BACKING STORE

Also called secondary storage, auxiliary storage or mass storage. These are used to supplement
the main memory and are external to the main computer. They have the capacity to store millions
of information, without the need of electrical power. They provides storage for programs and
data not currently being executed (operated on), but which will be transferred to the main storage
(RAM) when required.
In comparison to the main memory, the mass memory storage device;
 -are cheap
 -has high storage capacity
 -are non-volatile (store information more permanently)
 -are very slow
In practice, different devices are used for the storage of data over a long period of time.
The common storage devices are:
i. Magnetic computer tapes
ii. Magnetic computer disks
iii. Optical disks
iv. USB flash disk
Magnetic Computer Tapes
In terms of storage devices, tape is quite a cheap medium. However, this medium also has its
limitations. If the tape is used to store data which is not required quickly, as a security back-up
for example, then it is a cheap means of doing so. If the data has to be easily accessible,
irrespective of the order in which it is stored, then tapes will require too much time to find the
require data to be efficient. The saving on the cost of the tape will be lose due to the increased
cost of retrieving data held on the tape.
Magnetic tape has three important functions:
 Protection against loss of valuable files
 Archiving files
 File portability

Magnetic Computer Disks

Introduction
Disks are more expensive than tapes but have significant advantages. In terms of the speed of
retrieving data, disks are much faster than tapes. This is partly because it makes no difference
where on the disk surface the required data is stored, since it can be accessed directly.
Each disk is divided into tracks and sectors.
The main types of disk are:
a. The diskette
b. The hard disk

a) The Diskette

Three types of interchangeable disk drives are commonly used in the PCs. They are the
traditional floppy disk, the high capacity SuperDisk and Zip disk. The traditional 3.5 inch
diskette, or floppy disk, is a thin mylar disk that is permanently enclosed in a rigid plastic jacket.
It has 1.44 MB of storage space.
The SuperDisk can store 120 MB of data. Both the floppy disk and Superdisk are of the same
size but have different disk density. Disk density is the number of bits of data that can be stored
per unit area on the disk surface. The SuperDisk drive reads from and writes to the traditional
floppy disk but not vice versa. The Zip drive reads and writes to 100 MB Zip disks.
The diskettes are not attached to the computer. Instead, they are inserted into a device called a
disk drive mounted on the computer. In this way, different disks can be used as and when
required. This, of course, means that when a disk is full, another can be used so there is no
restriction on the amount of data which can be stored. These disks have become obsolete
because of the need for higher storage media.

(b) Magnetic Disk Storage

Magnetic disk drives are comprised of one or more circular rotating disks coated with magnetic
material that is used for the recording of data.
Data are recorded into concentric rings known as tracks.. A track is sub-divided into sectors.
Hard Disks
Commonly used. Other was floppy disk. It comprises at least one rigid disk protected by a
strong, and usually air-tight, casing.
The hard disk is usually a self contained unit containing many disks, read/write head, access
arms and a motor enclosed within the casing, and the electronic circuit board controlling the disk
operations attached to the external of the casing.
Hard disc drives are made of thin but rigid metal or glass platters covered with a substance
(aluminium alloy) that allows data to be held in the form of magnetic spots. The platters are
coated with a magnetic material on both sides and stacked on top of each. The entire platter
assembly is mounted on a central spindle that is conned to the drives motor which spins the
platters at a high speed.
The heads that read and write the data on the platters are mounted to an arm that moves inward
and outward on the surface of the platters.
There are separate heads for each platter surface all mounted on a single arm assembly that
moves the heads across the surface of the platters in unison.
They are tightly sealed within an enclosed unit to prevent foreign matter e.g. dust, smoke and is
usually the main auxiliary storage unit of a personal computer (often called the "C" drive)
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER HARD DISK

Disk Case - The rectangular shaped disk case holds all of the components of a hard
disk drive.  The case is secured by screws and should not be opened outside of a
dust-free environment.
 Disk Platter - The platter shaped like a record with a magnetic surface.  Its job is to
store the data contained on the hard disk drive.  There can be one or multiple platters
depending on the disk capacity.  A spindle holds the platters together and the motor
rotates them at a certain speed.

Spindle - The spindle holds the platters together and the motor rotates the platters
at their designated speed, which is measured in RPM.

Actuator - This is designed to move the read/write arm to the correct position on the
platter to read the data.

Read/Write Arm - The read/write arm contains many "heads" on the end of the arm
which are designed to float above the platter and read data from the platter.
 

Logic Board- Logic circuit board is attached to the outside of the unit. Has its own processor,
memory and performs its functions independently of the main system processor. Functions
include
i) Monitors speed of spindle and adjusts it when necessary
ii) Controls movement of actuators to correct position
iii) Buffer data travelling to and from the drive
iv) Amplify the low voltage signals produced by the drives read process
v) Control the timing of the device read and write process
vi) Receive and process power management directives from the main system.

Internal performance factors of a hard disk

1. Seek time
Amount of time that the drive takes to move the heads from one track to another. Measured in
milliseconds. It is the measure of speed at which the actuator physically moves the heads across
the surface of the platters.
2. Latency
Amount of time that it takes for the platter to spin bringing the sector to the right position.
3. Access time
Time between the beginning of a read or write operation and the time when the drive actually
begins reading or writing data. (access time = average seek time + average latency)
4. Track switch time(Cylinder switch time)
Amount of time the actuator takes to move the heads from one track to the next adjacent one
(track to track in sector)
5. Head switch time
It is a delay incurred in switching from one end to another platter without moving the actuator.
6. Rotational speed
Speed at which the disk platters spin in revolutions per minute(RPM). Faster speeds mean
reduced latency and faster internal data transfer.
7. Internal data transfer rate
Speed at which data is transferred between the platters and the buffers

External performance factors

1 Interface speed – seek rate at which data can flow. Such as Small computer system
interface (SCSI), Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE).
2. System factors – System bios, host input/output, system processor.
3. Command overhead – each transfer from or to hard disk requires a set of commands to be
send to it
4. File structures, cluster sizes and fragmentation. E.g Increased fragmentation reduces
performance since data becomes more hidden.

c) Optical disks
The primary advantage of optical disks is that they are direct access forms of storage that can
store vast amounts of data in a relatively small physical space. An optical disk device uses laser
beams to store and retrieve data. It works just like a compact disk player for a stereo system.
One laser beam writes to the recording surface by making pits in the disk and another reads the
data from the light sensitive recording surface.

a. CD-ROM
One type of optical disk is the CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory). Similar in
concept to a ROM chip, these disks are read-only. Many PCs today have a CD-ROM
drive installed. CD-ROMs offer a huge storage capacity (compared to floppy disks) at
a relatively low cost. The capacity of a single CD-ROM is 680 MB.
The CD-ROM is manufactured by using special lasers to burn crevices in the disk. The
spiral track on a CD-ROM is about 3 miles long with about 2 billion pits.
 Once the master CD-ROM has been created, copies can be manufactured using
techniques similar to those used to produce music CDs. Popular CD-ROM drives are
classified simply as 24X, 32X and 40X. This means they spin at 24, 32, and 40 times
the speed of the original CD standard.
b. Recordable CD (CD-R)
For users who want to record data, a compact disk writer is used. This is a device
which uses a more powerful laser than a CD-ROM laser to record onto a CD-R. The
recordable compact disk is different from the CD-ROM.
c. Rewritable CD (CD-RW)
This CD is same as CD-R but for the ability to allow for reuse. The media allows
erasing and reusing for as long as the CD is still functional.
d. Magneto-Optical Disk(DVD)
The Magneto-Optical Disk is presently known as DVD (digital video disk). The DVD
can store up to 10 GB of data each. It is also backward compatible. This means that it
can play all CD-ROMs and CDs. who want to record data, a compact disk writer is
used. This is a device which uses a more powerful laser than a CD-ROM laser to
record onto a CD-R. The recordable compact disk is different from the CD-ROM

d) USB flash disk/ drive

A USB flash drive is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an
integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and
rewritable, and physically much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 grams
(1.1 oz). As of January 2013, drives of up to 512 gigabytes (GB) were available. A one-
terabyte (TB) drive was unveiled at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show and became available
later that year. Storage capacities as large as 2 TB are planned, with steady improvements in
size and price per capacity expected. Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase cycles, depending
on the exact type of memory chip used, and have a 10-year shelf storage time.
USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes for which floppy disks or CDs were used,
i.e., for storage, back-up and transfer of computer files. They are smaller, faster, have
thousands of times more capacity, and are more durable and reliable because they have no
moving parts. Additionally, they are immune to magnetic interference (unlike floppy disks), and
unharmed by surface scratches (unlike CDs).
A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board carrying the circuit elements and a USB
connector, insulated electrically and protected inside a plastic, metal, or rubberized case which
can be carried in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. The USB connector may be protected
by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although it is not likely to be
damaged if unprotected. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing
connection with a port on a personal computer, but drives for other interfaces also exist. USB
flash drives draw power from the computer via the USB connection. Some devices combine the
functionality of a digital audio player with USB flash storage; they require a battery only when
used to play music. Below is a diagram of USB flash disk/drive.
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Communication medium
The communications channel
A communications channel is the medium through which digital information must pass to get
from one location in a computer network to the next. Most people use colloquial terms for
communications channel, such as line, link, or pipe.
Communications channels link PCs, servers, and other devices in an organization’s network.
They provide links between networks, whether across, down or on the other side of the world.
And, they enable you, other individuals, and companies to access the Internet, which, itself, is
made up of a variety of communication links.

Communication Media: Wires and Wireless or Guided and unguided

A variety of communication channels, some made up of wires and some without wires, carry
digital signals between computers. Each is rated by its channel capacity or bandwidth. The
channel capacity is the number of bits a channel can transmit per second. Channel capacity is
the number of bits a channel can transmit per second. Channel capacities vary from 56,000 bits
per second (bps), or 56 K bps (thousands of bits, or kilobits per second) to 622 M bps (millions
of bits, or megabits per second).
Wired communication media include;

i) Twisted-Pair Wire
Twisted-pair wire is just what we think of as regular telephone wire. Each twisted-pair wire is
actually two insulated copper wires twisted around each other for the purposes of canceling
out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic
radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs.
Types
Shielded (STP) and Unshielded(UTP)
1. Unshielded Twisted Cable: Commonly known as UTP’s, is the most common type of
twisted pair cable. In this type, each pair of wires are twisted together to make a four sets.
Each set has a different number of twists per inch to reduce interference from adjacent
pairs and the over all design reduces interference from external devices.

2. Shielded Twisted Cable: STC’s or Shielded Twisted Cable uses the same design as
UTP’s. However there is an additional insulation over each pair of wires. This provides a
tight bond between the two wires within and provides the best protection from
interference, either adjacent pairs or external devices. A special variety of STC, known as
Screened STC is also available which uses a metal shield over each set of wires and also
an outer metal shield covering the whole set of wires.

 Coaxial Cable

This is another variety of cable, also known as Coax. Coax has a conductor surrounded by
an insulating layer. The inner conductor is sometimes silver
plated to increase performance. This insulating layer is again
surrounded by another conducting layer around it. The whole tube like structure is again
insulated with another layer. These kinds of cables are mostly used to transmit radio frequency
signals. Coaxial cable frequency can range from few megahertz to 18-20 Gigahertz. As
technology advances, this range can increase even more. They are best seen around for
transmitting cable television signals. Coax is just like any other electrical cable where there are
two conductors. One for the forward current and the other to return.

Coaxial cables will have a special type of connectors at both ends of the
cable specially designed for them, as shown in the figure.

Most people know coaxial cable as the cable in “cable television.” Coaxial cable, or “coax,”
contains electrical wire (usually copper wire) and is constructed to permit high-speed data
transmission with a minimum of signal distortion. It is laid along the ocean floor for
intercontinental voice and data transmission; it’s used to connect terminals and computers in a
“local” area (from a few feet to a few miles); and it delivers TV signals to close to 100 million
homes in America alone. Coaxial cable has a very “wide pipe.” That is, it is a high-capacity
channel that can carry digital data at up to 10 M bps, as well as more than 100 analog TV
signals.

Types: thin Ethernet and thick Ethernet

ii) Fiber Optic Cable

Twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable carry data as electrical signals. Fiber optic cable carries data
as laser-generated pulses of light. Made up of bundles of very thin, transparent, almost hair-like
fibers, fiber optic cables transmit data more in-expensively and much more quickly than do
copper wire transmissions media. The Internet backbone, the primary channels for Internet
transmissions, is mostly fiber optic cable. Types are multimode and single mode.
In the time it takes to transmit a single page of Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary over twisted-
pair copper wire (about 3 seconds), the entire dictionary could be transmitted over a single
optic fiber.
Each time a communications company lay a new fiber optic cable, the world is made a little
smaller. In 1956, the first transatlantic cable carried 50 voice circuits. Then, talking to someone
in Europe was a rare and expensive experience. Today, a single fiber can carry over 32,000 voice
and data transmissions, the equivalent of 2.5 billion bits per second. Nowadays, people call
colleagues in other countries or link up with international computers as readily as they call
home.
Another of the many advantages of fiber optic cable is its contribution to data security. It is
much more difficult for a computer criminal to intercept a signal sent over fiber optic cable (via
a beam of light) than it is over copper wire (an electrical signal).

iv) Connection hardware

Every type of cable has connectors that influence the type of hardware to which the cable can
connect. Such connectors include
- RJ(Registered Jack) 45 – Used with UTPs. A Registered Jack (RJ) is a
standardized telecommunication network interface for connecting voice and data
equipment to a service provided by a local exchange carrier or long distance carrier.
Others are RJ 48, and RJ 61.

-BNC (British Naval connector) – Used to connect coaxial Ethernet network cables

- RJ – 11, 14 and 25 - used in phones

High-Speed Wireless Communication
High-speed communications channels do not have to be wires or fibers. Data can also be
transmitted via microwave signals or radio signals. Transmission of these signals is line-of-sight;
that is, the signal travels in a straight line from source to destination. Microwave signals are
transmitted between transceivers. Because microwave signals do not bend around the
curvature of the earth, signals may need to be relayed several times by microwave repeater
stations before reaching their destination. Repeater stations are placed on the tops of
mountains, tall buildings, and towers, usually about 30 miles apart.
Satellites eliminate the line-of-sight limitation because microwave signals are bounced off
satellites, avoiding buildings, mountains, and other signal obstructions. One of the advantages
of satellites is that data can be transmitted from one location to any number of other locations
anywhere on (or near) our planet. Satellites are routinely launched into orbit for the sole
purpose of relaying data communications signals to and from earth stations. A satellite, which
uses microwave signals and is essentially a repeater station, is launched and set in a
geosynchronous orbit 22,300 miles above the earth. A geosynchronous orbit permits the
communications satellite to maintain a fixed position relative to the earth’s surface. Each
satellite can receive and retransmit signals to slightly less than half of the earth’s surface;
therefore, three satellites are required to cover the earth effectively. Internet access via
satellite is available to companies and to individuals at speeds up to 48 M bps.

microwave

As the demand for more and more speech circuits grew by customers wanting to
make long distance calls, the telephone companies had to expand the capacity to
meet this demand. One such system which was used was Microwave, which does not
use cable as a transmission medium, rather it uses the air. Using very
high frequency signals, microwave support thousands of telephone channels and
several television channels on the one circuit. Microwave is a radio system which
uses very high frequencies to send and receive data. Because of the high frequencies
involved, stations are located about 30 kilometers apart and in line of sight (visible to
each other). Microwave systems have sufficient bandwidth capacity to support a
large number of voice channels and one or two TV channels.
 Transmitters and receivers must be located within sight of
each other, about 30kilometers apart. Microwave does not
bend round corners or jump over hills.

Dishes and towers were expensive to construct and with the

distance limitations, meant it was expensive to go very long
distances.

Nowadays, many companies use microwave systems to interconnect buildings at

high speed digital links of 2 million bits per second or greater. Sometimes, this is a
cheaper solution than linking buildings using fiber optic cable, specially in inner cities
where cabling is a problem, or across rivers etc where terrain prohibits the use of
existing physical cabling methods. This allows companies to link their networks in
different buildings together into one common network, allowing the sharing and
accessing of information. Today, microwave systems are used in a number of areas,
such as linking local area networks together between campus buildings, sending
radio signals from a radio station to its transmitter site, and the sending of video or
audio signals from an outside sports event back to a TV broadcasting studio.

Microwave systems have the advantage of

 medium capacity
 medium cost
 can go long distances

Its disadvantages are,

 noise interference
 geographical problems due to line of sight requirements
 becoming outdated

Satellite systems
Ground stations with large dishes communicate with a communications satellite in
geo-stationary orbit around the earth. Each channel is managed by a transponder,
which can support thousands of speech channels and about 4 TV channels
simultaneously. The cost of satellite links is still very expensive (about $4M per
transponder). It is primarily used for intercontinental links.
Satellite systems are comprised of ground based transmitter and receiver dishes,
with an orbital satellite circuit (called a transponder). Signals are transmitted to the
orbiting satellite, which relays it back to another ground station. The footprint
coverage of a single satellite system is very large, covering thousands of square
kilometers (enough for entire countries such as New Zealand). For example, in New
Zealand in 1997, the SKY television network announced plans and introduced a pay
per view satellite service for New Zealander subscribers. Satellite is used to carry
television channels and telephone conversions between countries.

These use an orbiting satellite to communicate with

ground stations. They support tens of thousands of
speech channels and tens of television channels.

The cost is very high per circuit, and signals are received
using a special dish. Satellite TV is an example of such a
system.

Satellite systems have the advantage of

 low cost per user (for PAY TV)

 high capacity
 very large coverage

Its disadvantages are,

 high install cost in launching a satellite

 receive dishes and decoders required
 delays involved in the reception of the signal

Other wireless technologies include

Infra-red frequencies
Uses infra- red light beams to send signals between pairs of devices. Light emitting diodes are
used to transmit while photodiodes are used to receive signals.
Wifi
Wireless Fidelity. A high speed wireless LAN enabling wireless access to the internet for mobile
offices and home users.
Wimax
World Wide Interoperability for Microwave Access. For Wide area networks.
Bluetooth
Used in hand held devices within a range of 10 meters.

SOFTWARE
Types of Software
Software falls into two categories. These are :
a. Application software
b. System software
a. Application Software
This is the set of instructions or programs which make the computer perform a
particular task which will satisfy a processing requirement of the user. An example is
the inventory system.
Application software are tools that save time, increase productivity and provide
better presentation of information.
b. Systems Software
This is the set of instructions or programs which create a computer environment
within which the applications software can work.
Therefore, applications software determines what processing is done by the
computer. Systems software determines how that processing will be done by the
computer.

Application Software
There are several types of application software. Include word processors, spreadsheets,
databases, presentation software, communication software, accounting software, publishers
etc.

i) Word Processing
The name of this software is virtually self-explanatory. A word processor is an application
software which allows the user to manipulate text so as to produce documents accurately and
efficiently.
The software will provide the user with the blank screen page onto which text can be entered.
Once the text is on the page, it can be altered with the greatest of ease, thereby allowing the
correction of errors and, perhaps more importantly, allowing the author of the document to
change his mind. When a document is finally complete, and the author wants it, then it can be
printed and saved.
The software will allow multiple copies of the same document to be printed at the touch of a
button. If a word still turns out to be incorrectly spelt, the document can be called up again, the
correction made without retyping the whole document, and the page printed.

ii) Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is essentially a grid made up of columns and rows. Numbers can be input into
cells and formulas defined to perform numerical computation. Spreadsheets are used to
perform repetitive financial computations. There are several different spreadsheet packages on
the market.
Despite the variation in the features and purchase price of each, they are all based on the same
basic concept. The software, when loaded, fills the screen with a grid formed of columns and
rows. This resembles an “electronic sheet of squared paper”. Each of the squares is known as a
cell and each cell can contain either numbers, characters of formulae which are entered and
manipulated by the user. Each sheet of cells is known as a worksheet.
Just as squares on a map can be identified by their gird reference, so the cell on a worksheets
can be uniquely identified by a combination of letters and numbers by which the rows and
columns are named. This is called the cell address.
If a cell contains a number, the number can be used in calculations elsewhere in the worksheet
by the use of a formula. A formula uses the numbers from other cells by referring to the
address of the cell which contains the number. The package will use the number in the cell
referred to, regardless of its value. This means that if you change the number in the cell, the
new value will be used in the calculation without having to rewrite the formula. It is this ability
to establish relationships between cells, independently from the actual content of the cells,
which makes the spreadsheets such a valuable financial tool.
Spreadsheets come with a variety of commands which allow the user to manipulate and copy
data, set display formats and, often, produce graphical output. In the less sophisticated
spreadsheets, these commands have to be remembered by the user whereas in the more
sophisticated packages, there is a menu system which acts as a prompt from which the user
can select.
The presentation of numerical data can be greatly enhanced with the use of graphs. In the
more sophisticated spreadsheets, a variety of different types of graph can be produced from
the data on the worksheet. In broad terms, the more you pay, the more you get. This relates
not only to the number of different types of graph, but also how easy it is to define and produce
the graphs.

iii) Databases
A database is a collection of related data items that are stored together for use in many
application systems. In a company, we can find many application systems (e.g. personnel
system), each of which has one or more users. These applications may store all their data in a
single database. Thus, many users will read or access data in that single database.
Users will usually access the database indirectly, by using the application system (e.g. personnel
system). The application systems themselves do not access the database directly, but will use
another software called the Database Management System (DBMS).

iv) Desktop Publishing

An office technology that is currently enjoying considerable popularity is desktop publishing
(DTP). Desktop publishing involves the use of desktop microcomputer systems that are
equipped with special hardware and/or software features, to produce documents that look as
though they were done by a professional print shop. In using these systems, users can combine
word-processed text with such elements as artwork, photos, and a variety of magazine style
fonts. The overall effect can be stunningly attractive.
DTP systems allow users to combine a variety of graphical fonts onto a page, use pre-stored art
images (call clip art) on pages, and draw lines and boxed to highlight text or art. Fonts and clip
art can also be purchased as add-ons from third-party vendors to extend the library of options
offered for sale by the original-package vendor.
In some DTP systems, more sophisticated options are available. For instance, one can digitise
complex arty images such as photos, which are composed of a variety of halftones to which
only high levels or resolution can do justice. Also, there is a much greater variety of options
available with fonts and clip art. For example, both fonts and clip art can be scaled to a variety
of sizes – and can be created or edited, as well.

v) Electronic Mail
Electronic mail (or E-mail) is the second largest EUC applications area, behind word processing.
It refers to the technology used to send messages or documents from one electronic
workstation to another.
For instance, employees within a large organization may have electronic mailboxes that are
managed by a mainframe, minicomputer, or local area network. When these employees access
a workstation, they can call up their personal file – or mailbox – on the E-mail system to see if
there are any messages. Or, they can send a message to place in someone else’s mailbox.
These types of E-mail systems are typically standard components in integrated office packages.

vi) Presentation Software

PC based presentation software have in many instances replaced overhead projectors and slide
projectors. Presentation software lets you create highly stylised images for group presentations,
self-running slide shows, reports and other situations that requires the presentation of
organised visual information. The software gives a rich assortment of tools to create a variety of
charts, graphs and images to help to make the presentation.
ETC.

System software
Introduction
The Operating System and Graphical User Interface (GUI), both System Software, are at the
heart of the software action. All other software depends on and interacts with the operating
system, the software that controls everything that happens in a computer. Its graphical user
interface (GUI) provides a user-friendly interface to the operating system. System software
encompasses those programs that manage, maintain, and control computer resources.
Programs designed to be used by the end user are application software. The figure below shows
the relationship between system and application software.

Computer Games
Human Resource Management
Tax Planning
CAD
Operating Graphical Spreadsheet Sales Summary
System User Income Statement
Interface Office Inventory
Expert Loan Evaluation System
System Investment Management
System
Relationship between System and Application Software

The Operating System

Just as the processor is the nucleus of the computer system, the operating system is the
nucleus of all software activity. Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows NT, Mac OS X, and Unix
are popular operating systems for PCs and workstations. The Operating System is actually a
family of system software programs that monitor and control all I/O and processing activities
within the computer system. The computer system vendor supplies the operating system when
you buy a computer.
One of the operating system, often called the Kernel, loads other operating system and
applications programs to RAM as they are needed. The kernel is loaded to RAM on system start
up and remains resident – available in RAM – until the system is turned off.
All hardware and software are under the control of operating system.

Objectives of the Operating System

In a general purpose computer such as a PC or a company’s Internet server, the operating
system provide the flexibility to tackle a variety of jobs. In dedicated computers like those in the
arcade games, controlled by a single function program, there is no need for a separate
operating system.
All operating systems are designed with the same basic objectives in mind. However,
mainframe and PC operating systems differ markedly in complexity and orientation. On the
mainframe, multi-user operating systems coordinate a number of special function processors
and monitor interaction with hundreds, even thousands of terminals and PCs in a network.
Most PC operating systems are designed primarily to support a single user on a single micro.
This PC may or may not be linked to a network.
a. To facilitate communication between the computer system and the people who run
it. - The interface through which users issue system related commands is part of the
operating system.
b. To facilitate communication among computer system components. – The operating
system facilitates the movement of internal instructions and data between
peripheral devices, the processor, programs, and the computer’s storage.
c. To Maximise throughput. – The operating system coordinates system resources to
maximise throughput, the amount of processing per unit of time.
d. To minimise the time needed to execute a user command. – In today’s interactive
systems, even small decreases in user wait time pay big dividends in user efficiency.
e. To optimise the use of computer system resources. - The operating system is
continually looking at what tasks need to be done and what resources (processor,
RAM, and peripheral devices) are available to accomplish these tasks. The incredible
speed of a computer system dictates that resource-allocation decisions be made at
computer speeds. Each millisecond the operating system makes decisions about
what resources to assign to each tasks.
f. To keep track of all files in disk storage. – The operating system and its file and disk
management utility programs enable users to perform such tasks as making back up
copies of work disk, erasing disk files that are no longer needed, making inquiries
about the number and type of files on a particular disk, and preparing new disk for
use. The operating system also handles many file- and disk- oriented tasks that are
transparent (invisible) to the end user. For example, operating system keep track of
 the physical location of the disk files so that we, as users, need only refer to them by
name (for example, myfile or year-end-summary) when loading them from disk to
RAM.
g. To provide an envelope of security for the computer system – The operating system
can allow or deny user access to the system as a whole or to individual files.
Examples of specific security measures are passwords.
h. To monitor all systems capabilities and alert the user of system failure or potential
problems. – The operating system is continually checking system components for
proper operation. Any problems are brought immediately to the attention of the
user.
Graphical User Interface
To better appreciate the impact of graphical user interface (GUI), it helps to know what precede
them.

i) Text-based Software
Through the 1980s, the popular operating system, MS-DOS, was strictly text-based, command-
driven software. That is, we issued commands directly to DOS by entering them on the
keyboard, one character at a time. For example, if wished to issue a command to copy a word
processing document from one disk to another for your friend, you might have entered “copy
c:\myfile.txt a:\yourfile.txt” via the keyboard at the DOS prompt, “C:\>”.
C:\>copy c:\myfile.txt a:\yourfile.txt
When using command-driven, text-based software you must be explicit. If you omitted
necessary information in a command or the format of the command was incorrect, you would
get one of those dreaded error messages.

ii) Graphics-based Software

Today, relatively few computers run with purely text-based operating systems. For the past
decade, the trend in PC operating systems has been towards a user friendly, graphics-oriented
environment – the graphical user interface, GUI (pronounced “G-U-I” or “gooie”). GUIs rely on
graphics based software, which permit the integration of text with graphic images.
All modern operating systems, including the Windows 95, 98, 2000, XP, Me, 2003, 2005, 2007,
2008, and 2010 operating systems provide GUIs. GUI users interact with the operating and
other software packages by using a pointing device (example, mouse) and a keyboard to issue
commands. Rather than enter a command directly, as in a command-driven interface, the user
chooses from options displayed on the screen. The equivalent of a syntax-sensitive operating
system command is entered by pointing to and choosing one or more operations from menus
or by pointing to and choosing a graphics image, called an icon. An icon is a graphic rendering
that represent a processing activity or a file.
GUIs have eliminated the need for us to memorise and enter cumbersome commands. For
example, in GUIs all we have to do to cpy a file from one disk to another disk is to click and drag
the file’s icon from one area on the screen to another.

Utilities

Introduction
Utilities are programmes which perform tasks that are often required by end-user, or other
programmes. Many of them, especially for microcomputers, come as part of the operating
system. With larger systems, some of the utilities are separate. Most of these are file handling
utilities such as copying and moving files which allow the user to perform housekeeping
activities.
Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a
computer.[1]
Utility software, along with operating system software, is a type of system software used to
support the computer infrastructure, distinguishing it from application software which is aimed
at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users. include

 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

 Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption
capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the
reverse operation.
 Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental
deletion).
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.
 Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data
storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
 File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be
used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their
digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.
 Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one user
attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.
 Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve programming errors.
Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems.
 Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
 Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the userto decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own
file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
 Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each
folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used
space.
 Disk storage utilities
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management, email
recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging,
moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual
program.
 Memory testers check for memory failures.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings,
check data transfer or log events.
 Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a
computer.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys
that are no longer in use.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or
security.
 System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.

Basic Functions of Utilities

i) File Management
This covers a wide variety of tasks that users will perform to copy, delete, rename files and so
on. Typical file management utilities are:
 Producing directory listings of files
 Copying files
 Renaming files
 Deleting files

ii) Backup and restore

Making backup copies of the contents of the entire hard disk is rather difficult without a utility.
Backup utilities compress the contents so that less disk space is used. They also facilitate
recovery should it be necessary.

PROGRAMMING/COMPUTER LANGUAGES
Introduction
Computer languages can be categorised into:
a. Machine Language
b. Assembly Language
c. High Level Language
d. Very High Level Language
a. Machine Language
Machine code or machine or language is the lowest level of computer language and is in binary
notation. This is the actual “language” that the computer can understand and execute.
However, it is very difficult to code using nothing but binary notation.
Creating programs machine language is a cumbersome process, so we write programs in more
programmer friendly programming language. However, our resulting programs must be
translated into machine language before they can be executed.
b. Assembly Language
The introduction of more user friendly programming language (in 1955) resulted in a quantum
leap in programming convenience. Programmers could write a single instruction instead of
several cumbersome machine language instructions. These early languages were procedure-
orientated languages, which require programmers to solve programming problems using
traditional programming logic. COBOL is a good example of a procedure oriented language.
These languages are also called Assembly languages or low level languages. They must be
translated into machine language by an assembler program.
The assembly language is not written in binary notation. Instead, mnemonics or abbreviations
are used to represent operations (e.g. SUB for subtract). This makes the language much easier
to write in than machine code but it is still relatively tedious for a programmer who has to code
in every detailed steps.
c. High Level Language
High level languages are a group of languages, which closely resemble the structures of English
and are the easiest in which to program. There is less requirement on the programmer to
specify so many details. One high level language command can represent several machine code
instructions which means that the same can be achieved with fewer instructions in a high level
language.
In procedure-oriented language the emphasis is on what is done (the procedure). In object-
oriented language, the emphasis is on the object of the action. The structure of object-oriented
programming (OOP) makes programs easier to design and understand. Also OOP handles
images, videos, and sound better than do procedure-oriented languages. Examples of object-
oriented languages include Smalltalk, and C++.
High level languages are more complex and need to be translated into machine code. The
language processors which perform this task are called compilers.
d. Very High Level Language
Very High Level Languages are also known as Fourth Generation Language (4GL). This name is
given to a group of languages that allow end users to specify what the output should be
without describing all the details of how the data should be manipulated to produce that result.
Fourth generation languages use high level English-like instructions to retrieve and format data
for inquiries and reporting. In 4GLs the programmer specifies what to do, not how to do it.
e. Natural Language: The Ultimate Programming Language
The State of the Art of Natural Languages .
 There are no pure natural languages
 Currently pure natural languages that permit an unrestricted dialogue between us
and a computer are being developed
 Advantages:
- Enable more people to take advantage of available information
because even casual users can articulate their information needs
in their native tongue
- For limited processing tasks, such as ad hoc inquiries and report
generation

METHODS OF SOFTWARE ACQUISITION

Introduction
There are two approaches to acquiring software:
a. Custom develop the software specially for your company;
b. Buy software already developed and sold as a package.
Custom Developed Software

Introduction
Some businesses consider that their processing requirements are specific to their own
organisation and they have the applications software developed specifically for them. To
achieve this, there are two basic approaches:
In-house development
This would mean employing programmers and analysts and setting up an internal IT group.
Contract an external software developer
The company could use the services of a computer bureau or software house, especially if it
was a small organisation, which couldn’t afford a full-time development team.
The resultant software is know as custom-developed or tailor-made software since it exactly fits
the requirements of the organisation, just as a tailored suit exactly fits the purchaser.

Advantages
The advantage of this type of application software development is that the resultant
programmes will exactly fulfill the processing requirements of the company.

Disadvantages
i) Higher Cost
The cost of producing tailor-made software is high, just as tailored clothing is expensive. This is
because the costs of developing the software are entirely borne by the one organisation instead
of them being borne by many organisations.
ii) Software Defects
It is very unusual for software to be perfect when the programmers have finished their work.
There is typically a period when the software is then operated where faults, or bugs, become
exposed and have to be corrected. This can often cause serious inconvenience to the end-user
and, in terms of lost time and efficiency, increases the overall cost of the software.

Packaged Software

Introduction
Packaged software is application software, which are commercially produced for a large
market.
Packaged software form the larger part of applications software market so the advantages
clearly outweigh the disadvantages in many cases. In any event, it is up to the individuals
concerned to assess whether it would be better to buy a packaged or have some software
developed. This choice will depend on the particular business function (i.e. how “normal” or
abnormal it is) and how much funds are available to the organisation.

Advantages
i) Lower Cost
The most obvious and important advantage is that packages are significantly cheaper to buy
than custom-developed software. This is because the package is sold to a large market and the
development costs can be spread among a large number of purchasers.
ii) Less Software Defects
Given the large market to which packages are sold, most of the problems which commonly
beset new software have been ironed out prior to the introduction into the market place. It is
good policy, however, to avoid pioneering by buying new software. It is always better to
purchase software that has been available for some time and is well tried and tested.
iii) Better Documentation
Again, given the scale of the applications package market, it is more feasible for the producers
to provide good documentation to accompany the software. Clearly, this will make the package
easier to use, which will make it more attractive to the market and therefore easier to sell.
iv) Training Easily Available
The ease of use is also improved by the fact that it becomes viable for consultants and training
organisations to offer training courses in using the packages.

Disadvantages
i) May Not Meet All Requirements
The facilities that are offered by a package are not as specific to a business as tailor-made
software and might not quite satisfy the processing requirements of the business.
ii) Less Efficient
Since the system is designed for more general purposes than the custom developed software,
the design may be less efficient. For example, a user may have to go through some unnecessary
steps in processing which cannot be avoided.