PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

The Pitot Static system supplies both the Pitot and Static pressure for the Airspeed Indicator (ASI).
The Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) and MACHMETER.

Ambient pressure is known as STATIC PRESSURE.

Static Pressure acts on all parts of the aircraft, from all direction, Static pressure is present at all
times, whether the aircraft is stationary on all the ground, or in flight.

The Airspeed Indicator measures the Dynamic Pressure that is the difference between Pitot and
Static Pressure.

POSITION ERROR is due to turbulent airflow in the region of the Pitot/Static head.

About 95% of the combined pressure head position error is eliminated by the use of a separate
STATIC VENT.

AIR – TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

1
The measurement of air temperature is of importance to a pilot, not just to establish the likelihood
of engine or airframe icing, but also in connection with many other aspects of aircraft performance.

THE EFFECT OF COMPRESSIBILITY

The measurement of air temperature outside the aircraft appears a simple task, a thermometer
which protrudes into the air stream apparently be sufficient to do the job. However this is not the
case, because as aircraft speed increases, the air close up to the aircraft becomes compressed, and
because of this compression that air is heated.

This means that the temperature sensed will be too warm and not representative of the actual air
temperature.

STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE (SAT)

Is the temperature of the undisturbed air through which the aircraft is about to fly.

TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT)

Is the maximum temperature attainable by the air when brought to rest, adiabatically.

The increase of air temperature or higher speeds

as result of compression and the effect of friction
is known as the “RAM RISE”.

The percentage of the “RAM RISE” (RAT) sensed

and recovered at a TAT probe is termed the
Recovery Factor (k).

V is the true airspeed in knots

SAT is the Static Air Temperature

TAT is the Total Air Temperature

TAT = SAT + Ram Rise

WHEN MACH NO. IS GIVEN

SAT = Correct outside air temperature

TAT = Indicated outside air temperature

M = Mach number

K = Recovery factor of the temperature bulb

2
 AIRSPEED INDICATOR

PRINCIPLE OF ASI

The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure. These two pressures
are fed to the airspeed indicator, A DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE (DPG), which measures their
difference PE (the dynamic pressure)

Now dynamic pressure is a measure of airspeed.

(DGCA) Remember ASI measures the Dynamic pressure that is pressure between PITOT and STATIC

AIR SPEED INDICATOR

Measure speed of the A/C relative to air

Pressure from pitot and Static tubes are fed to opposite side of a diaphragm in an air tight case

When A/C moving through air pressure from pitot tube will be more than that from static &
diaphragm will move. The diaphragm movement is transmitted to the pointer over a graduated dial.

Pitot Pressure = Dynamic + Static Pressure

Dynamic Pressure = Pitot Pressure – Static Pressure

3
CALIBRATION (DGCA)

The ASI is calibrated to read true airspeed for the air density of 1.225 kg per cubic metre which
would be produced by the ISA, MSL pressure of 1013.25 mb and temperature + 15 degrees C (dry air
conditions).

No allowance is made in the calibration for the change in density which occurs with change of
altitude.

IF DENSITY CHANGES THEN WHAT?

ASI is the instrument with the biggest error in the cockpit.

AIRSPEED or PRESSURES

I - IAS (Indicated airspeed)

Prefer - Pressure/Position/Instrument Error

Chocolate - CAS (Calibrated airspeed) Or RAS (Rectified airspeed)

Coloured - Compressibility error

Elegantly - EAS (Equivalent airspeed)

Designed - Density Error

Trousers - TAS (True airspeed)

TAS = CAS + (1.75 of CAS per 1,000 ft of Altitude)

ERRORS OF ASI

1. INSTRUMENT ERROR – Construction Defects

2. POSITION OR PRESSURE ERROR - Arises as the A/C movement through air causes a disturbance
which alters the static pressure around the A/C. Due to this incorrect pressure enters the port.

Manoeuvre – Induced Errors –These are associated chiefly with manoeuvres involving change in
angle of attack, giving transient errors and a lag in the indication of changes in airspeed.

4
Size of error depends upon:

- Position of Pitot head or static head

- Speed of A/C

- Angle of Attack of A/C

Position error is maximum at high AOA and slow airspeed due to vortex generation

3. COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR

At TAS > 300 knots (below this speed the error is negligible and can be ignored)

At high altitude less dense air is easily compressed than denser air at sea level resulting in greater
dynamic pressure.

Eg. If a parcel of air has 20 molecules, the air will be compressed and the total number of air
molecules entering will be more than 20.

Therefore, compressibility error always CAUSES THE ASI TO OVER READ.

CE increases directly with both Airspeed & Altitude

4. DENSITY ERROR– Unless the air around the aircraft is at the calibration density of 1.225 kg per
cubic metre, which can only occur near sea level, the ASI cannot correctly indicate TAS.

Summarizing the ASI under reads the true speed at high altitude, the discrepancy being called
“DENSITY ERROR” (DGCA)

Dynamic Pressure = 1⁄2 ρV2

Under standard atmospheric conditions:

ABOVE MSL: ρ (decreases), V (increases), Dynamic pressure (increases), TAS > IAS

AT MSL: TAS = IAS

BELOW MSL: ρ (increases), V (decreases), Dynamic pressure (decreases), TAS < IAS

5. LAG ERROR: The capsule doesn’t immediately respond to pressure changes and there is a further
lag while transmitting the capsule changes to the pointer. So, the instrument lags behind the actual
airspeed.

ASI tolerance + 3% or 5 Knots whichever is greater

SUMMARY OF ERRORS:

CAS or RAS = IAS + PEC + IEC

EAS = RAS + CEC

TAS = EAS + DEC

5
BLOCKAGES

STATIC BLOCKAGE - Casing pressure remains constant

Descent-

Capsule static pr. > Casing static pr.

Capsule will expand, ASI will over read

Climb-

Capsule static pr. < Casing static pr.

Capsule will contract, ASI will under read

Level Flight at constant A/S-

No change in the indications.

PITOT BLOCKAGE - Capsule pressure remains constant

Descent-

Capsule static pr. < Casing static pr.

Capsule will contract, ASI will under read

Climb-

Capsule static pr. > Casing static pr.

Capsule will expand, ASI will over read

Level Flight at constant A/S-

No change in the indications.

LEAKS

PITOT – A leak in pitot tube causes ASI to under read (because the pressure in capsule will be lesser
than actual leading to a contraction.

STATIC leak in unpressurised A/C – ASI over reads

Due to aerodynamic suction there is lesser pressure inside the aircraft that is fed to the casing and
the capsule expands.

(Aerodynamic suction is due Bernoulli’s principle which causes a low pressure over the aircraft
surface and higher pressure inside the fuselage. Since air moves from high to low pressure, the air is

6
sucked out of the aircraft through holes/window openings etc. Creating lower pressure inside the
A/C)

In pressurised A/C – ASI under reads (outside air pressure is higher than what is maintained in the
cabin. Therefore, the cabin static is fed to the casing.

OVER READING of ASI is Dangerous – Because the A/C will stall at a higher indicated airspeed.

V SPEEDS

Vne – Never Exceed speed

Vno – Normal Ops speed max limit (clean config)

Vs1- Stalling speed (clean config)

Vso – Stalling speed with gears and flaps fully extended

Vfe - Max. speed with flaps extended

Vlo – Max. speed for landing gear lowering

Vle – Max. speed with landing gear extended

7
Vmo – Max.
Mach no.

(operating speed)

ASI COLOUR CODING

WHITE ARC VSO to VFE (Stalling speed with flaps & gears fully extended to max)

GREEN ARC VSI TO VNO (Stalling speed clean aircraft to Normal operating max limit)

YELLOW ARC VNO to VNE

RED RADIAL LINE VNE

BLUE RADIAL LINE VYSE best single engine climb speed in a twin-engine aircraft

8
RED AND WHITE

Indicates CAS value of VMO STRIPED POINTER at low altitude and

MMO at (BARBER’S POLE) high altitude.

Useful formula for estimating TAS is:

TAS = CAS + ( 1.75 % of CAS per 1,000 ft of altitude)

e.g. for a CAS of 100 kt at 10,000 ft. TAS = CAS + (1.75 x 100 x 10)
=117.5 k

STATIC BALANCING

In bigger A/Cs static ports are placed on both sides of fuselage. This is called STATIC BALANCING. It
helps in reducing position errors when A/C is side slipping or when in a turn.

Whenever A/C side slips the port on the other side helps balancing the extra pressure sensed on one
side.

DGCA –

A/C side slipping towards the blocked static port?

Ans. OVER READ

Eg. A side slip to left means the a/c is yawing to right. There is higher airspeed (high pressure) on the
port side and lower on starboard side. If the port side static vent is blocked, the starboard side will
receive lesser air molecules giving the sense of a higher altitude (because high alt = low pressure)

A/C side slipping towards the open part assuming other side is blocked ?

Ans. UNDER READ (higher airspeed on the side of the operational vent. More air molecules, more
dynamic pressure. High pressure = lower alt)

PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

1. A pitot head is used to measure:

a. Dynamic minus static pressure

9
 b. Static plus dynamic pressure

c. Static pressure

d. Dynamic pressure

2.A static vent is used to measure:

a. Dynamic pressure minus pitot excess

b. Dynamic pressure plus pitot excess

c. Atmospheric pressure

d. Pitot excess pressure

3.A pressure head is subject to the following errors:

a. Position, manoeuvre induced, temperature

b. Position, manoeuvre induced

c. Position, manoeuvre induced, density

d. Position, manoeuvre induced, instrument.

4.Turbulent flow around a pressure head will cause:

a. Density error

b. 95% increase in manoeuvre induced error

c. An increase in the dynamic pressure

d. 95% of pressure error

5.Manoeuvre induced error:

a. Is caused by pressure changes at static vents and lag

b. Is likely to be greatest when yawing after engine failure

c. Is combined with instrument and position error on a correction card.

d. Lasts for only a short time at high altitude

6.Position error:

a. May be reduced by the fitting of static vents

b. Will usually decrease with an increase in altitude

c. Will depend solely on the attitude of the aircraft

10
 d. Will usually decrease as the aircraft approaches the speed of sound

7.Pressure heads supply data to the following instruments:

a. Air data computers, altimeters, ASI’s

b. Standby instruments only, when air data computers fitted

c. Altimeters, ASI’s, VSI’s, machmeters, air data computers

d. All the above plus air driven gyros.

8.Static vents are usually fitted to both sides of the aircraft fuselage. This will:

a. Reduce the position error

b. Balance out errors caused by side slipping or yawing

c. Require a calibration card for each static vent

d. Enable a greater number of instruments to be fitted

9.Which of the following instruments require inputs of both pitot and static pressure:

a. Airspeed indicator, machmeter and vertical speed indicator.

b. Airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, altimeter

c. Airspeed indicator only

d. Airspeed indicator and machmeter

10.Where an alternate static source is fitted, use of this source usually leads to :

a. A temporary increase in lag error

b. A lower pressure error than with normal sources

c. An increase in position error

d. No change in position error

Answers:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B C D D A A C B D C

AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

1.Converted into degrees Celsius – 40degrees F is :

a. -56.5 degrees C

11
 b. -40 degrees C

c. -20 degrees C

d. -108 degrees C

2.In an aircraft thermometer with an electrical resistance sensor to measure the air temperature,
the resistance wire elements is probably:

a. Plutonium

b. Platinum

c. Potassium

d. Beryllium copper

3.Flying at high speed at high altitude,, the difference between ram air temperature and static air
temperature is:

a. Likely to be less than when flying low and slow

b. Due to adiabatic cooling

c. Due to adiabatic warming

d. Proportional to the square of the absolute temperature

4.Aircraft air temperature thermometers are shielded to protect them from:

a. Radiation

b. Accidental physical damage on the ground or hailstones in flight

c. Airframe icing

d. Kinetic heating

5.At a true airspeed of 500 knots, a ram rise of air temperature can be expected of:

a. 50 degrees Celsius

b. 25 degrees Celsius

c. 5 degrees Celsius

d. 16 degrees Celsius

6.An air temperature probe may be aspired in order to:

a. Prevent icing

b. Measure air temperature on the ground

12
 c. Compensate for thermal soaking at the ramp position

d. Reduce the effect of solar radiation

7.Total Air Temperature is:

a. The maximum temperature attainable by the air when brought to rest, adiabatically

b. The temperature indicated on the air temperature thermometer plus the ram rise

c. The static air temperature minus the recovery factor

d. The recovery factor plus the ram rise

8.The difference between static air temperature and total air temperature is known as:

a. Corrected outside air temperature

b. The ram rise

c. The recovery factor

d. Hot ramp radiation

9.A direct reading aircraft thermometer usually consists of a bimetallic helix protruding into the
airstream. Movement of the pointer over the temperature scale will depend upon:

a. Difference in electrical resistance of the two metals

b. Increase in pressure as airspeed increases

c. Increases in adiabatic cooling as airspeed increases

d. Different coefficients of expansion of the two metals

10.A remote reading thermometer depends upon ..... to indicate changes in temperature

a. Change of electrical resistance of the two metals

b. Change of electrical resistance with temperature

c. Change of electrical resistance with change in pressure

d. Change of electrical capacitance with change in temperature

Answers:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B B C A B B A B D B

13
AIRSPEED INDICATOR

1. If the pitot line to an ASI becomes totally blocked during a climb, the ASI reading will:

a. Decrease, no matter what the actual airspeed is

b. Increase, no matter what the actual airspeed is

c. Progressively under indicate the value of the airspeed

d. Stick to the airspeed showing at the moment of blockage

2. Compressibility error:

a. Causes over reading of the ASI at all levels whenever TAS exceeds 300 kt

b. Causes over-reading of the ASI whenever CAS exceeds 300 kt.

c. Is calibrated out of the ASI at MSL ISA conditions and only causes over reading when air
density is decreased and CAS exceeds 300 kt

d. Is calibrated out of the ASI at MSL ISA conditions and only causes over reading when air
density is decreased and TAS exceeds 300 kt.

3. If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a long descent, a dangerous situation could
arise due to the ASI:

a. Over reading this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be further from the stalling
speed than it actually is

b. Underreading, this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be closer to the stalling
speed than it actually is.

c. Underreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and / or landing
gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds.

d. Overreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and/or landing
gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds.

4.An aircraft maintaining a constant CAS and altitude is flying from a cold airmass into warmer air.
The effect of the change temperature on the speed will be:

a. CAS will decrease

b. EAS will increase

c. TAS will increase

d. TAS will decrease

14
5.The airspeed indicator is calibrated to:

a. Conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere

b. Conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere

c. An air density of 1013.25 gms/m3

d. Indicate correctly in any atmosphere.

6.Dynamic pressure is equal to:

a. ½ p V3

b. ½ p V2

c. 1/3 p V2

d. M.G.H

7.Excluding blockages, the full list of errors of the ASI is:

a. Instrument error, position error, density error, manoeuvre induced error.

b. Instrument error, position error, temperature error, compressibility error, manoeuvre

induced error.

c. Instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature error, lag, manoeuvre
induced error.

d. Instrument error, position error, density error, compressibility error, manoeuvre induced
error.

8.Some ASI have coloured arcs and lines marked on their dials. A yellow arc and a white arc indicate:

a. Cautionary range and normal operating range

b. Flap operating speed range and normal operating range

c. Cautionary range and flap operating speed range

d. Flap operating speed range and cautionary range

9.What will be the TAS if cruising altitude is 39 000 ft, temperature is ISA + and CAS 200 kt:

a. 388 kt

b. 380 kt

c. 364 kt

d. 370 kt

10. If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a climb, the ASI reading will:

15
 a. Increase, no matter what the actual airspeed is

b. Progressively under indicate the value of airspeed

c. Progressively over indicate the value of airspeed

d. Stick at the airspeed showing at the moment of blockage.

Answers:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B D A C B B D C B B

16
 PRESSURE ALTIMETER

• Indicates height above a selected pressure datum.

PRINCIPLE

• Static air pressure decreases with height

• The Pressure Altimeter is a sensitive pressure gauge calibrated to indicate height above a
selected datum level.

CONSTRUCTION – SIMPLE ALTIMETER

• PRESSURE ALTIMETER consists of thin metal capsule which is evacuated and sealed

• It is prevented from collapsing by means of a LEAF SPRING

• Consists of a single capsule mounted in an AIR TIGHT CASE

• The case is fed with static pressure from A/C static tube or vent

• As the aircraft climbs the pressure in the case falls allowing the capsule to expand

• Conversely, decrease in Height compresses the capsule

• The linear movement is magnified and transmitted to a pointer

• Accuracy reduces with increase in altitude.

SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

17
 • The sensitive altimeter employs a minimum of two aneroid capsule (sometimes three). This
provides for a more accurate measurement of pressure and more power to drive the
mechanical linkages.

• Within the mechanical linkages, a bi-metallic insert is fitted to compensate for temperature
changes that could affect the movement

• Jewelled bearings are fitted, reducing friction and the associated lag in indications.

Some altimeter systems employ “Knocking / Vibrating” devices to help overcome friction and
lag.

SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER

• In this instead of mechanical amplification, the capsule assembly is made part of SERVO
SYSTEM resulting in greater accuracy at all altitudes

• It has electromagnetic pick-off devices which produce an electromagnetic current which is

amplified and rotates counters and pointers.

• LAG ERROR is virtually eliminated in SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER with the help of
electromagnetic induction pickoff device.

• Digital indication

• Reliable even at higher altitudes.

Tolerance of servo assisted altimeter at MSL is + 30ft.

ERRORS IN PRESSURE ALTIMETER

1. INSTRUMENT ERROR – Due to manufacturing defeats

2. LAG ERROR (time lag) – since the response of the capsule or linkage is not instantaneous, the
altimeter needle lags whenever height is increased or decreased rapidly, causing an under
read on climb and over read on descent.

Lag error is virtually eliminated in Servo Assisted Altimeter.

3. POSITION ERROR (PE) – Due to incorrect static pressure created in the vicinity of static vent
due to disturbance of airflow over it.

4. PRESSURE ERROR (Barometric Pressure) – occurs when actual datum pressure differs from
ISA, corrected by correct setting on Sub-Scale.

5. TEMPERATURE ERROR – altimeter calibrated on ISA + 15 degrees C and lapse rate of 1.98
degrees/1000, actual temp usually differs, so the error.

18
For “rule of thumb”

Work, temperature difference of

10 degrees C from standard
results in an error of
approximately 4% of the
indicated altitude.

True Altitude =

MSL Altitude + [0.4% x ISA

deviation x MSL Altitude]

HYSTERESIS ERROR

The capsule suffers from hysteresis, which causes a lag in the instrument reading during a climb or
descent.

DGCA: Hysteresis error increases with flight time

6. BLOCKAGE –

• If static vent is blocked the pressure within the instrument case will remain constant

• Altimeter will continue to register height indicated when blockage occurred

• Break glass of VSI or Mach meter to get Altitude/Height

7. LEAKAGES

1. LEAK IN A STATIC TUBE (pipe) – with in a pressurised cabin allows increased static
pressure to enter static line (because the pressure maintained inside the aircraft is
higher than outside). This causes the altimeter to indicate Cabin Altitude.

2. Within a Non pressurised A/C – static pressure inside is slightly less than local
atmospheric static pressure. (Due to aerodynamic suction- refer to ASI) So a leaking
static type allows the lower pressure to enter static lines this causes altimeter to over
indicate slightly.

IMPORTANT FACTS

1. Altimeter under indicates (under reads) when Actual Temp>ISA or when temp increases

2. Altimeter over indicates (over reads) when Temp<ISA or when temp decreases

19
COLD AIR – Density greater – given pressure will occur at lower altitudes than warmer air
consequently altimeter over reads. Error approx. 4 % of indicated altitude for every 10 degrees Temp
deviation.

3. Altimeter OVER indicates (OVER reads) when side slipping towards a blocked static port
(vent)

4. UNDER indicates (UNDER reads) when side slipping away towards the blocked static port.

5. HIGH LOW HIGH (for pressure & temperature)

6. HIGH to LOW dangerous

Pressure lapse rate:

At Mean Sea Level 1 HPa = 27ft

At 5500 m or 18000ft 1 Hpa = 50ft

SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER

Altitude – the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from
mean sea level.

Height – the vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from a
specified datum.

Elevation – the vertical distance of a point or a level, on or affixed to the surface of the earth,
measured from mean sea level.

Flight level – a surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific pressure
datum, 1013.2 hectopascal (Hpa), and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure
intervals.

Pressure altitude – an atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude which corresponds to

that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere.

20
QNH- is the aerodrome pressure reduced to MSL pressure taking into account ISA conditions, when
QNH set, altimeter indicates Elevation on ground and Altitude in flight.

QFE- actual aerodrome level pressure at any time. When set on ground will read 0. In flight altimeter
will read height above airport elev.

QNE- standard altitude setting 1013.2 or 29.92”. when set altimeter will read FL/PA

QFF – aerodrome pressure reduced to MSL taking in to account prevailing atmospheric conditions.
Used in Met.

Setting on Altimeter Altimeter reading at aerodrome Altimeter reading when flying

QFE Zero Height above aerodrome

QNH Elevation Altitude

QNE Pressure altitude Pressure altitude or flight level

DENSITY ALTITUDE

• Is the Height in ISA conditions at which a given air density will occur

• If Density more, Density Altitude will be lower (less)

• If Temp. more than ISA, Density Altitude will be more

• If Temp. Same as ISA, Density Altitude and Pressure Altitude will be same

Density Altitude = PA + 120 (ISA Deviation)

Actually 118.8

ISA Deviation = [ Actual Temp. – ISA Temp.]

• Higher the Temp., higher will be Density Altitude

• If actual temp. is more than ISA, DA will be more than PA. If actual temp. Less than ISA, PA
will be more than DA.

21
 This is the altitude at or below which the vertical position
Transition Altitude of an aircraft is expressed and controlled in terms of
altitude. In India it is commonly 4,000 feet.

This is the lowest flight level available for use above the
Transition
transition altitude. At and above transition level , vertical
level
position is expressed as a flight level.

This is the airspace between transition altitude and

transition level.

1. When climbing through it, the aircraft’s vertical

Transition layer position is expressed in terms of flight level

2. When descending through it, in terms of altitude

(though in practice the depth of the layer is usually
insignificant)

ALTIMETER

1. Omitted

2. In the International Standard Atmosphere, the mean sea level pressure is .........., the lapse rate of
temperature....... between MSL and .......... and is isothermal up to ........... the number missing are :

a. 1225 mb; 2 degrees per 1000 ft; 37000 ft; 66000 ft

b. 1013.25 mb; 1.98 degrees C per 1000 ft; 36090 ft; 65617 ft

c. 1013.25 mb;1.98 degrees C per 1000 ft; 36090 ft; 104987 ft

d. 1225 mb; 1.98 degrees C per 1000 ft; 36090 ft; 104987 ft

3. An aircraft taking off from an airfield with QNH set on the altimeter has both static vents blocked
by ice. As the aircraft climbs away the altimeter will:

a. Read the airfield elevation

b. Indicate the aircraft height amsl

c. Read the height of the aircraft above the airfield

d. Show only a very small increase in height

4. When flying from low pressure to high pressure, the barometric error of an altimeter will cause
the instrument to:

22
 a. Read the true altitude, providing a correction is made for temperature

b. Overread the true altitude of the aircraft

c. Indicate a higher altitude than the correct one

d. Underread the true altitude of the aircraft

5. The errors affecting the pressure altimeter are:

a. Instrument position, manoeuvre induced, density, temperature, lag

b. Instrument, pressure, manoeuvre induced, density, temperature, lag

c. Instrument, position, manoeuvre induced, temperature, barometric, lag

d. Instrument, pressure, lag, barometric, temperature, compressibility

6. An altimeter with ....... set on the subscale will indicate ........, but with ........ set, the altimeter will
show .........

a. 1013; pressure altitude; QNH;height above mean sea level

b. QNE; pressure altitude ; QNH; height above airfield datum.

c. QFE; height above the airfield datum; 1013; height amsl

d. QNH; height above touch down;1013; height amsl.

7.An aircraft has one altimeter set to QFE and one to aerodrome QNH 1000 mb. It the airfield
elevation is 300 ft, immediately before take-off the altimeter with QFE set will read ......... and the
other ......... if the QFE altimeter is set to 1013 when passing through the transition altitude 3000 ft, it
will read .........(assume 1 mb = 30 ft)

a. 300 ft; zero; 2610 ft

b. Zero; 300 ft; 3390 ft

c. Zero; 300 ft; 3690 ft

d. Zero; 300 ft; 2610 ft

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

D B A D C A B

ALTIMETER QUESTIONS

1. An a/c with its altimeter setting of 29.75 inches in flying at a level where atmospheric pressure is
27.55 inches. The altimeter will read?

23
2. An altimeter with barometric subscale set to 999 mbs reads 1500 feet if subscale is reset to 1006
mbs the alt will read?

a. 1290 ft

b. 1300 ft

c. 1710 ft

3. An a/c switches off with altimeter set to QNH 1014 mbs reading 600 ft on ground. Next morning
when QNH 1002 mbs what will altimeter read. What will altimeter read when set on current QFE?

4. An a/c altimeter setting 1013 mbs lands at an aerodrome [elev 300 ft] with QNH 1026 mbs. What
will altimeter read on landing.

5. An a/c takes off from A elev 300 ft on QNH 1010 mbs and lands back after 4 hrs when altimeter
reads 390 ft on ground. What is current QNH and QFE?

6. An a/c on FL 70 overflies a hill elevation 7000 ft when local MSL pressure is 1023 mbs. Will the a/c
clear the hill if so by what margin?

7. An a/c leaves point A QNH 1000 MBs, elev 210 ft. For aerodrome B QFE 1000 MBS, elev 300 ft.
There is a hill midway with highest elevation at 5000 ft amsl. If a/c leaves A with altimeter rading 270
ft, what minimum indicated altimeter reading shouls a/c fly on QNH of A to clear the highest hill by
1500 ft.

8. An a/c takes off from A [elev 600 ft] aerodrome pressure 1008 mbs. The altimeter on QNH reads
630 ft on ground and has to clear a 7210 ft high hill midway by a margin of 1500 ft before landing at
B [elev 330 ft] QFE = 1005 mbs. If a/c maintain QNH of A throughout, find –

a. Min. Altimeter reading to clear the hill

b. Ac altimeter reading on landing at B

c. What will be the vertical separation of another a/c without any instrument error which
overflies the hill at FL 90

9. An altimeter reads 7000 ft on 30.42. what is P.A

a. 7500

b. 6500

c. 7009

10. If an aerodrome elevation is 600 ft and PA 660 ft. What is QNH and QFE

a. 1015hpa/995hpa

b. 1011hpa/1031hpa

c. 1011hpa/991hpa

24
 d. 1015hpa/1035hpa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a.) 8920’
1007 hpa, Yes,
2200’ 1710’ 960’, zero -90’ 6410’ b.) 690’ B C
997 hpa 292.5’
c.) 2060’

HIGH SPEED FLIGHT (MACHMETER)

25
In High speed
aircraft the machmeter is an essential instrument. As an aircraft approaches the local speed of sound
the airflow over some parts of the fuselage or wings may be accelerated up to the speed of sound
and a shock wave will form.

The speed at which airflow over some part of the aeroplane first reaches the speed of sound, and

Shock waves form, is called the critical Mach number, known as – Mcrit

• Is essentially a Pressure Altimeter and as ASI combined in to one instrument

• It indicates Aircraft speed relative to LSS (local speed of sound)

• This is particularly important at high altitude since the speed of sound decreases with
temperature and temperature decreases with altitude. Hence greater the altitude lower the
LSS

The machmeter uses two capsules and linkages to indicate the aircrafts True Air Speed (TAS) as a
proportion of the local speed of sound (LSS)

The first capsule is an Airspeed Capsule which will expand and contract as a result of changes in the
Dynamic pressure

The second capsule is a sealed Altimeter Capsule which will expand and contract as the static
pressure inside the instrument case changes.

Lowest Mach No. at which the airflow over the any part of the a/c first reaches the speed of sound in
called Mcrit.

SPEED OF SOUND

26
The speed of sound is not constant by varies with air temperature

A formula for calculating the local speed of sound (LSS) is:

Where, LSS is given in Knots,

LSS = 38.95 √T in kelvin

T is the absolute temperature, (0°C = 273°A = 273° K)

In ISA conditions at mean sea level (+15degrees C) the speed of sound is 660.8 knots, while at 40000
ft ISA (-56.5 degrees C) the speed of sound will have
reduced to 573 knots.

Mach No.= (P-S)/S = Dynamic Pressure/Static Pressure = ASI/Altimeter

INSTRUMENT ERRORS

Like all instruments, machmeter is subject to manufacturing tolerances, although these are
extremely small.

PRESSURE ERRORS

These errors are small at the altitude and speed ranges where machmeter are used.

DENSITY, TEMPERATURE AND COMPRESSIBILITY ERRORS

These errors are eliminated because density changes do not alter the dynamic pressure/static
pressure ratio

BLOCKAGES

STATIC SOURCE BLOCKED – IN A CLIMB Machmeter will therefore under read.

If a blockage occurs IN A DESCENT The Machmeter will therefore over read

PITOT SOURCE BLOCKED

The Machmeter will over read in the climb and under read in the descent.

Machmeter Blockage errors are the same as the ASI Blockage Errors

CALIBRATION

Machmeter are calibrated to a formula relating Mach number to atmospheric conditions of pressure
and density.

27
This is only instrument not calibrated to ISA and don’t have anything called DENSITY,
COMPRESSIBILITY, TEMPERATURE ERROR

ACCURACY - +.01M

Speed of sound 661 knots at Sea Level and

573.8 knots at 36090’ in ISA

Example: If the pressure altitude is 18000 ft, the COAT is – 30 degrees C and CAS is 170 knots, then
the TAS is:

TAS of 220 knots

1. Determine the TAS corresponding to 0.70M at JSA MSL (+15 degrees C or 288 degrees K)

2. Calculate the altitude in the atmosphere at which a TAS of 450 knots corresponds to Mach .
80

3. If a decrease of 0.12 in the Mach Number results in a decrease of 80 knots in the TAS, what
is the local speed of sound.

4. An aircraft is flying at FL360 with a TAS of 467 knots at Mach no 0.8 when the temperature
difference from JSA is + 9. what is the temperature difference at FL320 if Mach 0.8 still gives
a TAS of 467 knots.

MACHMETER

1.The local speed of sound is equal to:

a. Kv temperature (degree F) knots

b. Kv temperature (degree K) knots

c. Kv temperature (degree C) knots

d. Kv temperature (degree K) metres per second

2.At FL 350 with a JSA deviation of -12, the true airspeed when flying at M 0.78 is:

a. 460 kt

b. 436 kt

c. 447 kt

d. 490 kt

3.Omitted

28
4.When climbing at a constant mach number below the tropopause through an inversion:

a. The CAS and TASwill both increase

b. The CAS and TAS will both decrease

c. The CAS will decrease and the TAS will increase

d. The CAS will increase and the TAS will decrease

5.When descending below the tropopause under normal conditions (increasing temperature) at a
constant CAS:

a. Both TAS and mach will decrease

b. Both TAS and mach number will increase

c. The TAS will decrease and the mach number will increase

d. The TAS will increase and the mach number will decrease

6.Cruising at FL390, M 0.84 is found to give a TAS of 499 kt. The ISA deviation at this level will be:

a. -17

b. +17

c. +19

d. -19

7.The errors to which the machmeter is subject are:

a. Instrument error, position error, compressibility error and manoeuvre induced error.

b. Instrument error, position error

c. Instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature error and manoeuvre
induced error

d. Instrument error, position error, density error and manoeuvre induced error

8.The relationship between TAS mach number and local speed of sound (LSS) is

a. LSS = MNO/TAS

b. MNO = LSS/TAS

c. TAS = MNo x LSS

d. Mno = LSS x TAS

29
9.The machmeter gives an indication of mach number by measuring the ratio:

a. Pitot pressure/Static pressure

b. Static pressure/Dynamic Pressure

c. Dynamic pressure/Pitot pressure

d. Dynamic pressure/Static pressure

10.An aircraft is flying at FL350 with a JSA deviation of +8. The mach no is 0.83 and the TAS 485. If
the aircraft descends to FL300 and maintains the same mach no and TAS, the JSA deviation will now
be:

a. +8

b. -2

c. +2

d. -18

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B B D C A B B C D B

MACHMETER

1.Determine the TAS corresponding to 0.70 M at JSA MSL (+15 degrees C or 288 degrees K)

2.Calculate the altitude in the atmosphere at which a TAS of 450 knots corresponds to Mach.80.

(T = 209* Absolute which is equal to – 64 degrees C)

3.If a decrease of 0.12 in the Mach Number results in a decrease of 80 knots in the TAS. What is the
local speed of sound

4.An aircraft is flying at FL360 with a TAS of 467 knots at Mach No.0.8 when the temperature
difference from ISA is +9. What is the Temperature difference at FL320 if Mach 0.8 still gives a TAS of
467 knots.

5.At flight level 330 the RAS of an aircraft is 283kt. The temperature deviation from the standard is
-12 degrees C (JSA). Use your computer to determine:

a. 564 kts

b. 454 kts

c. 530 kts

d. 480 kts

30
The local speed of sound

a. 480 kts

b. 530 kts

c. 564 kts

d. 629 kts

The mach number

a. .75

b. .80

c. 1.02

d. .85

6.Calculate, without using the computer, the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which 470kts
TAS corresponds to Mach 0.82

a. FL283

b. FL207

c. FL360

d. FL310

7.If a decrease of 0.13 in the Mach number results in a decrease of 77kt in the TAS what is the real
speed of sound?

a. 650 kts

b. 394 kts

c. 875 kts

d. 592 kts

8.An aircraft is at FL350, TAS 463 kt at Mach 0.79 when the temperature deviation from standard is
+9degrees C. Without using the computer give the temperature deviation at FL 310 which at Mach
0.79 would give a TAS of 463 kt.

a. + 1 degree

b. -46 degree

c. -24 degree

d. -15 degree

31
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)

RATE OF CLIMB & DESCEND INDICATOR (RCDI)

• It measures rate of change of atmospheric pressure in terms of rate of climb or descent

• Static pressure fed

directly inside a capsule

• Also, fed to a sealed

unit through a
METERING
UNIT

(CONSTRICTION)

• In metering unit air only escapes at a controlled rate

➢ When A/c climbs, static pressure begins to fall and is instantaneously sensed in capsule

➢ Air reaches the casing at the controlled rate and causes the capsule to contact, driving the
pointer to indicate climb

➢ During descent capsule will expand

32
ERRORS OF VSI

1. INSTRUMENT ERROR – manufacturing tolerances

2. PRESSURE ERROR - incorrect static

-Manoeuvre – induced Error – any short term fluctuations in pressure at the static vent
during attitude changes will cause the instrument to indicate a false rate of climb or descent

3. LAG ERROR – the pointer takes a few seconds to steady because of the time taken to build
up a steady pressure difference on climb or descent.

There will also be a time lag on travelling out because of the time taken for the pressures to
equalize. This error is most noticeable after a prolonged climb or descent, especially at a
high rate.

BECAUSE OF LAG ERROR INSTRUMENT ALWAYS UNDERREADS.

4. BLOCKAGE – permanently zero reading. Unlike altimeter not affected by temperature error
since it measures only the change in Air Pressure.

BASIC VSI has inherent time lag.

In high Performance A/C an instantaneous response is necessary

DASHPOT ACCELEROMETER is used to eliminate the Lag in IVSI (instantaneous VSI)

Disadvantage

It caused a temporary false indication of climb on entering a turn in level flight.

THE INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

➢ To overcome the problem of lag, the instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (I.V.S.I.)
incorporates an accelerometer unit (dash-pot on vane) which responds quickly to a change
of altitude.

➢ The position in the vertical acceleration pump immediately rises in the cylinder and
increases the pressure in the capsule

➢ The capsule expands and the pointer will give an instant indication of descent.

Errors Peculiar to the IVSI – because of the sensitivity of the dash-pot assembly, the instrument
tends to overreact to turbulent flying conditions and small fluctuations should be ignored.

If the aircraft should be turning, the piston will tend to sink towards the bottom of the cylinder and
there will be an indication of a climb.

IVSI is very sensitive during CAT

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

33
On the ground

a) The instrument should read zero, or the error should be within the permissible limits

➢ +/- 200 feet per minute at temperatures – 20 degree C + 50 degree C

➢ +/- 300 feet per minute outside these temperatures

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

1. During a missed approach and go-around procedure the change of aircraft attitude plus raising of
the landing gear and changing of flap settings can cause short term unpredictable errors in certain
instruments. The instruments most likely to be affected in this case are:

a. The altimeter, artificial horizon and vertical speed indicator

b. The airspeed indicator, machmeter and vertical speed indicator

c. The machmeter, airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator

d. The vertical speed indicator, airspeed indicator and altimeter

2. The vertical speed indicator indications may be in error for some seconds after starting or finishing
a climb or descent. The error is a result of:

a. A combination of time lag and manoeuvre induced errors

b. A combination of position error and manoeuvre induces errors.

c. Manoeuvre induced errors only

d. A combination of time lag and instrument error

3. The advantage of having the VSI dial presentation in logarithmic spacing rather than in linear
spacing is than:

a. At low rates of climb or descent the pointer movement is much larger and so is more easily
read.

b. Readings are instantaneous

c. A greater range of rates of climb and descent is shown

d. The internal mechanism is simplified by deletion of the calibration choke.

4. In the IVSI, lag error:

a. Is eliminated by feeding a sample of static pressure to the case and delaying it to the capsule

b. Is virtually eliminated by using a special dashpot accelerometer assembly

c. Is eliminated by the use of logarithmic presentation

34
 d. Is only eliminated when initiating a climb or descent.

5. Because the VSI measures rates of change of static pressure and not actual values of static
pressure, position error:

a. Never affects VSI indications

b. Only causes errors in the VSI during the take-off run

c. Causes errors in VSI indications whenever airspeed is changed, if at the same time there is a
change in position error.

d. Causes errors in VSI indications whenever airspeed is changed, even if there is no change in
position error.

6. When entering a steep turn, an IVSI is likely to show:

a. No change in altitude

b. A slight climb

c. A slight descent

d. A slight descent at high airspeed only

7. If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb:

1. The VSI will stop at the rate of climb of the aircraft at the time of blockage.

2. The VSI will indicate a decreasing rate of climb

3. The VSI will return to Zero

4. The VSI will indicate an increasing rate of climb

8. In conditions of clear air turbulence:

a. The standard VSI is more sensitive

b. The IVSI is more sensitive

c. Both types will react the same

d. The vertical acceleration pump will bot be affected.

9.Change of temperatures as an aircraft climbs or descends:

a. Will affect VSI readings whenever temperature lapse rate differs from standard conditions.

b. Is compensated at the metering unit by means of a capillary and orifice.

c. Has no effect on the VSI as only static pressure is used in this instrument

d. May be allowed for by use of tables or computers

35
 10.Permissible limits of accuracy of the VSI are .........when......within a temperature range of
........and ......outside this range.

a. + 250 fpm, on the ground, -20deg C to +50 deg C, + 350 fpm

e. + 200 fpm, at any height, -20deg C to +30 deg C, + 300 fpm

f. + 250 fpm, at any height, -20deg C to +50 deg C, + 300 fpm

g. + 200 fpm, on the ground, -20deg C to +50 deg C, + 350 fpm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D A A B B B C B B D

AIR DATA COMPUTER

The Air Data Computer in current aircraft is a device that uses analogue or digital computing
techniques to convert pressure and temperature data into electrical signals which are transmitted to
the display instruments and to other systems.

In many large aircraft currently in service, the conventional pressure instruments which show
altitude, airspeed and Mach Number (M No.) are replaced by indicators displaying information
generated by a central computer, the Air Data Computer (ADC)

ADC can be calibrated to take into account differences in pressure/temperature gathering

efficiencies due to positioning of the gathering probes and this information can then be entered into
the computer to obtain the most accurate indications possible.

The standard ADS instruments show altitude, vertical speed, airspeed and M.No. additional
instruments can display Total Air Temperature (TAT), State Air Temperature (SAT) and TAS.

36
The output signals are used to operate various flight instruments and aeroplane systems. The flight
instruments supplied by the ADC are the –

➢ Altimeter

➢ Airspeed indicator

➢ Vertical speed indicator

➢ Machmeter

The aeroplane systems typically supplied are the:

➢ Flight data recorder (FDR)

➢ Flight management systems (FMS)

➢ Automatic flight control system (AFCS)

➢ Transponder

➢ Ground proximity warning system (GPWS)

➢ Power management computer (PMC)

➢ Flight director system (FDS)

These signals are computed within the CADC to produce electrical output signals, which are
equivalent to:

➢ Altitude

➢ CAS

➢ Vertical speed

➢ Mach number

➢ TAS

Advantages of ADC:

1. Position error is reduced

2. No hysteresis error

3. Data can be fed to multiple systems

37
4. Remote data capability

5. FDR- Flight Data Recorder- Records flight data for 25 hrs.

6. FDR is located at the back of the a/c

7. FDR starts automatically when the a/c first moves under its own power.

8. CVR- Cockpit voice recorder - Records crew conversation for 2 hrs.

AIR DATA COMPUTER (ADC)

1.An air data computer (ADC)?

a. Measures position error in the static system and transmits this information to ATC to
provide correct altitude reporting

b. Transforms air data measurements into electrical impulses driving servo motors in
instruments.

c. Is an auxiliary system that provides altitude information in the event that the static source is
blocked

d. Converts air data measurements given by ATC from the ground in order to provide correct
altitude and speed information.

2.In an ADC, aeroplane altitude is calculated from?

a. The difference between absolute and dynamic pressure at the fuselage.

b. Measurement of elapsed time for a radio signal transmitted to the ground surface and back

c. Measurement of elapsed time for a radio signal transmitted to the ground surface and back

d. Measurement of absolute barometric pressure from a static source on the fuselage.

3.The advantage provided by an ADC to indicate the altitude are:

1. Position/pressure error correction

2. Hysteresis error correction

3. Remote data transmission capability

4. Capability to feed data to a large number of instruments simultaneously

The combination of correct statement is?

a. 1,2,3,4

38
 b. 2,3,4

c. 1,2,3

d. 1,3,4

4.What advantage are provided by an ADC, compared to traditional pitotstatic systems?

1. Instrument lag is reduced or eliminated

2. Position error is automatically correct for

3. Compressibility error is automatically corrected for

4. A large number of instruments can be fed form one ADC

5. It provides emergency altimeter following main system failure

a. 1,3,4,5

b. 1,2,3,4

c. 2,3,4,5

d. 1,2,4,5

5.From where does the ADC obtain its altitude data?

a. Barometric information from the static pressure ports

b. Barometric pressure from the pitot probe

c. The difference between pitot and static pressures.

6.What inputs are fed to the ADC?

1. AOA

2. TAT

3. OAT

4. Dynamic pressure

5. Static pressure

6. Total pressure

7. AC electrical power

8. Autopilot commands

a. 1,2,4,5,7

39
 b. 1,2,4,5,7

c. 1,2,5,6,7

d. 2,4,5,7,8

7.What inputs are fed to the ADC?

1. AOA

2. TAT

3. OAT

4. Dynamic pressure

5. Static pressure

6. Pitot pressure

7. IAS

8. Mach number

a. 1,2,5,7

b. 1,2,4,5

c. 1,2,5,6

d. 2,5,7,8

8.From where does the ADC obtain altitude data?

a. Radio altimeter

b. OAT sources

c. Barometric altitude source

d. Dynamic minus total pressure

9.The ADC obtain its altitude data from?

a. A barometric altimeter

b. A radio altimeter

c. The TAT and OAT probes

d. A barometric static pressure sense similar to a servo altimeter

40
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

B D D B A C C/D C D
confirm

GYROSCOPE

A spinning wheel having most of its mass at periphery and free to rotate about 1 or more axis.
Comprises a rotor or wheel spinning at a high speed about an axis.

PROPERTIES

1. RIGIDITY – Spin axis of gyro will maintain a fixed direction unless acted upon by an external
force.

It follows Newton’s 1st law of motion

Rigidity = Iω

ω= Angular/rotational velocity

r= radius of rotation

Rigidity=

MORE SPEED, MORE DIAMETER, CONCENTRATING MASS AT THE RIM/PERIPHERY — MORE RIGIDITY

41
MORE ANGULAR VELOCITY — MORE MOMENTUM — MORE RIGIDITY

2. PRECESSION -

➢ Is defined as an angular change in direction of the spin axis, when acted upon by an
external force

Precession 1/Rigidity

Precession = T/Rigidity (where T= Torque)

➢ Greater the applied force greater the rate of precession

➢ Greater the Rigidity of the rotor, slower the rate of precession

➢ If a force is applied to a moving rotor, it will not act at the point of application, but will act at
point 90 degrees removed in the direction of rotation.

Note: Basic properties of the gyro are Rigidity and Precession. But if Inertia is also one of the option,
choose all of above.

GIMBAL

Is a device that supports a GYRO but allows it to move freely, Gyro is mounted on a Gimbal.

WANDER

Deviation of gyro axis from given direction to which it is set, whether in horizontal or vertical

REAL WANDER

When spin axis actually shifts relative to space. It is caused by mechanical imperfections including
friction.

APPARENT WANDER

Is due to effect of earth’s rotation

DRIFT

When spin axis shifts in the horizontal plane (Azimuth)

TOPPLE

When spin axis shifts in the vertical plane.

APPARENT DRIFT

Due to rotation of Earth. In NH heading will keep decreasing at 15 degrees x sin Lat/hour

Reason – gyro will remain aligned in space with meridian (north).

In SH Hdg. Will increase at 15 degrees x Sin Lat/Hour

42
APPARENT TOPPLE

A vertical axis gyro will suffer apparent wander = 15 Cos Lat/hour

TYPES OF GYROS

1.FREE GYRO OR SPACE GYRO

➢ Gyro has freedom of movement in three planes at right angles to each other

➢ The number of degrees of freedom of precession of any gyro is same as its no. Of gimbals

➢ This gyro has two gimbals, so it has freedom of precession in 3 planes or is said to have 2
degrees of freedom of precession.

➢ It has no practical application in aircraft.

2. TIED GYRO

➢ It has freedom of movement in 3 planes but one is tied

➢ It has freedom of precession in about 2 axes

➢ It is controlled by an external force or one axis is restricted to maintain in a particular

direction

➢ Used in DGE (Direction Gyro Indicator)

3. EARTH GYRO

➢ It’s a tied gyro that is controlled by earth’s gravity or one plane is tied or restricted by gravity

➢ Used in Artificial horizon

4. RATE GYRO

➢ It has one place of freedom it indicates rate of turn or rate of change of direction

➢ It senses rate of change rather than degree of change

➢ Used in TSI (turn & slip indicator)

➢ RATE INTEGRATING GYRO

➢ It is single degree of freedom gyro

➢ Senses rate of movement about one axis only

➢ Used in inertial Nav. system

➢ Used to keep platform horizontal in INS

SUMMARY

43
 GYROSCOPES

Gyroscopic inertia or Rigidity in space is the property of a spinning body to maintain a fixed
direction in space unless acted on by an outside force.

Precession is the movement of a gyro, resulting from the application of an outside force ,about an
axis perpendicular to both the spin axis and the applied force. Real wander is a precession caused by
mechanical imperfections (such as uneven bearing friction) or by any applied force.

Apparent Wander is the observed wander of a gyro rotor axis relative to a datum on the earth.

Topple is a rotor axis wander – real or apparent – in the vertical plane

Drift is rotor axis wander – real or apparent – in the horizontal plane.

Space gyro has complete freedom in three mutually perpendicular planes, and so has gyroscopic
inertia relative to a point in space.

A Tied Gyro has the rotor axis maintained (tied) in a desired position

An Earth Gyro is a gravity-controlled tied gyro, so having gyroscopic inertia relative to the earth’s
vertical

Rigidity – this property is used to provide a directional datum.

In the Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI), the rotor spin axis is horizontal and so provides a reference
for the measurement of direction in azimuth (aircraft heading) .

In the Artificial Horizon (AH), gyroscopic rigidity provides a pitch and roll attitude reference, the spin
axis defining the earth’s vertical.

Precession – as already explained, the application of an external force to a gyro produced

movement of the rotor axis called precession. This property is used:-

1. In the Rate of Turn indicator – to measure angular velocities in the yawing plane.

2. In the DGI control system- to maintain the rotor axis in the yawing plane. Additionally, to
compensate DGI wander by means of a “latitude nut”.

3. In the Artificial Horizon control system – to maintain the rotor axis vertical.

44
 DGI (Direction Gyro Indicator)

• Provides heading reference

• Employs HORIZONTAL AXIS ITED GYRO

• Utilizes property of RIGIDITY to indicate A/C Hdg

• Utilizes property of PRECESSION in Latitude Nut

• Gyro spin axis is maintained horizontal (yawing plane) and it can be referenced to either
True or Magnetic North.

TIED GYRO

UP AND AWAY FROM THE PILOT

ROTOR AXIS MAINTAINED IN YAWING PLANE

• As a 2 Gimbal Gyro, it has two degrees of freedom of precession in three planes but one is
tied.

• A compass scale is attached to the outer Gimbal of gyroscope.

• Rotor rotates at about 12000 rpm and is mounted in the inner gimbal ring with its spin axis
in horizontal and free to rotate in the vertical plane.

• The inner gimbal is pivoted to the outer gimbal so that it is free to move about horizontal
axis at right angles to the spin axis.

• The compass card is attached to the outer gimbal.

• The rotor assembly is normally driven by air drawn in through the A/C vacuum system and
directed by the nozzle into the buckets.

• Before start of flight, the heading is made to synchronize with A/C compass heading. This is
done by caging device.

CAGING DEVICE MOVES BEVEL GEARS AND BRINGS THE GIMBALS 90 DEGREES TO EACH OTHER (re-
erecting the gyro) IT CAN BE DONE IN FLIGHT AS WELL.

• Instrument should be caged during violent manoeuvres to prevent Gyro from toppling.

• DGI is reset every 15 mins for accurate readings. Otherwise it will give an error of 4
degrees/15 mins.

45
 • Limitation of instrument is 55 degree for max angle of bank, climb or dive. If this is to be
exceeded, the instrument should be caged.

DGI (GYRO) POINTS AT THE FIXED POINT IN THE SPACE AND ON EARTH AFTER WE SET IT TO A
PARTICULAR HEADING BUT DUE TO EARTH ROTATION POINT ON EARTH MOVES BUT REMAIN FIXED
IN SPACE THIS ERROR IS CALLED “APPARENT WANDER”.

COMPARISON WITH MAGNETIC COMPASS – Magnetic compass suffers from turning and acceleration
errors whereas DG does not, so tends be more accurate especially in a steady level turn.

THE CONTROL SYSTEM – ERECTION MECHANISM

The jets not only spin the rotor but also serve to maintain or tie the rotor axis in the yawing plane of
the aircraft.

If the aircraft banks, gyroscopic rigidity keeps the rotor axis fixed in space and it is therefore no
longer in the yawing plane.

When the A/C begins to bank in a turn the outer gimbal banks with it (since attached to the
instrument case) and the rotor axis is no longer at right angles to the outer gimbal.

Exhaust air now strikes on side of the wedge plate more than the other.

This applies a force to the outer gimbal that is tending to rotate it about the vertical axis which is the
same as applying a force to one side of the gyro rotor. That force is precessed by the rotor to move
through 90 deg. In the direction of rotation, tilting it to keep its spin axis aircraft horizontal.

ANY TENDENCY OF THE ROTOR TO MOVE FROM THE A/C HORIZONTAL REFERENCE WILL BE
CORRECTED BY WEDGE PLATE DEVICE

DGI LIMITATIONS

If the aircraft exceeds the pitch or roll limits of 85 degrees (modern, electrical DGI) (or 55 degrees in
air driven gyro DI’s) the gyro will topple as the inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the
precession causing the outer gimbal and scale to spin rapidly.

DGI ERRORS

• Gimbaling errors

• Random wander

• Apparent wander due to earth’s rotation

• Errors resulting from varying rotor rpm.

• Apparent wander due to change of aircraft position (transport wander)

GIMBAL ERROR – occurs when gimbals of a gyroscopes are not mutually perpendicular. Gimbal error
occurs on cardinal headings when A/C is pitched and rolled simultaneously. Instrument will give a
false heading indication. Indications will be correct once the A/C returns to straight & level flight.

46
RAMDOM WANDER (Real wander)

Mainly the “random wander” due to manufacturing imperfections including friction.

APPARENT WANDER (DUE TO ROTATION OF THE EARTH)

The rotor axis will stay rigid in space (assuming zero real wander) while the earth rotates under it
through 360 degrees in one day or 360/24 = 15 degrees in one hour.

If the gyro is the DGI, its reading will be decreasing (at the North pole ) at a rate of 15 degrees/hr. At
the South pole the reading would increase at the same rate. This is the maximum rate of apparent
wander due to the earth’s rotation.

There is no change in the direction of the rotor axis relative to the meridian, so there is zero
apparent drift. The “apparent drift rate due to the earth’s rotation, is therefore a function of SIN
latitude, being maximum at the pole and zero at the equator.

HEMISPHERE DGI Readings East DGI Readings West

NH Decrease Increase

SH Increase Decrease

Apparent drift = 15 x sin lat (degrees per hour)

Value is -/+ accordingly.

THIS IS THE REASON WE HAVE TO ALLIGN THE DGI TO THE MAG COMPASS EVERY 15 Min.

NOT REQUIRED IN COMMERCIAL AIRLINE COCKPITS

LATITUDE NUT – Compensates for apparent drift

• Provides compensation only a latitude for which it is set.

• This setting can be made in workshop and not in air.

• Lat Nut is screwed outwards to compensate for apparent drift in NH and inwards in SH

• Latitude Nut utilizes property of PRECESSION. It is installed to correct for apparent Drift. In
NH, Lt nut is adjusted to precess gyro and correction is positive. This correction is Real Drift.

TRANSPORT WANDER – CHANGE OF LATITUDE

• Flight North from the “corrected latitude” gives a decreasing reading (minus drift rate).

• Flight South from the “corrected latitude” gives on increasing reading (a plus drift rate).

• Flight away from the “corrected latitude” results in the drift rate increasing.

• Flight towards the “corrected latitude” results in the drift rate decreasing.

Transport wander= [GS xTan θ]/60

Total Drift= Real + Apparent + Transport wander

47
[THARP, GRAVT]

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

• Provides an indication of A/C attitude in PITCH and ROLL. It is a

primary replacing the natural horizon in poor visibility.

• It use EARTH GYRO – has freedom of movement about 3 planes.

• Attitude indicators may be pneumatically or electrically driven.

• In pneumatically driven gyro, RPM is about 150000.

• When A/C flying straight & level, horizon Bar & aircraft symbol

• The artificial horizon uses on Earth gyro in which the spin axis is maintained in or tied to the
vertical by Earth’s gravity.

ACCELERATION ERROR

• False indication of a right bank and overall effect is climbing Right Turn.

TURNING ERROR

• Less serious than acceleration errors. Give a false indication of bank & pitch

• No Acceleration and Turning errors in Electrically driven Attitude Indicator.

Pneumatic Attitude indicators have a speed of 8 degrees/min. They normally take about 5 minutes
to erect from startup.

Caging device can shorten start up erection process

TURNING ERRORS IN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

RIGHT TURN - Nose up or climb and under indication of bank

LEFT TURN – Nose down or descent and left bank indication

The artificial Horizon uses on Earth Gyro in which the spin axis is maintained in or tied to , the
vertical, by Earth’s gravity. Air, drawn in by suction via filter, is ducted to enter the rotor case as a
jet which spins the rotor at up to 15000 R.P.M.

The rotor assembly is made very slightly bottom heavy to reduce the time taken for initial erection.

Air going in the buckets is escaping through the vanes at the bottom.

Because the four jets are of equal strength but in opposite directions no force is exerted on the gyro
and therefore no precession occurs – the gyro rotor remaining vertical.

48
Control System of air driven artificial horizon consists of four slots and four pendulous vanes at the
base of the rotor housing.

The vanes are placed in such a way that when the rotor axis is vertical each slot is half covered by its
vane and four equal jets of air emerge from the slots. Paired as ‘fore and aft’ and ‘left and right’.

LIMITATIONS

The amount the case can move relative to the gyro is controlled by fixed stops. With older designs,
typical limits are 60 degrees in pitch and 110 degrees each way in roll in modern instruments there is
complete freedom in roll and up to 85 degrees (plus or minus)
in pitch.

ACCELERATION ERROR IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

The control system of the air driven artificial horizon depends on the pendulous vanes being affected
by the Earth’s gravity. However, the vanes will be affected by any acceleration, not just that due to
gravity.

When an aircraft accelerates in a level altitude (such as during the take – off run) false nose up, right
wind down, or climbing right hand turn indication will result.

Pitch Error – during acceleration, the lateral vanes lag, swinging back towards the pilot, opening the
starboard slot and closing the port slot.

The pitch error is due to the effect of acceleration on the lateral pendulous vanes.

Roll Error – due to inertia, the weighted base of the rotor housing tries to lag during acceleration.
The roll error is due to the inertia of the bottom – heavy rotor housing.

Deceleration will cause a nose down, left wind low error, the opposite of the acceleration error
indication.

TURNING ERRORS IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

49
Whenever an aircraft turns there must be an acceleration towards the centre of the turn (centripetal
force). Since the pendulous vanes are no affected by a horizontal acceleration as well as acceleration
due to gravity errors in pitch and roll indications will occur.

TURNING ERRORS BANK ANGLE PITCH ATTITUDE

Turning through 90 deg UR bank angle Pitch- indicates climb

Turning through 180 deg Bank angle correct Pitch- indicates climb

Turning through 270 deg OR bank angle Pitch- indicates climb

Turning through 360 deg Bank angle correct Pitch correct

RIGIDITY

High rotor speeds in suction horizons of up to 15,000 RPM, resulting in high gyroscopic inertia. With
electric horizons, speeds of 22,500 RPM are typical giving even greater rigidity.

THE ELECTRIC ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

The main advantage of electric artificial horizon over the air driven horizon is its greater rigidity due
to its faster spin rate. This greater rigidity results in increased accuracy dur to reduced errors.

The basic principle of the instrument is the same as the air driven horizon.

The vertical gyro is still tied by Earth’s gravity, but the mercury/levelling switches and torque motor
rather than the pendulous vanes of the air driven horizon.

ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN ATTITUDE INDICATOR

• High RPM 22000 greater rigidity.

• Turning & acceleration errors eliminated.

• Erection time of less than 1 minute in certain electrically driven Altitude indicator normally 3
to 5 degrees/min.

• OFF FLAG – when power supply is disconnected.

The Erection method in the electrical AH is done by the Mercury Levelling Switches and torque
motors rather than pendulous vanes of the air driven horizon.

There are two levelling switches, one to sense pitch and one to sense roll.

LOCATION- Mercury filled level switches on the inner gimbal

The torque motors on the outer gimbal.

A cutout switch is fitted in the electrical AH to prevent it from acceleration errors even when the
mercury switches made contact to one end of the tube.

[AVE-2]

TURN AND BANK INDICATOR (TSI)

50
Principle: Rate of precession of the gyro is indicated as rate of turn of the a/c.

• To measure and display the A/C rate of turn and to indicate whether the A/C is correctly
banked for no skid and no slip employs rate Gyro.

• Horizontal Axis Gyro. Precession for rate of turn.

• Bank indication is a separate mechanical device using a combination of Gravitational and

Centrifugal force.

• RPM about 4500 much less than AH and DG if Rotational speed less than Rated, less rate of
turn will be indicated.

1. WHEN A/C IN LEVEL FLIGHT – Gravity ensures ball in centre

2. IN CO-ORDINATED BANK TURN – resultant of centrifugal and gravitational force will keep
ball in the centre

3. If A/C is turning and Bank angle is more or A/C over banked centrifugal force will be less than
gravitational force A/C SLIPS into a turn.

4. If the A/C is under banked, centrifugal force will be greater than gravitational force A/C
SKIDDING ball will move in the opposite direction.

Slip- State in which the ball of the slip and skid indicator moves into the turn and the a/c falls into
the turn. This occurs due to excessive bank for a given TAS. Corrected by decreasing the bank angle
or stepping on the ball.

Skid- State in which a/c skids away from the turn and ball moves away from the turn. This occurs due
to insufficient bank and can be corrected by increasing the bank angle or stepping on the ball.

51
 TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

SUMMARY

Indicates quality of turn wether the turn is coordinated or not.

The Turn and slip indicator are 2 separate instruments:

Turn Indicator – Gyroscope

Slip indicator – Mechanical

Turn indicator is a - RATE GYRO

HORIZONTAL AXIS LOW RPM

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION – PRECESSION

RATE GYRO: Freedom of movement is in one plane only – Rolling Plane.

HORIZONTAL AXIS: The axis of the gyro is mounted athwartships.

LOW RPM: The gyro spins at 4500 RPM. This low RPM because: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS
PRECESSION and not rigidity.

The instrument measures the precession rate of the gyro and indicates it as a turn.

Ball to the left, apply left rudder (STEP ON THE BALL).

During taxing turn (on ground) skid will be indicated because there is no bank (underbanked a/c).
Taxi to left- Needle to left, ball to right.

FASTER THE PLANE MORE THE RADIUS OF THE TURN

RATE 1 TURN angle of bank = [TAS/10] +7

RATE TURN

Rate 1 turn = 3 degrees/sec,

Rate 2 turn = 6 degrees/sec.

Rate 3 turn = 9 degrees/sec.

Rate 4 turn = 12 degrees/sec.

TURN CO-ORDINATOR

52
 • Fitted in light aircraft

• Purpose is to present the pilot with display that makes co-ordination of bank angle and turn
rate very simple Main Constructional difference between this and TSI is that longitudinal
axis of the gyro Gimbal is inclined at 30 degrees to the horizontal, so that gyro will response
to banking and as well as turning input force.

[THAP-1]

GYROS

1.Rigidity of a gyroscope depends on:

a. Weight, disturbing couple and speed of rotation

b. Rate of precession and disturbing couple

c. Weight, rate of precession and speed of rotation

d. Mass, radius of gyration and speed of rotation

2.A constant disturbing couple is applied to deflect a gyroscope. If the RPM of the gyro is then

a. Remain as before

b. Increase

c. Decrease

d. Cease altogether

3.In gyroscopic theory the term ‘topple’ is defined as:

a. Real wander only, in the horizontal plane

b. Real wander only, in the vertical plane

c. Wander, real or apparent, in the vertical plane

d. Wander, real or apparent, in the horizontal plane

4.A force applied to the spinning axis of a rotor is precessed:

a. Through 90 degrees in the direction of spin of the rotor

b. Through 90 degrees in the direction of spin of the rotor in the northern hemisphere through
90 degrees in the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere.

c. Through 270 degrees in the direction of spin of the rotor

d. At a rate proportional to the speed of rotation of the gyro

5.In gyroscopic theory the term ‘ drift’ is defined as:

53
 a. Real wander only, in the horizontal plane

b. Wander, real or apparent, in the vertical plane

c. Apparent wander only, in the horizontal plane

d. Wander, real or apparent, in the horizontal plane.

6.Real wander of a gyro can be caused by:

a. Asymmetrical friction at the spinning axis

b. Rotation of the earth

c. Increasing the RPM of the rotor

d. Moving the gyro north or south of its present position

7.A gyro with only two planes of freedom is known as a:

a. Tied gyro

b. Earth gyro

c. Space gyro

d. Rate gyro

8.A perfectly balanced space gyro at the equator has its spin axis aligned with true north. After 6
hours the axis will be aligned with:

a. True east direction

b. True west direction

c. True north direction

d. True south direction

9.The main advantage of electric gyros are:

a. Light weight, high RPM, Constant speed, inexpensive

b. High RPM, only require low voltage DC, constant speed, sealed casing

c. High RPM, high moment of inertia, rapid build-up of speed, constant RPM

d. Sealed casing, constant speed , high precession rate, low cost.

10.Apparent wander of a gyro is caused by:

a. Rotation of the earth

b. Clear air turbulence

54
 c. Gimbal friction

d. External torque

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D C C A D A D C C A

GYROSCOPES – DGCA QUESTIONS

1.What would be Gyro Drift of a stationary A/C at 30 deg. N lat.?

(-7.5 deg/hr)

2.If an A/C gyro has compensated for 30 deg.N lat. What drift will a stationary A/C face at 45 deg.N
Latitude?

(3.1 deg/hr)

3.If a gyro reading decrease 8 deg. After 1 hour at 60 deg. N latitude. What is the real drift?

(4.99 deg./hr)

4.A gyro is ground tested at 60 deg. N and is found to have a drift of 18 deg./hr increasing. Find the
real drift?

(31 deg./hr increasing)

5.A.D.I. is balanced so that drift is zero, when stationary at 45 deg. S. What drift will be experienced
when stationary at 60 deg.N assuming that there is no real drift apart from that due to latitude nut.

(23.6 deg. Decreasing)

6.A perfectly balanced Gyro at 23.5 deg. N is taken to 23.5 deg. S. Drift experienced will be?

a. Zero

b. Half

c. Double

d. Tripple

7.ADGI is ground tested at 60 deg.N and is found to have a drift of -8 deg./hr. It is taken to 45 deg.N
latitude, find

a. Total drift when stationary? (-5.6 deg./hr)

b. At 45 deg.N if it is flown on track of 090 deg. Track at GS of 300 knots find total drift? (-10.6
deg./hr)

55
 c. At 45 deg.North it is flown on track of 270 deg. At GS of 300 knots find drift? (+ - 0.6 deg./hr)

d. At what latitude gyro will have zero drift when it is stationary? (19.28 deg.N)

8.Rigidity of a gyroscope depends on:

a. Weight, disturbing couple and speed of rotation

b. Rate of precession and disturbing couple.

c. Weight, rate of precession and speed of rotation

d. Mass, radius of gyration and speed of rotation.

9.A constant disturbing couple is applied to deflect a gyroscope. If the RPM of the gyro is then
doubled the precession rate will:

a. Remain as before

b. Increase

c. Decrease

d. Decrease altogether

10.In gyroscopic theory the term ‘topple’ is defined as:

a. Real wander only, in the horizontal plane.

b. Real wander only, in the vertical plane

c. Wander, real or apparent, in the vertical plane.

d. Wander, real or apparent, in the horizontal plane.

11.A force applied to the spinning axis of a rotor is precessed:

a. Through 90 deg. In the direction of spin of the rotor

b. Through 90 deg. In the direction of spin of the rotor in the northern hemisphere through 90
deg. In the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere.

c. Through 270 deg. In the direction of spin of the rotor

d. At a rate proportional to the speed of rotation of the gyro

12.In gyroscopic theory the term ‘drift’ is defined as:

a. Real wander only, in the horizontal plane

b. Wander, real or apparent, in the vertical plane.

c. Apparent wander only, in the horizontal plane

56
 d. Wander, real or apparent, in the horizontal plane.

13.Real wander of a gyro can be caused by:

a. Asymmetrical friction at the spinning axis

b. Rotation of the earth

c. Increasing the RPM of the rotor

d. Moving the gyro north or south of its present position.

DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATORS

1.A directional gyro indicator is basically a:

a. Horizontal axis earth gyro.

b. Horizontal axis tied gyro

c. Vertical axis earth gyro

d. Vertical axis tied gyro

2.Apparent wander may be corrected in a DGI by:

a. Causing the gyro to precess in a clockwise direction (in the northern hemisphere)

b. Attaching a bias weight to the innner gimbal which makes the gyro precess in azimuth in the
same direction as apparent wander.

c. Correcting wander by means of air jets

d. Attaching a bias weight to the inner gimbal which makes the gyro precess in azimuth in the
opposite direction to apparent wander.

3.An air driven DGI is corrected for apparent wander at 56 degrees N. If the aircraft is maintaining
constant DGI readings:

a. When flying north from 56 degrees N the true heading of the aircraft will decrease.

b. When flying east from 56 deg. N the true heading will decrease

c. When flying south from 56 degrees N the true heading will decrease

d. When flying west from 56 degrees N the true heading will increase.

4.The formula used to calculate apparent wander of a directional gyro in the northern hemisphere is:

a. + 15 sine latitude in degrees for the time of running

b. + 15 sine latitude in degrees per hour

57
 c. -15 sine latitude in degrees per hour

d. 15 sine latitude in degrees per hour increasing.

5.Errors of the directional gyro are:

a. Acceleration error, turning error, altitude error, transport wander, rotor speed error

b. Gimbaling error, random wander, apparent wander, rotor speed error, transport wander

c. Gimbaling error, looping error, rolling error, rotor speed error, transport wander

d. Transport wander, apparent wander, latitude error, turning error, acceleration error.

TSI

1.The rate of turn indicator uses (i).....which spins....(ii)

a. Space gyroscope up and away from the pilot

b. Tied gyro anti-clockwise when viewed from above

c. Rate gyro up and away from the pilot

d. Earth gyro clockwise

2.The gyro in a rate of turn indicator has(i) ...... operating speed than the gyros used in other
instruments because(ii).....

a. Lower a higher rigidity is not required

b. The same it uses the property of rigidity

c. A higher it uses the property of rigidity

d. Variable more than one rate of turn is desired

3.A turn co-ordinator has (i) ........pivoted (ii).....in the case

a. Two gimbal rings orthogonally

b. A single gimbal ring longitudinally

c. One gimbal ring laterally

d. Two gimbal rings mutually perpendicular

4.When the pointer of a rate of turn indicator shows a steady rate of turn:

a. The calibrated spring is exerting a force about the lateral axis equal to the rate of turn

b. The force produced by the spring is producing a precession equal to but opposite to the rate
of turn is correctly banked

58
 c. The spring is providing force which produces a precession equal to the rate of turn (in the
opposite direction).

d. The spring is providing a force which produces a precession equal to the rate of turn (in the
correct direction).

5.If the filter of the air driven rate of turn indicator becomes partially blocked:

a. The aircraft will turn faster than indicated

b. The instrument will over read

c. The rate of turn indicated will be unaffected

d. The radius of the turn will decrease

6.The gimbal ring of a turn co-ordinator is inclined at about 30 deg. With respect to the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis in order:

a. Make the rate of turn more accurate

b. Make the gyro sensitive to banking of the aircraft as well as to turning

c. Make the gyro more effective during inverted flight

d. Have a higher rotor speed which will prolong the life of the instrument

7.The radius at turn rate 1, TAS 360 kt is:

a. 10nm

b. 5nm

c. 7.5nm

d. 2nm

MAGNETISM

Magnet attracts ferrous material (iron & steel) with its power of attraction concentrated as its ends
which are called poles.

59
A freely suspended magnet in the earth’s Magnetic field will tend to take up an approximately
North/South direction

• North seeking pole is names as RED

• South seeing pole is named as BLUE

Like poles repel each other and different colour poles attract

When a magnet can not be made amy more powerful it is said to be Magnetically Saturated Strength
of a magnet depends upon types of material and the mass of magnet

No magnet can exist with only one pole

TERRESTIAL MAGNETISM

• Earth is a magnet with its own magnetic field

• Earth total magnetic forces is T

• T is the total force affecting a free Compass needle which is only affected by earth’s
magnetic field.

• T can be resolved in to two components

Horizontal Component (H) [Directive force] & Vertical Component (Z) [Causes dip]

DIP

Angle that a free compass needle makes with the horizontal

It will be 90 deg. At magnetic poles & 0 deg. at magnetic equator.

ACLINIC LINES

• Line joining places of 0 Dip.

• Magnetic equator is an aclinic line

ISOCLINALS

• Lines joining places of equal dip

MAGNETIC COMPASS OR DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS

• Works on principle that a freely suspended magnetic needle will align itself with earth’s
magnetic field so that one end will point towards north magnetic pole.

• Used as a main compass in small aircraft

• In is mandatory for all big civil aircrafts to carry such compass as stand by compass

E2 TYPE COMPASS

60
 • Accuracy + 10

• Designed to utilise only the Horizontal Component (H) of earth’s magnetic field

• Near poles horizontal component (H) is very small , so can’t be used.

• DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS

• Requirement of a Magnet System.

HORIZONTALLY

• Magnet system should remain Horizontal under all normal flying conditions

• The system is kept Horizontal by a pendulous suspension that is by making the C of G of the
system lie below the pivot.

SENSITIVITY

The magnet system should be sufficiently sensitive to detect horizontal component of the earth
field.

SENSITIVITY IS ACHIEVED BY

• Using an efficient pivot in a jewelled cup immersing the system in a liquid there by reducing
the effective weight of the system.

• Using the system with highest Magnetic Moment.

APERIODICITY

• Any tendency of the pointer to oscillate about the North point must be damped out.

• Should not oscillate, should come to rest quickly by using several short powerful magnets
instead of one long one.

• Using a damping system to reduce oscillations.

COMPASS LIQUID SHOULD POSSES FOLLOWING PROPERTIES

a. Transparency

b. Low freezing point & high boiling point

c. Low coefficient of expansion

d. Low viscosity and low specific gravity

e. Non-corrosive

SERVICEABILITY CHECK FOR COMPASS LIQUID

a. Free from bubbles

61
 b. Free from discolouration

c. Free from sediments

ACCELERATION ERRORS

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE (ANDS)

No error when accelerating/decelerating while steering N/S Amount of error max. On

Easterly/Westerly headings

• A/C Accelerating on West – Compass Over reads

• A/C Accelerating on East – Compass Under reads

• A/C Decelerating on West – Compass Under reads

• A/C Decelerating on East – Compass Over reads

SPECIAL CASES

• Accelerating East at magnetic equator – No dip, No error

• Accelerating north of 30 deg. North latitude – Dip present but no errors on north and south
headings.

TURNING ERRORS- biggest error

Northern Hemisphere

• No error when turning through East or West.

• Max error when turning through 35 degrees either side of North.

a. Through North – Anti–clockwise – 45deg. to 315 deg.

a. Less turn

b. More heading

c. Roll out early

d. Liquid swirl increases error

b. Through North - Clockwise - 315 deg. to 45 deg

a. Less heading

b. Less turn

c. Stop turn early

62
 b. Through- South – Anti-Clockwise – 225 deg. to 135 deg.

a. More turn

d. Less than 135deg

e. Stop turn late

a. Liquid swirl decreases error

c. Through south – clockwise – 135 deg. to 225 deg.

a. Heading more than 225 deg

b. More turn

c. Stop turn late

d. Liquid swirl decreases error

LIQUID SWIRL

• Increases error when turning through North

• Decreases error when turning through South

AT MAGNETIC EQUATOR

• N turning & acceleration errors

• Since no Z (vertical component of earth’s field at equator)

AT POLES – errors max

EVERYTHING OPPOSITE IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

Q1. Aircraft in NH makes rate 1 turn to right from 330 after 30 seconds DRC will read

a. 060

b. >060

c. Less than 060

d. More or less depending upon pendulous suspension

Q2. Turn right from 145 (Rate 1), what will be indicated hdg. After 30 seconds

a. Not possible to answer

b. More than 235 deg.

63
 c. Less 235 deg.

d. 235 deg.

ATTITUDE ERROR- Error when steep climb or descent

PARALLAX ERROR- Due to offset viewing

ALIGNMENT ERROR- Lubber line not aligned

LIQUID SWIRL

a). Turning through North increases error

b). Turning through South decreases error

COMPASS SWING

COMPASS SWING IS NECESSARY TO FIND OUT DEVIATION ON VARIOUS ON VARIOUS HEADINGS FOR
THE A/C

PLEASE REMEMBER THE DEVIATION IS BECAUSE OF THE A/C OWN MAGNETISM

MAGNETIC FIELD

The sphere of influence of a magnet is referred to as its magnetic field

HARD IRON- Due to a/c structure

Is difficult to magnetize but once magnetized it tends to retain its magnetism and is used to produce
permanent magnet, eg. steel.

SOFT IRON- Electrical

Is easy to magnetize but will lose its magnetism when the magnetizing force is removed. Soft iron
produces temporary magnets eg. wrought iron.

➢ + P is the component which acts in Fore & Aft line and is positive when blue pole is forward
of compass.

➢ + Q Acts in Athwartships axis +ve when blue pole is starboard of compass

➢ + R Acts in Vertical +ve when blue pole is downwards from compass.

➢ EFFECT OF P ON DEVIATION OF HEADING = MAX DEVIATION X SIN θ

➢ EFFECT OF Q ON DEVIATION ON HEADING = MAX DEVIATION X COS θ

Earth’s Field Vertical Soft Iron

Axis Hard Iron Component
Components component
Fore & Aft X P c

Arthwartship Y Q f

64
 VERTICAL Z R

COMPASS SWING

➢ To assess accuracy

➢ Find values of coefficients of A, B & C

➢ Correct the compass for A, B & C

➢ Ultimately to carry out a check swing to fluid residual deviation

Coefficient B= [Deviation on East - Deviation on West]/2

Coefficient C= [Deviation on North - Deviation on South]/2

Coefficient A= [Deviation on N + NE+ E + SE+ S + SW + W + NW]/2

OCCASIONS FOR COMPASS SWING

➢ When it is new installed

➢ When A/C is first acquired from manufactures

➢ If modifications to the A/C involve magnetic material

➢ After a lightening strike

➢ After having stood on one heading for more than 4 weeks

➢ When specified by maintenance manual

➢ Following a heavy landing

➢ Whenever accuracy is in doubt

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

1.The red pole of a freely suspended magnet will point towards ..... and at latitude 60 deg. N will
point..... at an angle known as the angle of .....

a. The nose of the aircraft, downwards, deviation

b. The north magnetic pole, downwards, variation

c. The nearest pole, downwards, declination

65
 d. The north magnetic pole, downwards, dip

2.If the total force of the earth’s field at a point is T and the horizontal and vertical components H
and Z, the value of H is found by the formula:

a. H = T sin dip

b. H = Z tan dip

c. H = T cos dip

d. H = T tan dip

3.Omitted

4.The directive force of the earth’s magnetic field:

a. Varies with the heading of the aircraft

b. Increases as the magnetic variation increases

c. Increases as magnetic latitude increases

d. Is greatest at the magnetic equator

5.The slow change in the earth’s magnetic variation is known as the ..... change and is caused by

a. Annual, westerly movement of the magnetic pole

b. Diurnal, easterly movement of the magnetic pole

c. Secular, westerly movement of the magnetic pole

d. Annual, sunspot activity

6.Soft iron is comparatively ..... to magnetize whilst hard iron is .... to demagnetize

a. Easy, difficult

b. Easy, easy

c. Difficult, easy

d. Difficult , difficult

7.Which of the following materials are classed as ferromagnetic:

a. Iron, steel, carbon – fibre

b. Nickel, iron, steel

c. Copper, iron, carbon steel

d. Iron, cobalt steel, chromium steel

66
8.The magnetic moment of a magnet:

a. Is the product of pole strength and effective length

b. Varies inversely as the square of the distance between the poles

c. Varies directly as the square of the distance between the poles

d. Decreases as the magnet length increases

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

D C B D C A D A

DIRECT READING MAGNETIC COMPASS

1.In a standby direct reading compass there is:

a. A non-pendulously mounted magnet system

b. A single pendulously mounted bar magnet

c. A circular magnet or pair of bar magnets pendulously/mounted

d. A low magnetic moment system, either of circular or bar configuration

2.The main requirements of a direct reading magnetic compass are that it should be:

a. Horizontal, sensitive, periodic

b. Easily read, floating in a transparent liquid, quick to react to change in aircraft heading.

c. Positioned directly in front of the pilot, easily corrected for magnetic deviation, aperiodic

d. Aperiodic, horizontal, sensitive

3.For a position in the southern hemisphere, the effect of acceleration errors are greatest on
headings:

a. 180 deg. (C) and 360 deg. (C)

b. 045 deg.(C) and 225 deg.(C)

c. 135 deg.(C) and 315 deg.(C)

d. 090 deg.(C) and 270 deg.(C)

4.An aircraft in the southern hemisphere is turning from a heading of 045 deg.(C) to 315 deg.(C)
using a DGI. At the end of the turn the compass will read ....... than 315 deg. and liquid swirl will ....
this effect.

a. More, increase

67
 b. Less , increase

c. More, decrease

d. Less, decrease

5.In a standby compass the magnet system is immersed in a transparent liquid. The purpose of this
liquid is to:

a. Increase sensitivity, increase aperiodicity

b. Increase sensitivity, decrease aperiodicity

c. Increase sensitivity at high latitude, lubricate bearings

d. Increase sensitivity, reduce liquid swirl

6.To improve the horizontally of a compass, the magnet assembly is suspended from a point:

a. On the centre line of the magnet

b. Below the centre of gravity

c. Above the centre of gravity

d. Varying with magnetic latitude

7.The amount of turning error shown by a direct reading compass varies with:

1. The design of the compass

2. The direction of the turn

3. The rate of turn

4. Which hemisphere of the aircraft

5. The heading of the aircraft

6. The amount of dip at the aircraft’s latitude

a. Only 1,2,5 and 6 are correct

b. Only 1,3,5 and 6 are correct

c. Only 2,4 and 5 are correct

d. All are correct

8.During a sustained turn..... the nearer magnetic pole, the effect of liquid swirl will ..... compass
turning error:

a. Away from , increase

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 b. Towards, not affect

c. Away from, not affect

d. Towards, increase

9.When carrying out a turn at the magnetic equator there will be:

a. No turning error

h. A tendency to underread turns through south and overread turns through north

i. A tendency to underread turns due to liquid swirl

j. No turning error when turning through east or west only.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C D D D A C D D C

INERTIAL NAV SYSTEM

An Inertial Navigation System (INS) provides the aeroplane’s velocity and position by continuously
measuring and integrating its acceleration.

➢ This system relies on no external references, is unaffected by weather, and can operate
during the day and night.

➢ All corrections associated with the movement of the Earth, and transportation over the
Earth’s surface applied automatically.

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 ➢ The products of an INS are position (latitude/longitude), speed (kts), distance (nautical
miles), and other navigational information.

❖ The output of accelerometers is fed to two integrators in series

a) Acceleration integrated with respect to time gives velocity

b) Velocity integrated with respect to time gives distance

The accelerometer is basically a pendulous device. When the aircraft accelerates, the pendulum, due
to inertia, swings off the null position. A signal pick off device tells how far the pendulum is off the
null position.

The signal from this pick off device is sent to an amplifier and current from the amplifier is sent back
into a torque motor located in the accelerometer.

A torque is generated which will restore the pendulum to the null position

The amount of current that is going into the torque is a function of the acceleration which the device
is experiencing.

ERRORS OF INS

BOUNDED ERRORS

a. Platform tilt due to initial misalignment

b. Inaccurate measurement of acceleration by accelerometers

c. Integrator errors in the first stage of integration.

UNBOUNDED ERRORS

Unbounded errors – are either cumulative track errors or distance errors:

a. Initial azimuth misalignment of the platform

b. Wander of the azimuth gyro

Errors which give rise to cumulative errors in the recording of distance run:

a. Wander in the levelling gyros. This causes a Schuler oscillation of the platform but the mean
recorded value of distance run is increasingly divergent from the true distance run.

b. Integrator errors in the second stage of integration.

INHERENT ERRORS

a. The irregular shape and composition of the earth, the movement of the earth through space
and other factors provide further possible sources of error.

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 b. Such errors vary from system to system depending upon the balance achieved between
accuracy on one hand and simplicity of design, reliability, ease of construction and cost of
production.

The fundamental elements of this complex system is the Inertial Navigation System (INS). To make
up this system we have a stable platform consisting of high quality gyros and accelerometers and a
computer.

The purpose of the computer is to integrate the accelerometer outputs with time to give velocity
and then integrate velocity with time to give distance travelled.

From this is available pitch and roll attitude, true heading, true track, drift, present position in
latitude and longitude, ground speed and wind.

The modern INS was the first self-contained single-source of all navigation data; now joined by the
similar IRS, Laser Gyro System.

The computer associated with the inertial system knows the latitude and longitude of the take-off
point and calculate that the aircraft has travelled so far in the North direction and so far in an East
direction. The computer can then compute the new position of the aircraft and give a digital read
out which we should note is to tenths of a degree.

To keep the accelerometer level, it is mounted on a gimbal assembly, commonly called the platform.
The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device which allows the aircraft to to through any
attitude change and yet the very inner element of the platform on which are used to stabilise the
platform are also mounted on the inner-most element of the platform.

❖ INS Computer is programmed with the values of magnetic variations at all locations. Can be
applied to True North to get Magnetic North.

a. S/By – For warming up of system. Insert current position to 6 seconds of arc.

b. Align – levelling & alignment. When completed, Ready Nav annunciator illuminates
Ready to use.

c. Nav- INS makes all navigational calculations and display’s them on CDU.

d. Attitude Reference- attitude reference made is only used when INS computer fails to
provide Nav. Info. Heading, Roll & Pitch info is provided.

e. Battery Light – illuminates in case of power supply loss. INS has own internal battery and
in event of power failure, will supply power to 15 minutes.

GYRO COMPASSING

Precess of aligning the platform with local meridian. And this is done by keeping the velocity of the
A/C Zero (stop) and A/C in level state. So that the gyros can sense only movement of the rotating
earth.

Gyro compassing phase takes 6 to 10 minutes and alignment accuracy of 6’ of arc is achieved.

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Schuler Damping Period:

The damping of the pendulum in the INS (platform) and the accuracy of RLG (ring laser gyro) in
strapped down IRS is checked evert 84.4 mins and is called Schuler damping Period.

INS cannot accept more than 10 deg change in latitude but can accept more than 10 deg change in
longitude.

INS/IRS

1.Gyro compassing of an inertial reference system (IRS) is accomplished with the mode selector
switched to?

a. ALIGN

b. STBY

c. NAV

d. ATT FEF

2.Which of the following lists all of the methods that can be used to enter ‘created waypoints’ into
the DCU of a B737-400 Electronic Flight Instrument System?

a. Identifier range, location name; height above MSL; latitude and longitude

b. Identifier bearing/distance; place bearing/place bearing; along – track displacement; latitude

and longitude

c. Identifier name and range; location name; height above MSL; latitude and longitude

d. Identifier grid reference, location name, height above MSL, latitude and Rhumb line position.

3.Some inertial reference and navigation system are known as “strap down” . this means that?

a. The accelerometers are fixed to the aircraft structure but the gyros are stabilised.

b. The gyros are stabilised but the accelerometers become part of the unit’s fixture to the
aircraft structure.

c. The gyroscopes and accelerometers become part of the unit’s fixture to the aircraft
structure.

d. The indicator units are strapped to the aircraft structure.

4.As the INS position of the departure aerodrome, coordinates 35 deg.32.7’N 139 deg. 46.3’W are
input instead of 35deg 32.7’N 139 deg. 46.3’E. when the aircraft subsequently passes point 52 deg.N
180 deg. W, the longitude value shown on the INS will be?

a. 099 deg. 32.6’E

b. 099 deg 32.6’W

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 c. 199 deg. 32.6’W

d. 299 deg. 32.6’W

5.In order to maintain an accurate vertical using a pendulous system, an aircraft inertial platform
incorporates a device?

a. With damping and period of 84.4 min.

b. With damping and period of 84.4 sec.

c. With damping and period of 48.4 min.

d. With damping and period of 48.4 sec.

6.In what way does IRS differ from INS?

a. Has a shorter spin-up time and suffers from laser lock

b. Does not need to correct for Coriolis and central acceleration

c. Has longer spin-up time and is not affected by vertical acceleration due to gravity

d. Does not experience Schuler error as accelerometers are strapped down.

7.Which of the following statements in true of a Ring Laser Gyro?

a. It is not necessarily fixed to true north and is quick to erect

b. It is fixed to true north and is quick to erect.

c. It doesn’t suffer from ‘lock in’ and is unaffected by the earth’s gravitational force

d. It is not necessarily fixed to true north but takes along time to erect.

8.In a laser reference system (IRS), as compared to gyro reference system (INS):

a. The accelerometers are strapped down but the platform gyro stabilised

b. Accelerometers are platform are both strapped down

c. The platform is strapped down but the accelerometers are gyro-stabilised

d. Accelerometers and platform are both gyro-stabilised

9.In a ring laser gyro, the purpose of the dither motor is to:

a. Compensate for transport wander

b. Stabilise the laser frequencies

c. Enhance the accuracy of the gyro at all rotational rates

d. Overcome laser lock

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10.A pilot turns off the power to his IRS whilst in flight. He switches it on again after just a few
seconds. What will be the effect?

a. It can be repositioned whilst in flight

b. There will be no effect

c. It cannot be used and must be shut down

d. It cannot be used for navigation, but can be used to provide attitude information

11.In which IRS mode does gyro-compassing take place?

a. ATT

b. ALIG.N

c. ON.

d. NAV.

12.A gyro is said to drift when its spin axis moves in the?

a. Horizontal and vertical

b. Neither, because its definition is not related to these axes

c. Horizontal

d. Vertical

13.What do the sensors of an INS measure?

a. Acceleration

b. The horizontal component of the earth’s rotation

c. Velocity

d. Precession

14.The IRS position is updated?

a. Updating is normally carried out by the crew when over – flying is known position (VOR
station or NDB)

b. IRS positions are updated by pressing the ‘Take-off/Go-around” button at the start of the
take-off roll

c. During flights IRS positions are automatically updated by the FMC

d. Only on the ground during alignment procedure.

15.Some inertial reference systems are known as ‘strap down’. This means:

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 a. The system is mounted on a stabilised platform

b. The gyros are fixed but the accelerometers are stabilised

c. The system is mounted and fixed to the aircraft structure

d. The accelerometers are fixed but the gyros are stabilised

16.Double integration of the output from the east/west accelerometer of an inertial navigation
system (INS) in the NAV MODE gives:

a. Vehicle longitude

b. Distance east/west

c. Distance north/south

d. Velocity east/west

17.The principle of ‘Schuler Tuning” as applied to the operation of Inertial Navigation

System/Inertial Reference Systems is applicable to:

a. Only gyro-stabilized systems

b. Both gyro-stabilized platform and strapdown systems

c. Both gyro-stabilized and laser gyro systems but only when operating in the non ‘strapdown’
mode

d. Only to ‘strapdown’ laser gyro systems

18.In an Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), what is the output of the first stage North/South
integrator?

a. Velocity along the local meridian

b. Groundspeed

c. Latitude

d. Change of latitude

19.Alignment of INS and IRS equipments can take place in which of the following modes?

a. ALIGN only

b. Groundspeed

c. ATT and ALIGN

d. NAV and ALIGN

20.On a triple-fit IRS system, present position on the CDU?

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 a. Are likely to differ as the information comes from different sources

b. Will only differ if one IRS has been decoupled due to a detected malfunction

c. Will only differ if an initial input error of aircraft position has been made

d. Will not differ as the information is averaged

21.Gyro-compassing in an INS?

a. It is not possible in flight because the gyros cannot differentiate between acceleration die to
aircraft movement and initial alignment errors?

b. Is possible in flight as the gyros cannot differentiate between acceleration due to aircraft
movement and initial alignment errors

c. Is possible in flight as the gyros can differentiate between acceleration due to aircraft
movement and initial alignment errors

d. Is not possible in flights as the gyros can differentiate between acceleration due to aircraft
movement and initial alignment errors.

22.In an INS/IRS, an azimuth gyro is found to have a drift rate, if t is the time since selecting the MSU
from ALIGN to NAV the azimuth gyro heading error is?

a. Proportional to t

b. Proportional to the square root of t

c. Proportional to t/2

d. Sinusoidal

23.On the IRS, selection of ATT mode gives attitude?

a. Attitude, and heading only

b. Heading

c. Heading and groundspeed

24.How long does it take to align an IRS (laser ring gyros)?

a. 1 min.

b. 5 min

c. 10 min

d. 15 min

25.What is the purpose of the piezo-electric motor in an IRS system?

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 a. Dither

b. Vibrate

c. Shake

d. Shudder

26.In order to maintain an accurate vertical using a pendulous system, an aircraft inertial platform
incorporates a device?

a. Without damping and a period of 84.4 min

b. Without damping and a period of 84.4 sec

c. With damping and a period of 84.4 min

d. With damping and a period of 84.4 sec

27.The platform of an inertial navigation system(INS) is maintained at right angles to the local
vertical by applying corrections for the effects of?

a. Aircraft manoeuvres, earth rotation, transport wander and Coriolis

b. Movement in the yawing plane, secondary precession and pendulous oscillation

c. Gyroscopic inertia, earth rotation and real drift

d. Vertical velocities, earth precession, centrifugal forces and transport drift.

28.In an Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), ground speed (GS) is calculated?

a. By integrating gyro precession in N/S and E/W directions respectively

b. From TAS and WN from Air Data Computer (ADC)

c. By integrating measured acceleration

d. From TAS and WN from RNAV data

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