major tree species of this sub
zone include Terminalimyriocarpa, Micheliachampaca,
Sygzygiumformosa, Cinnamomumglaucescens,
Litseamonopetala, Beilschmiediaroxburghiana,
Pterospermumacerifolium etc. Climbers include
Beaumontiagrandiflora , Bauhinia vahlii , Entadapursaetha
ssp. sinohimalensis, Cryptolepisbuchananii.,
Mikaniamicranth, Ipomeaquamoclit, Boerhaviadiffusa,
Argyeriaroxburghii with the lower strata and ground
vegetation including Ageratum conyzoides,
Blumeabalsamifera , Sonchusasper , Sauropuspubescens
etc. Sub-Tropical forests: The vegetation of this region is
effected by a seasonal climate of dry winter and a wet
monsoon and thus consists largely of tropical genera and
species (Grierson & Long, 1983). The mixed forest is
mostly deciduous in nature. Several species tend into this zone from the tropical and plains zone. Castanopsisindica,
Schimawallichii, Gmeliaarborea, Adina cordifolia, Duabangagrandiflora, Gynocardiaodorata, Bischofiajavanica,
Callicarpaarborea, Alangiumchinensis, Terminaliaalata, T. bellirica, Sygzygiumramosissmum, constitute the dominant
trees in this region. In addition Castanopsistribuloides, Cinnamomumbejolghota, Magniferasylvatica, Phoebe lanceolata,
Litseacubeba, Fraxinus floribunda, Helicianilagirica, Phyllanthusemblica, Mallotusphilippensis, Engelhardtiaspicata can
be seen in some places. The undergrowths include MussaendaroxburghiiDendrocalamushamiltonii, Osbeckianepalensis,
Osbeckiastellata , Buddlejaasiatica, Embelia floribunda, Croton caudatus, Thysanolaena maxima, Imperatacylindrica,
Holmskioldia sanguine, Woodfordiafruticosa and Boehmeriaglomerulifera This forest is characterised presence of a good
number of climbers such as Bauhinia vahlii, Tinosporacordifolia, Cissampelospareira, Mucunapruriens,
Thunbergiafragrans, Vitexnegundo. The common herbs include Commelinabenghalensis, Cyanodondactylon,
Pileahookeriana, P. smilacifolia, Elatostemalineolatum, Ageratum conyzoides, Oxalis corniculala
,UrenalobataTriumfettarhomboidea. Exotic weeds like Euptoriumodoratum and Mikaniamicrantha grow profusely in the
disturbed forests, while thickets of the tree fern Cyatheabrunoniana is found in moist shady places. Temperate vegetation:
The temperate vegetation comprises of dense forest that includes areas extending from Kurseong, Tung, Sonada,
Darjeeling, Mirik, SukhiaPokhri, Maneybhanjyang, Rimbick, Lodhama, Kalimpong, Labha, etc. in the Darjeeling
Himalaya. The temperate forest occupies most of the region of the Darjeeling Himalaya. The richness of the vegetation is
displayed by the presence of the largest number of species and the widest diversity occurring in this region. J. D. Hooker
(1896) remarked that the temperate vegetation of this region is roughly divisible into lower non-coniferous and upper
coniferous and Rhododendron belt, but the line of demarcation between these varies so greatly with the exposure and
humidity of the locality that they cannot be dealt apart. Kanai (1963) and Grierson & Long (1983) classified the temperate
forest of the region into three subtypes. Temperate Deciduous forest: This forest type is characterized by the presence of
trees like Betulaalnoides, Exbucklandiapopulnea, Eleocarpuslanceifolius, E. sikkimensis Acer campbellii, A. sikkimensis,
Engelhardtiaspicata, Linderaneesiana, L. pulcherrima, Prunusnapaulensis, Alnusnepalensis, Rhododendron grande, R.
arboreum and Eurya acuminate etc. Evergreen Oak forest: This forest comprises of trees like Quercus lamellose, Q.
lineata, Q. oxydon, Lithocarpuspachyphylla, L. elegans, Acer hookerii, Cinnamomumimpressinervium,
Eriobotryapetiolata, Euryaacuminata, Pentapanaxfragrans, Litseaelongata, Litseasericea, Juglansregia,
Leucosceptrumcanum, Lithocarpuspachyphyllus, Poplusciliata. Shrubs like Dichroafabrifuga, Viburnum erubescence,
Jasminumdispermum, Nelliathyrsiflora, Arundinariamaling, Hypericumhookeri, Noryscaurala, Notochaetehaemosa with
climbers like Dicentrascandens , Edgariadarjeelingensis, Holboellialatifolia, Sechiumedule, Smilax ferox,
Codonopsisaffinis, Streptolirion voluble, Rubiamanjith etc. and herbs like Achyranthesbidentata, Anaphaliscontorta,
A.triplinervis, Artemesia japonica, Bidenspilosa, Potentilafulgens, Plantagoerosa, Rumexnepalensis,
Clinopodiumumbrosa, Gallium asperifolium, Swertiachirayita, S.bimaculata, Impatiens arguta, Lysimachiaalternifolia,
Poulzolziahirta, Hypoestestriflora, Hemiphragmaheterophylla, Erigeron karwinskianus, Fragarianubicola to name a few,
forming the ground cover. Cold temperate vegetation: Regions lying above 2400 m usually receive snowfall and remain
covered from a few days to few months (usually 3 - 4 months) during the year. As such there is a decrease in the diversity
of the arboreal flora. Numerous herbs, many of which are endemic to the region inhabit this region (Hara 1971; Bhujel
1996). The vegetation of this zone can be broadly classified as being of two types: Mixed temperate forest of the upper
hill region: The mixed temperate forest of the upper hill region extends to about 2800 m and comprises of trees like
Brassaiopsismitis, Quercuslamellosa, Magnolia campbellii, Lithocarpuspachyphyll, Sorbusrhamnoides, Ilex fragilis,
Prunus undulate with climbers Dicentrapaucinerva, Clematis buchaniana, Actinidiastrigosa, Smilax glaucophylla,
Schisandragrandiflora and shrubs like Piptanthusnepalensis, Elsholtziafructioca, Daphne involucrate,
Bistortaamplexicauli, Berberisinsignis, Aconogonumcampanulatum, Rosa serecia etc. with herbs like
ArisaemaspeciosumFragarianubicola, Ranunculusdiffisus, Viola sikkimensis, Ajugalobata, Paris polyphylla,
Gentianaspeciosa, Geranium donianum , Pileaanisophylla, etc. Arundinariamaling is found to invade large open areas in
the region. Rhododendron – Hemlock forest: The uppermost tier of the temperate forest is clearly dominated by different
species of Rhododendron with few patches of other trees. The commonly occurring trees of this sub-region include
Rhododendron arboreum subsp. roseum, R. falconeri , R. hodgsonii, R. decipiensLacaita, Betulautilis, Abiesdensa,
Tsugadumosa, Taxusbaccata, Acer pectinatum, A.stachyophyllum, Daphnephyllumhimalense, Ilex insignis,
Larixgriffithiana, Piceaspinulosa. Shrubs include Rosa sericia, Virburnumerubescence, Viburnum nervosum, Ribes spp.
Mecanopsisnapaulensis, Nelliarubiflora, Potentillafructicosa. Berberisinsignis, B.umbellate, Daphne bholua. Climbers
include Actinidiastrigosa, Holboellialatifolia, Aristolochiagriffithii, Leptocodongracilis. etc. and herbs include Aconitum
spicatum, Aconitum bisma, Fritillariacirrhosa, Hemiphragmaheterophyllum, Valerianawallichii, Primulacapitata, P.
denticulata, Gentianacapitata, G. bryoides, G. glabriuscula, Swertiadilatata, S. macrocsperma etc. Sub-alpine vegetation:
Ranging between 3200 - 4000 m lies the sub alpine region. This region has been categorised by some as alpine region
(Biswas 1959, Mitra 1951) while as temperate region by others (Gamble 1875; Kanai 1963). A sharp reduction in the
temperature to subzero level during winter with precipitation in form of snow and hail that melts during the summer
characterizes the climate of this zone. The common plant species observed in this zone include Acer acuminatum, Acer
caudatum, Abiesspectabilis, Cotoneaster frigidus, Salix sikkimensis, S. flabellus, Sorbusmicrophylla, Viburnum
nervosum, Rhododendron cinnabarium, R. campylocarpum, R. campanulatum, Juniperussquamata, J. communis, J.
wallichiana etc. The herbs in the forests and meadows include Rubusfragarioides , Potentillamicrophylla, P. monanthes,
Primulaglabra, P. obliqua, Ranunculusadoxifolius, R. brotherusi, Anemone demissa, Tithymalussikkimensis, T.stracheyi,
Saxifragahispidua, S. latifolia, Viola biflora, V. cameleo, Pedicularismollis, P. clarkei, Picrorhizascrophulariaeflora,
Rheum acuminatum etc.

E .Drainage-
The rivers of the tract drain ultimately to the south but as the west to east ridges cross the tract at certain regions it causes
a series of rivers and streams to flow northwards or eastwards direction before joining the main river system. The two
most important rivers of Darjeeling are the river Teesta and the river Great Rangeet. Both these glacier fed rivers originate
from Sikkim. While the Teesta originates from the Zemu glacier located in north Sikkim the Rangeet arises from the
Rothong glacier in West Sikkim. The Teesta is a broad mountainous river with numerous shallows and rapids. It traverses
a large part of the state of Sikkim and enters the district of Darjeeling at the point it meets with the Great Rangeet. The
major tributaries in Sikkim include the Lachungchhu, the Zemuchhu, the Dhakungchhu, in the north district the
Talungchhu and Tangpochhu in the west district and SethikholaRangpokhola, Jolly khola in the east district, while the
Reyang, originating from Mahaldiram Reserve Forest (2438m), Peshok and Geilekhola constitute its main tributaries on
the right bank after its entry into the District of Darjeeling.The main tributary of Teesta is the Great Rangeet, which arises
from the Pathong glacier and confluences with Teesta at the Teesta Bazar. It enters the district of Darjeeling at the point
on the northern boundary where it receives the Rammamriver arising from Singalila and Rangu arising from Senchal in
Darjeeling on its right bank. The Rammam demarcates the northern boundary between Sikkim and Darjeeling district. The
Rammam originates at an altitude of 3600 m at Phalut in the Singalila range. The entire course of the river is interspersed
with deep gorges. A very prominent gorge is found at the confluence of the Rammam with its main tributary; the
LodhomaKhola.The Little Rangeet arises at ChitrePokhri (2380 m) and flows north, almost parallel to the
LodhomaKhola. The Little Rangeet winds sinuously within a maze of interlocking spurs and valleys. Below the Triveni
confluence, the Teesta flows eastwards, where it receives the Little Rangeet from Darjeeling and enters the plains of
North Bengal and finally joins the river Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.TheBalason, which arises from Lepchajagat in the
Ghum saddle, flows towards the south, scooping out deep gorges in the catchment area, till it reaches the plains and
thereby turns southeast, where its valley is larger than that of the Mahanadi.The other important rivers of Darjeeling
include the Balason, arising from the Ghoom saddle and running south till it reaches the plains at an altitude of 304 m and
then turns south east and divides into two channels the New Balason and the Old Balason and subsequently joins the
Mahanadi further south. It receives tributaries like Pulungdungkhola, Rangbangkhola,theMarmakhola, Dudhiakhola on
the right bank and Rinchingtongkhola, Raktikhola, Rohinikhola, Jorkhola etc on the left. The Mahanadi has its source near
the Mahaldiram dome, east of Kurseong and flows southeast receiving a few sizable right side tributaries the Siva khola
being the most important one. Its left bank tributaries include the Jholikhola, the Jogikhola, GulmakholaBabukhola and
Ghoramarakhola. The Mechi River, which is the western boundary of the study area, forms the Indo-Nepal boundary. The
source of the river is the Rangbang spur of the Singalila range at an altitude of 1905 m. It flows through deep gorges in the
hilly tracts and widens suddenly when it enters the Terai and the plains. The Mechi eventually joins the
Mahananda.TheTeesta and Jaldhakha form the western and eastern boundaries of the sub-division of Kalimpong. A
number of rivers and tributaries that originate in this sub-division include the Lish which originates at the ridge of
Pabringtar village and flows downwards
receiving the Amlkhola on the western side and
Turungkhola on the east further southwards it is
joined by the Phangkhola and Chunkhola near
the Bagrakote colliery and eventually joins the
Teesta at the Kalagaiti Tea estate.

The Gish is formed by the joining of two small

rivulets, one originating below Labha and the
other below the Chumang reserve forest.
Ramthi and Lethi form the major tributaries of
the river. The Neora originates from the
RechilaChawk just below the Rechiladanda and
joins the Thosumchu at the boundary of
Thosum and Rechila. It then flows southwards
and eventually joins the Teesta. The Relli
originates in Khempong Reserve Forest below
Labha-Algarah and runs along the southern
boundary of Saihur reserve forest after which it
is joined by the Pala and Lolleykhola and
moving southwards it joins the Rani khola.
Murti originates in the Mo block south of
Thosum hills flowing through the reserve forest
and emerging in the Samsing area and
eventually joining the JaldhakaRiver.Along with these, numerous small springs occur which meet to form small rivulets at
the bottom of valleys. The rivers of the study area drain ultimately into the south. The relief of valley floors and river
channels exhibit the youthful stage of evolution characterized by steep ungraded channels, narrow floors and steep valley
sides. A number of tributaries of these rivers, along with many jhoras, form a complicated pattern of drainage over the
myriad of interlocking spurs and ridges, essentially displaying a dendritic pattern.

Instrument used–
The instruments used in the field are- 1.hammer 2. Chisel 3.clinometer and branton compass 4. Lenses 5.magnet 6.
Bruntun compass
1.methodto determine location of map using clinometer:

How to locate yourself in map/toposheet using clinometer/brantoncompus

L1……

How to move ………..

L1 to L2…….

We located ourselves in a map from some known points given in the map.

With the clinometer we measured the bearing value of two different points where we were
present at that moment.
We took two points on the either side of the Neorabridge.

The bearing was……..

310 ͦsouth -–Towards the Neora bridge board.

285 ͦ south -–On the other end of the bridge.

30 meter on the measurement tape was equal to 44 footsteps of mine on the field.

Therefore, 1 footstep = 33/40 = 0.65meter in the map.

In the paper map, 1 cm = 500 meter.

We took the bearing of the sides,joined the points of the two sides of the bridge by a line and
the intersection point of the two lines from either side of the bridge was our present location.

PIC- PAPER MAP IN WHICH WE DETECTED OUR LOCATION USING CLINOMETER

2.METHOD TO DETERMINE THE ATTITUDE OF A PLANE (DIP-STRIKE):

We placed our Clinometer along a plane. The golden colour crown inside the clinometer marks
the value of Dip amount. Then projecting the instrument horizontally we get a point(if the
direction of the plane is same as that of the crown we see the southern needle and if the
direction of the plane is opposite to that of the direction of the crown we will take the reading of
the Northern needle). This reading will give us the dip direction.

And lastly we project the instrument vertically and take the reading of both ends of the
clinometer needle. This will give us the strike of the plane whose difference will always be 180
degree.
Location …slower siwalik … sandstone…plane bed… attitude……

Figure …….

Methodology of field work

A compass clinometer is a must have tool for anyone working in the field of earth science or geological surveying,
mapping or for navigational use. The compass performs basic tasks such as orientation, while the inbuilt clinometers
allow geologists to measure the dip of rock beds or the height of geological and geographical features as well as angles.

Method to determine dip and strike of a plane using clinometer

1. Strike direction
• Set the compass clinometer to East-West by turning the bezel so that the values 90 and 270 intersect the markers on the
compass which are often a pair of fluorescent dashes. This puts the compass clinometer in clinometer mode.

• Hold the clinometer vertically and place it on its long edge on the plane (e.g. a bedding plane).

• Move the clinometer round, on its long edge, keeping it vertical, until the clinometer reading is zero.

• Draw a line on the plane, using chalk in the field. This line is the direction of strike.

• Turn the compass clinometer horizontal, so that it is now in compass mode.

• Point the long axis of the compass along the chalk line representing the direction of strike.

• Record the direction of strike as a 3 digit number. If the directions of strike are 8° and 188°, this is recorded as either
008°or 188°.

2. Angle of dip
• Set the compass clinometer to East-West so that the values 90 and 270 intersect the markers on the compass which are
often a pair of fluorescent dashes.

• Hold the clinometer vertically and place it along its long edge on the plane. Move the clinometer round, on its long edge,
keeping it vertical and in contact with the rock, until the clinometer reaches its maximum reading. This is the true dip
reading and happens when the clinometer is pointing down the plane at 90 degrees to the direction of strike.

• Read off the dip angle by reading off where the arrow intersects the scale in the inside of the bezel. The value will be
between 0 and 90.

• Record the angle of dip as a two digit number.

3. Direction of dip

• The direction of dip will be at a bearing of 90° from the direction of strike.
• It is the direction to which the plane loses height, the direction to which the angle of dip reading was taken.

• It can be recorded as a compass direction e.g. S, W, NW, SE etc

Method to use toposheet

 Every point on a contour line represents the exact same elevation (remember the glass inserted into the mountain).
As a result of this every contour line must eventually close on itself to form an irregular circle (in other words, the
line created by the intersection of the glass with the mountain cannot simply disappear on the backside of the
mountain). Contour lines on the edge of a map do not appear to close on themselves because they run into the
edge of the map, but if you got the adjacent map you would find that, eventually, the contour will close on itself.

 Contour lines can never cross one another. Each line represents a separate elevation, and you can’t have two
different elevations at the same point. The only exception to this rule is if you have an overhanging cliff or cave
where, if you drilled a hole straight down from the upper surface, you would intersect the earth’s surface at two
elevations at the same X,Y coordinate. In this relatively rare case, the contour line representing the lower
elevation is dashed. The only time two contour lines may merge is if there is a vertical cliff (see figure).

 Moving from one contour line to another always indicates a change in elevation. To determine if it is a positive
(uphill) or negative (downhill) change you must look at the index contours on either side (see figure).

 On a hill with a consistent slope, there are always four intermediate contours for every index contour. If there are
more than four index contours it means that there has been a change of slope and one or more contour line has
been duplicated. This is most common when going over the top of a hill or across a valley (see figure).

 The closer contour lines are to one another, the steeper the slope is in the real world. If the contour lines are
evenly spaced it is a constant slope, if they are not evenly spaced the slope changes.

 Contour lines crossing a stream valley will form a "V" shape pointing in the uphill (and upstream) direction.
General rocks types of field and their statigraphicsucession-
A statigraphic column is an representation used is geology and its field to describe the vertical location of rocks unit
in a particular area. It shows a columns of a sequence of sedimentary rocks, with oldest rock at the

Bottom and the youngest rock at the top.

STATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF SOME ROCKS

THIS IS THE ROCK SEQUENCE FOUND IN OUR FIELD AREA -

1. DARJEELING GROUP
2. DALIME DROUP (GORUBATHAN FORMATION)
3. GONDOWANA EQUIVALENT GROUP
4. UPPER SHIWALIKS (MURTI BOULDER)
5. MIDDLE SHIWALIKS (GEABDAL FORMATION)
6. LOWER SHIWALIKS (CHUNABATI FORMATION)
7. QUATERNARY FORMATION

STATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE - A statigraphic column is an representation used is geology and its field to describe the
vertical location of rocks unit in a particular area. It shows a columns of a sequence of sedimentary rocks, with oldest
rock at the

The youngest rock at the top.

ROCKS FORMATION DESCRIPTION

SCHIST , NEIST TYPES OF ROCKS AND

MINERAL LIKE QUARTZ , AMETHYST ARE
DALIME GROUP GORUBATHAN FORMATION FOUND
GONDOWANA GONDOWANA SEDIMENTS
EQUIVALENT GROUP
CHARCOAL TYPES OF ROCKS RICH IN
IRON ORE MANGANESE, COPPER LEAD
GOLD

UPPER SHIWALIKS
MURTI BOULDER

CRUDELY BEDDED, PEEBBLE BOULDER

CONGLOMERATE , PEBBLE
MIDDLE SHIWALIKS SANDSTONE
GEABDAL FORMATION

MEDIUM TO COARSE GRAINED SAND

STONE, LOCAL PEBBLY BEDS,
MUDSTONE

LOWER SHIWALIKS
CHUNABATI FORMATON

FINE TO MEDIUM GRAINED SAQND

STONE SILSTONE, GREY TO GREENISH
QUATERNARY
QUATERNARY SEDIMENTS GERY MUDSTONE
FORMATION

PITY CLAY,
Description of Rocks and Sediments
1. Quarternary Sediments:-

The alluvium which is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain belongs to this era. It was eroded from the Himalayas
by the rivers and the monsoons. These alluvial deposits consist of clay, loam, silt etc. and are divided into the
older alluvium and the newer alluvium. The older alluvium is called Bhangar and is present in the ground above
the flood level of the rivers. Khaddar or newer alluvium is confined to the river channels and their flood plains.
This region has some of the most fertile soil found in the country as new silt is continually laid down by the
rivers every year.

Pic:- layers of sedimentary bedding

pic: pity clay

2. Sedimentary rocks:-
a. Shiwalik range:- The Shivalik Group is more recent and was formed in the period 15 million
years to about 800,000 years ago. Rocks were formed out of the eroded rock material that was
deposited into the lake like basin created by the Indian plate striking against the Tibetan
plateau. There were differences in the type of material deposited over the geological ages
leading to the Shivalik Group rocks being divided into 3 sub-groups:
a) The Lower Shivalik Group - The sedimentary rocks in this formation are characterized by the
 grey sandstone, siltstone and red mudstone. The sandstone is hard and resistant to erosion.

Pic: layers of sedimentary bedding

b) The Middle Shivalik Group- It includes sandstone of coarser material and grey-black

mudstone and  medium grained bright grey sandstone.

Pic:- mottling of rocks

b. Gondowana rocks:- It is widely accepted that Gondwana Rocks are of fluviatile origin, that
is, these have been deposited by streams and rivers in the so called Gondwana basin. The basin
itself is thought to have been of the nature of a gradually sinking broad trough where
deposition of the sediments was accompanied by the subsidence of the basin (under the load)
so that huge accumulations were possible in due course of time. This mode of origin is
 confirmed by their fossil
content as well as their
geotectonic (structural)
relations with other rocks in
the area of occurrence.

Pic:- Gondowana Rocks

3. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:-

a. Schistosity:- Schistosity, mode of foliation that occurs in certain metamorphic rocks appearing as
an anastomosing to smooth disjunction foliation or as a coarse continuous foliation. It provides a strong
cleavage to the rock.
i. Mica shcist:-a metamorphic rock containing quartz and mica which resembles slate in being
easily split
ii. Chlorite schist:- a metamorphic rock containing chlorite

b. Phyllite:- Phyllite is a type of foliated metamorphic rock created from slate that is further
metamorphosed so that very fine grained white mica achieves a preferred orientation. It is the
foliation intermediate between fine and coarse continuous foliation
c. Quartzite:- Quartzite is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartz
sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related
to tectonic compression within orogenic belts.

d. Gneissosity:- In a metamorphic rock, commonly gneiss, the coarse, textural lineation or banding
of the constituent minerals into alternating silicic and mafic layers. Synonym of  gneissosity.
Special experiment encountered during the field
Experiment to determine the directional flow of the river
Bar Start

X Y
1 26.5 23.689

2 29.287 22.245

3 15.147 18.665

4 22.307 21.331
BF1

X Y
1 15 10.137

2 9.642 16.257

3 9.294 7.376

4 14.515 9.15

5 3.696 4.301

6 12.561 9.702

7 12.542 6.397
 8 8.36 6.638

9 9.11 7.963

10 7.147 6.963

11 14.67 4.978

BF2

X Y
1 20.5 12.56

2 15.183 10.235

3 12.866 9.513

4 14.703 7.228

5 10.827 7.986

6 12.69 7.103

7 16.449 10.631
 8 8.624 11.702

9 14.397 3.383

10 5.883 4.265

BF3

X Y
1 19.5 10.855

2 5.373 3.636

3 11.365 6.307

4 7.371 6.563

5 8.942 6.935

6 10.194 7.526

7 5.097 6.348

8 8.163 7.355

9 6.972 3.912
 10 8.173 7.545

BAR MIDDLE 1

X Y
11.29
1 13.5 4

2 9.439 7.102

3 6.742 6.806

4 9.696 6.937

14.35
5 11.904 9

6 6.083 5.715

7 5.302 5.594

8 5.051 5

9 6.474 6.656
 10 4.112 3.041

BAR
MID
DLE 2

X Y
1 9.5 5.345

2 8.811 4.979

3 6.365 6.718

4 10.92 5.165

5 5.342 5.085

6 5.902 4.806

7 6.554 4.635
 8 6.482 5.327

9 4.093 3.915

10 4.635 5.196

BAR
END

X Y
1 12.956 9.808
2 7.454 4.457
3 9.097 6.936
4 7.841 5.761
5 7.712 6.801
6 3.266 4.689

From the experiment we can conclude that the big boulders are concentrated in bar start. As we move from bat start to bar
end the variation of the rocks reduces in size.
 CONCLUSION
Thus as a conclusion of five days geological tour to the northern Himalayas and sikim site, we
realised the structural geology has wide scope in geological field and is very much important in
both theroitical and practical point of view. Since there are various geological features,
different activities like slope failure, landslides, and formed with different types of rocks, river
morphologies and different types of rocks formation. It has proved that it is one of the best
sites for the geological studies and we were able to explore any geologically important place to
totally is impossible.

Now, we have knowledge to identify and cause measure about such field.
We are now able to identify different types of rocks weather sedimentary, metamorphic or
igneous and different types of mass movement activities. Also, this geological tour gave the
knowledge about morphology of river channel such as external appearance of river channel,
their structures like delta , side bar or point bar. Island, river valleys and nature of river etc.
The gain knowledge of rock mass rating and determining the quality,strength and class of the
rock at the site.

In short this visit gave us lots of ideas regarding geological works and geology. We also gained
knowledge to analyze the geological significance of various landforms. So the visit was fruitful.