GP-3105 GRAVITY & MAGNETIC

METODE GAYABERAT & MAGNETIK

TA 2019/2020
LECTURE #02

Djedi S. Widarto
Dicky Ahmad Zaky

Program Studi Teknik Geofisika

Fakultas Teknologi Eksplorasi dan Produksi
Universitas Pertamina
GRAVITY METHOD
▪ Variation of g Value
✓ Density & Rock Types
✓ Noise sources
▪ What is Gravity Anomaly?
▪ Gravity Data Processing (Reduction &
Corrections)
✓ Tide & Drift Corrections
✓ Latitude Correction (Normal Gravity)
✓ Free-Air Correction
✓ Bouguer Slab Correction
✓ Terrain Correction
VARIATION OF g VALUE
Density & Rock Types
How is the variation of g value due to the
contrast density of rock types?
Noise Sources

In gravity data acquisition, there are two noise sources, i.e.:

▪ Temporal variation → changes of g value due to time variation;

▪ Spatial variation → changes of g value due to the spatial variation

(latitude & elevation), from one point to other point, and that is not
related to the geologic condition ….
What is Gravity Anomaly?
What is Gravity Anomaly?

Observed Gravity: gobs = g0 + g2

g0 = G (m0/r02) → effect of m0 (assumed as point mass)
g2 = G (m2/r22) → effect of m2 (as anomaly)
Mass = Volume x Density
=Vx
What is Gravity Anomaly?

g = V2(2-0) / r22 = V2  / r22

 = 2-0

→ Gravity anomaly depends on

g the density contrast …..

What is Gravity Anomaly?

g

(+) g = V2(2-0) / r22 = V2  / r22

 = 2-0
Distance

g → Gravity anomaly is direct

proportional with density
(+) contrast …..
What is Gravity Anomaly?

g

g = V2(2-0) / r22 = V2  / r22

(-)
 = 2-0
Distance

→ Gravity anomaly is direct

g
proportional with density
(-) contrast …..
What is Gravity Anomaly?

g
g?  ?
g = V2(2-0) / r22 = V2  / r22

 = 2-0
Distance

0
→ For the given model, could
2 we observe the gravity anomaly
on the ground? …..
What is Gravity Anomaly?
In Conclusions, what do Bouguer gravity anomalies mean?
▪ the difference between observed and expected gravity!
→ “expected” for average Earth (not rotating, perfect sphere, no topography, no
lateral density variations) …..

▪ in calculating the Bouguer anomaly, the data have been corrected for the effects of
latitude and elevation;
▪ any remaining gravity variations due to local density variations → due to subsurface
geology,
negative g value = anomalously low density
positive g value = anomalously high density
GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING
(REDUCTION & CORRECTIONS)
Reduction & Corrections
Gravity Data Reduction → to transform raw gravity data into gravity anomaly through the
process as follows:

▪ Temporal Correction, as time domain:

✓ Tidal correction, and
✓ Instrument drift.

▪ Spatial Correction, as space domain:

✓ Latitude correction, and
✓ Elevation correction.
Reduction & Corrections

Tidal Correction
▪ To eliminate gravity effects of the sun and moon
which are time function due to relative motion
among earth, moon and sun → ±0.3 mGals;
▪ The size of the ocean tides is measured in terms of
meters;
▪ The size of the solid earth tide is measured in terms
of centimeters → as large as 0.2 mGals;
▪ In case of gravity variations in Tulsa, Oklahoma; the
tides, the cyclic variation in gravity with a period of
oscillation of about 12 hours, have the amplitude of
the tidal variation about 0.15 mGals ….
Reduction & Corrections

Tidal Correction
▪ To calculate vertical attractions of the tidal accelerations produced by the Moon and the Sun, at any
time and any place on the Earth’s surface, using the Longman’s formula (Longman, 1959):

3 𝐺𝑚𝑟 3 𝑟
∆g 𝑟 𝑚 =− 3 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜓𝑚 − 1 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜓𝑚 − 3 cos 𝜓𝑚
𝑅𝑚 2 𝑅𝑚

3 𝐺𝑆𝑟
∆g 𝑟 𝑠 =− 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜓𝑠 − 1 ; 𝑟 = 6,378,139.00 1 − 0.0033528 𝑠𝑖𝑛2  + 0.0000070 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
𝑅𝑠3

Where G is the universal gravity constant = 6.6732 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2 = 6.67408 x 10-11 m3·kg-1·s-2
m, s = the zenith angles of the Moon and Sun, respectively
Rm, Rs = the distance between the center of the Earth and Moon, the Earth and Sun, respectively
m, S = mass of the Moon and Sun, respectively
r = earth ellipsoidal, based on e = 1/298.256 (natural number)
 = geographic latitude of observation point Longman I. M., 1959: Formulas for Computing the Tidal Accelerations Due to
the Moon and the Sun. Journal of Geophysical Research, 64, 2351–2355.
Reduction & Corrections

Tidal Correction
▪ To calculate g due to tides using Schureman’s formula (Schureman, 1941):

r : Distance from observation point to the center of the Earth

MB : mass of the Moon
DB : distance between the Moon and the Earth
 : zenith angle from the Moon
MM : mass of the Sun
DM : distance between the Sun and the Earth
 : zenith angle from the Sun

Zenith angle is a parameter that depend on the latitude position and the
time of observation

High tides are occurred twice in a day, or one-time in 14 days due to the Moon, or in 6 months due to
the Sun.
Reduction & Corrections
Instrument Drift Correction
▪ Observed gravity changes as a function of time at a
given location;
▪ To eliminate the effect of spring fatigue of the
instrument….

g1, ….gn : gravity value of 1st point

gn − g1 and nth point, respectively
Drift = ( t n − t1 ) gobs = ginst-reading ± gtide ± gdrift
t n − t1 t1, ….tn : measurement time of 1st
point and nth point, respectively
Reduction & Corrections
Geoid, Ellipsoid and Topography
▪ Gravimeters measure vertical gravity (g) relative to the Geoid
(dashed line), which is the equipotential surface represented
by mean sea level in the oceans;
▪ Normal gravity gn is defined perpendicular to the oblate
ellipsoid of spheroid of revolution (full line) that is
mathematical approximation of the Geoid;
▪ Geocentric latitude, which is also called co-latitude, is
referenced to the center of the Earth, whereas astronomic
latitude is measured relative to the true local vertical defined
by the Geoid;
▪ The deflection of vertical is the angular difference between
the verticals observed on the Geoid and defined by the
ellipsoid, whereas height differences (N) between Geoid and
ellipsoid are geoidal undulations …
No scale Adapted from Sheriff (2002)
Reduction & Corrections
Geoid, Ellipsoid and Topography
Bentuk geoid yang tidak beraturan tidak memungkinkan kita untuk
melakukan perhitungan matematis. Karena itu, sebagai representasi
matematis dari bentuk fisik Bumi, digunakan elipsoid …

Geoid → model Bumi yang mendekati sesungguhnya, didefinisikan

sebagai bidang ekuipotensial Bumi yang dianggap berhimpit dengan
permukaan air laut rata-rata (mean-sea level, MSL). Model Geoid
global, i.e.: EGM96, EGM2008

Ellipsoid → suatu pendekatan model Bumi (berbentuk elips ), dimana

parameternya ditentukan dari setengah sumbu panjang (a) , setengah
sumbu pendek (b) dan nilai penggepengan atau flattening ( 1/f )
Contoh: Bessel 1841, GRS67, WGS72 , WGS84.

Undulasi Geoid N → jarak atau beda tinggi antara Geoid dan

ellipsoid … Ini tidak sama di semua tempat, disebabkan adanya
ketidakseragaman sebaran rapat-massa (density) Bumi
No scale
Geoid, Ellipsoid & Topography (Earth’s Surface)
Reduction & Corrections

Latitude Correction
▪ Ellipsoid earth gravity reference has to be applied to produce an earth gravity value
at mean sea level as a function of the latitude of observation point;
▪ This reference implies an homogenous mass distribution of the earth ellipsoid
model;
▪ The ellipsoid model:

✓ IGRF 1967 : g (  ) := 978031 .8 (1 + 0 .005304 sin 2

 + 0.0000059 sin 2
2 )
✓ IUGG 1979 : g (  ) = 978031.85 (1 + 0. 005278895 sin 2
 + 0.000023462 sin 4
)
Where
g(ɸ) : theoretical (normal) gravity value (in mGal) as function of ɸ
ɸ : geographic latitude of observation point
Reduction & Corrections

Latitude Correction
▪ g-normal based on WGS84 (World Geodetic System) using newly constant values as described by NIMA
(2000):
1 + 0.00193185265241 sin2 ∅
𝑔𝑛 = 978032.53359 𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑙
1 − 0.00669437999014 sin2 ∅

▪ g-normal using the International Terrestrial Reference Frame, as recommended by the North American
Gravity Data Committee (NAGDC, 2005), with the 1980 Geodetic Reference System (GRS80; Moritz,
1980):
1 + 0.0019131851353 sin2 ∅
𝑔𝑛 = 978032.67715 𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑙
1 − 0.0066943800229 sin2 ∅

Where
𝑔𝑛 : theoretical (normal) gravity value (in mGal) as function of ɸ
ɸ : geographic latitude of observation point
Reduction & Corrections

Elevation Corrections
After eliminating the effect of the latitude of the observation point, the gravity variations are affected
by topographic/elevation (→ free-air correction) effect and local geologic effect (→ Bouguer
correction).

▪ Free-Air Correction → variation of gravity g due to the distance between observation point at topographic
surface to the center of the Earth (r):
𝑔𝐹𝐴 = −(0.3087691 − 0.0004398 𝑠𝑖𝑛2) ∆ℎ mGal
𝐺𝑀𝐸
or it can be calculated by: 𝑔 = → distance r >>, g <<
𝑟2

where 𝐺 = 6.67408 × 10−11 m3·kg-1·s-2 and 𝑀𝐸 = (5.9722±0.0006)×1024 kg

∆𝑔 = − 0.3085672 ∆ℎ = −0.3086∆ℎ → Free-Air Correction, gFA = ∆𝑔 for the latitude ± 45°

∆𝑔 in mGal and ∆ℎ in meter ....... Minus means increasing of h will decrease of g value ….
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Free-Air Correction
A gravity value is observed from A to B, so

The elevation increases 100 m, then the gravity value

decreases,

∆𝑔 = 0.3086 x 100 = 30.86 mGal .......

This number is not a small change...!

▪ To compare the gravity values at A, B, and C, we have to apply Free-Air Correction at those observation
points, and

▪ We have to define a reference level that is generally represented as mean sea level …..
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Free-Air Correction
▪ Free-Air Correction 𝐶𝐹𝐴= 0.3086 ∆ℎ

▪ ∆ℎ is height difference of observation point to the

reference level, so:

✓ If the observation point is situated above the reference

level (B), CFA is added to the observed gravity value;

✓ If the observation point beneath the reference level (C),

CFA is subtracted to the observed gravity value .........

▪ The gravity value as due to the free-air correction is called Free-Air Gravity Anomaly (𝑔𝐹𝐴 ) →
𝑔𝐹𝐴 is gravity variation if we observed at any points at the same distant from the center of the
Earth ...
gFA = gobs – (gn – CFA) = gobs – gn + CFA
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Bouguer Correction
▪ Bouguer correction is to estimate the earth gravity
infinite layer/slab at elevation h above sea level with earth mass of
density  (g/cm3) fill up the space of thickness h;
h ▪ The gravity value observed at B is determined by the
height of observation point and all masses with
density  beneath the observation points;
▪ The elevation of observation points are corrected by
CFA;
▪ But the gravity value at B is still higher than at A due
to the existence of mass of the hill beneath site B;

▪ Approaching by gravity effect due to the infinite layer/slab with homogeneous density and thickness;

▪ Then the gravity value of an infinite slab is defined as 𝑔 = 2G∆ℎ, where ∆ℎ is thickness and  is
density (assumed to be constant values) ....
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Bouguer Correction
▪ Bouguer correction is given by,
𝐶𝐵 = 2G∆ℎ = 0.04193 ρ∆ℎ mGal
infinite layer/slab
▪ By assuming that the average density of the Earth =
h 2.67 g/cm3, so

𝐶𝐵 = 0.1119∆ℎ mGal

▪ At SEA, Bouguer is negative because the water acts like

a mass deficit:

▪ The density of rocks can be determined by: rock

samples, well data, seismic velocity data and
Nettleton method ....  = 1.03 − 2.67 g/cm3
𝐶𝐵. 𝑠𝑒𝑎 = − 0.0688 ℎ𝑤 mGal
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Bouguer Correction

infinite layer/slab ▪ Bouguer correction at B,

CB= 0.1119 h = 0.1119 x 100 = 11.19 mGal
h
▪ Site B is at above of the reference level →
subtracted the value of CB (→ to eliminate gravity
effect of the hill);

▪ Site C is below the reference level → added the

value of CB (→ mass of the hill is vanish) ....

▪ After this Bouguer correction, the gravity value is then so-called Bouguer Gravity Anomaly 𝑔𝐵 ....
Reduction & Corrections

infinite layer/slab ▪ Select for a reference level,

𝐶𝐹𝐴 = 0.3086 ∆ℎ
h 𝐶𝐵 = 0.1119∆ℎ

Elevation of Observe CFA CB

Point
Above reference level ADD SUBTRACT
Beneath reference level SUBTRACT ADD

Simple Bouguer Gravity Anomaly, gSBA = gobs - (gn - CFA + CB)

PLEASE NOTE that this Simple Bouguer Anomaly is evaluated based on simple slab model, the effect
of mass excess from the hill and mass deficit from the valley have not considered yet ….
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Bouguer Correction: Nettleton’s Density Profile

✓ Nettleton (or graphical) method;

✓ Bouguer density is determined by creating
topographic profile and Bouguer anomaly
simultaneously for various density;
✓ Corrected g value has no correlation to the
topographic profile;
✓ From this figure (right), it can be determined that
the appropriate Bouguer density that has no
correlation to topographic profile is 𝜌=2.3 g/cc ….
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Bouguer Correction: Bouguer Density Determination
• Metode Nettleton (Analitik): Merujuk pada dasar metode Nettleton secara grafik.
• Mencari nilai koefisien korelasi antara anomali Bouger sederhana dan profil topografi dengan
variasi nilai 𝜌
• Penentuan rapat-massa Bouguer (Bouguer density) adalah yang memberikan nilai 𝑘 = 0
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Terrain Correction
If our observation site is situated in or close to rugged
terrain area, there is topographic effect to the gravity
values at the observation sites;

At Sites A and C: the existence of a hill with 100 m height

will affect the pendulum of gravimeter to move upward
(see Figure) → this will cause the gravity value becomes
lower.

At Site B: the gravity value becomes slightly lower due to missing mass at surrounding valleys.

For those cases, we have to run Terrain Correction in order to eliminate the topographic effect near the
observation sites .....
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Terrain Correction
✓ To compensate the topography: the existence of mass excess of the hill (M1) and missing mass at
valley (M2);
✓ M1 will decrease gravity value at A (negative vertical attraction), Bouguer correction considers that
there is M2, so mass attraction equivalent to M2 must be extracted from values at A;
✓ So terrain correction CT will give negative gravity value, or the other word by adding the value of
Simple Bouguer Anomaly gSBA;
✓ CT value can be obtained from a table of CT or calculation …
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Terrain Correction: Hammer Chart Correction
 Reduction & Corrections
▪ Terrain Correction: Hammer (Cylindrical Ring/Segment) Correction
2πρ𝐺 1/2
𝐶𝑇−𝑠𝑒𝑔 = 𝑟0 − 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑟𝑖2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑟𝑜2 + 𝑧 2 1/2
𝑁

N : number of segments/sectors in the ring;

z : the different in elevation between the
gravity station and mean elevation of the
segment/sector;
𝜌 : the Bouguer correction density (g/cm3)
Segment/
sector
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Terrain Correction: Table
Reduction & Corrections
▪ Complete Bouguer Anomaly
✓ Complete Bouguer Anomaly is then determined by:

gCBA = gobs - (gn - CFA + CB - CT)

= gobs - gn + CFA - CB + CT)
Gravity Anomaly Map, an example
Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly
▪ Isostatic anomalies represent one of the most useful geological reduction of the
gravity field;
▪ With the isostatic correction it is possible to remove a significant part of the effect of
deep density heterogeneity, which dominates in the Bouguer gravity anomalies;
▪ This correction is based on the fact that a major part of the near-surface load is
compensated by variations of the lithosphere boundaries (chiefly the Moho and
Lithosphere-Astenosphere Boundary) and by density variations within the crust and
upper mantle;
▪ Isostatic (residual) gravity anomaly maps are produced by subtracting long-
wavelength anomalies produced by masses deep within the crust or mantle from
the Bouguer anomaly map. The long-wavelength anomalies are assumed to result
from isostatic compensation of topographic loads …..
Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly

▪ 18th and 19th century surveys set out to measure the shape of the Earth;
▪ They used plumb bobs and expected them to be Angle of deflection

attracted toward adjacent mountain chains, eg. the

Excess Mass of
Andes and Himalayas; Plumb bobs
Mountains
▪ But the plumb bob was not attracted as much as
expected….. Expected deflections
Actual deflections
Excess Mass of
Mountains
They calculated that the observed deflection could be
explained if the excess mountain mass was matched by
Mass Deficiency
an equal mass deficiency beneath Beneath Mountains

→ The mountains were in isostatic equilibrium

The Earth’s lithosphere is “floating” on the denser
asthenosphere
Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly
▪ Airy’s Hypothesis:
To account for the mass deficiency beneath mountains

▪ Two densities, that of the rigid upper layer𝜌𝑢 , and that of the
substratum 𝜌𝑠

𝜌𝑢 ▪ Mountains therefore have deep roots …..

𝜌𝑠

The compensation depth is the depth below which all pressures are
hydrostatic
Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly
▪ Airy’s Hypothesis:
Equating the masses in vertical columns above the
compensation depth:
1 2 1 3
𝑡𝜌𝑢 +𝑟1 𝜌𝑠 = ℎ1 + 𝑡 + 𝑟1 𝜌𝑢 t𝜌𝑢 +𝑟1 𝜌𝑠 = 𝑑𝜌𝑤 + 𝑡 − 𝑑 − 𝑟3 𝜌𝑢 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟3 𝜌𝑠
𝜌𝑢
A mountain height ℎ1 is Ocean basin with depth d is underlain
underlain by a root of by an anti-root of thickness:
𝜌𝑠 thickness:
𝜌𝑢 𝜌𝑢 − 𝜌𝑤
𝑟1 = ℎ 𝑟3 = 𝑑
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑢 1 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑢
𝜌𝑢 : crustal density
The compensation depth … 𝜌𝑠 : mantle density
𝜌𝑤 : water density
t : crustal thickness
h1, h2 : elevations
d : water depth
 Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly
▪ Pratt’s Hypothesis:
To account for the mass deficiency beneath mountains
▪ The depth of the base of the upper layer is constant;
▪ Mountains therefore have low density roots …..
𝜌𝑢 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌𝑑 The compensation depth is the depth below which all pressures are
hydrostatic
𝜌𝑢
Equating the masses in vertical columns above the compensation depth:
1 2 1 3
𝐷𝜌𝑢 = ℎ1 + 𝐷 𝜌1 𝐷𝜌𝑢 = 𝑑𝜌𝑤 + 𝜌𝑑 𝐷 − 𝑑
A mountain height ℎ1 is underlain by Ocean basin with depth d is underlain by an
a low density material, density 𝜌1 : anti-root of thickness:

𝐷 𝜌𝑢 𝐷 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑑
𝜌1 = 𝜌𝑢 𝜌𝑑 =
ℎ1 + 𝐷 𝐷−𝑑
Isostasy & Isostatic Gravity Anomaly
▪ Vening Meinesz ‘s Hypothesis:
In this type of isostasy, short-wavelength topography is supported by the elastic
strength of the crustal rocks. The load is instead distributed by the bent plate over a
broad area. This distributed load is compensated.
Thank you,
See you for the next lecture ....