UNIT – 1

Wireless Network 

Definition - What does Wireless Network mean?

Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by cables
of any kind. The use of a wireless network enables enterprises to avoid the costly
process of introducing cables into buildings or as a connection between different
equipment locations. The basis of wireless systems are radio waves, an
implementation that takes place at the physical level of network structure. Wireless
networks use radio waves to connect devices such as laptops to the Internet, the
business network and applications. When laptops are connected to Wi-Fi hot spots
in public places, the connection is established to that business’s wireless network. 

There are four main types of wireless networks: 

 Wireless Local Area Network (LAN): Links two or more devices using a
wireless distribution method, providing a connection through access points
to the wider Internet.
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): Connects several wireless
LANs.
 Wireless Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers large areas such as
neighboring towns and cities.
 Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN): Interconnects devices in a short
span, generally within a person’s reach.

Latest, Emerging Wireless Technologies

Today, wired connections are slowly being replaced by different latest,

emerging wireless technologies. Emergence of new wireless technologies has
helped to bring out many new ideas and applications to the society. In this era, we
all are expecting different solutions in the wireless field which helps to explode out
many new types of wireless technology. Wireless technology is just a latest
technical term given to describe telecommunication where the EM
(electromagnetic) waves carry signal over communication path. Now let’s look on
to the latest, emerging wireless technologies. Here we will be discussing the latest,
emerging wireless technologies used commonly for different applications. They
are:
 Wireless Fidelity (WiFi).
 Light Fidelity (LiFi) ,
 Gigabit Wireless (GiFi),
 Bluetooth,
 WiMAX,
 ZigBee
 RFID Technology.

Wireless Fidelity (WiFi)

A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data

connections between network nodes. Wireless networking is a method by which
homes, telecommunications networks and business installations avoid the costly
process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various
equipment locations. Wireless telecommunications networks are generally
implemented and administered using radio communication. This implementation
takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.
Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local area
networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks,
and terrestrial microwave networks.
Wireless Links:
 Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-
based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial
microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to
line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.
 Communications satellites – Satellites communicate via microwave radio
waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi)
above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and
relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
 Cellular and PCS systems- use several radio communications technologies.
The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each
area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls
from one area to the next area.
 Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless local area networks
use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-
frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to
enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE
802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave
technology known as .
 Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for
communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits
the physical positioning of communicating devices.
Types of Wireless Network
1. PAN
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) connect devices within a relatively
small area, that is generally within a person's reach. For example,
both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for
interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN
applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment
designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic
devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made
Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.
2. Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a
short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection
through an access point for internet access. The use of spread-
spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local
coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under
the Wi-Fi brand name . Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links
between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using
dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is
often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing
a wired link. To connect to Wi-Fi, sometimes are used devices like a router or
connecting HotSpot using mobile smartphones.
3. Wireless ad hoc network
A wireless ad hoc network, also known as a wireless mesh
network or mobile ad hoc network (MANET), is a wireless network made up of
radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf
of the other nodes and each node performs routing. Ad hoc networks can "self-
heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power. Various network
layer protocols are needed to realize ad hoc mobile networks, such as Distance
Sequenced Distance Vector routing, Associativity-Based Routing, Ad hoc on-
demand Distance Vector routing, and Dynamic source routing.
4. Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that
connects several wireless LANs.
WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE
802.16 standard.
5. Wireless WAN
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large
areas, such as between neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These
networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public Internet
access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to
point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz and 5.8Ghz band,
rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system
contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other
configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also.
When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels
or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.
6. Global area network
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile
across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key
challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one
local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of
terrestrial wireless LANs.
7. Space network
Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft,
usually in the vicinity of the Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network.
Uses
Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday
wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example,
Intercontinental network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the
world. Emergency services such as the police utilize wireless networks to
communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless networks
to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the
world.
LiFi (Light Fidelity)
LiFi (Light Fidelity) an extension to Visible Light Communication is an
emerging paradigm in the list of latest, emerging wireless technologies. Their
speed, usability, flexibility and other advantages make them an excellent one. LiFi,
Light Fidelity offers wireless communication using the visible light. It includes
range of frequencies and wavelengths starting from the infrared to the ultraviolet.
Just by using the light from the LED, LiFi as a wireless technology helps to
transmit the data efficiently and securely. This wireless technology in its way is
surely said to replace the WiFi routers thereby becoming the internet at the speed
of light. It can use speeds upto 3.5Gbit/s per color.              
Gigabit Wireless (GiFi)
Gigabit Wireless also known popularly by the names GiFi or Gi-Fi is a
wireless communication providing a data rate of gigabits per second. Some
features of GiFi – the latest, emerging wireless technologies are :
 Low power consumption.
 Better transfer rates.
 Cost efficient.
 Secure.
ZigBee
ZigBee works in 2.4 GHz frequency. Basically it uses mesh, star and cluster
topologies. They are inexpensive, general purpose, self-organizing and a robust
wireless technology. Usually, ZigBee networks need a host and a coordinator for
its operation. ZigBee is based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard. To achieve low power
consumption, transmission distance is limited to 10-100m distance. Also to
transmit the data over long distances, we normally pass the data through mesh
network of intermediate devices. Commonly ZigBee is used in applications that
have long battery life and network security. Some of the characteristics of ZigBee
include:
 Various transmission options.
  Security mechanism.
  Operation in 2.4GHz frequency.
  Operates in the 915 MHz (Americas) and 868 MHz (Europe).
  Power saving mechanisms.
  Pairing mechanism with full application confirmation.
  Multiple star topology and personal area network (PAN).
  Operating over 16 channels.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
 WiMAX is one of the hottest broadband wireless technologies around
today. WiMAX systems are expected to deliver broadband access services to
residential and enterprise customers in an economical way.

Loosely, WiMax is a standardized wireless version of Ethernet intended

primarily as an alternative to wire technologies (such as Cable Modems, DSL and
T1/E1 links) to provide broadband access to customer premises.
More strictly, WiMAX is an industry trade organization formed by leading
communications, component, and equipment companies to promote and certify
compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless access equipment that
conforms to the IEEE 802.16 and ETSI HIPERMAN standards.
WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi, but at higher speeds over greater
distances and for a greater number of users. WiMAX has the ability to provide
service even in areas that are difficult for wired infrastructure to reach and the
ability to overcome the physical limitations of traditional wired infrastructure.
WiMAX was formed in April 2001, in anticipation of the publication of the
original 10-66 GHz IEEE 802.16 specifications. WiMAX is to 802.16 as the WiFi
Alliance is to 802.11.
WiMAX is
 Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
 Based on Wireless MAN technology.
 A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services over
a wide area.
 A scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative and complementary
broadband networks.
 A certification that denotes interoperability of equipment built to the IEEE
802.16 or compatible standard. The IEEE 802.16 Working Group develops
standards that address two types of usage models −
o A fixed usage model (IEEE 802.16-2004).
 o A portable usage model (IEEE 802.16e).
What is 802.16a ?
WiMAX is such an easy term that people tend to use it for the 802.16
standards and technology themselves, although strictly it applies only to systems
that meet specific conformance criteria laid down by the WiMAX Forum.
The 802.16a standard for 2-11 GHz is a wireless metropolitan area network
(MAN) technology that will provide broadband wireless connectivity to Fixed,
Portable and Nomadic devices.
It can be used to connect 802.11 hot spots to the Internet, provide campus
connectivity, and provide a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile
broadband access.
WiMax Speed and Range
WiMAX is expected to offer initially up to about 40 Mbps capacity per
wireless channel for both fixed and portable applications, depending on the
particular technical configuration chosen, enough to support hundreds of
businesses with T-1 speed connectivity and thousands of residences with DSL
speed connectivity. WiMAX can support voice and video as well as Internet data.
WiMax developed to provide wireless broadband access to buildings, either
in competition to existing wired networks or alone in currently unserved rural or
thinly populated areas. It can also be used to connect WLAN hotspots to the
Internet. WiMAX is also intended to provide broadband connectivity to mobile
devices. It would not be as fast as in these fixed applications, but expectations are
for about 15 Mbps capacity in a 3 km cell coverage area.
With WiMAX, users could really cut free from today's Internet access
arrangements and be able to go online at broadband speeds, almost wherever they
like from within a MetroZone.
WiMAX could potentially be deployed in a variety of spectrum bands:
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.5GHz, and 5.8GHz
Why WiMax ?
 WiMAX can satisfy a variety of access needs. Potential applications include
extending broadband capabilities to bring them closer to subscribers, filling
gaps in cable, DSL and T1 services, WiFi, and cellular backhaul, providing
last-100 meter access from fibre to the curb and giving service providers
another cost-effective option for supporting broadband services.
 WiMAX can support very high bandwidth solutions where large spectrum
deployments (i.e. >10 MHz) are desired using existing infrastructure
keeping costs down while delivering the bandwidth needed to support a full
range of high-value multimedia services.
  WiMAX can help service providers meet many of the challenges they face
due to increasing customer demands without discarding their existing
infrastructure investments because it has the ability to seamlessly
interoperate across various network types.
 WiMAX can provide wide area coverage and quality of service capabilities
for applications ranging from real-time delay-sensitive voice-over-IP
(VoIP) to real-time streaming video and non-real-time downloads, ensuring
that subscribers obtain the performance they expect for all types of
communications.
 WiMAX, which is an IP-based wireless broadband technology, can be
integrated into both wide-area third-generation (3G) mobile and wireless
and wireline networks allowing it to become part of a seamless anytime,
anywhere broadband access solution.
 Ultimately, WiMAX is intended to serve as the next step in the evolution of
3G mobile phones, via a potential combination of WiMAX and CDMA
standards called 4G.
WiMAX Goals
A standard by itself is not enough to enable mass adoption. WiMAX has
stepped forward to help solve barriers to adoption, such as interoperability and
cost of deployment. WiMAX will help ignite the wireless MAN industry by
defining and conducting interoperability testing and labeling vendor systems with
a "WiMAX Certified™" label once testing has been completed successfully.
WiMAX - Building Blocks
A WiMAX system consists of two major parts −
 A WiMAX base station.
 A WiMAX receiver.
WiMAX Base Station
A WiMAX base station consists of indoor electronics and a WiMAX tower
similar in concept to a cell-phone tower. A WiMAX base station can provide
coverage to a very large area up to a radius of 6 miles. Any wireless device within
the coverage area would be able to access the Internet.
The WiMAX base stations would use the MAC layer defined in the
standard, a common interface that makes the networks interoperable and would
allocate uplink and downlink bandwidth to subscribers according to their needs,
on an essentially real-time basis. Each base station provides wireless coverage
over an area called a cell. Theoretically, the maximum radius of a cell is 50 km or
30 miles however, practical considerations limit it to about 10 km or 6 miles.
WiMAX Receiver
 A WiMAX receiver may have a separate antenna or could be a stand-alone
box or a PCMCIA card sitting in your laptop or computer or any other device.
This is also referred as customer premise equipment (CPE).
WiMAX base station is similar to accessing a wireless access point in a
WiFi network, but the coverage is greater.
Backhaul
A WiMAX tower station can connect directly to the Internet using a high-
bandwidth, wired connection (for example, a T3 line). It can also connect to
another WiMAX tower using a line-of-sight microwave link.
Backhaul refers both to the connection from the access point back to the
base station and to the connection from the base station to the core network.
It is possible to connect several base stations to one another using high-
speed backhaul microwave links. This would also allow for roaming by a
WiMAX subscriber from one base station coverage area to another, similar to the
roaming enabled by cell phones.
Uses of WiMAX
 Provides mobile broadband connectivity.
 Telecommunications, Data, and ITPV services.
 Used as a source of Internet connectivity.
 Better for Metering and Smart grids.
RFID  Technology
RFID is a Radio Frequency Identification technology which uses the
electromagnetic fields to transfer the data. It helps to identify and track tags
attached to the objects. It is a method for Automatic Identification and Data
Capture.
Gi-Fi
In the recent times, the technology has changed drastically from wired
connections to wireless connections. Irrespective of the type of connection, the
demand for better bandwidth and data rates never comes to an end. Wi-Fi is used
to get better connectivity and data exchange rates, however, we always look up for
better alternatives. This need leads us to an updated wireless technology that has
standard data exchange rates, which we refer to as GiFi.
Advantages of Latest, Emerging Wireless Technologies
 Strong transmission providing great throughput and distance.
 Interference is avoided by the use of wireless technologies.
 Ethernet protocol is possible to be manipulated to get more efficiency and
reliability.
 Encryption technology can be used thereby providing security and integrity.
 It can reach where the cable and fiber cannot.
 Better access to get information.
 Better response.
 Good network expansion.
 Better mobility and collaboration.
 Better range.
Applications of Latest, Emerging Wireless Technologies
 Remote Control
 Wireless Power Transmission.
 Item Track.
 Voice Communications.
 Entertainment.
 Wireless sensing.
 Education.

Mobile IP

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet

Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with the
same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue without user’s
sessions or connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
 Mobile Node (MN): It is the hand-held communication device that the user
caries e.g. Cell phone.
 Home Network: It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs
to as per its assigned IP address (home address).
 Home Agent (HA): It is a router in home network to which the mobile node
was originally connected
 Home Address: It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node
(within its home network).
 Foreign Network: It is the current network to which the mobile node is
visiting (away from its home network).
 Foreign Agent (FA): It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node
is currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the
foreign agent which delivers it to the mobile node.
 Correspondent Node (CN): It is a device on the internet communicating to
the mobile node.
 Care of Address (COA): It is the temporary address used by a mobile node
while it is moving away from its home network.

Working:
Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contains
correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets
reaches to the home agent. But now mobile mode is not in the home network, it has
moved into the foreign network. Foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the
home agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be
established between the home agent and the foreign agent by the process of
tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a
tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and
it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.
Now, home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which
the source address is the home address and destination is the care-of-address and
sends it through the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on other side of the
tunnel receives the data packets, decapsulates them and sends them to the mobile
node. Mobile node in response to the data packets received, sends a reply in
response to foreign agent. Foreign agent directly sends the reply to the
correspondent node.
Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:
1. Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically
broadcasting their agent advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving
the agent advertisement messages observes whether the message is from its
own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network or foreign
network.
2. Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends
registration request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends
the registration request to the home agent with the care-of-address. Home
agent sends registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards
the registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of
registration.
3. Tunneling:
It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry
and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is
achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP
datagram from the home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever home agent
receives a packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with
source address as home address and destination as care-of-address.
Route Optimization in Mobile IP:
The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache,
to the correspondent node. The binding cache contains bindings for mobile node’s
home address and its current care-of-address. Every time the home agent receives a
IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently away from the home
network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to update the
information in the correspondent node’s binding cache. After this the
correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node.

WAP Push Architecture

[WAP is] the de facto worldwide standard for providing Internet

communications and advanced telephony services on digital mobile phones,
pagers, personal digital assistants, and other wireless terminals − WAP Forum.
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. The dictionary definition of
these terms are as follows −
 Wireless − Lacking or not requiring a wire or wires pertaining to radio
transmission.
 Application − A computer program or piece of computer software that is
designed to do a specific task.
 Protocol − A set of technical rules about how information should be
transmitted and received using computers.
WAP is the set of rules governing the transmission and reception of data by
computer applications on or via wireless devices like mobile phones. WAP allows
wireless devices to view specifically designed pages from the Internet using only
plain text and very simple black-and-white pictures.
WAP is a standardized technology for cross-platform, distributed computing
very similar to the Internet's combination of Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), except that it is optimized for:
 low-display capability
 low-memory
 low-bandwidth devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless
phones, and pagers.
WAP is designed to scale across a broad range of wireless networks like GSM,
IS-95, IS-136, and PDC.
Why is WAP Important?
Until the first WAP devices emerged, the Internet was a Internet and a
mobile phone was a mobile phone. You could surf the Net, do serious research, or
be entertained on the Internet using your computer, but this was limited to your
computer.
Now with the appearance of WAP, the scene is that we have the massive
information, communication, and data resources of the Internet becoming more
easily available to anyone with a mobile phone or communications device.
 WAP being open and secure, is well suited for many different applications
including, but not limited to stock market information, weather forecasts,
enterprise data, and games.
Despite the common misconception, developing WAP applications requires
only a few modifications to existing web applications. The current set of web
application development tools will easily support WAP development, and in the
future more development tools will be announced.
WAP Microbrowser
To browse a standard internet site you need a web browser. Similar way to
browse a WAP enables website, you would need a micro browser. A Micro
Browser is a small piece of software that makes minimal demands on hardware,
memory and CPU. It can display information written in a restricted mark-up
language called WML. Although, tiny in memory footprint it supports many
features and is even scriptable.
Today, all the WAP enabled mobile phones or PDAs are equipped with these
micro browsers so that you can take full advantage of WAP technology.
WAP - The Model
Before we describe WAP model, first we would like you to understand how
Standard Internet works.
The Internet Model

The Internet model makes it possible for a client to reach services on a large
number of origin servers, each addressed by a unique Uniform Resource
Locator (URL).
 The content stored on the servers is of various formats, but HTML is the
predominant. HTML provides the content developer with a means to describe the
appearance of a service in a flat document structure. If more advanced features
like procedural logic are needed, then scripting languages such as JavaScript or
VB Script may be utilised.
The figure below shows how a WWW client request a resource stored on a
web server. On the Internet standard communication protocols, like HTTP and
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are used.
The content available at the web server may be static or dynamic. Static
content is produced once and not changed or updated very often; for example, a
company presentation. Dynamic content is needed when the information provided
by the service changes more often; for example, timetables, news, stock quotes,
and account information. Technologies such as Active Server Pages (ASP),
Common Gateway Interface (CGI), and Servlets allow content to be generated
dynamically.
The WAP Model

The figure below shows the WAP programming model. Note, the
similarities with the Internet model. Without the WAP Gateway/Proxy, the two
models would have been practically identical.
WAP Gateway/Proxy is the entity that connects the wireless domain with
the Internet. You should make a note that the request that is sent from the wireless
client to the WAP Gateway/Proxy uses the Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). In
its essence, WSP is a binary version of HTTP.
 A markup language − the Wireless Markup Language (WML) has been
adapted to develop optimized WAP applications. In order to save valuable
bandwidth in the wireless network, WML can be encoded into a compact binary
format. Encoding WML is one of the tasks performed by the WAP
Gateway/Proxy.
How WAP Model Works?
When it comes to actual use, WAP works as follows −
 The user selects an option on their mobile device that has a URL with
Wireless Markup language (WML) content assigned to it.
 The phone sends the URL request via the phone network to a WAP gateway
using the binary encoded WAP protocol.
 The gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP request
for the specified URL and sends it on to the Internet.
 The appropriate Web server picks up the HTTP request.
 The server processes the request just as it would any other request. If the
URL refers to a static WML file, the server delivers it. If a CGI script is
requested, it is processed and the content returned as usual.
 The Web server adds the HTTP header to the WML content and returns it to
the gateway.
 The WAP gateway compiles the WML into binary form.
 The gateway then sends the WML response back to the phone.
 The phone receives the WML via the WAP protocol.
 The micro-browser processes the WML and displays the content on the
screen.

WAP - Architecture
WAP is designed in a layered fashion, so that it can be extensible, flexible,
and scalable. As a result, the WAP protocol stack is divided into five layers −
Layers of WAP Protocol
Application Layer
Wireless Application Environment (WAE). This layer is of most interest to
content developers because it contains among other things, device specifications,
and the content development programming languages, WML, and WMLScript.
Session Layer
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). Unlike HTTP, WSP has been designed
by the WAP Forum to provide fast connection suspension and reconnection.
Transaction Layer
Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). The WTP runs on top of a datagram
service, such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard suite of
TCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified protocol suitable for low bandwidth
wireless stations.
Security Layer
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). WTLS incorporates security
features that are based upon the established Transport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol standard. It includes data integrity checks, privacy, service denial, and
authentication services.
Transport Layer
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP). The WDP allows WAP to be bearer-
independent by adapting the transport layer of the underlying bearer. The WDP
presents a consistent data format to the higher layers of the WAP protocol stack,
thereby offering the advantage of bearer independence to application developers.
Each of these layers provides a well-defined interface to the layer above it.
This means that the internal workings of any layer are transparent or invisible to
the layers above it. The layered architecture allows other applications and services
to utilise the features provided by the WAP-stack as well. This makes it possible
to use the WAP-stack for services and applications that currently are not specified
by WAP.
The WAP protocol architecture is shown below alongside a typical Internet
Protocol stack.
 Note that the mobile network bearers in the lower part of the figure above
are not part of the WAP protocol stack.
WML
The topmost layer in the WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) architecture is
made up of WAE (Wireless Application Environment), which consists of WML
and WML scripting language.
 WML stands for Wireless Markup Language
 WML is an application of XML, which is defined in a document-type definition.
 WML is based on HDML and is modified so that it can be compared with
HTML.
 WML takes care of the small screen and the low bandwidth of transmission.
 WML is the markup language defined in the WAP specification.
 WAP sites are written in WML, while web sites are written in HTML.
 WML is very similar to HTML. Both of them use tags and are written in plain
text format.
 WML files have the extension ".wml". The MIME type of WML is
"text/vnd.wap.wml".
 WML supports client-side scripting. The scripting language supported is called
WML Script.
WMLScript (Wireless Markup Language Script) is the client-side scripting
language of WML (Wireless Markup Language). A scripting language is similar
to a programming language, but is of lighter weight. With WMLScript, the
wireless device can do some of the processing and computation. This reduces the
number of requests and responses to/from the server.
This chapter will give brief description of all the important WML Script
components.
WML Script Components
WML Script is very similar to Java Script. WML Script components have
almost similar meaning as they have in Java Script. The WML Script program
components are summarized here.
WML Script Operators
WML Script supports following type of operators.
 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison Operators
 Logical (or Relational) Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Conditional (or ternary) Operators
Check for complete detail of The WML Operators.
WML Script Control Statements
Control statements are used for controlling the sequence and iterations in a
program.
Statement Description

if-else Conditional branching

for Making self-incremented fixed iteration loop

while Making variable iteration loop

break Terminates a loop

continue Quit the current iteration of a loop

Check for complete detail of WML Script Control Statements.
WML Script Functions
The user-defined functions are declared in a separate file having the extension
.wmls. Functions are declared as follows −
function name (parameters) {
control statements;
return var;
}
The functions used are stored in a separate file with the extension .wmls. The
functions are called as the filename followed by a hash, followed by the function
name −
maths.wmls#squar()
WML Scripts Standard Libraries
The are six standard libraries totally. Here is an overview of them −
 Lang − The Lang library provides functions related to the WMLScript
language core.
Example Function − abs(),abort(), characterSet(),float(), isFloat(), isInt(),
max(), isMax(), min(), minInt(), maxInt(), parseFloat(), parseInt(),
random(), seed()
 Float − The Float library contains functions that help us perform floating-
point arithmetic operations.
Example Function − sqrt(), round(), pow(), ceil(), floor(), int(), maxFloat(),
minFloat()
 String − The String library provides a number of functions that help us
manipulate strings.
Example Function − length(), charAt(), find(), replace(), trim(), compare(),
format(), isEmpty(), squeeze(), toString(), elementAt(), elements(),
insertAt(), removeAt(), replaceAt()
 URL − The URL library contains functions that help us manipulate URLs.
Example Function − getPath(), getReferer(), getHost(), getBase(),
escapeString(), isValid(), loadString(), resolve(), unescapeString(),
getFragment()
 WMLBrowser − The WMLBrowser library provides a group of functions
to control the WML browser or to get information from it.
Example Function − go(), prev(), next(), getCurrentCard(), refresh(),
getVar(), setVar()
 Dialogs − The Dialogs library Contains the user interface functions.
Example Function − prompt(), confirm(), alert()
WML Scripts Comments
There are two types of comments in WMLScript −
 Single-line comment − To add a single-line comment, begin a line of text
with the // characters.
 Multi-line comment − To add a multi-line comment, enclose the text
within /* and */.
These rules are the same in WMLScript, JavaScript, Java, and C++. The
WMLScript engine will ignore all comments. The following WMLScript example
demonstrates the use of comments −
// This is a single-line comment.

/* This is a multi-line comment. */

/* A multi-line comment can be placed on a single line. */
WML Script Case Sensitivity
The WMLScript language is case-sensitive. For example, a WMLScript
function with the name WMLScript Function is different from wmlscript function.
So, be careful of the capitalization when defining or referring to a function or a
variable in WMLScript.
Whitespaces in WMLScript
Except in string literals, WMLScript ignores extra whitespaces like spaces,
tabs, and newlines.
WML Script Statement Termination by Semicolons
A semicolon is required to end a statement in WMLScript. This is the same
as C++ and Java. Note that JavaScript does not have such requirement but WML
Script makes it mandatory.