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The Physical Layer

Chapter 2

Theoretical Basis for Data

Communication

• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Maximum data rate of a channel

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Fourier Analysis
• We model the behavior of variation of voltage
or current with mathematical functions
• Fourier series is used

• Function reconstructed with

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (1)

A binary signal and its root-mean-square

Fourier amplitudes.

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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (4)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (5)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (6)

Relation between data rate and

harmonics for our example.

The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

• Nyquist’s theorem

• Shannon’s formula for capacity of a noisy channel

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Guided Transmission Media

• Magnetic media
• Twisted pairs
• Coaxial cable
• Power lines
• Fiber optics

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Magnetic Media

• Write data onto magnetic media

• Disks
• Tapes
• Data transmission speed
• Never underestimate the bandwidth of
a station wagon full of tapes hurtling
down the highway.

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Twisted Pairs

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable

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Power Lines

A network that uses household electrical wiring.

Fiber Optics (1)

Three examples of a light ray from inside a

silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary
at different angles.

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Fiber Optics (2)

Light trapped by total internal reflection.

Transmission of Light Through Fiber

Attenuation of light through fiber

in the infrared region

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Fiber Cables (1)

Views of a fiber cable

Fiber Cables (2)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes

and LEDs as light sources

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Wireless Transmission

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared Transmission
• Light Transmission

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

The electromagnetic spectrum and

its uses for communication

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum (2)

Spread spectrum and ultra-wideband

(UWB) communication

Radio Transmission (1)

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature
of the earth

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Radio Transmission (2)

In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

The Politics of the Electromagnetic

Spectrum

ISM and U-NII bands used in the

United States by wireless devices

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Light Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication

systems. A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.

Communication Satellites

• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Satellites Versus Fiber

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Communication Satellites

Communication satellites, some properties, including: altitude

above earth, round-trip delay time, number of satellites for
global coverage.

Geostationary Satellites (1)

The principal satellite bands

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Geostationary Satellites (2)

VSATs using a hub.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (1)

The Iridium satellites form six necklaces

around the earth.

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Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (2)

Relaying in space.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (3)

Relaying on the ground

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Digital Modulation and Multiplexing

• Baseband Transmission
• Passband Transmission
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Code Division Multiplexing

Baseband Transmission

Line codes: (a) Bits, (b) NRZ, (c) NRZI,

(d) Manchester, (e) Bipolar or AMI.

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Clock Recovery

4B/5B mapping.

Passband Transmission (1)

(a) A binary signal. (b) Amplitude shift keying.

(c) Frequency shift keying. (d) Phase shift keying.

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Passband Transmission (2)

(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (1)

Gray-coded QAM-16.

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (2)

Frequency division multiplexing. (a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(c) The multiplexed channel.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (3)

Orthogonal frequency division

multiplexing (OFDM).

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Time Division Multiplexing

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

Code Division Multiplexing (1)

(a) Chip sequences for four stations.

(b) Signals the sequences represent

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Code Division Multiplexing (2)

(a) Six examples of transmissions.

(b) Recovery of station C’s

The Public Switched Telephone Network

• Structure of the telephone system

• Politics of telephones
• Local loop: modems, ADSL, and fiber
• Trunks and multiplexing
• Switching

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Structure of the Telephone System (1)

(a) Fully interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.

Structure of the Telephone System (2)

A typical circuit route for a long-distance call.

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Structure of the Telephone System (3)

Major Components
1. Local loops analog twisted pairs to houses, businesses).
2. Trunks (digital fiber optic links between switching offices).
3. Switching offices (calls are moved from one trunk to
another).

The Politics of Telephones

The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. Circles are LEC

switching offices. Hexagons belong to
IXC whose number is in it.

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Telephone Modems

Use of both analog and digital transmission for computer -to-

computer call. Conversion done by modems and codecs.

Digital Subscriber Lines (1)

Bandwidth versus distance over Category 3

UTP for DSL.

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Digital Subscriber Lines (2)

Operation of ADSL using discrete

multitone modulation.

Digital Subscriber Lines (3)

A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

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Fiber To The Home

Passive optical network for Fiber To The Home.

Time Division Multiplexing (1)

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

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Time Division Multiplexing (2)

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing

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Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (1)

(a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (2)

Timing of events in (a) circuit switching,

(b) packet switching

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Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (3)

A comparison of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

Mobile Telephone System

• First-Generation (1G) Mobile Phones Analog Voice

• Second-Generation (2G) Mobile Phones Digital Voice
• Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones Digital Voice + Data

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Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.

(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.

GSM—The Global System for Mobile

Communications (1)

GSM mobile network architecture.

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GSM—The Global System for Mobile

Communications (2)

GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an

eight-slot TDM system.

GSM—The Global System for Mobile

Communications (3)

A portion of the GSM framing structure.

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Digital Voice and Data (1)

Basic services intend by IMT-2000 network

• High-quality voice transmission.
• Messaging (replacing email, fax, SMS, chat).
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, television).
• Internet access (Web surfing, incl. audio, video).

Digital Voice and Data (2)

Soft handoff (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after.

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Cable Television

• Community antenna television

• Internet over cable
• Spectrum allocation
• Cable modems
• ADSL versus cable

Community Antenna Television

An early cable television system

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Internet over Cable (1)

Cable television

Internet over Cable (2)

The fixed telephone system.

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Spectrum Allocation

Frequency allocation in a typical

cable TV system used for Internet access.

Cable Modems

Typical details of the upstream and downstream

channels in North America.

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End

Chapter 2

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