ABSTRACT

The human activities contribute to the global warming of the planet. As a result, every country
strives to reduce carbon emissions. Numbers of efforts are being undertaken by the Governments
around the world to explore alternative energy sources and to achieve pollution reduction. Solar
electric or photovoltaic technology is one of the biggest renewable energy resources to generate
electrical power and the fastest growing power generation in the world. The main aim of this
work is to analyze the interface of photovoltaic system to the load, the power electronics and the
method to track the maximum power point (MPP) of the solar panel.

Then main emphasis is to be placed on the photovoltaic system, the modeling and simulation
photovoltaic array, the MPP control and the DC/DC converter will be analyzed and evaluated.
The step of modeling with MATLAB and Simulink of the photovoltaic system is shown
respectively and simulation results are provided.

1
 Scope of thesis work

In accomplishing this research, the work has been divided into few parts. As for the beginning
part, the literature review on the photovoltaic theory, topology and its operation as well grid-
connected PV system will be glanced thru to have a better understanding on the system as a
whole. On the second stage after the understanding of theory, modeling and building up the
equivalent electrical circuit shall commence at once. As to mark the end of the work, the
simulation result using the single junction cell will be used to determine the energy output (kWh)
using the input parameters temperature and solar radiation obtained from Meteorological Data
(MD).

As mention above the general scope and flow of this research work, the single cell PV shall be
modeled first and simulated. Then it will be verified using the I-V curve of a manufacturer’s data
sheet. After all the verification process done, the modeling part for Malaysian context shall be
done and analyzed.

In this work, PV cells from amorphous silicon and polycrystalline silicon types will be used. The
first one represents the thin film technology and the later part the silicon technology. These
technologies will the major research on this project. The simulation later part will be done to
Malaysian solar irradiation and temperature value.

As for the accomplishment of this project, the project will be extended up to the verification
through actual monitored Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) system.

Following are the objectives that hopefully to be achieved at the end of this project
implementation. Those objectives are:-
 To study solar cell circuit model
 To model and simulate a single junction solar cell
 To determine energy output of different PV technologies.

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 WORK PLANNING FOR DISSERTATION

Work plan for Dissertation Phase I

Sr. No. Month Work

1 August 2011

2 September 2011
3 October 2011

4 November 2011

5 December 2011

Work plan for Dissertation Phase II

Sr. No. Month Work

(1) Simulation of photovoltaic cell and find maximum power point.
1 Jan 2012 (2) Prepare simulation of current-input PV module and array.

(1) Simulation of DC-DC converter and connect with PV array.

2 Feb 2012 (2) Simulation of inverter with PWM techniques and connect with PV
system with 50 KW load.
(1) Get result and Prepare report
3 March 2012
(2) Prepare power point presentation and present in front of guide.

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CONTENTS
Certificate II

Acknowledgment III

Abstract IV

Scope of thesis V

Work plan VI

Literature survey VII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background 2

1.2 Photovoltaic Market 3

1.3 Typical application of the PV system 4

1.4 Photovoltaic system and energy storage 4

1.5 Thesis outline 5

CHAPTER 2 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

2.1 Potential Energy 7

2.2 Different technologies of photovoltaic’s 7

4
2.3 Electrical Equivalent of Solar Cells 13

2.4 Grid connected PV system 20

2.5 Solar cell and its characteristic 21

2.6 converter & inverters 30

2.7 Related works 35

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND MODELING

CHAPTER 3
OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

3.1 General topology of photovoltaic system 39

3.2 Photovoltaic array modeling 41

3.2.1 Curves I-V Characteristics of the PV array 41

3.2.2 Model of the PV cell 42

3.2.3 Model of the Photovoltaic module 45

3.2.4 Photovoltaic array 47

3.3 DC/DC converter 48

3.3.1 Operation of the boost converter 48

3.3.2 Selection of the inductor 53

Power decoupling capacitor 54

3.4 DC/AC inverter analysis 55

3.4.1 Single phase full bridge DC/AC inverter 55

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 3.4.2 Six step inverter 59

3.5 Modulation strategies 62

3.5.1 SVPWM techniques 62

3.5.2 Sine PWM 67

SIMULATION OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC

CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM USING MATLAB / SIMULINK

4.1 Simulation of the photovoltaic module 71

4.2 Simulink model of boost converter 72

Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with AC-DC-AC

4.3 74
PWM converter

SIMULATION RESULT OF THE

CHAPTER 5 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM USING
MATLAB / SIMULINK
5.1 Photovoltaic array characteristics 76

5.1.1 The I-V and P-V characteristics of single cell 76

5.1.2 The I-V and P-V characteristics of single module 77

5.2 Photovoltaic system with a Boost converter 78

5.2.1 R-L type load 78

5.2.2 Change input voltage 80

5.2.3 DC-DC converter connected with 25 ohm resistance 81

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5.3 PV system connected with load 82

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FURTHER WORK

6.1 Conclusion 86

Further work
6.2 86

CHAPTER 7 REFERENCES

References 88

LIST OF FIG

FIGURE
TITEL PAGE
NO.
2.1 Resources Energy Trend 7

7
2.2 (a) Single junction amorphous 8
2.2 (b) Cells deposited onto a glass sheet are laterally connected in series 8
Multiple-junction stacked or tandem solar cells where two or more
2.3 9
current-matched cells are stacked on top of one another
2.4(a) Mixed-phase microcrystalline/amorphous material 10
2.4(b) Single-phase polycrystalline film. 10
2.5 Crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) unit cell structure. 10
2.6 Device schematic for a cadmium telluride cell 11
2.7 Basic CIS (copper indium diselenide) cell structure 12
2.8 Summary on how solar cells work 13
2.9 Model for single solar cell 14
2.10 Typical current-voltage (I-V) curve for a solar cell. 15
2.11 The PV from cell to module 16
2.12 PV module consists of parallel and series cells 17
Solar cells array consist of Mp parallel branches each with Ms
2.13 17
Modules in series
2.14 Series-parallel configuration for PV generator 18
2.15 Grid-connected PV System 20
2.16 A detailed Grid-Connected PV System 21
2.17 Characteristic I-V curve of a practical photovoltaic device 22
2.18 Characteristic I-V curve of the photovoltaic cell 23
2.19(a) Characteristic shown on the influence of ambient irradiation 24
2.19(b) Characteristic shown on the influence of cell temperature 24
The I-V curve responses with two identical cells connected in
2.20(a) 25
series
2.22 Electrical characteristics of Sharp NE-80EJEA solar cell 28
2.23 The Schematic of a Buck Converter 31
2.24 Connection of Inverter 33
2.25 Full Bridge Voltage Source Inverter 34
2.26 Equivalent circuit models of PV cell 35
3.1 First stage in modeling the solar cell 39
3.2 Structure of Single stage DC/AC Photovoltaic system 40
3.3 Structure of dual stage DC/DC and DC/AC Photovoltaic system 40
3.4 Topology of PV with boost converter and resistive load. 40
Topology dual stage three-phase photovoltaic system with resistive
3.5 41
load
3.6 I-V Characteristics of the PV as function of irradiance 41
3.7 I-V Characteristics of the PV as function of Temperature 42
3.8 I-V curve, P-V curve with the MPP 42
43
3.9 Equivalent circuit of solar cell with one diode

8
3.10 Circuit model of the photovoltaic module 46
3.11 PV Array composed of Nser x Npar modules 47
3.12 Model structure of the photovoltaic array 48
3.13 Topology of Boost converter 48
3.14 Schematic diagram of Boost converter 49
3.15 Diagram when switch T1 is on and D1 is off 49
3.16 Diagram when switch T1 is off and D1 is on 50
3.17 Continuous conduction mode 51
3.18 Discontinuous conduction mode 52
3.19 Output waveform of DC/DC converter 53
3.20 Equivalent circuit of the full bridge single-phase inverter 55
3.21 Topology of a single-phase inverter with filter and load 56
3.22 Output current for S1, S2 ON; S3, S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2 56
3.23 Output current for S3, S4 ON; S1, S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3 56
3.24 Single-phase output voltage 57
3.25 fundamental component 57
3.26 Output voltage and current with blanking time 58
3.27 Harmonic of output voltage when α is 10 59
3.28 Three-phase six-step inverter 59
3.29 Waveforms of the switching functions 60
3.30 Phase voltage normalized spectrum 61
3.31 Eight switching states 62
3.32 Switching vectors and the 6 sectors 63
3.33 Space vector PWM switching patterns and sector duration 66
3.34 Sine triangle, voltage reference and phase voltage 67
4.1 Simulation of the PV module 71
4.2 Simulation of the PV array 72
4.3 Simulation of the DC-DC converter 73
4.4 Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with dc-dc converter 73
4.5 Simulation of the PV with boost and three-phase inverter 74
5.1 I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module 76
5.2 I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module 76
5.3 I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module 77
5.4 waveform of DC-DC converter with 400 V constant 79
5.5 waveform of DC-DC converter with 450 V constant 80
5.6 waveform of DC-DC converter with 25 Ω 81
5.7 sinusoidal load voltage for phase a 82
5.8 Battery connected to a three-phase inverter 83
waveform of Photovoltaic system connected to a three-phase
5.9 84
inverter

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 LIST OF TABLE

TABLE
TITEL PAGE
NO.
Summarize the different technology in Thin Film
2.1 8
technology
Confirmed terrestrial module efficiencies measured
2.2 12
under the global AM 1.5 Spectrum
Comparison between different connection topologies of
2.3 18
PV systems
2.4 PV module characteristic for standard technologies 29
the Switches State for a full bridge single phase
2.5 34
inverters
3.1 PV module BP MSX120 datasheet at STC 46
Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at
5.1 76
STC
Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at
5.2 76
800W/m2
Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at
5.3 77
600W/m2
5.4 PV module NE-80EJEA data sheet values at STC 77
5.5 Characteristics of 26 kW photovoltaic 78
5.6 parameters of 26 kW photovoltaic system 84

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Isc,n The short circuit current (A)

PV photovoltaic
KI Current co efficient
KV Voltage co efficient
a Diode ideality constant
Vt The array’s terminal voltage

ΔT The difference between actual and normal temperature values (ºC)

The light generated current at nominal condition when T=20 ºC

Ipv,n
and Gn=1000W/m2(A)
Gn Nominal solar irradiation at STC (W/m2)
G solar irradiation on the surface (W/m2)
Tc Cell temperature ( ºC)
Ta Ambient temperature ( ºC)
Kt Monthly clearness index
NOCT Normal operating cell temperature ( ºC)
1000 Solar irradiation at NOCT (W/m2)
25 Cell ambient temperature at NOCT ( ºC)
ηr Module efficiency at reference temperature
βp Temperature co efficient (% /ºC)
ηp PV array average efficiency
A PV array area(m2)
λp Miscellaneous PV array losses
λc Other power conditioning losses
ηinv Inverter efficiency

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 ηabs PV energy absorption rate
kWp kilowatt peak
kWh kilowatt hour
a Lattice constant (A)
C Capacitance (F)
f Frequency (Hz)
Io Reserve saturation current (A)
K Boltzmann constant (j/k)
R Resistance (Ω)
Rs Series resistance (Ω)
Rsh Shunt resistance (Ω)
Voc Open circuit voltage (V)
a-Si Amorphous silicon
AM Air mass
CdTe Cadmium telluride
CIGS Copper indium gallium diselenide
FF Fill factor
MPPT Maximum power point tracker
NOC Normal operating condition
STC Standard test condition
TCO Transparent conducting oxide
PWM Pulse width modulation
SVPWM Space Vector Pulse width modulation
Npm number of parallel module
Nsm number of cells in series
MPP maximum power point
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (Gate,Collector,Emitter)

12
 CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

13
1.1 Project Background

Photovoltaic System (PV) is getting popular by day as the crude oil price increases and unstable
in the global market. Furthermore with green peace movement, and the consciousness of
mankind has heightened up regarding green energy, photovoltaic may be one of the solution for
better as well cleaner energy as it is naturally harness from the Sun energy. Although the
technology is mainly well known in the space mission, yet it’s still an alien for domestic usages.
This is due to the high initial cost, generation efficiency and reliability. On the other hand, to
answer the cry for alternative energy has made the PV system again popular among the
researchers. Having said so, the rural areas where the grid connection is extremely expensive, PV
Systems have been implied to give hope to these areas, while for the urban life, the PV Water
Heater is common and can be found on the roof of the houses.
Currently, more than 3500MW of photovoltaic system have been installed all over the world.
Referring to the results from Earth Policy Institute (EPI), the world production of solar PV cells
increased 32% in 2003, compared to the most recent 5-year average of 27% a year. Production
increased to 742 MW, with cumulative global production at 3145 MW at the end of year 2003,
enough to meet the electricity niche of one million homes. Referring to the EPI, this
extraordinary growth is driven to some degree by improvements in materials and technology, but
primarily by market introduction programs and government incentives. This fact can clearly
conclude that this solar energy (photovoltaic) is a very promising as next generation energy
source.
In this context, lots of research needs to be done in order to achieve a reliable and efficient
energy. Looking at the grid connected system, where by the system mainly consists of
photovoltaic (PV) modules, inverter, battery, and switching point for the utility. Different types
of photovoltaic cell will yield different energy output; meanwhile the controlling technique of
inverter is very crucial in championing the PV system. Inverter design should consider the size
and capacity of the plant, on the other hand choosing the right controlling technique is needed as
well in order to achieve an efficient renewable energy system.

14
There are many types of inverter used in converting the direct current (d.c) produced by the PV
to alternating current (a.c). The conversion is a must in order to suit the AC grid system that have
been implemented and practiced for so long. Some of the types that can be used are multilevel
inverters such as fly back capacitor, neutral point clamped multilevel inverter, diode clamped
inverter and many more. Each topology has its own plus point and drawbacks depending on the
usage of it. Applying certain controlling techniques to the inverters’ such as Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM), Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM), Step Modulation etc, the
efficiency of the conversion can be obtained up to an optimum level. Hence this is another part
for research in the PV Grid-Connected system.
On the other hand, there are many types of technology used in producing the photovoltaic cell,
such as using the Silicon Photovoltaic (crystalline silicon, nanocrystalline), Thin Film solar cells
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, gallium arsenide, copper indium gallium deselenide) and
Concentrating Photovoltaic (multijunction cells). As said above, the different types and
topologies of photovoltaic gives different energy output, such as the amorphous silicon typically
efficiency is 6%-8%, while multicrystalline is 11% - 14%, and mono-crystalline is 12% - 17%,
etc . Hence in this work, the major part of research will be a study on the impact of the different
topologies of PV cells on the energy output generated.
Besides that, it’s a common knowledge that, the PV system has different seasonal pattern
behavior depending on the temperature as well as the solar irradiation. Due to the different
temperature co-efficient of voltage and current the PV system has different output. Yet, to
simplify the work of manufacturer mostly, the PV modules are rated at STC (standard test
conditions) of solar irradiation as 1000 Wm-2, while the spectrum is fixed and related to a sun-
spectrum at air mass of 1.5 (AM = 1.5).
As a conclusion, it’s worthwhile to research on this photovoltaic system as it is the next
generation energy source, while it’s green and promotes to cleaner world. On top of that, this
research work is in line with the government aspiration on becoming a greener nation with a
renewable energy source.
1.2 Photovoltaic Market

Photovoltaic (PV) installation’s capacity was completed during 2010 and has increased
by over 55 per cent in comparison to 2009, along with that the typical size of the PV system is

15
also expanding Significant incentives program are being offered by many states and as a result,
the PV market is expanding to those different states. Long-term situation of the solar market
looks bright.

A steady decline of the solar PV costs is expected, presumably as much as 50% within the next 4
to 7 years. The primary aim is to reduce the expenses related to the installation and the PV panel.
In 2015, the target is to decrease the price for residential use to 8- 10 cents Kwh. At this price,
the solar PV will be affordable for the masses.
Several ways were attempted in order to bring down the expenses of the PV. Bringing down the
costs of manufacturing, augmenting performance along with expanding upon the reliability of
the technologies that are being used was few. Another important avenue where costs could be
brought down was the local interaction and learning by means of an expanded capacity of
manufacturing. A forecast suggests that electricity will be stable and consistent through 2025;
elements such as tax legislation for carbon, fuel prices on a global level, facility/importation
constructions, and costs of labor, inflation and exchange rates could act as contributor to the
achievement parity of solar energy with electricity prices even faster than presently projected.
The solar market cost goal will be achieved with “5-10 GW of PV fitted by 2015 within the
country and over 70-100 GW by the year 2030.”
1.3 Typical application of the PV system

Photovoltaic systems have become an energy generator for a wide range of applications. The
applications could be standalone PV systems or grid connected PV systems. A standalone PV
system is used in isolated applications where PV is connected directly to the load and storage
system. With a standalone photovoltaic, when the PV source of energy is very large, having
energy storage is beneficial. Whereas a PV system that is connected through a grid is used when
a PV system injects the current directly into the grid itself .The advantage of the grid-connected
system is the ability to sell excess of energy.
1.4 Photovoltaic system and energy storage

The main benefit of integrating storage with renewable energy is the capability of shifting the
peak demands using charging/discharging (charging when the excess electricity is stored,
discharging when there is a peak demand). The storage can be charged from the renewable

16
sources or from the grid. The demand on the grid can be met with the renewable sources (wind,
solar) or energy storage or both.

The other benefits are:

 “Mitigation of short-term solar power intermittency and wind gust effects and
minimizing its impacts on voltage, frequency, and power fluctuations in power system”

 “Lowering the transmission and distribution costs by increasing the confidence in

renewable distributed generation”

 Improving power system stability, reduction of harmonics

1.5 Thesis Outline

This theses will is a compilation of many chapters that will elaborate in stages the research work
that have been carried out. As in general this thesis mainly consist of five main chapters;
introduction, literature review, circuitry buildings and simulation using MATLAB / SIMULINK
software, simulation results analysis and conclusion.
In chapter 1, this thesis will discuss the research project in collectively. This chapter explained
the crucial aspect of the research work such as background studies, objectives, research scopes
and methodology as well the thesis outline will also be discussed finally.
Chapter 2 completely dedicated to literature review about the grid connected PV system. This
chapter will be solely theoretical in detail discussing on the types photovoltaic cell, inverters, and
the whole system about it. In this academic scribbling some of the controlling techniques for
inverters will be discussed as well. In this section the related works also will be discussed.
Chapter 3 will address the theory and modeling of the PV system,
Chapter 4 will describe the Simulink block used to model the PV system,
Chapter 5 will give an example of PV system and analyze the results,
Chapter 6 will conclude the report and future research.

17
 Chapter 2

Photovoltaic system

18
2.1 Potential Energy

Through this chapter, hopefully it will give some idea to the reader regarding the different
technologies of photovoltaic cells and different modeling techniques as well. Besides that, basic
concepts regarding photovoltaic will be reviewed as well as the power electronics converters. On
the other hand, the inverters and grid connected PV system also shall be discussed. In addition,
related works regarding to this research project work also will be conferred in depth. It’s an
honor to be the medium of knowledge manifestation from the universe.

Figure 2.1: Resources Energy Trend [12]

From Figure 2.1, it can clearly deduce that the natural sources are depleting in years to come and
this eventually results on the cost of energy production. It can also clearly see the trend moves
towards renewable energy especially on photovoltaic system. Hence, as a conclusion, the
photovoltaic system can be the next best energy source.

2.2 Different technology of Photovoltaic’s

There are many types of technology in thin film photovoltaic technology. For an example in this
thin film technology there is Silicon based and Chalcogenide based cells. Table 2.1 shows the
summary of the types that shall be discussed in this topic.

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 Table 2.1 Summarize the different technology in Thin Film technology

Thin Film Technologies

Chalcogenide-based cells
Silicon based
Cadmium Sulphite (CdS)
Single junction amorphous silicon
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
Multiple junction amorphous silicon
Copper Indium deselenide (CIS)
Crystalline Silicon on Glass

In the thin film technology it can be divided into two major parts which is silicon based and
chalcogenide based. As for beginning look at silicon based which consists of single junction
amorphous silicon, multiple junction amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon on glass. Below in
Figure 2.2 (a) is the single junction amorphous silicon and Figure 2.2 (b) is the individual cells
deposited onto a glass sheet are laterally connected in series by the approach shown.

Figure 2.2 (a): Single junction amorphous, Figure 2.2 (b): Cells deposited onto a glass sheet
are laterally connected in series

In the early 1980s the calculators and digital watches have been using the amorphous silicon
solar. At that time, many efforts were carried out but currently Kaneka and Mitsubishi are the
companies that successfully supplies single junction amorphous silicon. This is due to its

20
characteristics that in the low temperature the amorphous silicon allows 10% hydrogen to be
incorporated. Quality of the material is improved in the presence of the hydrogen atom. The
amorphous silicon is not very conductive hence the transparent conductive tin oxide layer
between the silicon and the glass being used and connected in series as depicted in Figure 2.2(b)
The next is the multiple junction amorphous silicon devices, where it is designed in thinner
layers to accommodate the decreased material quality under light exposure such as in single
junction amorphous. It’s made possible by stacking two or more cells on top of one and another
as in Figure 2.3. In effort to boost its performance the upper cells band gap is made larger
compared to the lower cells.

Figure 2.3: Multiple-junction stacked or tandem solar cells where two or more current-matched cells
are stacked on top of one another

By increasing the band gap of the upper cell there’s a change in performance and the earliest
effort made in reducing the band gap by alloying it with germanium. This result in the
performance was around the 6–7% range, compared to the best of the single junction amorphous
silicon (a-Si).currently there’s another way of doing it whereby an a-Si as top cell combined with
a bottom cell which consists a mixture of amorphous and microcrystalline as in Figure 2.4. This
technology can improve the performance by 8-10%. This cell is still in small scale and hasn’t
been commercialized yet.

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Figure 2.4 (a): Mixed-phase microcrystalline/amorphous material; Figure 2.4(b): Single-
phase polycrystalline film.

Another type of solar cell is crystalline silicon on glass as depicted in Figure 2.5 whereby this
technology uses high temperature to transform the amorphous silicon material to polycrystalline.
This technology has some similarity with the polycrystalline wafer. The advantage of this
technology is that the material is more conductive and there’s no need for a transparent
conducting oxide that results in cost reduction. The instability possessed by a-Si is also solved
using this material. The glass texture is also another plus point in this technology as it allows the
silicon layer to be very thin.

Figure 2.5: Crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) unit cell structure.

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Earlier the discussions were on the silicon based; now let’s have a preview on the Chalcogenide-
based cells. The Chalcogenide-based cells kick off with the cadmium sulphite technology in the
early 1980s. Yet this technology was beat down by the biggest contender at the time; amorphous
silicon. Besides that, the instability issue with cadmium sulphite was another major issue. When
the amorphous silicon was going thru dark ages as it had problem with commercialization, this
technology had a good time and became famous.
BP solar and Matsushita were manufacturing Cadmium Telluride solar cell and then later move
on to other technology due to environmental issues. The toxicity of cadmium was one of the
reasons. A layer of cadmium sulphide is deposited from solution onto a glass sheet coated with a
transparent conducting layer of tin oxide. This is followed by the deposition of the main
cadmium telluride cell by as variety of techniques including close-spaced sublimation, vapour
transport, chemical spraying, or electroplating. The cadmium telluride structure has been
depicted in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Device schematic for a cadmium telluride cell

Copper Indium diselenide known as CIS technology has demonstrated 19.5% efficiency in
experiments yet it’s hard to commercialize. CIS technology generally involves deposition onto a
glass substrate and then interconnected as in Figure 2.7. An additional glass top-cover is then
laminated to the cell/substrate combination. Yet the CIS technology is one of available resources
as reserves of indium would only produce enough solar cells to provide a capacity equal to all
present wind generators.

23
 Figure 2.7: Basic CIS (copper indium diselenide) cell structure

Table 2.2 Confirmed terrestrial module efficiencies measured under the global AM 1.5
Spectrum

Fill Factor
Material Efficiency Voc Ioc
(FF)
80.3
Si (crystalline) 22.7± 0.6 5.6 3.93
Si (large
20.1 ± 0.6 66.1 6.30 78.7
crystalline)
Si
15.3 ± 0.4 14.6 1.36 78.6
(multicrystalline)
Si (thin-film
8.2 ±0.2 25.0 0.328 68.0
polycrystalline)
CIS 31.2
19.5 ±0.7 2.16 68.9

CdTe (thinfilm) 10.7 ± 0.5 26.21 3.205 62.3

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2.3 Electrical Equivalent of Solar Cells
Earlier in sub topic 2.2 the discussion were about types of solar cells in terms of materials, but in
this sub topic the discussion will be on the solar cell equivalent electrical circuits and their
mathematical equations in depth. Before going deep in the topic, let’s have some basic on how
the solar cell works. As discussed earlier since the solar cell are made of specially treated silicon
whereby positive (on the backside) while the negative part (facing the sun), when the sun light
(radiation) hits the solar cell, the electrons gets excited and loose creating the electron-hole pairs.
This phenomena when extended by attaching the electrical wires on positive and negative part
creating a close loop while then results in current flows which known as electric photocurrent
(IPH). This is clearly shown in Figure 2.8 courtesy of PV Industry Hand Book by PTM.

``

Figure 2.8: Summary on how solar cells work

As for the kick start, the understanding on the operation and electrical equivalent circuit of single
solar cell will be discussed. Referring to Figure 2.9, without the sun light (dark), the solar cell
shall function as a normal diode. If any external supply connects to it, the solar cell will function
and produce the diode current (ID). In the dark, the solar cell will not produce any electric
current or voltage. This solar cell model consists of a current source (Iph), series resistance (Rs)
which representing the resistance inside the each cell as well in the connection between the cells,

25
and a diode. The difference between Iph and ID will give the net current output from the solar
cell.

Ipv

Figure 2.9: Model for single solar cell

The mathematical equation can be represented as in equation 2.1. The equation is actually using
Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) and also diode Shockley equation. The m is the representation of
idealizing factor, k Boltzmann’s gas constant, Tc will be absolute temperature of the cell, e will
be electric charge, and V will be the voltage implied across the cell. Io is saturation current in
dark surroundings and depends on the temperature.

------------------(2.1) The solar cell has certain

parameters, such as short circuit current, open circuit voltage, maximum power point, maximum
efficiency, and fill factor. Short circuit current is the best current produced when the solar cell
under short circuited situation which means the voltage as zero. In other word Isc = Iph. Then
another parameter of solar cell is open circuit voltage. This open circuit voltage can be obtained
during night time (dark) whereby the current produced is zero and related to voltage drop across
the diode.

It can also represented by mathematical equation such as in equation 2.2 whereby is known as
thermal voltage and Tc is the absolute cell temperature.

26
 --------------------(2.2)

Maximum power point is another parameter that being used in the solar cell operation whereby it
states the maximum power dissipated at the load. Referring to Figure 2.9 courtesy from Model
for Stand Alone PV system by Anca D Hansen, the maximum operating point is depicted in the
said figure.

Figure 2.10: A typical current-voltage (I-V) curve for a solar cell.

Maximum efficiency is another parameter for solar cell need to be considered as well. Maximum
efficiency in the solar cell context means the ratio between incident light power and maximum
power. The equation 2.3 depicts clearly and as Ga is the ambient irradiation as well the A is the
cell area.

-------------(2.3)

Fill factor (FF) is another parameter used in the solar cell analysis. Fill factor can be defined as
how close the I-V curve can get close to be a square wave. Another definition of fill factor is the
ratio of maximum power that can be delivered to the load compared to Isc and Voc. In equation
2.4, the formula is shown clearly.

--------------(2.4)

The PV system normally uses solar panels, which is in arrays. There are many types of PV
system, starting from a cell up to arrays. This is shown in Figure 2.11

27
 Figure 2.11: The PV from cell to module

In ensuring protection for solar cells and electrical connectors from the raging environment the
cells were grouped together into ‘modules’ As depicted in Figure 2.12, the manufacturer
normally supplies the module with Npm (number of parallel module) and in the each branch with
Nsm (number of cells in series).

28
 Figure 2.12: PV module consists of parallel and series cells

As shown in Figure 2.13, the PV modules in Figure 2.12 now are connected in arrays. Figure
2.13 clearly shows that an array with Mp (module in parallel) parallel branches each with Ms
(module in series).

Figure 2.13: Solar cells array consist of Mp parallel branches each with Ms Modules in
series
The arrangement of the module is also plays a big role in terms of efficiency. In the Figure 2.14,
show different types of module connection. The A configuration have demonstrated efficiency
up to 97.2% while configuration B efficiency at 96.8% and C at 96.2%.

29
 Figure 2.14: Series-parallel configuration for PV generator

Table 2-3 Comparison between different connection topologies of PV systems

Topology Advantages Disadvantages Power rating

1- DC losses in
high voltage DC
cables
2- Power loss due
1- Easy to monitor to centralized
2- Easy to maintain MPPT, string up to several
Centralized
3- low cost due to diodes and megawatts
central inverter mismatch in
PV modules
3- Low reliability
4- Not flexible in
design
1- DC losses in
high voltage DC
cables
1- Higher reliability as 2- Power loss due
compared to to centralized
centralized topology MPPT, string
Master- 2- Improved efficiency diodes and up to several
Slave for the mismatch in megawatts
operating inverters PV modules
3- Extended lifetime of 3- High cost due to
inverters use of multiple
inverters
4- not flexible in
design

30
 1- Reduction in energy
loss that result
from partial shading 1- Higher cost as
2- Losses in string compared to
3-5 kW /
String diodes are centralized
string
eliminated 2- Used for low
3- Good reliability power ratings
4- Flexible in the
design
Multi- 1- Reduction in energy 1- All strings are 5 kW
String loss that result connected to a
from partial shading single
2- Losses in string inverter thus the
diodes are reliability of the
eliminated system decreases
3- MPPT and current 2- Additional
control are losses inside the
separated DC/DC
4- Voltage converter
amplification can be 3- The cost is
achieved by the DC-DC higher as
converter compared to
centralized
topology

AC 1- No losses due to 1- High cost up to 500 W

modules partial shading 2- Replacement of
2- No mismatch losses inverter in case of
between faults is not easy
modules 3- Reduced
3- Easy in failure lifetime of the
detection of the power
modules electronic
4- Flexible & components due to
expandable in design Additional thermal
stress

Photovoltaic systems have become an energy generator for a wide range of applications. The
applications could be standalone PV systems or grid connected PV systems. A standalone PV
system is used in isolated applications where PV is connected directly to the load and storage
system. With a standalone photovoltaic, when the PV source of energy is very large, having
energy storage is beneficial. Where as a PV system that is connected through a grid is used

31
when a PV system injects the current directly into the grid itself. The advantage of the grid-
connected system is the ability to sell excess of energy.
The other benefits are:
 “Mitigation of short-term solar power intermittency and wind gust effects and
minimizing its impacts on voltage, frequency, and power fluctuations in power system”

 “Lowering the transmission and distribution costs by increasing the confidence in

renewable distributed generation”

 Improving power system stability, reduction of harmonics,

2.4 Grid Connected PV System

A grid connected PV system also known as utility interactive PV system, whereby it feed solar
electricity directly to a utility power grid. For a general knowledge about we are discussing, kindly
refer to Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Grid-connected PV System

This grid connected PV System, consists of a PV Generated, an array of PV modules converting

solar energy to DC electricity and an inverter also known as a power conditioning unit that

32
converts direct current generated by PV to alternating current for the grid usage. Surge protector
and load are also the grid-connected PV components. When the sun shines, the DC power
generated by the PV modules is converted to AC electricity by the inverter. This AC electrical
power can either be supply the system’s AC load and the excess energy output transmit to the
utility grid. Figure 2.16 will give basically the detail component about the grid connected PV
system.

Referring to Figure 2.16, a first protection level is formed by fuses and blocking diodes between
the PV array output and the main DC conductor. Surge protection elements have to be included
at the inverter input and output as well. The grid-connected PV system can be classified by its
sizing whereby from 1-10kWh is considered as small scale and normally for the domestic
usages. While medium size is defined from 10kWh to 100kWh and these kind of system is
known as building integrated PV (BIPV). The system with output of 500kWh – MWh is
considered as large size and normally operated by electric companies.

Figure 2.16: A detailed Grid-Connected PV System

2.5 Solar Cell and its Characteristics

This subtopic will be discussing in depth about the solar cell and its characteristics. The I-V
curve, crucial parameters from manufacturer’s datasheet, effect on the I-V curve when there’s
change on solar radiation and temperature as well the mathematical equation used for modeling

33
in this project shall be discussed in this subtopic which will help to have deeper understanding in
verifying the solar modeling later part of the project.

Figure 2.17: Characteristic I-V curve of a practical photovoltaic device [13]

Figure 2.17, depicting the solar cell I-V curve of a practical photovoltaic device where it is
clearly notice that when voltage is short circuit, the short circuit current (Isc) happens and also
practically given in the manufacturer’s data sheet. On the other hand when the circuit is open,
there’s no current flow and the point is known as the open voltage (Voc) also given by the
manufacturer’s datasheet. Another parameter also available to us thru the data sheet is the
maximum current and voltage point. These three main points will be used later part in verifying
our modeling.

For a solar cell, the non-linear relationship means the maximum power point has to be
determined by calculating the product of the voltage and output current. In order to extract
maximum power from the solar cell, the solar cell must always be operated at or very close to
where the product of the voltage and output current is the highest. This point is referred to as the

34
maximum power point (MPP), and it is located around the ‘bend’ or ‘knee’ of the I-V
characteristic.

Figure 2.18: Characteristic I-V curve of the photovoltaic cell [13]

From Figure 2.18 it can be concluded that photovoltaic is a non-linear device and using Figure
2.19 a great height of understanding can be achieved as the Ipv is the light generated current and
the Id is the diode current and I is the net cell current composing both Ipv and Id.

Referring to Figure 2.17, it can also be understood that from the operating characteristic of a
solar cell consists of two regions: the current source region, and the voltage source region.
Whereby in the current source region, the internal impedance of the solar cell is high and this
region is located on the left side of the current-voltage curve (0, Isc).

While the voltage source region, where the internal impedance is low, is located on the right side
of the current-voltage curve (Voc, 0). As can be observed from the characteristic curve, in the
current source region, the output current remains almost constant as the terminal voltage changes
and in the voltage source region, the terminal voltage varies only minimally over a wide range of
output current.

According to the maximum power transfer theory, the power delivered to the load is maximum
when the source internal impedance matches the load impedance. For the system to operate at or
close to the maximum power point (MPP) of the solar panel, the impedance seen from the input
of the maximum power point tracker needs to match the internal impedance of the solar panel.
Although controlling these points can produce a better voltage yield yet, the temperature and

35
solar radiation is just unpredictable. That’s another reason why many research are being also
conduct to have smart solar system.

Figure 2.19(a): Characteristic shown on the influence of ambient irradiation [15]

Figure 2.19(b): Characteristic shown on the influence of cell temperature [15]

When the solar radiation changes the current produced is also change accordingly for an example
when the solar radiation increase, clearly from Figure 2.19(a) clearly depicts that the short circuit
current will increase and vice versa. Figure 2.19(b) shows the response from solar cell when
there’s a change on the temperature. When the cell temperature decreases the open circuit
voltage shifts to a lower voltage and thus the changes in solar radiation and temperature shifts the
maximum power point operation, which can influence the overall performance. Thru this Figure
2.19(a) and (b), it can be concluded that solar radiation and cell temperature are two most
important parameters that should be considered while modeling the photovoltaic.

Normally in the practical world, solar cell can be connected in many different manner as
discussed earlier it can be connected in series or parallel. Figure 2.20 shows the responses on the
I-V curves when the two identical cells are connected in series and in parallel. Referring to
Figure 2.20, for a series connection, the voltage would be increased and the analysis would be

36
adding the voltages for each current, while for parallel connection, current of each individual cell
can be add up at each voltage in order to arrive at the same response as depicted in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20 (a): The I-V curve responses with two identical cells connected in series
Figure 2.20 (b): The I-V curve responses with two identical cells connected in parallel

As the discussion on the solar cell characteristics and also on how the surroundings factor effect
on the solar cell have come to an end. It would be very helpful in modeling and verification if the
right understanding about standard testing condition well known as STC in reading the
manufactures’ data sheet is understood. STC conditions known as the reference vertical
irradiance Eo with a typical value of 1000W/m2, the cell’s reference temperature for performance
rating, To with a typical value of 25 ºC and a tolerance of ±2ºC; and a specified light spectral
distribution with an air mass, AM =1.5. The air mass (AM) figures provide a relative measure of
the path the sun must travel through the atmosphere.

Furthermore in supplying the performance parameters at the Standard Test Conditions

manufacturers also provide performance data under the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
(NOCT). This is known as the temperature reached by the open circuited cells in a module under
the following conditions:

 Irradiance on cell surface is 800W/m2 [16]

 The ambient temperature is 20 ºC (293 K) [16]

37
  Wind speed is 1m/s with the mounting is open back side [16]

According to Evans, 1981 formula the cell temperature Tc (oC) is related to the mean monthly
ambient temperature, Ta (oC) and this formula will be used in this project to as a parameter input,
and given in the expression below

--------------(2.5)

Where (NOCT) is the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature and is the monthly clearness
index (range between 0.2 for a very overcast climate and 0.8 for a very sunny climate).
As for familiarization, Figure 2.21 is taken from Sharp NE-80EJEA solar cell which depicting its
electrical characteristics and the important parameter that need to be used during the modeling
time for an example number of cells and the connection type This literature will come in handy
to understand the modeling process in Chapter 3 later on. Besides that Figure 2.22 also were
included in order to familiar the reader with the I-V curve and these is the type of graph from
manufacturer which will be helpful during verification process after the modeling. The I-V curve
clearly also shows to us on how the solar radiation will play its role in the current generated from
the solar cells.

38
Figure 2.21: Electrical characteristics of Sharp NE-80EJEA solar cell

39
 Figure 2.22: Electrical characteristics of Sharp NE-80EJEA solar cell

The efficiency, η of the solar module is another crucial criterion that needs to consider before
selecting the module. This efficiency mostly influence by the temperature. The equation of the
efficiency and energy of the solar module are shown as following and Table 2.2 shows to us the
PV module characteristics for standard technologies.

ηp = ηr x [1 – βp (Tc – Tr)/100]----------(2.6)

Whereby given
ηr = PV module efficiency at reference temperature (Tr = 25 °C)
βp = Temperature coefficient for module efficiency (% / °C)
Tc = Surrounding Temperature

40
Tr = Reference Temperature (25 °C)
Table 2.4: PV module characteristic for standard technologies

PV module type ηr (5) NOCT ( C) o

βp(% / C) o

Mono-Si 13.0 45 0.40

Poly-Si 11.0 45 0.4
a-Si 5.0 50 0.11
CdTe 7.0 46 0.24
CIS 7.5 47 0.46

In order to determine the effectiveness of PV system the efficiency of the PV module plays a big
role. There’s plenty of factor that can affect the efficiency of the PV system such as natural
climatic conditions of the place where the system is to be used, optimal matching of the system
with the load, appropriate spatial placement of the modules (placing the modules at an optimal
inclination angle to the horizontal plane) and availability of a concentrator (reflector) and or solar
tracking mechanism in the system [17].

This project will emphasize more on the energy delivered by the PV array, Ep, and energy that
available to the load Ea. As both these parameter are given by the formula as in equation 2.7 and
equation 2.8. In addition to that, as the energy pass thru the inverter there will some losses
depending on the inverter’s efficiency which is given by the equation 2.9 and after the energy
travel thru the grid, there will be some energy absorption in the grid that need to be considered
which is given in the equation 2.10 [15].

-----------(2.7)

Whereby given:
ηp = array average efficiency
A = area of the array
= solar radiation
Ep = energy delivered by the PV array

41
 ----------(2.8)

Whereby given:
λp = miscellaneous PV array losses
λc = other power conditioning losses
Ep = energy delivered by the PV array
EA = energy available to the load

---------(2.9)

Whereby given:
EA = energy available to the load
ηinv = inverter efficiency

----------(2.10)

Whereby given:
Edlvd = energy delivered to load
ηabs = PV energy absorption rate
Egrid = energy available to the load

2.6 Converters and Inverters

The rise of power electronics in the industry have always been a factor for the growth in the PV
system. As for that, this literature review will be incomplete without the power electronic
discussion. As gratitude and to pay some tribute for the works done in the power electronic
world some basic power electronics shall be covered here. The role of power electronic
converters is to provide power to the user in a suitable form at high efficiency. Power electronic
converters are needed in PV systems to convert direct current (DC) voltage to the required values
and to convert from DC to alternating current (AC) and vice versa [18]. In addition they control
the charging and discharging of batteries in systems where batteries are storage elements
especially for the standalone PV system.

42
One of the simplest power electronics circuits is the buck converter and basically consists of an
inductor, a power electronic switch (usually a MOSFET or an IGBT) and a diode. It may have a
capacitor to smooth the output. Its function is to step down DC voltage as depicted in Figure
2.23.

Figure 2.23: The Schematic of a Buck Converter [18]

If the switch is turned on and off repeatedly at very high frequencies (10kHz! 100MHz) and
assuming that in the steady state the output will be periodical then [18]:

vo(t + T) = vo -----------(2.11)

io(t + T) = io -------------(2.12)

The current in the load is given by IR = Vo/R. The average DC component of the capacitor
current must be equal to zero otherwise the capacitor voltage will be increasing and there will be
no periodic steady state. If the switch is turned on and off repeatedly at very high frequencies
such as 10kHz to 100MHz and assuming that in the steady state the output will be periodical
then:

---------------(2.13)

43
Likewise the DC component of voltage across the inductor has to be zero:

----------------(2.14)

The duty ratio D is defined as the fraction of the switch period during which the switch is on
given by:

--------------------(2.15)

The average voltage across the inductor will be given by:

----------------(2.16)

After solving we will get

-------------------(2.17)

It can be seen that the output voltage is always less than or equal to the input voltage (0 ≤ D ≤ 1).
The converter may operate in the continuous conduction mode CCM or the discontinuous
conduction mode DCM. In the CCM the inductor current is always greater than zero while in the
DCM the inductor current is zero during certain portions of the switching period. In some

44
applications both modes may be mixed. The filter inductor that determines the boundary is given
by :

------------(2.18)

Typically D = 0:5, R = 10, and f = 100 kHz, the boundary is Lb = 25μH. Thus for any inductance
larger than this value the buck converter will operate in the continuous conduction mode. In
order to limit the ripple across the dc output voltage Vo to a value below a specific value Vr, the
filter capacitance C must be greater than in the equation 2.19. The key design for buck mainly
lies in the equation 2.18 and equation 2.19.

------------------(2.19)

Next we will view on the inverter, inverter is basically quite famous and a hot topic in the world
of power electronics. In PV world, inverter plays a key point role as it’s’ efficiency is also taken
into accountability for the success of PV system. Due to the PV output is in DC form, the
inverter will convert the DC to AC current. The inverter is characterized by the power dependant
efficiency. Inverter plays the important role by keeping the voltage on AC side constant as well
to perform power conversion from the input to output at efficient rate. The formula is given by
equation 2.20 [9].

Figure 2.24: Connection of Inverter

---------------(2.20)

There many inverters topologies, from three levels up to multilevel inverters are there for usage
and there are also several topologies exist for both single phase and multi-phase inverters. For an

45
example is a full bridge single phase inverter shown in Figure 2.25. It consists of four switches
that are turned is such a way that within a branch the upper and lower switches are never on at
the same time to avoid short circuiting the DC source.

Figure 2.25: Full Bridge Voltage Source Inverter

The inverter consists of four defined states and one undefined state as shown in Table 2.5. There
are plenty of modulating techniques can be used to control the switching of the inverter switches
but one common rule for all of them must avoid the undefined state and the short circuit
conditions. There are two general types of inverters namely, square wave inverters (line
frequency switching) and pulse width modulation PWM inverters (high frequency switching)
depending on the switching techniques used. The norm practice to avoid the short circuit
condition is by a very small time interval must be inserted between the turning off one switch
and turning on the other. This short time interval time is referred to as the blanking time and
largely depends on the type of semiconductor switch employed.

Table 2.5 the Switches State for a full bridge single phase inverters

State Switch States Van Vbn Vo

1 S1+ and S2- are on and S1- and S2+ are off Vdc / 2 -Vdc / 2 Vdc
2 S1+ and S2+ are on and S1- and S2- are off -Vdc / 2 Vdc / 2 -Vdc
3 S1+ and S2+ are on and S1- and S2- are off Vdc / 2 Vdc / 2 0
4 S1- and S2- are on and S1+ and S are off -Vdc / 2 -Vdc / 2 0
5 S1-, S1+, S2- and S2+ are all off -Vdc / 2 Vdc / 2 - Vdc

46
 CHAPTER: 3

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND MODELING OF THE

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

47
3.1 General topology of photovoltaic system
The MATLAB/SIMULINK software will be used for the modeling and simulation purposes.
This software prepares all the electrical and mathematical blocks that needed in the project under
Power System Block set, Signal Routing and Math Operations (Simulink).This software is easy
to use as it is more on graphical user interface pertaining to building or modeling any circuits or
mathematical equations.

Through this chapter, hopefully the reader will be able to grasp some idea on the usage of
MATLAB/SIMULINK software. In addition, the method and steps in modeling the solar cell up
to PV array are shown clearly. The first stage was modeling the mathematical equation for the
Shockley diode current and the light generated photovoltaic current and later part will be
extended for the array model.

48
 Figure 3.1: First stage in modeling the solar cell
In the single stage configuration, as shown in figure 3.2, the interface of the PV array to the grid
is realized with the DC/AC inverter. The DC/AC inverter functions are to boost the PV voltage,
track the MPP of the PV array and control the current injected to the grid.

Figure 3.2: Structure of Single stage DC/AC Photovoltaic system

In the other side, the dual stage configuration represented in figure 3.3 is composed of the
DC/DC and DC/AC inverter to connect the PV array to the grid.

49
 Figure 3.3: Structure of dual stage DC/DC and DC/AC Photovoltaic system
The topology study in this thesis will be a photovoltaic linked with a converter focusing on the
boost along with a resistive load. A boost converter with a controller for the maximum power
point, which is used to track the MPP of the PV. This topology is shown in figure 3.4. It allows
studying the efficiency of the maximum power point control method and the performance of the
PV to achieve the maximum power at different temperature, irradiance and load.

Figure 3.4: Topology of PV with boost converter and resistive load.

Figure 3.5 is a three-phase photovoltaic system with resistive load. In this topology, the
photovoltaic array is the source of energy, the DC/DC boost converter is to adjust the DC-link
voltage, tracks the maximum power and boost the PV voltage; the DC/AC inverter injects the
AC currents to the load.

50
 Figure 3.5: Topology dual stage three-phase photovoltaic system with resistive load
3.2 Photovoltaic array modeling
3.2.1 Curves I-V Characteristics of the PV array
Figure 3.6 and 3.7 show the current voltage (I-V) characteristics of PV panel. This curve is
nonlinear and crucially relies on the temperature along with the solar irradiation. In figure 3.6,
when the irradiation increases, the current increases more than the voltage and the power
maximum power point Pmpp increases as well.

Figure 3.6: I-V Characteristics of the PV as function of irradiance

Figure 3.7 shows the variation of the current with the temperature, the current changes less than
the voltage.

51
 Figure 3.7: I-V Characteristics of the PV as function of Temperature

Thus, a dynamic point exists on the I-V curve called the Maximum power point MPP. The entire
PV system has to execute at its maximum output power as shown in figure 3.8. The location of
the power point maximal is unknown, for that reason we use calculation models and search
algorithms methods to sustain the PV array functioning mark at the MPP.

Figure 3.8: I-V curve, P-V curve with the MPP

3.2.2 Model of the PV cell

PV cell is a semiconductor p-n intersection that transforms sunlight to electrical power. To

model a solar cell, it is imperative that we asses the effect of different factors on the solar panels
and to consider the characteristics given by the manufacturers in the datasheet. It is to be noted
that to form a PV module, a set of cells are connected in series or in parallel. To form a PV array,
a set of PV modules are connected in series and in parallel. Thus, the mathematical models for
PV array are attained while utilizing the basic description equivalent circuit of the PV cells.

52
A PV cell is usually embodied by an electrical equivalent of one-diode, resistance series Rs and
resistance parallel Rp as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Equivalent circuit of solar cell with one diode

From the figure 3.9, the different parameters characteristics of the PV cells are:

Iph: currents generated by the solar cells (A)

Rs: resistance series (Ω)

Rp: resistance parallel (Ω)

Ga: irradiance from the sunlight (W/m2)

T: cell temperature (K)

Id: diode current (A)

I: output current of the PV (A)

V: output voltage of the PV (V)

Manufacturer of the solar module gives other parameters needed to model the solar cells. The
datasheet which gives the electrical characteristics is calculated under standard test condition
STC when the temperature T is 25°C and the irradiance G is 1000 W/m2. The parameters that
can be found inside the datasheet are:

53
Voc: open circuit voltage (V)
Isc: short-circuit current (A)
Pmp: power at maximum power point,
Vmp: voltage at maximum power point
Imp: current at maximum power point

The solar cell is model first, then extends the model to a PV module, and finally models the PV
array. From figure 3.6, the output current of the PV cell is

Where
Iph: photon produced by the cell,
Id: diode current
By Shockley equation, the diode current Id is given by

Where
I0: reverse saturation current of diode,
q: elementary electron charge (1.602x10-19 C),
Vd: diode voltage,
k: Boltzmann constant 1.381x10-23 (J/K)
T: temperature in kelvin (K)

The relation between voltage and current result by replacing the diode current

Where Vd is the output voltage of the PV cell.

The reverse saturation I0 is found by using the above equation. By setting the current I equal to
zero and calculating at temperature T1

54
The current generated by the solar cells Iph can be approximated with the short circuit current Isc.
The current generated can be calculated for other irradiance. The standard current, temperature
and irradiance from the datasheet are used to determine the current at different condition.

After calculation, gives the equation of the PV

Where
a: diode quality factor between 1 and 2 and must be estimated. The value of “a” is equal to 1 for
ideal diode.
V is the cell voltage. For a PV module, the cell voltage is multiplied by the total amount of the
cells found within the series.

The value of resistance series Rs is quantified from the slope dV/dI of the I-V curve at the point
open circuit voltage. The equation Rs is given by

3.2.3 Model of the Photovoltaic module

The following model uses different method to calculate the resistance series and resistance
parallel. For example, the BP MSX 120 is made of 72 solar cells (silicon nitride multicrystalline)
in series and provides 120W of nominal maximum power. The maximum power point’s voltage
is 33.7 V and current delivered at maximum power point is 3.56 A. The parameters of the BP
MSX120 are given in table 3.1, which is essential to model the PV array.

Short circuit current Isc 3.87A

Open circuit voltage Voc 42.1V
Current at maximum power point IMPP 3.56A
Voltage at maximum power point VMPP 33.7V

55
 Number of cells in series NS 72
Temperature coefficient of ISC (0.065±0.015)% ºC
Temperature coefficient of VOC -(80±10)mV/ºC
Pmax 120W
Table 3.1 PV module BP MSX120 datasheet at STC

The model consists of finding the curve characteristic of the PV module from the datasheet. The
equation used to calculate the I-V curve is:

Where
Ns: number of cells in series
The circuit model of the PV module is shown in figure 3.10. It is a controlled current source with
the equivalent resistors and the equation of the model above. The variation of the power being
taken by the load varies the PV voltage.

Figure 3.10: Circuit model of the photovoltaic module

3.2.4 Photovoltaic array

The PV array is composed of several interconnected photovoltaic modules. The modeling

process is the same as the PV module from the PV cells. The same parameters from the datasheet
are used. To obtain the required power, voltage and current, the PV modules are associated in
series and parallel. The number of modules connected in series and connected in parallel must be
calculated. Figure 3.11 shows a photovoltaic array, which consists of multiple modules, linked in
parallel and series. Nser is the total quantity of modules within the series and N par is amount of

56
modules in parallel. The number of modules modifies the value of resistance in parallel and
resistance in series. The value of equivalent resistance series and resistance parallel of the PV
array are:

Figure 3.11 PV Array composed of Nser x Npar modules

After extending the relation current voltage of the PV modules to a PV array, the new relation of
current voltage of the PV array is calculated by

Where I0, Ipv, Vt are the same parameters used for a PV modules.

This equation is valid for any given array formed with identical modules.

The photovoltaic array will be simulated with this equation. The simulation circuit must include
the number modules series and parallel. Figure 3.12 shows the circuit model of the PV array.

57
 Figure 3.12: Model structure of the photovoltaic array

3.3 DC/DC converter

3.3.1 Operation of the boost converter

The main purpose of the DC/DC is to convert the DC input from the PV into a higher DC output.
The maximum power point tracker uses the DC/DC converter to adjust the PV voltage at the
maximum power point. The boost topology is used for stepping up the low voltage input from
the PV. A boost type converter steps up the PV voltage to high voltage necessary for the inverter.

Figure 3.13 shows the Boost converter. The DC input voltage is in series with an inductor L that
acts as a current source. A switch T is in parallel with the current source that turns on and off
periodically, providing energy from the inductor and the source to increase the average output
voltage.

Figure 3.13: Topology of Boost converter

The voltage ratio for a boost converter is derived based on the time integral of the inductor
voltage equal to zero over switching period. The voltage ratio is equivalent to the ratio of the
switching period to the off time of the switch.

58
The capacitor Cdc is large enough to keep a constant output voltage, and the inductor provides
energy when the switch is open, boosting the voltage across the load.

The duty cycle from the MPPT controller is to control the switch of the boost converter. It is a
gate signal to turn on and off the switches by pulse width modulation. Figure 3.14 shows the
DC/DC boost converter with the ideal switches open.

Figure 3.14: Schematic diagram of Boost converter

In figure 3.15, the switch T1 is on and D1 is off, the circuit is split into two different parts: the
source chargers the inductor on the left while the right has the capacitor, which is responsible for
sustaining outgoing voltage via energy, stored previously. The current of inductor L is increased
gradually.

Figure 3.15: Diagram when switch T1 is on and D1 is off

In figure 3.16, the switch T1 is off and D1 is on, the energy along with the DC source that is
stored within the inductor will help supplement power for the circuit that is on the right thereby
resulting in a boost for the output voltage. Then, the inductor current discharges and reduces
gradually. The output voltage could be sustained at a particular wanted level if the switching
sequence is controlled.

59
 Figure 3.16: Diagram when switch T1 is off and D1 is on

When switch T1 is turn on, VL can be expressed as described in

While switch T1 off, D1 on

Assuming a small ripple approximation vo ≈ Vo and iL ≈ I

In a stabilized condition, the time integral of the integral voltage around the course of a particular
time has to be zero

After equating to zero, the voltage output will be:

Assuming a lossless circuit Pin = Pout

60
It can be seen that the output voltage increases as D increases. The ideal boost converter is
capable of producing any output voltage greater than the input voltage.

3.4 DC/AC inverter analysis

In this paragraph, inverter architectures and waveforms will be introduced as an overview.

Detailed description of single-phase inverter and six-step three-phase will be analyzed for
photovoltaic system. Detailed modulation strategies of the space vector modulation will be
described for the three-phase inverter.

3.4.1 Single phase full bridge DC/AC inverter

In photovoltaic system, the DC/AC inverter is used to converts the power of the source by
switching the DC input voltage (or current) in a pre-determined sequence to generate AC voltage
(or current) output. Figure 3.20 shows the equivalent circuit of single-phase inverter. This has
four switches that turn on and off to obtain a sinusoidal output.

Figure 3.20: Equivalent circuit of the full bridge single-phase inverter

The load of the inverter is a single-phase AC load or connected to single-phase grid power. The
topology of the single-phase inverter is represented in figure 3.21. The single-phase inverter has
four switches and four anti-parallel protective diodes. It provide path for the inductive current to
flow when the switches are open and protect the switches from the large voltage by interrupting
the inductive current.

61
 Figure 3.21 Topology of a single-phase inverter with filter and load

To generate an AC waveform in single-phase inverter, the switches S 1, S2 ON and S3, S4 off for
period t1 and t2 as shown in figure 3.22. For that period, the output is a positive voltage.

Figure 3.22: Output current for S1, S2 ON; S3, S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2

For period t2 to t3 in figure 3.23, the switches S3, S4 are on and S1 and S2 are off to obtain negative
voltage.

Figure 3.23: Output current for S3, S4 ON; S1, S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

Switches S1 and S4 should not be closed simultaneously, the same for switches S 3 and S2.
Otherwise short circuit of the DC bus will occur.

62
By following the switching scheme, the inverter output voltage will alternate between positive
and negative (figure 3.24), and the sinusoidal fundamental component is obtained as shown in
figure 3.25.

Figure 3.24: Single-phase output voltage

Figure 3.25: fundamental component

The load voltage is calculated by

The resulting output voltage has a fundamental alternating component and its time average is
zero. The sharp transition in voltage indicates the presence of high frequency harmonics. The
harmonics can be filtered with inductance and capacitor filters or controlled by implementing
appropriate PWM techniques.

The instantaneous inductive load current is given in

Where R is the resistive load and L is the inductance. A blanking time is introduced in the
switching cycle in order to evade a short circuit across the DC bus. The short circuit happens if

63
S1 and S4 are on simultaneously closed due to the time delay associated with process of turning
the switch OFF. The blanking time is realized by switching S1 and S3 or S4 and S2 OFF and hence
the output voltage will be zero. The blanking time introduces low order harmonics to the voltage
of the output, which is hard to filter out. Using the switching scheme with the blanking time, the
output load voltage and current waveform is as shown in figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26: Output voltage and current with blanking time

The magnitude of the n-th harmonic of the output voltage is given by Fourier analysis with

Where α is the blanking time along with the scale of each harmonic rests on it. The blanking time
is

The magnitude of the harmonic depends of the angle α. Figure 3.27 shows an example of voltage
output harmonic spectrum when α is 10.

64
 Figure 3.27: Harmonic of output voltage when α is 10.

The PWM techniques provide control scheme to reduce harmonics. The techniques can reduce
the number of filter in high frequencies.

3.4.2 Six step inverter

The six-step inverter is used to obtain a three-phase voltage output from DC source. Three-phase
voltage source inverter is a combination of three single-phase bridge circuits. A simplified
diagram of a basic three-phase inverter bridge is shown in figure 3.28. There are diodes in
antiparallel in addition to the main power devices. These diodes are called the return current or
feedback diodes. It provides an alternate path for the inductive current.

Figure 3.28: Three-phase six-step inverter

65
To obtain the three-phase AC current in six-step inverter, six gating signals need to be applied to
the six switches of the inverter. The waveforms of gating signals H1, H3 and H5 are shown in
figure 3.29. H1, H3, H5 are 3 phase symmetrical switching function with phase shift 120°. To
produce the symmetrical three phase voltages across a three phase load the devices are switched
ON for 180°. The switching signals of each inverter leg are displaced by 120° with respect to the
adjacent legs. The switching signals S1 and S4 are complimentary, the same for S 3 and S6, S5 and
S2.

The switching sequence will be S 1S2S3, S2S3S4, S3S4S5, S4S5S6, S5S6S1, S6S1S2, S1S2S3, … for a
positive sequence. The sequence will be reversed to get the negative phase sequence.

The line to neutral voltages Van represented the six step of the inverter. Vbn and Vcn have the same
waveform with phase shift 120°.

Figure 3.29: Waveforms of the switching functions.

66
Each switch is turned ON for 180°. The switches S1 and S4, which belong to the leftmost inverter
leg, produce the output voltage for phase A. The switching signals for the switches in the middle
leg, S3 and S6 for phase B, and are delayed by 120° from those for S 1 and S4 respectively for a
positive sequence. Similarly, for the same phase sequence, the switching signals for switches S 5
and S2 are delayed from the switching signals for S3 and S6 by 120°.

It is called “six-step inverter” since there are six “steps” in the line to neutral (phase) voltage
waveform as shown in figure 3.29.

For a six steps inverter, the outputs currents do not have harmonics of order three and multiples
of three. Figure 3.30 represents the harmonics currents of the six steps inverter.

Control over output heft in a three-phase inverter could be attained by altering the voltage of the
DC-link (Vdc)

Figure 3.30: Phase voltage normalized spectrum

In grid connected PV, the current output of the voltage source inverter will be injected to the
grid. The output of the inverter should be in phase and have an identical frequency to the voltage
of the grid.

67
 CHAPTER: 4

SIMULATION OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

USING MATLAB / SIMULINK

4.1 Simulation of the photovoltaic module

The simulation of the photovoltaic module is realized with Simulink model. The simulation
allows having the curve I-V and P-V characteristics.

68
 PV cell characteristics
PV power

Vpv
Ppv
Ipv PV
Ppv
Product T o Workspace

1e-9*(exp(u/26e-3)-1) I-V characteristic

Vpv
Vpv PN-j unction characteristic Id

1000 1/1000
ISC Ipv
Insolation Insolation to
ISC current gain

Figure 4.1: Simulation of the PV module

Certain variables are modified for the application with maximum power point tracking. The input
parameters required for the model are:
Ns: number of cells in series
Npp: number modules in parallel
Nss: number of modules in series
A: 1.3977, diode constant
k: 1.38e-23, Boltzmann constant
Iscn: nominal short-circuit voltage
Kp: voltage temperature constant
Ki: current temperature coefficient
Vmp: voltage maximum power at STC
Imp: current at maximum power at STC
The PV characteristics from data sheet are used to generate the file necessary for R s, Rp and other
parameters for the maximum power point. The initial setup is used to obtain the I-V curve
characteristics of the PV array and show the maximum power point of the PV. The model of the
PV is used with the boost converter to determine the performance of the maximum power point
tracker.
The model of the photovoltaic array has been implemented in Simulink as shown in figure 4.2.
The irradiance is specified. The simulation allows having the curve I-V and P-V characteristics.

69
The Simulink model uses a current source, voltage source and the value of the resistance in
series and parallel of the PV.

PV module (I)
Ipv
PV Ipv
Vpv
1000 Vpv Vpv
To Workspace
Insolation Insolation
s
+
PV1
Vpv - + -i
Current Measurement1

Series RLC Branch

Ipv
Ppv
Ppv
Product

Ipv 1
10e-5s+1
Transfer Fcn Iref >= 0

Continuous
powergui

Figure 4.2: Simulation of the PV array

4.2 Simulink model of boost converter

Figure 4.3 shows the Simulation of the boost converter. The input of the boost converter is the
photovoltaic output voltage. The inductance and the capacitor need to be specified.

70
 Scope
372.5 298

Input Current Output Current

i i
+ + DC bus current
- -

+in +out +
v
- DC bus voltage
Vdc
500
- in - out
Output Voltage
100Vdc Boost
DC/DC Converter
(average value)

+ 400
v
-
Input voltage

Continuous
powergui

DC-DC converter

Figure 4.3: Simulation of the DC-DC converter

The voltage and the current of the photovoltaic array are the input, and the duty cycle is the
output. The duty cycle is compared to a triangle wave signal to generate the PWM. The
frequency of the triangle wave is the pulsation frequency of the boost converter.

Figure 4.4 is the simulation of the Boost converter and the photovoltaic array in Simulink. The
system has a resistive load to test the simulation.

6 4.89
PV module (I) 770.5
Ipv
PV Ipv
Vpv
1 000 Vpv
Vpv To Workspace
Inso la tion Insolation
s
+ Sco pe
PV1
Vpv - + -i

C urrent Measurement1 64.89 50

In put curren t Out p ut Cu rrent

+ i + i
5e+004
DC bus current
- -
Ppv
+ In + Out + v
Ipv
- DC bus v oltage
Ppv 1000
Product - In - Out
Output Vol tage
1 00Vdc Boost
DC/DC Converter
(average value )

Ipv 1
10e-5s+1
More Info
Tra nsfer Fcn Iref >= 0
?

+ v 770.5
-
Inp ut voltage

Continuous
pow ergui

Figure 4.4: Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with dc-dc converter

71
4.3 Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with AC-DC-AC PWM
converter

AC-DC-AC PWM Converter

58.58

DC_Conv_current
DC_con_current1
773.5

conv _v olgage Display3

1000 In1

Insolation
PV_Voltage 753.7
Battery recharge power
Vdc
Vpv
+
v
2.638e+004 -
PV_power +
v
-
+
P_PV PWM v
Vab_inv -
L1 IGBT Inverter
Load_2 PV_current 60.53 Vab_load
g Scope1
I_PV +
A A A A Vabc
Load_1
a
C B B B B
b
Subsystem1 -
c
C C C C
Measure
LC Filter

C
A
B
50 kW
400 V rms
The 'PreLoadFcn' of psbbridges.mdl 50 Hz
automatically sets 'Ts' to 2e-6 in your Workspace.

Voltage Regulator

1
Pulses Uref Vabc_inv Vabc (pu)
z
Vref (pu)
Discrete
m Vd_ref (pu) 1
PWM Generator

modulation index

Discrete,
Ts = 2e-006 s.

Figure 4.5: Simulation of the PV with boost and three-phase inverter

The PV system with three-phase inverter shown in figure 4.5 is used. The three-phase inverter
has three-phase inductance filter and resistance load. An inverter block from Simulink is the
three-phase inverter. The PV and boost, remain the same. The pulse generator produces the
gating signal for the inverter block. The output voltage from the boost converter is the DC
voltage for the three-phase inverter.

72
 CHAPTER: 5

SIMULATION RESULT OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC

SYSTEM USING MATLAB / SIMULINK

73
5.1 Photovoltaic array characteristics

5.1.1 The I-V and P-V characteristics of single cell

Fig shows the I-V and P-V characteristics and table shows the maximum power point of the
single cell at the different insolation.
1000W/m2

Figure 5.1: I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module
MPP power 0.4378
MPP voltage 0.4600
MPP current 0.9517
Table 5.1 Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at STC
800W/m2

Figure 5.2: I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module
MPP power 0.3458
MPP voltage 0.4600
MPP current 0.7517
Table 5.2 Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at 800W/m2

74
600W/m2

Figure 5.3: I-V curve and P-V curve of the BP MSX 120 module

MPP power 0.2550

MPP voltage 0.4460
MPP current 0.5718
Table 5.3 Photovoltaic module maximum power point values at 600W/m2

5.1.2 The I-V and P-V characteristics of single module

The photovoltaic model used is the NE-80EJEA. It has a maximum power output 80 W. The
table 5.4 gives the characteristic of the module NE-80EJEA at STC 25C.
Short circuit current ISC 5.45 A
Current at maximum power point IMPP 4.95 A
Voltage at maximum power point VMPP 17.6 V
Open circuit voltage VOC 22.2 V
Number cells in series ns 36
Table 5.4: PV module NE-80EJEA data sheet values at STC
The module NE-80EJEA is connected in series and parallel to achieve a maximum power output
of 26 kW and output voltage 753 V. Table 5.5.gives the characteristic of the PV for maximum
power 26 kW. A PV of 26 KW is made from the NE-80EJEA with 25 modules in series and 10
modules in parallel. The current and voltage at maximum power are respectively 64.49 A and
753 V.

Number of modules in a string series NSS 25

Number of modules in a string parallel NPP 10
Output voltage rating 753 V

75
 Output current rating 64.49 A
Maximum power output 26000W
Table 5.5: Characteristics of 26 kW photovoltaic
5.2 Photovoltaic system with a Boost converter
The simulation presents an analysis of the photovoltaic array 26000W with the boost converter.
The PV system parameters are:
- DC bus voltage Vdc: 400 V
The boost parameters are calculated and the inductance and capacitance values are given below.
The boost input voltage nominal is 400 V and, the output voltage is 500 V
5.2.1 R-L type load
R= 100*100/6000 = 1.666 Ω

L= 100*100/6000 = 1.666 H

INPUT OUTPUT

Vdc = 400 Vdc = 500

Idc = 372.5 Idc = 298

76
Figure 5.4: waveform of DC-DC converter with 400 V constant

77
5.2.2 Change input voltage

Vdc = 450 Vdc = 500

Idc = 331.1 Idc = 298

Figure 5.5: waveform of DC-DC converter with 450 V constant

78
Above both the waveform we show that when we change the input voltage there is no effect on
output.

5.2.3 DC-DC converter connected with 25 ohm resistance

Figure 5.6: waveform of DC-DC converter with 25 Ω

79
5.3 PV system connected with load
In this simulation, the output of the boost converter is connected to the three-phase inverter and
the three-phase resistive load. The simulation model in figure 4.5 is used to simulate the three-
phase photovoltaic system with 10 Ω resistive loads on each phase. The carrier frequency is set
at 2 kHz and the sampling time is 2 e-6 s. The three-phase inverter delivers a three-phase current
to the load. Figure 5.7 shows a sinusoidal load voltage for phase a. The DC voltage produced by
the photovoltaic system is converted into AC current to the load.

Figure 5.7: sinusoidal load voltage for phase a

80
 Figure 5.8: Battery connected to a three-phase inverter
Figure 5.8 shows a Vdc, Vab, sinusoidal load voltage for Vab and modulation index. The DC
voltage produced by the photovoltaic system is converted into AC current to the load.
Figure 5.9 is the photovoltaic voltage, inverter voltage, load voltage, modulation index. Without
the current control and the voltage control, the DC link voltage is not constant. The voltage of
the DC link is dependent of the load. Table 5.6 shows the result of the photovoltaic system
connected to the load.

81
 DATA VALUE
Isolation 1000
Dc connected current 63.86
Dc connected voltage 773.30
Vpv 753.7
I pv 64.49
P pv 26.83kw
Isc 43.6
Voc 888
Ipm 39.6
Vpm 704
L 200*e-6 H
C 5000*e-6 F
Table 5.6: parameters of 26 kW photovoltaic system

Figure 5.9: waveform of Photovoltaic system connected to a three-phase inverter

82
 CHAPTER: 6

CONCLUSION AND FURTHER WORK

83
6.1 Conclusion

6.2 Further work

CHAPTER: 7

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84
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17) Liang Ma, Wang Ran and Zheng, T.Q., “Modeling and Control of 100 kW Three-phase grid-
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