Fundamentals of Operating Systems

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Question – 1 Explain various types of Operating Systems
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Operating systems can be categorized into four major types:
1. Real-time,
2. Single-user/single-tasking,
3. Single-user/multitasking, and
4. Multi-user /Multitasking
1. Real-Time Operating Systems
A real-time operating system is a very fast, relatively small OS. Real-time
OSs are often also Embedded Oss, when they are built into the circuitry of a
device and are not loaded from a disk drive.
A real-time operating system is needed to run real-time applications; it may
support multiple simultaneous tasks, or it may only support single-tasking. That
is, if a real-time application is not supported by real-time OS and if it is running
on normal OS; it may not give quick response to user in time-critical
applications.
A real-time application is an application that responds to certain inputs
extremely quickly – thousandths or millionths of a second (milliseconds or
microseconds, respectively). Real-time applications are needed to run medical
diagnostics equipment, life-support systems, and scientific & industrial
instruments/machinery.
A common example of an RTOS is an HDTV (High-definition
television) receiver and display. It needs to read a digital signal, decode it and
display it as the data comes in. Any delay would be noticeable as jerky or
pixelated video and/or garbled audio.
Some of the best known, most widely deployed, real-time operating systems
are: LynxOS, OSE, QNX, RTLinux, VxWorks, Windows CE, and FreeRTOS.
2. Single-User/Single-Tasking Operating Systems
An operating system that allows a single user to perform just one task at a time
is called single-user/single-tasking operating system. To a user, a “task” is
a function such as printing a document, writing a file to disk, editing a file, or
downloading a file from a network server. To the operating system, a task is a
process. A small and simple OS can only manage a single task at a time. The
examples of single-tasking OS are MS-DOS (used in PC) and Palm OS (used
in Palm handheld computers).
Although such operating systems are limited by this characteristic, there is still
a use for them, because they take up very little space on disk or in memory
when they are running and do not require a powerful and expensive computer.
Advantages of SU-ST-OS: Simple, need little space and processing power
Disadvantage of SU-ST-OS: Limited capacity, only one task can be performed
at a time.

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3. Single-User/Multitasking Operating Systems

A single-user/multitasking operating system is one that allows a single user
to perform two or more functions at once. The most commonly used personal
computers usually run such OSs, including Microsoft Windows and the
Macintosh Operating System.
The multitasking features of these OSs have greatly increased the productivity
of people in a large variety of jobs because they can accomplish more in a
shorter period of time. For instance, to an office worker, it is important to be
able to send a large document to a printer and be able to do other work on his
or her computer while it is being printed. It is also helpful for many types of
workers to be able to have two or more programs open, to share the data
between the two programs, and to be able to instantly switch between the two
programs.
A disadvantage of a single-user/multitasking operating system is the increased
size and complexity it needs to support multitasking and the related features
such as a graphical user interface, and the ability to share data between two or
more open programs.
Advantage: Increased Productivity
Disadvantage: Increased Space and Processing Requirement, Complexity

4. Multi-User/Multitasking Operating Systems

A multi-user/multitasking operating system is an operating system that

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allows multiple users to use programs that are simultaneously running on a

single network server, called a terminal server.
This is not at all the same as connecting to a network server for the sake of
accessing files and printers. In case of Network Server, when a computer is
connected to a server to access document files to edit, the client computer
performs the processing work locally. Not so with a multi-user OS, which gives
each user a complete environment, called a user session, on the server. Each
user’s applications run within their user session on the server separate from all
other user sessions. The software that makes this possible is called a terminal
client.
In a multi-user/multitasking operating system environment, all or most of the
computing occurs at the server. Examples of multi-user OSs include UNIX,
VMS (Virtual Memory Storage), and mainframe operating systems such as
MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage).
The advantage of these operating systems is that they can be managed by
simply making changes to one server, rather than to many desktop computers.
They also allow the user to work with applications that require a more powerful
computer than the user needs on the desktop to run the client. A disadvantage
is that if the network connection to the server is broken, the user cannot do any
work in the applications on the server.

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Question – 2 Write a note on User Interface

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User Interface
When you work on a computer, you see and use a set of items on the screen.
Taken together, these items are called the user interface.
The two most common types of user interfaces are graphical and command line.
That is:
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI) and
2. Command Line Interface (CLI)

1. Graphical User Interfaces

Most current operating systems, including all versions of Windows, the

Macintosh operating system, OS/2, and some versions of UNIX and Linux,
provide a graphical user interface (GUI). Graphical user interfaces are so called
because you use a mouse (or some other pointing device) to work with
graphical objects such as windows, menus, icons, buttons, and other tools.
These graphical tools represent different types of commands; the GUI enables
you to issue commands to the computer by using visual objects instead of
typing commands. This is one of the key advantages of a graphical user
interface; it frees you from memorizing and typing text commands.
Windows is one of several GUIs that use the desktop metaphor in which the
background of the GUI is said to be a desktop on which you have your
graphical tools and within which you can store your work. Figure shows the
Windows XP desktop. The small pictures on the desktop – called shortcuts –
represent links to resources on the PC or network. Although shortcuts are often
called icons, an icon actually is only the tiny graphic that represents an object,
such as programs, folders, files, printers, and shortcuts. Using your mouse or
other pointing device, you can move the pointer (a small graphic that moves in
reaction to mouse movements) and choose (or activate) a shortcut, telling
Windows you want to use the resource that the shortcut represents. For
example, you can choose the Microsoft Word shortcut to launch that program.
The items that appear on the desktop depend on the contents of the computer’s
disks, the resources it can access, and the user’s preferences; therefore, any
two windows desktops can look different.

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Certain elements always appear on the Windows desktop. the taskbar appears
at the bottom of the Windows desktop; it is used to launch and manage
programs. The Start button is a permanent feature of the taskbar; click it to
open the Start menu. The Start menu contains shortcuts for launching
programs and opening folders on a computer. Shortcuts can be added to the
desktop, the Start menu, and other areas. When you start a program in
Windows, a button representing it appears on the taskbar.

You also can launch programs by clicking icons on the Quick Launch bar, a
special section at the left end of the taskbar where you can add icons for the
purpose of quickly starting programs. Once you start a program, a button
appears on the taskbar. When you have several programs on the desktop, one
way in which you can switch between them is to click the program’s button on
the taskbar.

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When you right-click an object in Windows, a small menu usually appears

containing the most common commands associated with that object.
Depending on the version of Windows you are using, and whether you are using
a specific application, this type of menu may be called a shortcut menu or a
context menu. Either way, its function is the same: to provide quick access to
commonly used commands related to the item you have right-clicked. Figure
shows the shortcut menu that appears when you right-click the desktop in
Windows XP Professional.

When you launch a program, it is loaded into memory and begins to run. A
running program may take up the whole screen, it may appear in a rectangular
frame called a windows, or it may appear only as a shortcut on the taskbar.

You access all the resources on your computer through windows. For example,
you can view the contents of a disk in a window, run a program and edit a
document in a window, view a Web page in a window, or change system
settings in a window. A different window appears for each resource you want
to use. Figure shows Microsoft Visio running in a window. Some menus and
buttons, such as the ones shown here, appear in nearly every window you
open. In the Windows GUI, programs share many of the same features, so you
see a familiar interface no matter what program you are using. Among the
common GUI features are the title bar, menu bar, toolbars, scroll bars, and
various buttons. The title bar identifies the windows’ contents and it also
contains the Minimize, Restore, and Close buttons, which let you hide the
window, resize it, or close it altogether. The menu bar provides lists of
commands and options for this specific program. Toolbars contain buttons that
let you issue commands quickly. Scroll bars let you view parts of the program
or file that do not fit in the window.

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A graphical operating system lets you have multiple programs and resources
running at the same time, but you can work in only one window at a time. The
window that is currently in use is called the active window; its title bar (or
Application Icon) appears in a deeper color shade than that of other visible open
windows, and its taskbar button appears highlighted or “pressed in.” Unless all
open windows are arranged side by side, the active window will appear on top
of any inactive windows. You must select the window you want to use before
you can access its contents. The process of moving from one open window to
another is called task switching. You can either click an open window to
activate it or click an open program’s taskbar button to activate its window.
Microsoft Word is the active program and Microsoft Visio is in the background.
Its title bar is lighter in color, and its taskbar button is not highlighted or pressed
in.

You initiate many tasks by clicking icons and toolbar buttons, but you also can
perform tasks by choosing commands from lists called menus. In most program
windows, you open menus from a horizontal list called the menu bar. As shown
in Figure many programs feature a File menu, which typically contains
commands for opening, closing, saving, and printing files. To execute or run

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one of the menu commands, you click it. In many cases, you can issue menu
commands by using keyboard shortcuts instead of the mouse.

Dialog boxes are special-purpose windows that appear when the OS or

application needs to give you some status and possible choice of actions or you
need to tell a program (or the operating system) what to do next. A dialog box
is so named because it conducts a “dialog” with you as it seeks the information
it needs to perform a task. A dialog box can even have more than one page, in
which case the pages are made available through tabs and look like a stack of
tabbed pages. Figure shows a dialog box from Microsoft Word and describes
some of the most common dialog box features.

2. Command-Line Interfaces
Some older operating systems (such as MS-DOS) and some current versions
of UNIX and Linux feature a command-line interface, which uses typewritten

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commands – rather than graphical objects – to execute tasks.

A command-line interface displays in character mode – using only equal-sized
alphanumeric and other simple symbols. Users interact with a command-line
interface by typing strings of characters at a prompt on the screen.
In DOS, the prompt usually includes the identification for the active disk drive
(a letter followed by a colon), a backslash (\), and a greater-than symbol (>), as
in C:\>.

As much as people prefer to work in a GUI, a command-line interface gives you

a quick way to enter commands, and even now Windows has an optional
command-line interface, called the Command Prompt. This command prompt,
however, is not DOS, and is most often used by administrators to run non-GUI
programs for managing and troubleshooting Windows. In fact, any program that
can be run in Windows can be launched from here, opening its own GUI
window, if necessary.

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Question – 3 Explain UNIX with its features
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Overview of UNIX
Like DOS and Windows, there’s another operating system called UNIX. It arrived
earlier than the other two, and stayed back late enough to give us the Internet.
UNIX is a giant Operating System, and is way ahead of them in sheer power. It has
practically everything an operating system should have, and several features which
other operating systems never had. Its richness and elegance go beyond the
commands and tools that constitute it, while simplicity permeates the entire system.
It runs on practically every hardware and provided inspiration to the Open Source
movement.
You interact with a UNIX system through a command interpreter called the shell.
Key in a word, and the shell interprets it as a command to be executed. A command
may already exist on the system as one of several hundred native tools or it could
be one written by you. However, the power of UNIX lies in combining these
commands in the same way the English Language lets you combine words to
generate a meaningful idea.
Features of UNIX
UNIX is an Operating System, so it has all the features an operating system is
expected to have. However, UNIX also looks at a few things differently and
possesses features unique to itself. The major features of this operating system
are as per following:
A Multiuser System: UNIX is a multiprogramming system. It permits multiple
programs to run and complete for the attention of the CPU.
A Mulitasking System: A single user can also run multiple tasks concurrently.
UNIX is a Mulitasking System.
The Building-Block Approach: The designers never attempted to pack too many
features into a few tools. Instead, they felt “small is beautiful”, and developed a few
hundred commands each of which performed one simple job only.
The UNIX Toolkit: To properly exploit the power of UNIX, you need to use the host
of applications that are shipped with every UNIX system. These applications are
quite diverse in scope. These are general purpose tools, text manipulation utilities
(called filters), compilers and interpreters, networked applications and system
administration. You’ll also have a choice of shells.
Pattern Matching: UNIX features very sophisticated pattern matching features.
The * (known as a metacharacter) is a special character used by the system to
indicate that it can match a number of filenames. UNIX elaborate pattern matching
schemes that use several characters from this metacharacter set.

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Programming facility: The UNIX shell is also a programming language; it was

designed for a programmer, not a casual end user. It has all the necessary
ingredients, like control structures, loops and variables, that establish it as a
powerful programming language in its own right.

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Question – 4 Explain following in detail
a) Windows XP
b) Windows 2000 server
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Windows XP
Windows XP, released in October 2001, is the latest in the Windows suite of PC
operating system families. The desktop has a more three-dimensional look, with
rounded corners and more shading. It also offers some brighter color choices.
Windows XP is available in several different products: Windows XP Professional,
Windows XP Home, Windows XP Media Center Edition, and Windows XP Embedded.
Microsoft also created 64-bit Windows XP for use with AMD’s Opteron and Athlon 64
CPUs. With Windows XP, Microsoft consolidated its consumer-grade and enterprise
desktop operating systems into one environment. For home users, this means added
security and an operating system that is far less likely to stall or crash than Windows
9x. Here are some of the features that have been upgraded in Windows XP:
Digital Media Support - Through the use of Windows Media Player 9, users of XP
can take advantage of digital broadcast support, as well as video and audio rendering
for multimedia projects.
Advanced Networking and Communications - Windows XP takes advantage of
universal Plug and Play support, which enables the PC to find and use hardware
connected via a network, without forcing the user to configure the system or install
drivers. It also makes use of Internet Connection Sharing, which allows users to
connect multiple computers to the Internet via a single connection.
Advanced Mobile Computing - Though the use of features like Automatic
Configuration, you can connect an XP-based laptop to a desktop PC without needing
to know different types of network settings. XP’s IrComm modem support lets you use
a cellular telephone to connect to the Internet.
Windows 2000 Server
Introduced in 2000, Microsoft Windows 2000 server is available as three products, all
of which support managing very large stores of data about the users of the network
and the computer resources of the network. A generic term for such a specialized
database is enterprise directory (not to be confused with term directory sometimes
used when talking about disk folders). One of the many things Windows 2000 Server
can do that Windows 2000 Professional not is to manage a directory with a specialized
service called Active Directory. All three server products have the same user interface
as Windows 2000 Professional.
Server Standard Edition - This version is fine tuned for use as a network server for
the average business, with SMP support for up to two processors.
Advanced Server - This is a more powerful version of the server edition. It includes
support for SMP with up to four processors, enhanced balancing of network and

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component loads, and support for more RAM. Another important feature is print server
clustering. With clustering, Windows 2000 can group print servers to provide alternate
printers if one prints server fails.
Data Center Server - This version is the most powerful of the server editions,
optimized for use as large-scale application server, such as a database server. It
includes the Advanced Server features, plus support for SMP with up to 32 processors.
This product is not sold separately, but is sold through computer manufacturers,
bundled with the very expensive, powerful servers.

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Question – 5 Explain Defragmentation in brief.
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Disk Fragmentation
Disk fragmentation occurs when a file is broken up into pieces to fit on the disk.
Because files are constantly being written, deleted and resized, fragmentation is a
natural occurrence. When a file is spread out over several locations, it takes longer to
read and write.
Defragmentation, also known as “defrag” or “defragging” is the process of
reorganizing the data stored on the hard drive so that related pieces of data are
put back together, all lined up in a continuous fashion. You could say that
defragmentation is like cleaning house for your server or PC, it picks up all of the
pieces of data that are spread across your hard drive and puts them back together
again.
Why is defragmentation important? Because every computer suffers from the
constant growth of fragmentation and if you don’t “clean house”, your servers and
PCs suffer.
How Fragmentation Occurs
Disk fragmentation occurs when a file is broken up into pieces to fit on the disk.
Because files are constantly being written, deleted and resized, fragmentation is a
natural occurrence. When a file is spread out over several locations, it takes longer
to read and write. But the effects of fragmentation are far more widespread.
Effects of Fragmentation on Computer Performance
Many users blame computer performance problems on the operating system or
simply think their computer is “old”, when disk fragmentation is most often the real
culprit. The weakest link in computer performance is the disk. It is at least 100,000
times slower than RAM and over 2 million times slower than the CPU. In terms of
computer performance, the disk is the primary bottleneck. File fragmentation
directly affects the access and write speed of that disk, steadily corrupting
computer performance to unviable levels. Because all computers suffer from
fragmentation, this is a critical issue to resolve.
Problems caused by fragmentation include:
Performance:
 Server and PC slows and performance degradations
 Slow backup times – even failing to complete in their backup window
 Unnecessary I/O activity on SQL servers or slow SQL queries
 Slow boot-up times
 Increase in the time for each I/O operation or generation of unnecessary
I/O activity
 Inefficient disk caching
 Slowdown in read and write for files

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 High level of disk thrashing (the constant writing and rewriting of small
amounts of data)
 Long virus scan times
System Reliability:
 Crashes and system hangs
 File corruption and data loss
 Boot up failures
 Aborted backup due to lengthy backup times
 Errors in and conflict between applications
 Hard drive failures
 Compromised data security
Longevity, Power Usage, Virtualization, and SSD:
 Premature Server or PC system failure
 Wasted energy costs
 Slower system performance and increased I/O overhead due to disk
fragmentation compounded by server virtualization

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Question – 6 What is Active Directory? Explain its features in brief
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What is Active Directory?
- Active Directory is the directory service used by Windows 2000.
- A directory service is a centralized, hierarchical database that contains
information about users and resources on a network. In Windows 2000, this
database is called the Active Directory data store.
- The Active Directory data store contains information about various types of
network objects like printers, shared folders, user accounts, groups, and
computers.
- In a Windows 2000 domain, a read/write copy of the Active Directory data store
is physically located on each domain controller in the domain.
Purposes of Active Directory
1. provide user logon and authentication services
2. enable administrators to organize and manage user accounts, groups, and
network resources.
3. enable authorized users to easily locate network resources, regardless of
where they are located on the network.
Features of Active Directory
Active Directory provide following features.
1. Fully integrated security
2. Easiness of administration by using group policies.
3. Easier to locate makes resources.
4. Scalable to any size network.
5. Flexible and extensible.
1. Fully integrated security
- Active directory provides network security by managing the logon and
authentication process.
- Active directory provides security by controlling access to objects like user
accounts, shared folders and printers, which is data store.
- This controlling access define not only each and every object but on each
separate property on each property on each object like we provide access
on folder and file on both

2. Easiness of administration by using group policies

- Group policies makes greater easiness in administrating a windows 2000
server network.

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- Structure of Active directory as being the hierarchical structure of a file system,

and all files combined to make a folder, when we assign a particular user
administrative rights to a folder.
- The hierarchical structure of Active Directory also lends itself to the application
of group policies.
- “Group policy is a policy that contains rules, settings or both are that are
applied to all users or computers located in a specific part (department, a floor
in a building) of Active directory”
- In a Active directory you can apply a group policy to your entire network to
which you want rights to apply.
3. Easier to locate makes resources
- Active directory stores information on all network resources and centralized
data store (in a server).
- The Reason of centralized data store the user to locate all resource and
distributed all the resource in all the entire network.
- Active directory also enables administrator and all users to locate a resource
an object anywhere on the network by searching for any property of the object.
- Examples :- find the e-mail address of particular user on my network
4. Scalable to any size network
- Active directory provides itself to scalability (majorment) because active
directory can include multiple domains so active directory scalable to any size
of network.
5. Flexible and extensible
- Active directory is not a static structure, which can be one time implemented
and never be changed but active directory to be extensible
- Active Directory is said to be extensible.
- This means that new classes of objects can be added, and new attributes can
be added to classes of objects already present.

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Question 7 – Explain Linux and its distributions
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Linux and different types of Linux OS

Linux is one of popular version of UNIX operating System. It is open source as its
source code is freely available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX
compatibility. Its functionality list is quite similar to that of UNIX.

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components -

Kernel - Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this
operating system. It is consisting of various modules and it interacts directly with the
underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level
hardware details to system or application programs.

System Library - System libraries are special functions or programs using which
application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries
implements most of the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires
kernel module's code access rights.

System Utility - System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual

level tasks.

Kernel Mode Vs User Mode - Kernel component code executes in a special privileged
mode called kernel mode with full access to all resources of the computer. This code
represents a single process, executes in single address space and do not require any

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context switch and hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each process and
provides system services to processes, provides protected access to hardware to
processes.
Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User
programs and other system programs works in User Mode which has no access to
system hardware and kernel code. User programs/ utilities use System libraries to
access Kernel functions to get system's low level tasks.

Different Types of Linux - More than six hundred Linux distributions exist; over three
hundred of those are in active development, constantly being revised and improved.
There are commercially backed distributions, such as Fedora (Red Hat), openSUSE
(SUSE) and Ubuntu (Canonical Ltd.), and entirely community-driven distributions,
such as Debian, Slackware, Gentoo and Arch Linux. Most distributions come ready to
use and pre-compiled for a specific instruction set, while some distributions (such as
Gentoo) are distributed mostly in source code form and compiled locally during
installation

Debian - Debian is an operating system composed only of free, open-source software.

The Debian project has been operating since 1993 — over 20 years ago! This widely
respected project is still releasing new versions of Debian, but it’s known for moving
much more slowly than distributions like Ubuntu or Linux Mint. This can make it more
stable and conservative, which is ideal for some systems.

Ubuntu was originally founded to take the core bits of stable Debian and improve on
them more quickly, packaging the software together into a user-friendly system that’s
more frequently updated.

Ubuntu - Ubuntu is probably the most well-known Linux distribution. Ubuntu is based
on Debian, but it has its own software repositories. Much of the software in these
repositories is synced from Debian’s repositories.

The Ubuntu project has a focus on providing a solid desktop (and server) experience,
and it isn’t afraid to build its own custom technology to do it. Ubuntu used to use the
GNOME 2 desktop environment, but it now uses its own Unity desktop environment.
Ubuntu is even building its own Mir graphical server while other distributions are
working on the Wayland.

Ubuntu is modern without being too bleeding edge. It offers releases every six months,
with a more stable LTS (long term support) release every two years. Ubuntu is
currently working on expanding the Ubuntu distribution to run on smartphones and
tablets.

Linux Mint - Mint is a Linux distribution built on top of Ubuntu. It uses Ubuntu’s
software repositories, so the same packages are available on both. Originally, Mint
was an alternative distribution loved mainly because it included media codecs and
proprietary software that Ubuntu didn’t include by default.

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This distribution now has its own identity. You won’t find Ubuntu’s own Unity desktop
here — instead, you get a more traditional Cinnamon or MATE desktop. Mint takes a
more relaxed approach to software updates and won’t automatically install critical
software updates. Controversially, this has led some Ubuntu developers to label it
insecure.

Fedora - Fedora is a project with a strong focus on free software — you won’t find an
easy way to install proprietary graphics drivers here, although third-party repositories
are available. Fedora is bleeding edge and contains the latest versions of software.

Unlike Ubuntu, Fedora doesn’t make its own desktop environment or other software.
Instead, the Fedora project uses “upstream” software, providing a platform that
integrates all this upstream software without adding their own custom tools or patching
it too much. Fedora comes with the GNOME 3 desktop environment by default,
although you can also get “spins” that come with other desktop environments.

Fedora is sponsored by Red Hat, and is the foundation for the commercial Red Hat
Enterprise Linux project. Unlike RHEL, Fedora is bleeding edge and not supported for
long. If you want a more stable release that’s supported for longer, Red Hat would
prefer you use their Enterprise product.

CentOS / Red Hat Enterprise Linux - Red Hat Enterprise Linux is a commercial Linux
distribution intended for servers and workstations. It’s based on the open-source
Fedora project, but is designed to be a stable platform with long-term support.

Red Hat uses trademark law to prevent their official Red Hat Enterprise Linux software
from being redistributed. However, the core software is free and open-source. CentOS
is a community project that takes the Red Hat Enterprise Linux code, removes all Red
Hat’s trademarks, and makes it available for free use and distribution. It’s a free version
of RHEL, so it’s good if you want a stable platform that will be supported for a long
time. CentOS and Red Hat recently announced they’re collaborating, so CentOS is
now part of Red Hat itself.

openSUSE / SUSE Linux Enterprise - openSUSE is a community-created Linux

distribution sponsored by Novell. Novell purchased SuSE Linux in 2003, and they still
create an enterprise Linux project known as SUSE Linux Enterprise. Where Red Hat
has the Fedora project that feeds into Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Novell has the
openSUSE project that feeds into SUSE Linux Enterprise.

Like Fedora, openSUSE is a more bleeding edge version of Linux. SUSE was once
one of the great user-friendly desktop Linux distributions, but Ubuntu eventually took
that crown.

Mageia / Mandriva - Mageia is a fork of Mandriva Linux created in 2011. Mandriva —

known as Mandrake before that — was once one of the great user-friendly Linux
distributions.

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Like Fedora and openSUSE, this is a community-created project to create an open-

source Linux distribution. Mandriva SA no longer creates a consumer Linux distribution
for desktop PCs, but their business Linux server projects are based on Mageia code
— just like how Fedora and openSUSE provide code to their enterprise equivalents.

Arch Linux - Arch Linux is more old school than many of the other Linux distributions
here. It’s designed to be flexible, lightweight, minimal, and to “Keep it Simple.” Keeping
it simple doesn’t mean Arch provides tons of graphical utilities and automatic
configuration scripts to help you set up your system. Instead, it means Arch dispenses
with that stuff and gets out of your way.

You’re in charge of configuring your system properly and installing the software you
like. Arch doesn’t provide an official graphical interface for its package manager or
complex graphical configuration tools. Instead, it provides clean configuration files
designed for easy editing. The installation disc dumps you at a terminal, where you’ll
need to enter the appropriate commands to configure your system, partition your disks,
and install the operating system yourself.

Arch uses a “rolling release” model, which means any installation image is just a
snapshot of the current software. Every bit of software will be updated over time
without you needing to upgrade to a new “release” of Arch.

This distribution has a bit in common with Gentoo, which was popular at one time.
Both Linux distributions are designed for users who know how their systems work or
who are at least willing to learn. However, Arch uses binary packages while Gentoo
had an (unnecessary) focus on compiling every bit of software from source — this
means it’s quick to install software on Arch as you don’t have to spend CPU cycles
and time waiting for software to compile.

Slackware Linux - Slackware is another institution. Founded in 1993, Slackware is

the oldest Linux distribution that’s still maintained and putting out new releases today.

Its pedigree shows — like Arch, Slackware dispenses with all those unnecessary
graphical tools and automatic configuration scripts. There’s no graphical installation
procedure — you’ll have to partition your disk manually and then run the setup
program. Slackware boots to a command-line environment by default. It’s a very
conservative Linux distribution.

Puppy Linux - Puppy Linux is another fairly well-known Linux distribution. Previous
versions have been built on Ubuntu, but the latest is built on Slackware. Puppy is
designed to be a small, lightweight operating system that can run well on very old
computers. The puppy ISO file is 161 MB, and Puppy can boot from that disc in a live
environment. Puppy can run on PCs with 256 MB of RAM, although it does
recommend 512 MB for the best experience.

Puppy isn’t the most modern and doesn’t have all the flashiest bells and whistles, but
it can help you revive an old PC.

RITESH PATEL
 Fundamentals of Operating Systems

=====================================================================
Question – 8 Explain Advantages and Disadvantages of Linux in brief
=====================================================================
Advantages
Cost – The most obvious advantage of using Linux is the fact that it is free to
obtain, while Microsoft products are available for a hefty and sometimes
recurring fee. Microsoft licenses typically are only allowed to be installed on a
single computer, whereas a Linux distribution can be installed on any number
of computers, without paying a single dime.
Security – In line with the costs, the security aspect of Linux is much stronger
than that of Windows. Why should you have to spend extra money for virus
protection software? The Linux perating system has been around since the
early nineties and has managed to stay secure in the realm of widespread
viruses, spyware and adware for all these years. Sure, the argument of the
Linux desktop not being as widely used is a factor as to why there are no
viruses. My rebuttle is that the Linux operating system is open source and if
there were a widespread Linux virus released today, there would be hundreds
of patches released tomorrow, either by ordinary people that use the operating
system or by the distribution maintainers. We wouldn’t need to wait for a patch
from a single company like we do with Windows.
Choice (Freedom) – The power of choice is a great Linux advantage. With
Linux, you have the power to control just about every aspect of the operating
system. Two major features you have control of are your desktops look and feel
by way of numerous Window Managers, and the kernel. In Windows, your either
stuck using the boring default desktop theme, or risking corruption or failure by
installing a third-party shell.
Software – There are so many software choices when it comes to doing any
specific task. You could search for a text editor on Freshmeat and yield
hundreds, if not thousands of results. My article on 5 Linux text editors you
should know about explains how there are so many options just for editing text
on the command-line due to the open source nature of Linux. Regular users
and programmers contribute applications all the time. Sometimes its a simple
modification or feature enhancement of a already existing piece of software,
sometimes its a brand new application. In addition, software on Linux tends to
be packed with more features and greater usability than software on Windows.
Best of all, the vast majority of Linux software is free and open source. Not only
are you getting the software for no charge, but you have the option to modify
the source code and add more features if you understand the programming
language. What more could you ask for?
Hardware – Linux is perfect for those old computers with barely any processing
power or memory you have sitting in your garage or basement collecting dust.

RITESH PATEL
 Fundamentals of Operating Systems

Install Linux and use it as a firewall, a file server, or a backup server. There are
endless possibilities. Old 386 or 486 computers with barely any RAM run Linux
without any issue. Good luck running Windows on these machines and actually
finding a use for them.
Disadvantages
Understanding – Becoming familiar with the Linux operating system requires
patience as well as a strong learning curve. You must have the desire to read
and figure things out on your own, rather than having everything done for you.
Check out the 20 must read howto’s and guides for Linux.
Compatibility – Because of its free nature, Linux is sometimes behind the
curve when it comes to brand new hardware compatibility. Though the kernel
contributors and maintainers work hard at keeping the kernel up to date, Linux
does not have as much of a corporate backing as alternative operating systems.
Sometimes you can find third party applications, sometimes you can’t.
Alternative Programs – Though Linux developers have done a great job at
creating alternatives to popular Windows applications, there are still some
applications that exist on Windows that have no equivalent Linux application.
Read Alternatives to Windows Applications to find out some of the popular
alternatives.

NOTE: These questions & answers are for assignment purpose only; you
have to refer Sardar Patel University recommended reference books for
advanced knowledge.

RITESH PATEL