Language Teaching (2021), 1–7

doi:10.1017/S0261444821000227

C H R I S TO P H E R B R U M F I T E S S AY P R I Z E 20 2 0
RUNNER-UP

How to maximize language learners’ career readiness

Russell Simonsen
Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
E-mail: [email protected]

Ensuring that students are ‘career-ready’ has become a common goal in language education over the
past decade. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) explains that lan-
guage learning sequences must be carefully developed ‘so that students are able to reach the Advanced
level of Proficiency, ‘career-ready’ preparation’ (ACTFL, 2020, para. 1). Because one of students’ main
educational motivations is to prepare for a career, it makes sense that ACTFL and language programs
would want to promote the idea that advanced language abilities can increase employability. Although
career-ready preparation is a worthy goal, it is often discussed in vague terms without a clear path
toward achieving it. In light of recent data from employers regarding their linguistic needs, it is
time to reassess the conceptualization of career readiness in language education in order to ensure
that we provide students with skills and knowledge that will enhance their employability.
In this essay, I will review key findings from several different reports regarding the jobs that have a
high demand for bilinguals and the skills that bilingual employees might be expected to possess. Two
key findings are that: (1) employers in the finance/business and healthcare sectors have the highest
demand for bilingual workers, and (2) language mediation (e.g., translation/interpreting) is a skill
that is desired across the job market and one that employers often have to outsource due to a lack
of in-house ability. These findings beg the question: As currently structured, are language programs
adequately preparing students for the job market? I argue that the answer is often ‘no’, especially
in the US, because of the marginalized status of language for specific purposes (LSP) classes (e.g.,
Spanish for Business) and the absence of national standards for language mediation. Language pro-
grams in the US can take concrete steps to remedy this situation, which include thoroughly integrating
language mediation into curricula, as in the European model (Council of Europe, 2018), and increas-
ing the prevalence of LSP classes.

Defining career readiness

The term ‘career readiness’ has grown in popularity in US education over the past decade, due in large
part to the establishment of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) – a shared set of kindergarten
through 12th grade (K–12) educational standards that most States agreed to develop and adopt. The
concept of career readiness was a fundamental consideration in the creation of the CCSS, as explained
as follows: ‘The CCSS are anchored by empirical evidence of what employers and educators actually
demand of prospective employees and students. Indeed, standards were selected only when the best
available evidence indicated that their mastery was needed for college and career readiness’ (US
Department of Education, 2013, p. 5).
Career readiness has subsequently been integrated as a goal at the university level. For example, the
University of Minnesota lists the core competencies of career readiness that should be acquired as part
of a liberal arts education: analytical and critical thinking, applied problem solving, ethical reasoning
and decision making, innovation and creativity, oral and written communication, teamwork and lead-
ership, engaging diversity, active citizenship and community engagement, and digital literacy
(University of Minnesota, 2020). These core competencies are broad enough that they can be applied
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

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 2 Russell Simonsen

to virtually any subject within the liberal arts, including language learning. In fact, all of the skills listed
above are supported either explicitly or implicitly in the most recent K–university world language stan-
dards in the US, the World-Readiness Standards (WRS; The National Standards Collaborative Board
[NSCB], 2015). While essential, these competencies are too general in that they do not fully exploit the
special talents of language students. In the next section, career readiness will be discussed in terms of
the specific skills that employers seek in multilingual employees, with a focus on language mediation
(e.g., translation/interpreting). The subsequent section will explain how language mediation is largely
absent from the WRS. This contrasts with the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR;
Council of Europe, 2018), which does place significant emphasis on the development of mediation.

Job demand, employers’ needs, and how they relate to career readiness
Employers who are seeking to hire bilingual employees often desire specific skills in addition to the
general competencies listed in the previous section. First, as expected, employers want bilingual
employees to be highly proficient in two languages. In the US, this is usually English and an additional
language. Beyond advanced language proficiency, the specific language skills and knowledge required
by employees vary depending on the job. Therefore, the first question we must ask is, ‘Who are the
employers and what are the jobs?’
Based on a report from New American Economy (2017) that tracked millions of job postings
between 2010–2015, the three employers that had the highest demand for bilinguals specialized in
banking, tax preparation, and healthcare: Bank of America, H&R Block, and Humana. The majority
of job listings posted by Bank of America were for sales agents and financial managers. H&R Block
most frequently sought tax preparers and receptionists/information clerks. Humana most frequently
sought registered nurses and medical assistants. To offer a more concrete picture of the demand for
bilinguals, more than one-third of the Bank of America’s job postings in 2015 targeted bilinguals.
In the case of Humana, one-fourth of online posts were for bilinguals, including 40% of advertise-
ments for registered nurses.
The majority of the jobs with high demand for bilingualism mentioned above have the following in
common: they require skills and knowledge that are most directly targeted in academic programs related
to business and healthcare. For instance, being a financial manager usually requires a bachelor’s degree in
business administration, finance, economics, or accounting. A nurse requires a nursing degree, and med-
ical assistants are usually expected to obtain national credentialing (e.g., Certified Medical Assistant). Of
note is that the job outlook is particularly rosy for several of these careers. Financial manager and med-
ical assistant are categorized as jobs with ‘much faster than average’ projected growth rates – 15% and
19% between 2019–2029, respectively (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). Despite this growing need in
the job market, the development of language skills and content knowledge that are specific to business
and healthcare often occurs only peripherally in language programs, in LSP courses that students take as
optional electives (Doyle, 2017), which will be discussed later.

Specific language skills needed by employers

The specific language skills required for many careers can be quite different from the ones targeted in
language classes in which general proficiency is the primary goal. The Language Flagship, which is
part of the US Department of Defense, set out to understand the language skills that were needed
in a diverse cross-section of the labor force, including hotel and travel, food services, aviation,
waste and water management, law firms, banking, engineering and industrial development, automo-
bile industry, and high technology. The Language Flagship found that the majority of businesses that
have international dealings ‘need language skills for translation, interpretation, and localization of pro-
ducts and services’ (Duggan, 2009, p. 7). And, when businesses were lacking these crucial skills, it was
considered a significant barrier to international expansion.
Because two-thirds of companies lack the necessary in-house language skills to be able to inde-
pendently manage their crosslinguistic communications, they rely on third-party language services
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 Language Teaching 3

(e.g., a translation/interpreting company; ACTFL, 2019). However, many employers are not keen on
utilizing such services for several reasons. One reason is that outside language experts do not always
have extensive knowledge of the technology and processes, products, or relationships between busi-
nesses and clients (Duggan, 2009). These shortcomings can lead to misunderstandings, and negatively
affect profits. For example, it is estimated that two billion dollars are lost each year in the US economy
due to miscommunication and cultural misunderstandings (New American Economy, 2017). Another
reason that some businesses dislike using third-party language services is the high cost. One business
leader summarized an experience with a translation company in the following way: ‘nothing worked
terribly well, and it was all very expensive’ (Duggan, 2009, p. 7).
For the foreseeable future, because employers cannot meet their language needs with in-house tal-
ent, the fields of translation and interpreting are expected to thrive. In fact, researchers at the
University of California San Diego identified ‘interpreters and translators’ as the number one emerging
career for US college graduates in 2017, and they predicted that this profession would grow by 31%
between 2016 and 2026 (Shapiro et al., 2017). While translation and interpreting services are in
high demand and are fundamental to global communication, I argue that language programs in the
US, on the whole, do not adequately prepare enough students for careers that require these skills.

Career readiness within world language education

The curricular offerings of language programs are not always balanced in a way that prioritizes the
skills and knowledge needed for some of the most common careers. For instance, LSP courses such
as Spanish for Business or Spanish for Healthcare are often provided as stand-alone electives that
do not have an articulated sequence even though business and healthcare are two of the sectors
with the highest demand for bilinguals (New American Economy, 2017). Doyle (2017) explains
that LSP courses are still ‘coming of age’ and do not yet have the ‘curricular importance and excep-
tionalism claimed traditionally by other emphases, such as literary studies’ (p. 96). Businesses also
appear to have noticed the dominance of literary studies in language departments and have expressed
a desire for change. For example, when the Language Flagship asked US companies how universities
could better prepare students with language and cultural skills for the workforce, one of their sugges-
tions was ‘Have students certified for their language skills at the university level without having to be
literature majors’ (Duggan, 2009, p. 10). Although employers are not experts in curriculum design,
their perspective is certainly relevant when discussing career readiness given that students’ education
is a vital part of career preparation. What is more, many businesses are seeking to develop stronger ties
with educational institutions. In a recent survey, 86% of employers wanted improved outreach from
universities (Daniel et al., 2014), so there are assuredly many connections to be made between busi-
nesses and language programs in the future.
In addition to expanding LSP course offerings, it is also important to target the development of
language skills that many employers need but are often underdeveloped in language programs. The
most common language skill that employers lack and therefore have to outsource, is translation
(ACTFL, 2019). Even if students plan to use their languages locally and for community engagement,
the ability to mediate between languages will likely still be important. Colina and Lafford (2017) report
that translation and interpreting are two of the most common tasks that second language (L2) Spanish
learners complete when they are placed with local businesses and organizations through internships or
service-learning projects in the US. Therefore, written and spoken language mediation should be con-
sidered a versatile skill useful in a wide array of careers – not just careers in competitive, for-profit
industries.

Messaging from language organizations

Language organizations in the US have attempted to highlight the benefits of language learning in
terms of career preparation. However, career readiness is sometimes discussed in a vague way,
which does not lead to a clear understanding of how learning a language prepares students for a career.
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 4 Russell Simonsen

Here is one example from the WRS: ‘Learners who add another language and culture to their prep-
aration are not only college- and career-ready, but are also ‘world-ready’—that is, they bring additional
knowledge, skills, and dispositions to add to their resume for entering postsecondary study or a career’
(NSCB, 2015, p. 16). This quote suggests that all learners of additional languages and cultures are
career-ready, but this can be misleading, as will be discussed in the next paragraph. Another vague
reference to career readiness can be found in ACTFL’s (2020) discussion of articulated sequences
in language learning. ACTFL states that language learning sequences ‘must be well-articulated from
elementary schools through post-secondary programs, so that students are able to reach the
Advanced level of Proficiency, “career-ready” preparation’ (para. 1). Based on this statement, educa-
tors might get the impression that advanced proficiency is a sufficient threshold for career readiness.
However, this is not always the case.
Learning a second language and attaining advanced proficiency should be considered necessary –
but not always sufficient – for career readiness. For example, in order to effectively translate or inter-
pret, which are two commonly needed language skills in the workforce (ACTFL, 2019; Colina &
Lafford, 2017), language learners need specialized training. The American Translators Association
(2011) explains why advanced speakers are not necessarily equipped with these abilities: ‘bilinguals
may speak two languages fluently, but … they are not necessarily good at moving information between
the two languages, especially when the pressure is on’ (p. 7). An international public health crisis such
as the COVID-19 pandemic is an example of a high-pressure context in which ‘clear and precise com-
munication’ is vital for ‘the health and security of every nation’ (British Academy et al., 2020, p. 1).
Bilingual language experts working in such a context should not only have advanced proficiency,
but also training in translation/interpreting in order to ensure seamless communication between gov-
ernments, researchers, and healthcare workers.
Colomer (2010) documented an additional context in which advanced proficiency does not guar-
antee successful communication in the workplace. She found that many K–12 Spanish teachers strug-
gle when they are called upon (usually inappropriately) to serve as interpreters in communities with
emerging Latino populations in the US. Although all of the teachers in Colomer’s study had an
advanced-low proficiency or higher on the ACFTL scale, several mentioned that their college prepar-
ation and the classroom-specific language that they were accustomed to did not prepare them for
interpreting encounters with students’ Spanish-speaking parents. In other words, effective language
mediation is not a skill that typically emerges naturally from having advanced proficiency in both a
first language (L1) and L2. Due to the fact that bilinguals are often expected to mediate language
as part of their job (Colina & Lafford, 2017; Colomer, 2010), language organizations should emphasize
that career-ready preparation often requires more than general advanced proficiency.
In the WRS, there is very little reference to language mediation, and it is not incorporated into any of
the ‘5 Cs’: Communication, Culture, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities. Although the
Comparisons standard calls on students to make observations about the similarities and differences
between their L1 and L2, this is not the same as learning to move between the two languages, as men-
tioned above (American Translators Association, 2011). The lack of focus on language mediation in the
WRS may be a result of major shifts that took place in language education in the previous century.
Colina and Lafford (2017) explain that the emphasis on translation largely fell out of favor in language
classrooms in the twentieth century due to the rejection of the grammar translation method and the rise
of communicative methods that encouraged teachers to use the L1 as little as possible. As Cook (2007)
points out, advocating for little-to-no use of an L1 is an implicit rejection of translation and interpreting.
In addition to translation being largely excluded from the WRS, it is framed as a source of distortion
in a discussion of ‘authentic materials’, which are described as multimedia and print materials ‘prepared
in the target language by and for native speakers’ (NSCB, 2015, p. 86). The authors comment that
‘[t]hese materials – whether creative works, documentaries, or online information – provide unique per-
spectives not DISTORTED BY TRANSLATION’ (NSCB, 2015, p. 86; emphasis my own). This implies that trans-
lation has an undesirable, distorting effect on the perspectives expressed in materials. Nevertheless, the
degree to which translation ‘distorts’ perspectives is a linguistic and philosophical question, and by and
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 Language Teaching 5

large there are few perspectives that cannot be expressed in a SIMILAR way across languages. In fact, if an
aspiring translator were to express a perspective from a Spanish text in a significantly different way in an
English translation, this would change the meaning in most cases, and would contribute to a failing score
on a translation exam. To minimize any distortions, translators rely on their ‘knowledge of the social,
contextual and experiential grounds of meaning in the two languages and cultures that they broker’
(Jaffe, 1999, p. 48). This is precisely the knowledge that students could develop in an articulated language
learning sequence that included language mediation as an essential component of the curriculum.
In contrast to the WRS, the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2018) highlights the importance of language
mediation by including it as one of the elements of plurilingual competence. Mediation is defined as
the act of making ‘communication possible between persons who are unable, for whatever reason, to
communicate with each other directly’ (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 33), and it encompasses both writ-
ten and oral communication. This definition is broad enough to describe the passing of information
across different languages and within the same language. Although crosslinguistic mediation is more
common, mediation is sometimes necessary among speakers of the same language due to differences
in dialect, register, or even culture. For example, a parent who simplifies a complex medical diagnosis
from a doctor so that a child can understand it is performing mediation within a single language.
Alternatively, an interpreter who conveys a diagnosis from an English-speaking doctor to a
Spanish-speaking patient is performing crosslinguistic mediation. In the CEFR, mediation is given
an unambiguously important status, which is reflected by its inclusion as one of the four modes of
communication, alongside reception, production, and interaction. Additionally, a full range of descrip-
tor scales for this ability was recently developed (A1 to C2 proficiencies). Given that language medi-
ation is a versatile ability that is crucial in many different lines of work, the CEFR is leading the way in
the campaign to equip students with practical skills for future careers.

Moving forward
One way for language programs to enhance students’ career readiness would be to employ at least one
LSP specialist who could develop a strong curriculum in this area. However, making changes to course
offerings and personnel may be a challenging, long-term process. If LSP courses gain more promin-
ence in language departments, as imagined by Doyle (2017), there may need to be a reduction of
classes in the current dominant areas of literary and cultural studies. This could result in a power
struggle since specialists in these dominant areas make up 79% of tenure-line faculty in Spanish
departments, and 92% in French departments, at least at large research institutions (VanPatten,
2015). Therefore, although the expansion of LSP courses is an exciting possibility, it may require sus-
tained advocacy at the departmental and institutional level in order for it to become a reality.
If expanding LSP options is not immediately achievable, educators can still advocate for the inclu-
sion of more language mediation in the curriculum, because this skill is indispensable in bilingual stu-
dents’ career preparation and can be incorporated into virtually any course. While the development of
language mediation has traditionally been reserved for LSP courses, scholars have recently called for it
to become the ‘fifth skill’, complementing reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Colina & Lafford,
2017; Cook, 2007). What is more, there is evidence of ‘widespread support on the ground for the use of
[translation in language teaching] in some form’ (Kelly & Bruen, 2015, p. 150). Moving forward, lan-
guage mediation ought to be incorporated explicitly into state and national standards in the US with
an articulated sequence of development, following the example set by the CEFR. We cannot leave the
instruction of this skill to LSP courses, such as Spanish for Translation or Spanish for Healthcare. This
is because LSP programs are still underdeveloped at most universities (Doyle, 2017), and also because
language mediation is too important for students to develop minimally and peripherally.

An exemplary language program

On a final note, it may be helpful to highlight a specific institution that offers language students the
career-ready preparation that has been promoted in this paper. One example is the University of Texas
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 6 Russell Simonsen

at Arlington, which has a comprehensive Spanish language program with several different degree
options, many of which are career focused. For students who want a more traditional major with a
balanced mix of language, literature, and culture, the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) in Spanish for Global
Competence would be most appropriate. If, however, students plan to develop language mediation
as a professional skill, a B.A. or minor in Spanish Translation and Interpreting would serve them
well. In yet a different scenario, imagine that a student wants to study Spanish in conjunction with
another career focus, such as business. This student might opt for a Business Administration degree
with a dual concentration in International Business and Spanish, which is offered by the College of
Business Administration in cooperation with the Spanish language program. For a student pursuing
a career in healthcare or other human services, a minor in Spanish for Global Health is also available.
Finally, students who are interested in using Spanish in the non-profit sector can participate in an
internship with a focus on service. The Spanish language program at the University of Texas at
Arlington stands out due to its unequivocal commitment to career readiness.

Conclusion
Because career readiness is a desired outcome at an increasing number of academic institutions, it is in
language educators’ best interest to be able to articulate how they can uniquely contribute to this out-
come. With this is mind, the most persuasive argument in support of language learning might not
center around the general competencies or ‘soft skills’ that students develop, such as critical thinking,
collaboration, empathy, and creativity. The reason is that these skills are also developed in many other
areas of study, such as anthropology, social work, and philosophy, to name a few. On the other hand,
language mediation and career-specific linguistic and cultural knowledge tend to be learned primarily
in language classes, and these unique contributions align well with the needs of employers, as laid out
in this paper. To ensure that language learning continues to stand out in terms of its contribution to
career readiness, language mediation should be integrated into language standards in the US, following
the CEFR, and LSP course offerings should be expanded according to students’ and employers’ needs.

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Russell Simonsen (Ph.D., University of Minnesota) is an assistant professor of Spanish at Miami University. His research at
the intersection of second language acquisition and psycholinguistics examines how second language learners process sen-
tences in real time, with a particular focus on syntactic and semantic factors. Additionally, he is a certified healthcare inter-
preter (Spanish/English) and is currently interested in the topics of language for specific purposes and career readiness in the
context of second language learning.

Cite this article: Simonsen, R. (2021). How to maximize language learners’ career readiness. Language Teaching 1–7. https://
doi.org/10.1017/S0261444821000227

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