Isogeometric analysis: an overview and computer implementation aspects

Vinh Phu Nguyena,1,∗, Stéphane P.A. Bordasa,2 , Timon Rabczukb,3

a School of Engineering, Institute of Mechanics and Advanced Materials, Cardiff University, Queen’s Buildings, The Parade, Cardiff
CF24 3AA
b Institute of Structural Mechanics, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Marienstraße 15 99423 Weimar
arXiv:1205.2129v2 [cs.NA] 27 Sep 2013

Abstract

Isogeometric analysis (IGA) represents a recently developed technology in computational mechanics that offers the

possibility of integrating methods for analysis and Computer Aided Design (CAD) into a single, unified process. The

implications to practical engineering design scenarios are profound, since the time taken from design to analysis is

greatly reduced, leading to dramatic gains in efficiency. The tight coupling of CAD and analysis within IGA requires

knowledge from both fields and it is one of the goals of the present paper to outline much of the commonly used

notation. In this manuscript, through a clear and simple Matlab

R
implementation, we present an introduction to IGA

applied to the Finite Element (FE) method and related computer implementation aspects. Furthermore, implemen-

tation of the extended IGA which incorporates enrichment functions through the partition of unity method (PUM) is

also presented, where several examples for both two-dimensional and three-dimensional fracture are illustrated. The

open source Matlab

R
code which accompanies the present paper can be applied to one, two and three-dimensional

problems for linear elasticity, linear elastic fracture mechanics, structural mechanics (beams/plates/shells including

large displacements and rotations) and Poisson problems with or without enrichment. The Bézier extraction concept

that allows FE analysis to be performed efficiently on T-spline geometries is also incorporated. The article includes a

summary of recent trends and developments within the field of IGA.

Keywords: isogeometric analysis, linear elasticity, Matlab
R
, NURBS, finite elements, partition of unity, enrichment,

3D cracks, boundary conditions, CAD, large displacements and rotations, shells

∗ Corresponding author
1 [email protected]
2 [email protected]
3 [email protected]

Preprint submitted to Elsevier September 30, 2013

1. Introduction

1.1. Underlying concepts of isogeometric analysis

The predominant technology that is used by CAD to represent complex geometries is the Non-Uniform Rational

B-spline (NURBS). This allows certain geometries to be represented exactly that are only approximated by polynomial

functions, including conic and circular sections. There is a vast array of literature focused on NURBS (e.g. [1], [2])

and as a result of several decades of research, many efficient computer algorithms exist for their fast evaluation and

refinement. The key concept outlined by Hughes et al. [3] was to employ NURBS not only as a geometry discretisation

technology, but also as a discretisation tool for analysis, attributing such methods to the field of ‘Isogeometric Analysis’

(IGA). Since this seminal paper, a monograph dedicated entirely to IGA has been published [4] and applications can

now be found in several fields including structural mechanics, solid mechanics, fluid mechanics and contact mechanics.

We give in this section an overview of some of these recent developments while outlining the benefits and present

shortcomings of IGA. It should be emphasized that the idea of using CAD technologies in finite elements dates back

at least to [5, 6] where B-splines were used as shape functions in FEM. In addition, similar methods which adopt

subdivision surfaces have been used to model shells [7]. We also review some of the recent attempts at simplifying the

CAD-FEA integration by separating boundary and domain discretisations.

1.2. Applications

In contact formulations using conventional geometry discretisations, the presence of faceted surfaces can lead to

jumps and oscillations in traction responses unless very fine meshes are used. The benefits of using NURBS over

such an approach are evident, since smooth contact surface are obtained, leading to more physically accurate contact

stresses. Recent work in this area includes [8, 9, 10, 11, 12].

IGA has also shown advantages over traditional approaches in the context of optimisation problems [13, 14, 15, 16]

where the tight coupling with CAD models offers an extremely attractive approach for industrial applications. Another

attractive class of methods include those that require only a boundary discretisation, creating a truly direct coupling

with CAD. Isogeometric boundary element methods for elastostatic analysis were presented in [17, 18], demonstrating

that mesh generation can be completely circumvented by using CAD discretisations for analysis.

Shell and plate problems are another field where IGA has demonstrated compelling benefits over conventional

approaches [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The smoothness of the NURBS basis functions allows for a straightforward

2
construction of plate/shell elements. Particularly for thin shells, rotation-free formulations can be easily constructed

[20, 26]. Note that for multi-patch NURBS surfaces, rotation-free IGA elements require special treatment at patch

boundaries where the basis functions are found to be C 0 continuous. Furthermore, isogeometric plate/shell elements

exhibit much less pronounced shear-locking compared to standard FE plate/shell elements. Elements with smooth

boundaries such as circular and cylindrical elements were successfully constructed using the IGA concept [27, 28].

The smoothness of NURBS basis functions is attractive for analysis of fluids [29, 30, 31] and for fluid-structure

interaction problems [32, 33]. In addition, due to the ease of constructing high order continuous basis functions, IGA

has been used with great success in solving PDEs that incorporate fourth order (or higher) derivatives of the field

variable such as the Hill-Cahnard equation [34], explicit gradient damage models [35] and gradient elasticity [36]. The

high order NURBS basis has also found potential applications in the Kohn-Sham equation for electronic structure

modeling of semiconducting materials [37].

NURBS provide advantageous properties for structural vibration problems [38, 39, 40, 41] where k-refinement

(unique to IGA) has been shown to provide more robust and accurate frequency spectra than typical higher-order FE

p-methods. Particularly, the optical branches of frequency spectra, which have been identified as contributors to Gibbs

phenomena in wave propagation problems (and the cause of rapid degradation of higher modes in the p-version of

FEM), are eliminated. However when lumped mass matrices were used, the accuracy is limited to second order for any

basis order. High order isogeometric lumped mass matrices are not yet available. The mathematical properties of IGA

were studied in detail by Evans et al.[42].

The isogeometric concept has also spread to the field of meshfree methods such as [43, 44] in which spline-based

meshfree methods were presented. Industrial applications of IGA have been presented in [45, 18] along with applications

in experimental mechanics [46] where NURBS-based DIC (Digital Image Correlation) was shown to outperform standard

FE DIC.

1.3. Shortcomings of NURBS and alternative geometry discretisations

NURBS are ubiquitous in CAD but are known to exhibit major shortcomings from a computational geometry

standpoint. Perhaps the greatest difficulty encountered is the inability of NURBS to produce watertight geometries,

often complicating mesh generation. From an analysis perspective, the tensor product structure of NURBS proves to

be inefficient, caused by the global nature of refinement operations. In turn, this leads to inefficient error estimation

3
and adaptivity algorithms. One solution which has gathered momentum from both the computational geometry and

analysis communities is the use of T-splines [47] which overcome the limitations of NURBS while retaining the familiar

structure of NURBS algorithms. T-splines correct the deficiencies of NURBS by creating a single patch, watertight

geometry which can be locally refined and coarsened. Buffa et al. [48] note that linear independence of the T-spline

basis functions is not guaranteed on generic T-meshes leading to the definition of analysis-suitable T-splines [49], a

mildly restricted subset of T-splines which meet the demands of both design and analysis. Utilisation of T-splines in

an IGA framework has been illustrated in [50, 51], and by adopting a Bézier extraction process, Scott et al.[52] showed

that T-splines can be incorporated efficiently into existing FE codes.

Alternatives to T-splines include polycube splines [53], PHT-splines [54] and LR-splines [55]. PHT-splines (poly-

nomial spline over hierarchical T-meshes) have been extended to rational splines and applied in [56, 57] to problems

in elasticity for continua and thin structures. Adaptive refinement with PHT-splines is particularly simple. Although

T-splines allow for local adaptive refinement, the complexity of knot insertion under adaptive refinement is complex,

particularly in 3D. However, we note that research is currently being pursued on hierarchical T-spline refinement

algorithms that address this issue.

Another direction of IGA research includes hierarchical B-splines [58, 59, 60] and unstructured Powell-Sabin splines

[61]. The hierarchical B-splines finite cell method [59] furnishes a seamless CAD-FEA integration for very complex

geometries. We refer also to [62] for IGA combined with finite element based local refinement capabilities. Different

subdivision surface techniques (Catmull-Clark, Loop) have also been utilized for solid and shell modeling [63, 64].

In computer aided geometric design, patching multiple NURBS parameterizations to form complex topologies is

far from trivial if certain continuity requirements are to be maintained. Trimming techniques provide a promising

alternative for representing complex NURBS domains. In [65], a trimmed surface based analysis framework has been

proposed where NURBS-enhanced FEM [66, 67] was applied to define a suitable integration domain within parameter

space. In a recent contribution [68], the authors presented an alternative method to handle trimmed NURBS geometries.

1.4. Discontinuities and fracture

IGA has been applied to cohesive fracture [69], outlining a framework for modeling debonding along material

interfaces using NURBS and propagating cohesive cracks using T-splines. The method relies upon the ability to specify

the continuity of NURBS and T-splines through a process known as knot insertion. As a variation of the eXtended Finite

4
Element Method (XFEM) [70], IGA was applied to Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) using the partition of

unity method (PUM) to capture two dimensional strong discontinuities and crack tip singularities efficiently [71, 72].

The method is usually referred to as XIGA (eXtended IGA). In [73] an explicit isogeometric enrichment technique

was proposed for modeling material interfaces and cracks exactly. Note that this method is contrary to PUM-based

enrichment methods which define cracks implicitly.

A phase field model for dynamic fracture was presented in [74] using adaptive T-spline refinement to provide an

effective method for simulating fracture in three dimensions. In [75] high order B-splines were adopted to efficiently

model delamination of composite specimens and in [76], an isogeometric framework for two and three dimensional

delamination analysis of composite laminates was presented where the authors showed that using IGA can significantly

reduce the usually time consuming pre-processing step in generating FE meshes (solid elements and cohesive interface

elements) for delamination computations. A continuum description of fracture using explicit gradient damage models

was also studied using NURBS [35].

1.5. Alternatives to IGA

Other techniques which integrate CAD and analysis include the use of subdivision surfaces to model shells [7],

NURBS-enhanced finite elements [66, 67] and NURBS for BEM shape optimisation [77]. Immersed boundary methods

[78] (and references therein), the finite cell method [59, 79] and the structured XFEM [80, 81] are yet other alternatives

which aim to combine analysis and design technologies. In general, it is found that for CAD and analysis technologies to

work seamlessly together, the underlying discretisation must either be directly compatibile or easily converted between

the two.

IGA has offered significant advances towards the goal of a unified design and analysis framework, but much research

is still needed before this goal is realised. There are several indications of the future promise of IGA for industrial

design but ultimately, the litmus test of success for IGA will be whether the approach is widely adopted by industry.

1.6. Computational aspects

Some major computational aspects of IGA which have been studied so far include (i) locking issues, (ii) sensitivity

to mesh distortion, (iii) impact of high continuity of NURBS on direct solvers, (iv) collocation methods, (v) compet-

ing demands of analysis and computational geometry discretisations, (vi) construction of trivariate solids from given

bivariate surface representations and (vii) optimal quadrature rules.

5
 (i) Although the smoothness of NURBS basis functions reduces to some extent the locking phenomena for constrained

problems such as incompressible media, thin-walled structures, NURBS-based FEs are not locking free [82, 83,

84, 85, 86]. Existing locking removal techniques in standard FEMs were successfully adapted to IGA such as the

Discrete Strain Gap method [84], the F/B-bar method [83, 85], the enhanced assumed strain method [86] and

mixed formulations [87].

(ii) The effect of mesh distortion on the performance of IGA for solid mechanics was discussed in [88] in which it was

found that higher-order NURBS functions are able to somewhat alleviate the impact of the distortions.

(iii) The high order continuity offered by NURBS has a negative impact on the performance of direct solvers as pointed

out in [89]. The authors found that for a fixed number of unknowns and basis degree, a higher degree of continuity

drastically increases the CPU time and RAM needed to solve the problem when using a direct solver.

(iv) In an attempt to compete with low order FEs with one-point quadrature that are extensively used in industrial

applications, isogeometric collocation methods were developed [90, 91].

(v) Due to the fact that meshes in an isogeometric framework are defined by the parametrisation of the object of

interest, the quality of the geometry parametrisation plays an important role in ensuring mesh quality. This issue

has, however, been addressed by only a few researchers [92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. In particular, in [94], the authors

proposed the concept of “analysis-aware geometry modeling”.

(vi) In CAD, solids are defined as boundary surfaces in which the interior is not explicitly modeled. In FEA, a solid

representation is necessary and therefore, the transition from CAD solids to FEA solids demands a step in which

the CAD representations are converted to solid FEA representations. Initial developments have been reported in

[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102]. Note that in this regard, the isogeometric boundary element method (IGABEM) can

be considered a truly isogeometric method [17, 18, 103, 104] since BEM analysis requires only the definition of a

boundary discretisation, completely defined by CAD.

(vii) Gaussian quadrature is not optimal for IGA. Research is currently focussed on optimal integration techniques

such as that in [105, 106] in which (nearly) optimal quadrature rules have been presented.

6
1.7. Available implementations

Some implementation aspects of IGA were reported in [4] and more recently, an open source IGA Matlab
R
code was

described in [107] with a restriction to 2D scalar PDEs. An excellent open source IGA code written in Matlab
R
is given

in [108]. Incorporating IGA within an object-oriented C++ FE code was discussed in [109]. Implementation details

for enriched formulations within an IGA framework are reported in [110] using commercial FE software. An IGA BEM

code written in Matlab

R
was presented in [104]. Isogeometric analysis was also incorporated into FEAP [111, 87]. A

high performance IGA code was given in [112] which is based on PETSc, the Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific

Computation. The Python programming language has also been adopted to implement IGA e.g., [113, 114].

1.8. Contributions and outline

In this paper, we present in detail an isogeometric (Bubnov-)Galerkin finite element method applied to two- and

three-dimensional elasto-static solid/structural mechanics problems and traction-free crack problems. The discussion

is confined to NURBS for the sake of simplicity. Although no new fundamental findings are presented the contribution

of the paper are

• an overview of IGA, applications and recent developments are presented;

• implementation details for 1D/2D/3D solid mechanics and rotation-free plate elements are provided;

• implementation for 2D and 3D XIGA for traction-free cracks;

• visualization techniques for (X)IGA are discussed;

• techniques to impose Dirichlet boundary conditions including the penalty method, the Lagrange multipliers

method, the least square projection method are implemented;

• different techniques to model discontinuities in the context of IGA are discussed;

where some implementations are not available in the literature.

The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines B-spline and NURBS technology used to construct curves,

surfaces and solids; the use of NURBS for discretisation within a finite element framework is treated in Section 3;

implementation of an isogeometric finite element method for two-dimensional elasticity is described in Section 4 and an

7
extended isogeometric formulation based on the concept of the PUM is the subject of Section 5. A detailed description

of our IGA Matlab code is given in Section 6 and Application of IGA to structural mechanics problems is presented in

Section 7. Numerical examples including 2D/3D fracture mechanics and large deformation shell problems are given in

Section 8.

1.9. Notation

We use lowercase indices to indicate a local index and uppercase indices to indicate a global index. We denote

dp and ds as the number of parametric directions and spatial directions respectively. Boldfont is used to indicate

matrices and vectors where the number of components is implied.

2. A brief introduction to B-splines/NURBS

As a precursor to Section 3, an understanding of the discretisation technology which underpins IGA is essential, since

the beneficial properties which are found through analysis emanate directly from the underlying CAD basis functions.

We give a brief outline of parametric functions, then state the terminology and basis function definitions which allow

curves, surfaces and solids to be represented by B-splines and NURBS. The algorithms which define B-splines and

NURBS in the present Matlab

R
code are based on those given in [1] in which explicit implementations are given for

all algorithms.

2.1. Parametric representation of geometry

What is fundamental to all the discretisation technology used in the present paper (and the majority of technology

in the CAGD community), is the representation of geometry through parametric functions. These define a mapping

from a given parameter to the desired geometry. We can imagine that as we move through the parameter domain, the

parametric function ‘sweeps’ out the desired shape. For example, if we consider the case of a circle of radius 1, the

implicit form of this equation is given by

x2 + y 2 = 1 (1)

or alternatively, if we define a mapping f : [0, 2π] → R2 , the parametric form of the same circle is given by

f (t) = (cos t, sin t) . (2)

8
This is found to be much more conducive for graphical implementation. To see this, consider the task of plotting

the circle through both Eq. (1) and Eq. (2). In the case of the latter, by simply determining t at a discrete set of

points in the interval [0, 2π], the desired result is obtained. In addition, many algorithms which perform geometrical

transformations become much simpler when parametric functions are used. Both B-splines and NURBS are based on

parametric functions.

2.2. B-splines

The demands of Computer Aided Geometrical Design place certain requirements on the types of discretisation that

can be used to represent geometrical objects where, for example, in the case of car design, surfaces of G2 continuity4

are required to avoid unnatural reflections. Additional requirements include local control of geometrical features, the

ability to apply refinement algorithms and numerical stability of high order curves. It is found that representations

of objects using Bézier curves or Lagrange polynomials do not meet many of these requirements and alternatives are

sought. The CAGD community have settled on the use of B-spline-based technology since it is found to provide many

of the desired properties for interactive geometrical design, realised through the properties of the underlying B-spline

basis functions.

B-splines can be considered as a mapping from parametric space Ω̂ ⊂ Rdp to physical space Ω ⊂ Rds 5 . In this sense,

a B-spline can be considered to ‘sweep’ out a curve, surface or volume as we move through the range of parameter

values. In the present work we define coordinates in parameter space as ξ = (ξ, η, ζ) = (ξ 1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ) and coordinates in

physical space as x = (x, y, z) = (x1 , x2 , x3 ). These are simplified accordingly in the case of one- and two-dimensional

problems. What remains is to determine the particular form of the mapping x : Ω̂ → Ω.

To construct a B-spline, a knot vector must be specified and is defined as an ordered set of increasing parameter

values Ξ = {ξ1 , ξ2 , . . . , ξn+p+1 }, ξi ≤ ξi+1 where ξi is the i th knot, n is the number of basis functions and p is the

polynomial order. The knot vector divides the parametric space into intervals usually referred to as knot spans with

the number of coincident knots for a particular knot value referred to as a knot with a certain multiplicity k. That is,

a knot has a multiplicity k if it is repeated k times in the knot vector. Most commonly, open knot vectors are used

where the first and last knots have a multiplicity k = p + 1. Appendix A outlines alternative knot vector notations

4 Appendix B outlines the differences between C k and Gk continuity

5 Further discussion of these spaces in given in Section 3.1.

9
which remove redundant information, but it can be assumed that the above knot vector notation is used throughout

the present work.

An important property of B-splines formed from open knot vectors is that they are interpolatory at their start

and end points, greatly facilitating the imposition of boundary conditions for analysis. In geometrical terms, this

corresponds to a B-spline that coincides with its start and end control points. A uniform knot vector is associated to

evenly distributed knots. Otherwise it is classified as a non-uniform knot vector.

Knot vectors are not commonly used by CAD designers, and in most CAD software the ability to modify knot

vectors is not provided. It is much more common to tailor the geometry through modification of the polynomial order,

control points and weightings.

2.2.1. B-spline basis functions

Given a knot vector Ξ, the associated set of B-spline basis functions {Ni,p }ni=1 are defined recursively by the

Cox-de-Boor formula, starting with the zeroth order basis function (p = 0)



1
 if ξi ≤ ξ < ξi+1 ,
Ni,0 (ξ) = (3)

0
 otherwise,

and for a polynomial order p ≥ 1

ξ − ξi ξi+p+1 − ξ
Ni,p (ξ) = Ni,p−1 (ξ) + Ni+1,p−1 (ξ). (4)
ξi+p − ξi ξi+p+1 − ξi+1

in which fractions of the form 0/0 are defined as zero.

Some salient properties of B-spline basis functions include: (1) they constitute a partition of unity, (2) each basis

function is non-negative over the entire parametric domain, (3) they are linearly independent, (4) the support of a

B-spline basis function Ni,p is given by p + 1 knot spans denoted by [ξi , ξi+p+1 ], (5) they exhibit C p−mi continuity

across knot ξi where mi is the multiplicity of knot ξi and (6) B-spline basis functions in general are not interpolatory,

equivalent to saying that the Kronecker-delta property is not guaranteed at control points. This last point requires

careful treatment when imposing non-homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions, and is discussed later in Section 4.2.

To demonstrate the effect of alternative knot vectors, Fig. 1 illustrates a set of quadratic (p = 2) B-spline basis

10
functions for a uniform knot vector. Fig. 2 illustrates a corresponding set of basis functions for an open, non-uniform

knot vector. Of particular note is the interpolatory nature of the basis function at each end of the interval created

through an open knot vector, and the reduced continuity at ξ = 4 due to the presence of the location of a repeated

knot where C 0 continuity is attained. Elsewhere, the functions are C 1 continuous (C p−1 ). The ability to control

continuity by means of knot insertion is particularly useful for modeling discontinuities such as cracks or material

interfaces [69, 76].

Figure 1: Quadratic B-spline basis functions defined for the uniform knot vector Ξ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

During implementation, the derivatives of B-splines are required in both CAD and analysis to compute quantities

such as tangent and normal vectors and field variable derivatives. The first derivative of a B-spline basis function is

computed recursively from lower order basis functions as

d p p
Ni,p (ξ) = Ni,p−1 (ξ) − Ni+1,p−1 (ξ). (5)
dξ ξi+p − ξi ξi+p+1 − ξi+1

Derivatives of higher order can be found in [1].

2.3. Refinement algorithms

A feature which is essential for both computational geometry and analysis is the ability to successively refine

discretisations to allow intricate geometries to be modelled or to capture rapid variations in the field solution. A

11
Figure 2: Quadratic B-spline basis functions defined for the open, non-uniform knot vector Ξ =
{0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5}. Note the flexibility in the construction of basis functions with varying degrees of regularity.

significant advantage of adopting B-spline-based functions as a discretisation tool is the ability to apply a variety of

refinement algorithms in a simple manner. We restrict ourselves to a brief discussion of the available algorithms, with

a more detailed treatment given in [4].

B-spline refinement algorithms in the context of isogeometric analysis can be assigned to one of three types:

1. Knot insertion is the process whereby additional knots are inserted into the knot vectors thereby creating

additional knot intervals or elements, in the context of analysis. This is directly analogous to h-refinement seen

in the conventional FEM.

2. Degree elevation is the process of raising the order of the underlying basis, directly analogous to p-refinement

in the conventional FEM.

3. k-refinement is unique to IGA and consists of a combined process of degree elevation and knot insertion. These

processes are not commutative and therefore the order in which these refinements are applied will change the

final basis. k-refinement first applies degree elevation proceeded by knot insertion, offering a reduction in degrees

of freedom over its counterpart [3].

12
2.4. B-spline curves

Given a set of B-spline basis functions {NA,p }nA=1 and a set of control points {PA }nA=1 where PA ∈ Rds , we can

construct a piecewise-polynomial B-spline curve as

n
X
C(ξ) = PA NA,p (ξ). (6)
A=1

An example quadratic B-spline curve is shown in Fig. 3 constructed from a uniform open knot vector. Its associated

control polygon, constructed by piecewise linear interpolation of the control points is also shown. A B-spline curve

inherits all of the continuity properties of its underlying basis and, as mentioned previously, the use of open knots

ensures that the first and last points are interpolatory. Note that the tangent to the curve at the first control point is

defined by the first two control points. This property is exploited in rotation-free element formulations for thin-walled

structures (section 7).

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Figure 3: A quadratic (p = 2) B-spline curve with a uniform open knot vector Ξ = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5}. Control
points are denoted by filled circles and the control polygon is denoted by the red line. Note that the curve is at least
C 1 continuous everywhere except at the extremities where, due to the presence of repeated knots, C −1 continuity is
obtained.

13
2.5. B-spline surfaces and volumes

Given two knot vectors for each parametric direction Ξ1 = {ξ1 , ξ2 , . . . , ξn+p+1 } and Ξ2 = {η1 , η2 , . . . , ηm+q+1 }, and

a control net Pi,j ∈ Rds , a tensor-product B-spline surface is defined as

n X
X m
S(ξ, η) = Ni,p (ξ)Mj,q (η)Pi,j , (7)
i=1 j=1

where Ni,p (ξ) and Mj,q (η) are the univariate B-spline basis functions of order p and q corresponding to knot vectors

Ξ1 and Ξ2 , respectively. Defining a global index as

A = n(j − 1) + i, (8)

Eq. (7) can be rewritten in a more compact form as

n×m
X
S(ξ) = PA NAp,q (ξ), (9)
A=1

in which NAp,q is a bivariate B-spline basis function defined as NAp,q (ξ) = Ni,p (ξ)Mj,q (η). Figs. 4 illustrates an example

bicubic B-spline basis function.

The extension to B-spline volumes is straightforward, where a trivariate basis is formed through a tensor product

of B-spline basis functions as

X m X
n X l
V(ξ, η, ζ) = Ni,p (ξ)Mj,q (η)Lk,r (ζ)Pi,j,k , (10)
i=1 j=1 k=1

or, by defining a global index A through

A = (n × m)(k − 1) + n(j − 1) + i, (11)

14
 r
1
0.9
0.8

0.4

0.35
0.7

0.3
0.6

0.25

0.2
0.5

0.15
0.4

0.1

0.05
0.3

0
1
0.2

0.9
0.8 1
0.7 0.9
0.6 0.8
0.1

0.5 0.7
0.4 0.6
0.5
0.3 0.4
0.2 0.3
0

0.2
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.1 0.1
0 0

m 0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
n

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Figure 4: A bivariate cubic B-spline basis function for knot vectors Ξ1 = Ξ2 = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1, 1, 1}.

15
a simplified form of Eq. (10) can be written as

n×m×l
X
V(ξ) = PA NAp,q,r (ξ). (12)
A=1

To compute derivatives of B-spline surfaces and volumes, the chain rule is applied to (5) with a detailed treatment

of this topic provided in [1].

2.6. NURBS

B-splines are convenient for free-form modelling, but they lack the ability to exactly represent some simple shapes

such as circles and ellipsoids. This is why today, the de facto standard technology in CAD is a generalisation of

B-splines referred to as NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines). NURBS are formed through rational functions

of B-splines, forming a superset of B-splines. They inherit all the favourable properties of B-splines and are favoured

over their counterpart due to their ability to form exact representations of conic sections such as spheres, ellipsoids,

paraboloids and hyperboloids. In addition, there exist efficient algorithms for their evaluation and refinement.

2.6.1. NURBS basis functions

NURBS basis functions are defined as

Ni,p (ξ)wi Ni,p (ξ)wi

Ri,p (ξ) = = Pn (13)
W (ξ) î=1 Nî,p (ξ)wî

where {Ni,p }ni=1 is the set of B-spline basis functions of order p and {wi }ni=1 , wi > 0 is the set of NURBS weights.

Selecting appropriate weights permits the description of many different types of curves including polynomials and

circular arcs. For the special case in which all weights are equal, the NURBS basis reduces to the B-spline basis.

NURBS weights for certain simple geometries are given in [1], but in general, weights are user-defined through CAD

packages such as Rhino [115].

The first derivative of a NURBS basis function Ri,p is computed using the quotient rule as

0
d Ni,p (ξ)W (ξ) − Ni,p (ξ)W 0 (ξ)
Ri,p (ξ) = wi , (14)
dξ W (ξ)2

16
 0 d
where Ni,p (ξ) ≡ dξ Ni,p (ξ) and
n
X
W 0 (ξ) = 0
Nî,p (ξ)wî . (15)
î=1

2.6.2. NURBS curves, surfaces and volumes

In a similar fashion to B-spline curves, the NURBS curve associated with a set of control points and weights

{PA , wA }nA=1 and basis functions {RA,p }nA=1 is defined as

n
X
C(ξ) = PA RA,p (ξ). (16)
A=1

NURBS surfaces are constructed from a linear combination of bivariate NURBS basis functions, control points Pi,j ∈

Rds and weights wi,j > 0 as

n X
X m
p,q
S(ξ, η) = Pi,j Ri,j (ξ, η), (17)
i=1 j=1

where the bivariate NURBS basis functions are defined as

N (ξ)Mj (η)wi,j
p,q
Ri,j (ξ, η) = Pn Pim . (18)
î=1 ĵ=1 Nî (ξ)Mĵ (η)wî,ĵ

Alternatively, using the mapping defined by Eq. (8), Eq. (17) can be written more succinctly as

n×m
X p,q
S(ξ) = PA RA (ξ). (19)
A=1

NURBS volumes are constructed from control points Pi,j,k ∈ Rds , weights wi,j,k > 0 as

n X
X m X
l
p,q,r
V(ξ, η, ζ) = Pi,j,k Ri,j,k (ξ, η, ζ) (20)
i=1 j=1 k=1

p,q,r
where the trivariate NURBS basis functions Ri,j,k are given by

p,q,r Ni (ξ)Mj (η)Pk (ζ)wi,j,k

Ri,j,k (ξ, η, ζ) = Pn Pm Pl . (21)
î=1 ĵ=1 k̂=1 Nî (ξ)Mĵ (η)Pk̂ (ζ)wî,ĵ,k̂

17
Using the mapping given by Eq. (11), Eq. (20) can also be written as

n×m×l
X p,q,r
V(ξ) = PA RA (ξ) (22)
A=1

Remark 2.1. As mentioned in Section 1.6, CAD representations are usually composed of surface models or boundary-

representations. Trivariate discretisations defined by (22) are not normally explicitly given, and therefore some pre-

processing is required before domain based numerical methods such as the FEM can be applied. Except for the case of

simple cases such as extruded-surface models and swept models, this task is far from trivial. This is currently an open

research topic in IGA.

3. NURBS as a basis for analysis: isogeometric finite element formulation

Our attention now focusses on the use of B-splines and NURBS as a discretisation tool for analysis, outlining the

core concepts of isogeometric analysis. In this section the important spaces and mappings are defined, followed by the

isogeometric FEM formulation in which we use NURBS as a basis for analysis. The discussion is made more concrete

through a one-dimensional example.

3.1. Relevant spaces

Familiarity must be gained with the spaces that are commonplace in isogeometric analysis and the relationships

that exist between each. Those that are considered presently in the context of B-splines and NURBS include: index,

parameter, physical and parent space.

3.1.1. Index space

Index space is formed through the specified knot vectors by giving each knot value a distinct coordinate, regardless

of whether the knot is repeated or not. As an example, consider a NURBS patch defined through bivariate NURBS

basis functions with knot vectors Ξ1 = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}, Ξ2 = {0, 0, 1, 1} in each of the parametric directions ξ, η

respectively. This will form the index space as illustrated in Fig. 5 where the presence of repeated knots leads to several

regions of zero parametric area. Index space is often used during implementation6 , discarding elements of non-zero

6 T-splines being one notable example, with the local basis function mesh directly analogous to index space

18
 non-zero parametric area

Figure 5: Creation of index space from knot vectors Ξ1 = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}, Ξ2 = {0, 0, 1, 1} with non-zero parametric
area highlighted.

parametric area, but in the present work we choose to only consider those elements that have a non-zero parametric

area, obviating the need for index space.

3.1.2. Parametric space

Parametric space (sometimes referred to as the ‘pre-image’ of the NURBS mapping) is formed by considering

only the non-zero intervals between knot values. For the knot vectors considered previously, the parametric space

is illustrated in Fig. 6 which can subsequently be reduced to a unit square through appropriate normalisation. All

parametric spaces can be reduced to a unit interval (dp = 1), square (dp = 2) or cube (dp = 3) in this manner. We

define the parametric space as Ω̂ ⊂ Rdp with a associated set of parametric coordinates ξ = (ξ, η, ζ) = (ξ 1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ) ∈ Ω̂

(dp = 3). If normalisation is performed, Ω̂ = [0, 1]dp .

Fig. 6 also reveals that regions bounded by knot lines with non-zero parametric area lead to a natural definition of

element domains. More formally, a set S ⊂ Ξ of unique knot values can be defined as

S = {ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · , ξns } ξi 6= ξi+1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ ns − 1 (23)

where ns is the number of unique knot values. This is generalised to Si ⊂ Ξi which represents the unique knot values

19
for each parametric direction i = 1, 2, . . . dp . Elements can now be defined in the general multivariate case as

Ω̂e = [ξi , ξi+1 ] ⊗ [ηj , ηj+1 ] ⊗ [ζk , ζk+1 ] 1 ≤ i ≤ n1s − 1, (24)

1 ≤ j ≤ n2s − 1,

1 ≤ k ≤ n3s − 1,

ξi ∈ S1 , ηj ∈ S2 , ζk ∈ S3

where n1s , n2s and n3s represent the number unique knots in the ξ,η and ζ parametric directions respectively. This leads

to a natural numbering scheme for elements over a patch as

e = k(n2s − 1)(n1s − 1) + j(n1s − 1) + i. (25)

Eq. (24) and (25) can be simplied accordingly for dp = 1, 2.

3.1.3. Physical space

The B-spline and NURBS mappings of Eqs. (9) and (17) transform coordinates in parameter space to physical space

Ω ⊂ Rds . For three-dimensional domains, we associate a coordinate system x = (x, y, z) = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) for physical

space, which appropriate modifications for one- and two-dimensional problems. Fig. 7 illustrates a NURBS mapping

for the parametric space shown in Fig. 6 for an arbitrary set of control points and weights. The control grid (which

defines the connectivity between control points) is also shown. The non-interpolatory nature of control points in the

interior of the domain is evident, and represents a notable difference over conventional Lagrangian meshes.

3.1.4. Parent space

The previous three spaces are inherent to B-splines and NURBS, but for analysis to be performed we require the

definition of an additional space, commonly referred to as parent space Ω̃ = [−1, 1]dp . This is required for the use of

numerical integration routines which are often defined over the interval [−1, 1]. Parent space coordinates are denoted
˜ η̃, ζ̃) = (ξ˜1 , ξ˜2 , ξ˜3 ) with corresponding simplifications for dp = 1, 2.
as ξ̃ = (ξ,

20
 unnormalised

normalised

Figure 6: Parametric space defined by non-zero knot intervals. All parametric spaces defined for a B-spline or NURBS
patch can be normalised to a unit interval, unit square, unit cube in 1D, 2D, 3D respectively. Knot lines provide a
natural definition of element boundaries.

Figure 7: A 2D NURBS surface defined for knot vectors Ξ1 = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}, Ξ2 = {0, 0, 1, 1}. The control mesh
is shown in red with control points denoted by black circles. Knot lines shown in blue indicate element boundaries.

21
3.2. Isogeometric formulation

Before outlining the details of isogeometric analysis in a FE context, it is instructive to consider the similarities and

differences of IGA over conventional discretisation technology. Lagrangian basis functions are most commonly used

to discretise both the geometry and unknown fields in an isoparametric fashion. In this way, exactly the same basis

functions are used for both. For the majority of cases, the geometry is always approximated incurring a geometrical

error which may lead to erroneous results, particularly for highly oscillatory problems. In addition, once a discretisation

is generated from a given CAD model, the geometry information that has been lost can never be retrieved, forming a

one-way process from discretisation to analysis. This has serious repercussions for efficiency, attenuated by the iterative

nature of design.

Isogeometric analysis also makes use of an isoparametric formulation, but a key difference over its Lagrangian

counterpart is the use of basis functions generated by CAD to discretise both the geometry and unknown fields. Not

only is task of discretisation (meshing) greatly reduced or eliminated entirely, but a direct link is made with CAD,

forming a bi-directional process. In addition, the use of CAD discretisations ensures that the exact geometry is used

at all stages of analysis, incurring no geometrical error. But the key compelling feature of IGA is the unified nature of

design and analysis.

We can summarise these points as:

• Conventional finite element analysis: the basis which is chosen to approximate the unknown field is also

used to approximate the known geometry. This most commonly takes the form of (low order) Lagrangian basis

functions. In most cases the geometry is only approximated. CAD and analysis are disparate.

• Isogeometric analysis: the basis is generated by CAD which captures the geometry exactly. This basis is

also used to approximate the unknown field. Refinement may be required for the unknown fields, but the exact

geometry is maintained at all stages of analysis. CAD and analysis are combined to form a unified process.

3.3. Isogeometric discretisation

The B-spline and NURBS discretisations outlined in Section 2 are written in terms of parametric coordinates, but

to use such discretisations for analysis, we must provide a mapping that allows us to operate at the parent element

level. We will outline the appropriate mappings in Section 3.4, but for now let us assume that B-spline and NURBS

22
basis functions can be written in terms of parent coordinates. This allows us to state the isoparametric discretisation

used to approximate both the geometry and fields in IGA. For a given element e, the geometry is expressed as

nen
X
xe (ξ̃) = Pea Rae (ξ̃) (26)
a=1

where a is a local basis function index, nen = (p + 1)dp is the number of non-zero basis functions over element e and

Pea ,Rae are the control point and NURBS basis function associated with index a respectively. We employ the commonly

used notation of an element connectivity mapping [116] which translates a local basis function index to a global index

through

A = IEN(a, e). (27)

Global and local control points are therefore related through PA ≡ PIEN(a,e) ≡ Pea with similar expressions for Rae . A

field u(x) which governs our relevant PDE can also be discretised in a similar manner to (26) as

nen
X
e
u (ξ̃) = dea Rae (ξ̃) (28)
a=1

where dea represents a control (nodal) variable. In contrast to conventional discretisations, these coefficients are not

in general interpolatory at nodes. This is similar to the case of meshless methods built on non-interpolatory shape

functions such as the moving least squares (MLS) [117, 118, 119].

3.4. Mappings (change of variables)

The use of NURBS basis functions for discretisation introduces the concept of parametric space which is absent in

conventional FE implementations. The consequence of this additional space is that an additional mapping must be

performed to operate in parent element coordinates. As shown in Fig. 8, two mappings are considered for IGA with

NURBS: a mapping φ̃e : Ω̃ → Ω̂e and S : Ω̂ → Ω. The mapping xe : Ω̃ → Ωe is given by the composition S ◦ φ̃e .

Taking the case dp = ds = 2, an element defined by Ω̂e = [ξi , ξi+1 ] ⊗ [ηi , ηi+1 ] is mapped from parent space to

23
 parent space

parameter space

physical space
Figure 8: Diagrammatic interpretation of mappings from parent space through parametric space to physical space.

24
parametric space through
 
 1 [(ξi+1 − ξi )ξ˜ + (ξi+1 + ξi )] 
 
2
φ̃e (ξ̃) = (29)
 1 [(ηj+1 − ηj )η̃ + (ηj+1 + ηj )]
 
2

with an associated Jacobian determinant given by

1
|Jξ̃ | = (ξi+1 − ξi )(ηj+1 − ηj ). (30)
4

Similarly, the mapping from parametric space to physical space is given by the NURBS expressions of Eqs. (16),

(19) and (22). In the case dp = ds = 2, the Jacobian of transformation for this mapping is represented by the matrix

∂x ∂x
 
 ∂ξ ∂η 
Jξ = 
 ∂y
 (31)
∂y 
∂ξ ∂η

in which the components are calculated as

n
∂x X en
∂Rae (ξ)
= Pea . (32)
∂ξ a=1
∂ξ

The associated Jacobian determinant is denoted by |Jξ |.

The mapping xe : Ω̃ → Ωe , formed through the composition of the previous mappings, can be written as

N
!
X   
e e
x (ξ̃) = PA RA φ̃ (ξ̃)  (33)


A=1 e
nen
!
X 
= Pa Ra (φ̃e (ξ̃))  (34)


a=1 e
nen
X
= Pea Rae (ξ̃) (35)
a=1

(36)

where N is the number of global basis functions and (·)|e denotes that the expression (·) is restricted to element e. The

25
Jacobian determinant for this mapping is given by

|J| = |Jξ ||Jξ̃ |. (37)

With this final mapping and Jacobian determinant, it is possible to integrate a function f : Ω → R over the physical

domain as

Z nel Z
X
f (x) dΩ = f (x) dΩ (38)
Ω e
e=1 Ω
nel
X Z
= f (x(ξ)) |Jξ | dΩ̂ (39)
e
e=1 Ω̂
n
X el Z
= f (x(φ̃e (ξ̃))) |Jξ | |Jξ̃ | dΩ̃ (40)
e=1 Ω̃
nel Z
X
= f (ξ̃) |J|dΩ̃ (41)
e=1 Ω̃

with the final integral in a suitable form for application of standard Gauss-Legendre quadrature (hereafter named

Gaussian quadrature). As detailed in [116] for Lagrangian basis functions, a rule of (p+1)×(q +1) Gaussian quadrature

can be applied for two-dimensional elements in which p and q denote the orders of the chosen basis functions in the ξ

and η direction. The same procedure is also used for NURBS basis functions in the present work, although it should

be emphasised that Gaussian quadrature is not optimal for IGA. Research is currently focussed on optimal integration

techniques such as that in [105, 106] in which an optimal quadrature rule, known as the half-point rule, has been

applied.

Spatial derivatives of basis functions are also required for element assembly algorithms, and are calculated as

∂ξ ∂ξ
 
∂Rae e
     
∂Rae  ∂x ∂y 
=   = ∂Ra J−1 , (42)
ξ
∂x ∂ξ  ∂η ∂η  ∂ξ
∂x ∂y

with the derivatives ∂Rae /∂ξ obtained through Eq. (14).

26
3.5. One-dimensional IGA formulation

To illustrate the use of the isogeometric concept in a finite element context, a one-dimensional IGA formulation is

developed through an example. Efforts are made to maintain the notation adopted in [116] and [4]. In the following,

we define the domain Ω ⊂ R with boundary Γ ≡ ∂Ω. The boundary is partitioned as Γ = ΓD ∪ ΓN , ΓN ∩ ΓD = ∅

where ΓD and ΓN denote the Dirichlet and Neumann boundaries respectively with an overline representing a closed

set. Robin boundary conditions are not considered in the present work.

Letting Ω = (0, 1) and ΓD = Γ = {0, 1} with ΓN = ∅, we seek the solution u : Ω → R such that

d2 u(x)
+ b(x) = 0, x ∈ Ω, (43)
dx2

with the Dirichlet boundary conditions specified through g : ΓD → R as

g(0) = 0, g(1) = 0. (44)

Choosing b(x) = x, it can be shown that the exact solution to Eq. (43) subject to Eq. (44) is given by

1 1
u(x) = − x3 + x. (45)
6 6

To construct the Galerkin formulation of the preceding problem, the infinite dimensional spaces U and V which

represent the usual trial and test spaces respectively7 are required. By multiplying Eq. (43) by a test function w ∈ V

and applying integration by parts, the weak form of the problem reads: find u ∈ U , such that

Z Z
dw du
dΩ = wb dΩ for all w ∈ V . (46)
Ω dx dx Ω

This is reduced to a finite-dimensional problem by creating finite-dimensional subspaces U h ⊂ U and V h ⊂ V both

formed through a NURBS basis. Letting g h ∈ U denote the finite-dimensional representation of g, the solution we

7 Specifically, U = {u : u ∈ H 1 (Ω), u = g on ΓD }, V = {w : w ∈ H 1 (Ω), w = 0 on ΓD } where H 1 (Ω) represents a Sobolev space of order

1

27
wish to seek can be written as

uh = v h + g h (47)

which is valid for all v h ∈ V h . Expression (47) underpins a key concept of the Galerkin formulation in that the solution

uh and test (weighting) function wh are constructed from the same space of functions. We also see that the boundary

condition data is ‘built in’ to the solution by the inclusion of the term g h .

The approximation to our solution can be written in terms of NURBS basis functions as

neq nnp
X X
h
u = dB RB (x) + gB RB (x) (48)
B=1 B=neq +1

where neq is the number of equations (number of unknowns) and nnp is the total number of nodal points (total degrees
n
eq np n
of freedom) in the system. {dB }B=1 represents the set of all unknown control variables and {gB }B=n eq +1
is the set of

known Dirichlet control variables. Likewise, the test function is discretised as

neq
X
h
w = cA RA (x) (49)
A=1

Substitution of Eqs. (48) and (49) into Eq. (46) and noting that the values of the set {cA } are arbitrary, the discrete

form is now written as

 
neq neq Z neq Z neq nnp
! Z
X X dRA dRB X X X dRA dRB
dΩ dB = RA b dΩ −  dΩ gB (50)
A=1 B=1 Ω dx dx Ω A=1 A=1 B=neq +1 Ω dx dx

or, by defining the element stiffness matrix and element force vector as

Z
dRA dRB
KAB = dΩ (51)
Ω dx dx
Z nnp Z
X dRA dRB
FA = RA b dΩ − dΩ, (52)
Ω Ω dx dx
B=neq +1

(50) can expressed in matrix notation as

Kd = F (53)

28
where

K = [KAB ] (54)

d = {dB } (55)

F = {FA } A, B = 1, 2, . . . neq . (56)

Eq. (53) is in a form amenable for computation.

b1 b2 b3 b4

curve

n1 n4
0.8 n2 n3

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1

basis

e1 e2 xi

xi1 xi2 xi3

para

Figure 9: One dimensional isogeometric analysis example: exact geometry, quadratic basis functions and mesh in the
parametric space. IEN(:,1)=[1 2 3] and IEN(:,2)=[2 3 4].

29
3.5.1. Assembly of system of equations

The global stiffness matrix K and global force vector F are assembled by looping over each element (non-zero knot

interval) and inserting the appropriate element entries into their relevant rows and columns in the global system of

equations. To allow integration over each element, a parent coordinate system is adopted making use of the mappings

and Jacobian matrices outlined in Section 3.4. For example, for a particular element e with local basis function indices

a, b = 1, 2, . . . , p + 1, we can compute a local element stiffness matrix keab using parent coordinates as

dRae dRbe
Z
keab = |J| dΩ̃ (57)
Ω̃ dx dx

where use has been made of expressions (42) and (37). This can be inserted into the global stiffness matrix through

the element mapping given by Eq. (27).

To make this discussion more concrete, the element assembly process for a simple quadratic (p = 2) NURBS

discretisation with Ξ = {0, 0, 0, 0.5, 1, 1, 1} is outlined. We apply the discretisation to the problem defined by Eqs. (43)

and (44). Fig. 9 illustrates the relevant NURBS discretisation including control points, basis functions and element

definitions. Note that there are p + 1 non-zero basis functions over an element e given by {Rae }p+1
a=1 . We can therefore

summarise the element data for this discretisation as

element knot interval non-zero basis functions control variables control points

1 [ξ3 , ξ4 ] R1 , R2 , R3 d1 , d2 , d3 P1 , P2 , P3 (58)

2 [ξ4 , ξ5 ] R2 , R3 , R4 d2 , d3 , d4 P2 , P3 , P4

The implementation required to compute the element stiffness matrix is shown in Box 1. The code follows the same

standard FEM routines presented in [120] where the notation ||·|| is used to signify the L2 norm8 .

Fig. 10 illustrates the solution obtained for a NURBS discretisation for both two and four elements. Convergence

to the exact solution is observed, verifying the present IGA implementation.

In order to assess how high order B-spline elements behave for problems with localized gradients, let us consider

8 That is, for a vector x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), ||x|| = (x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n )1/2

30
Box 1 Element stiffness matrix evaluation for element Ω̂e = [ξi , ξi+1 ]

1. P = [P1 ; P2 ; P3 ]
2. sctr = [IEN(1, e) IEN(2, e) IEN(3, e)]

3. Set ke = 0
4. Loop over Gauss points (GPs) {ξ˜j , w̃j } j = 1, 2, . . . , ngp ∗

(a) Compute parametric coordinate ξ = φ̃e (ξ˜j ) (see Eq. (29))

e
(b) Compute derivatives Ra,ξ (a = 1, 2, 3) at point ξ
e e e
(c) Define vector Rξ = [R1,ξ R2,ξ R3,ξ ]
(d) Compute |Jξ | = ||Rξ P||
(e) Compute |Jξ̃ | = 0.5(ξi+1 − ξi )
(f) Compute shape function derivatives Rx = Jξ−1 RT
ξ

(g) ke = ke + Rx RT
x |Jξ | |Jξ̃ | w̃j

5. End loop over GPs

6. Assemble ke into the global matrix as K(sctr, sctr) = K(sctr, sctr) + ke
∗
w̃j denotes a Gauss point weight and ngp is the total number of Gauss points.

0.07 0.07

0.06 0.06

0.05 0.05

0.04 0.04
u

0.03 0.03
numerical solution
0.02 numerical solution 0.02 exact solution
exact solution
0.01 0.01

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x x

(a) Two element NURBS mesh (b) Four element NURBS mesh.

Figure 10: Quadratic NURBS solution for one-dimensional Poisson equation.

31
the following problem [119]

u,xx (x) + b(x) = 0 x ∈ [0, 1]; u(0) = 0, u(1) = 1, (59)

with

    
 2α2 − 4[α2 (x − 0.5)]2 exp −[α(x − 0.5)]2
 x ∈ [0.42, 0.58]
b(x) = (60)

 0 otherwise

The exact solution of this problem is

 
u(x) = x + exp −[α(x − 0.5)]2 x ∈ [0, 1] (61)

We use a value of 50 for α and the exact solution exhibits a sharp peek at location x = 0.5. We are going to solve this

problem using elements of order ranging from one (linear elements) to five (quintic elements). To remove error in the

numerical integration of the body force term, Eq. (??), 10 GPs were used for each element. We use the k-refinement (to

be discussed in detail in Section 6.5) in building meshes of different basis orders. The initial mesh consists of one single

linear element with knot vector Ξ = {0, 0, 1, 1}. The parametrization is thus linear and after performing k-refinement,

the parametrization is still linear. Therefore, a point with x = 0.3 corresponds to ξ = 0.3 in the parameter space. The

Matlab file for this problem is iga1DStrongGradient.m in the iga folder of our source code.

Figs. 11a,b shows the results obtained with meshes consisting of 16 and 32 elements of C p−1 continuity where p

denotes the B-spline basis order. It is obvious that smooth basis is not suitable to problems with sharp gradients.

Linear elements which have a C 0 continuity at location x = 0.5 (precisely at every knots) give better results than high

order B-spline elements.

Knot insertion was made to insert the value 0.5 p times to the initial knot vector so that the basis is C 0 continuous

at x = 0.5. For example for p = 2, a vector {0.5, 0.5} was inserted to the knot vector. The results are given in Fig.

11c,d where the peak was captured better. Finally 0.42, 0.5, 0.58 were added to the knots p times so that the basis

are C 0 continuous at locations x = 0.42, 0.5, 0.58. The corresponding results are given in Fig. 12. With only 16 cubic

elements (25 CPs) the exact solution was well captured. This example showed the flexibility of B-splines/NURBS–high

32
 1.5 1.5
exact solution
p=1 exact solution
p=2 p=1
p=3 p=2
1 1 p=3
p=4
p=5 p=4

u
u

p=5

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x x
(a) 16 elements (b) 32 elements

1.5 1.6
exact solution exact solution
1.4
p=1 p=1
p=2 1.2 p=2
1 p=3 p=3
p=4 1 p=4
u
u

0.8
0.5 0.6

0.4

0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.4 0.420.440.460.48 0.5 0.520.540.560.58 0.6
x x
(c) 32 elements with C 0 continuity at x = 0.5 (d) 32 elements with C 0 continuity at x = 0.5 (close up)

Figure 11: Comparison of the IGA result against the exact solution for the one dimensional PDE given in Eq. (59).

33
 1.6
exact solution
1.4 p=1
p=2
1.2 1.6
p=3
exact solution
1.4
1 p=1
p=2
1.2 p=3

0.8
u

0.6 0.8

u
0.4 0.6

0.2 0.4

0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0
x 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48
x
0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56

(a) 16 elements with C0 continuity at x = 0.42, 0.5, 0.58 (b) 16 elements with C0 continuity at x = 0.42, 0.5, 0.58 (close
up)

Figure 12: Comparison of the IGA result against the exact solution for the one dimensional PDE given in Eq. (59).

order functions and any level of continuity can be easily achieved.

4. Elasticity: two-dimensional implementation

The application of the FEM to elasticity is common and represents a familiar language to many researchers.

We therefore outline a two-dimensional implementation of IGA for linear elasticity, highlighting the differences over

conventional discretisations.

4.1. Assembly process for two dimensional elastostatic analysis

Consider a domain Ω, bounded by Γ. The boundary is partitioned into two sets: Γu and Γt with displacements

prescribed on Γu and tractions t prescribed on Γt : Γ = Γt ∪ Γu , Γt ∩ Γu = ∅. The weak form of a linear elastostatics

problem is to find u in the trial space 9 , such that for all test functions δu in the test space 10
,

Z Z Z
ε(u) : D : ε(δu)dΩ = t · δudΓ + b · δudΩ, (62)
Ω Γt Ω

9 contains C 0 functions
10 contains C 0 functions vanishing on Γu

34
where the elasticity matrix is denoted by D and b refers to a body force. Using the Galerkin method where the same

shape functions Ra (ξ̃) are used for both u and δu, we can write

nnp nnp
X X
u(x) = RA (ξ̃)uA , δu(x) = RA (ξ̃)δuA , (63)
A=1 A=1

where uA , δuA denote the nodal displacement and its variations, respectively and nnp is the total number of control

points. In 2D, each control point has two unknowns–the x and y displacements, hence one writes uA = {uxA , uyA }.

Proper modification can be made for 3D problems.

Substitution of these approximations into Eq. (62) and using the arbitrariness of the nodal variations gives the

standard discrete set of equations K u = f with

Z Z Z
KAB = BT
A DBB dΩ, fA = RA tdΓ + RA bdΩ, A, B = 1, 2, . . . , nnp . (64)
Ω Γt Ω

In two dimensions, the strain-displacement matrix BA is given by

 
RA,x 0 
 
BA = 
 0 ,
RA,y  (65)
 
RA,y RA,x

where the shape function derivatives are computed according to Eq. (42) and RA,x ≡ dRA /dx.

We now consider a concrete two dimensional problem shown in Fig. 13. In this case, the knot vectors are Ξ1 =

[0, 0, 1, 1] and Ξ2 = [0, 0, 0, 0.5, 1, 1, 1], respectively. The orders of the basis functions are p = 1 and q = 2. There two

control points (n = 2) along the ξ direction and four control points (m = 4) along the η direction that results in 8

control points (nnp = n × m = 8).

The domain and non-zero basis functions for Element 1 are given by

direction knot interval non zero basis

ξ [ξ2 , ξ3 ] N1 , N2 (66)

η [η3 , η4 ] M1 , M2 , M3

35
 a b

b24

2 b23
2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
b22
1 1
b14
0.8 b13 0.8
0.6 0.6
b12
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
b11
b21
0 0
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0

8
1

7
eta3
N42

12

6
5
N32

0.5

eta2

11
N22

4 3
N12

2
0

1
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

eta1

xi1 xi2

1
N11

N21

0
0 1

Figure 13: Two dimensional isogeometric analysis example: (a) exact geometry, (b) mesh in physical space and (c)
mesh in the parametric space. The two rectangles are used to illustrate the control points belonging to each element.

36
Hence there are six non-zero basis functions on element e = 1 which can be assembled into a vector R as follows

R1 = [N1 M1 , N2 M1 , N1 M2 , N2 M2 , N1 M3 , N2 M3 ]. (67)

These six basis functions are associated with six global basis indices given by (in Matlab
R
notation)

IEN(:, 1) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. (68)

Similarly, for element 2, the shape function vector is given by

R2 = [N1 M2 , N2 M2 , N1 M3 , N2 M3 , N1 M4 , N2 M4 ], (69)

with the associated global indices

IEN(:, 2) = [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. (70)

Control points are stored in a two dimensional matrix of dimensions nnp × 2. The connectivity data is stored in a two

dimensional matrix of dimensions (p + 1) ∗ (q + 1) × nel where nel denotes the number of elements. For the example

under consideration, these two matrices are given by

 T
T
1 2 3 4 5 6

controlPts = B11 B21 B12 B22 B13 B23 B14 B24 , IEN =   . (71)
3 4 5 6 7 8

The knot intervals along the ξ and η directions are stored in the following matrices

 
0 0.5
 
elRangeU = 0 1 , elRangeV =  , (72)
0.5 1

where the number of rows is equal to the number of elements in each direction (n1s − 1, n2s − 1 respectively).

With this vector of basis functions R, the control points associated to this element, we can compute the derivatives

37
of the basis functions. The derivatives of the basis functions with respect to x are stored in the following vector

 T
R,x = R1,x R2,x R3,x R4,x R5,x R6,x , (73)

Similarly, we have R,y for the derivatives of the basis functions with respect to y. Having these basis function derivatives,

we are now ready to define the B matrix for any element e

 
 R[1],x 0 R[2],x 0 ··· 
 
Be = 
 0 R[1],y 0 R[2],y ,
···  (74)
 
R[1],y R[1],x R[2],y R[2],x ···

where the control point displacement vector is stored in the following order u = [ux1 , uy1 , ux2 , uy2 , . . . , uxnnp , uynnp ]T .

The element stiffness matrix is then given by

Z
Ke = BT
e DBe dΩe , (75)
Ωe

which is then assembled to the global stiffness matrix using the element connectivity matrix and the fact that a control

point I corresponds to positions 2 ∗ I − 1 and 2 ∗ I in the global displacement vector u.

For implementation convenience, Box 2 gives a procedure of an isogeometric analysis of 2D elasticity problems. Note

that this aims for a Matlab implementation and the whole elementary stiffness matrix is computed in one go. In order

to compute the external force vector, it is convenient to define a boundary mesh as shown in Fig. 14. The computation

of the external force vector Γ RT t̄dΓ then follows the one dimensional assembly procedure given in Section 3.5.
R

4.2. Boundary condition enforcement

Fig. 15 illustrates two kinds of Dirichlet boundary conditions: on edge AD, ux = 0 and on edge BC, uy = ū. The

former is a homogeneous Dirichlet boundary condition (BC) while the latter is referred to as uniform inhomogeneous

Dirichlet BCs. Homogeneous Dirichlet BCs can be enforced by setting the corresponding control variables as zeros

(in this example, setting uxI = 0, I = 2, 4, 6, 8). For edge BC, the inhomogeneous Dirichlet BCs can also be satisfied

by setting uyI = ū, I = 1, 3, 5, 7. This is due to the partition of unity property of the NURBS basis i.e., uBC
y =

M1 (η)uy1 + M2 (η)uy3 + M3 (η)uy5 + M4 (η)uy7 = (M1 (η) + M2 (η) + M3 (η) + M4 (η))ū = ū. Note that a boundary of a

38
Box 2 Procedure for isogeometric analysis of 2D elasticity problems.

1. Loop over elements, e = 1, . . . , nel

(a) Determine NURBS coordinates [ξi , ξi+1 ] × [ηj , ηj+1 ] using elRangeU and elRangeV
(b) Get connectivity array, sctr = IEN(:, e)
(c) Define sctrB(1, 1 : 2 : 2 ∗ nn) = 2 ∗ sctr − 1; sctrB(1, 2 : 2 : 2 ∗ nn) = 2 ∗ sctr for assembly∗
(d) Ke = 0
(e) Loop over Gauss points, {ξ̃ j , w̃j } j = 1, 2, . . . , ngp ∗∗
i. Compute ξ corresponding to ξ̃ j (Eq. 29)
ii. Compute |Jξ̃ | (Eq. 30)
iii. Compute derivatives of shape functions R,ξ and R,η at ξ
iv. Compute Jξ using controlPts(sctr, :), R,ξ and R,η (Eq. 31)
v. Compute Jacobian inverse J−1
ξ and determinant |Jξ |
vi. Compute derivatives of shape functions R,x = [R,ξ R,η ]J−1
ξ (Eq. 42)
vii. Use R,x to build the strain-displacement matrix B (Eq. 74 )
viii. Compute Ke = Ke + w̃j |Jξ̃ ||Jξ |BT DB
(f) End loop over Gauss points
(g) Assemble Ke : K(sctrB, sctrB) = K(sctrB, sctrB) + Ke

2. End loop over elements

∗
nn denotes the number of control points per element i.e., nn=length(sctr).
∗∗
w̃j denotes a Gauss point weight and ngp is the total number of Gauss points.

39
 12 12
11

2
7 8 8

1
3
10
4 4
6

9 5 1

Figure 14: Boundary mesh for external force computation. A linear basis is used in the η direction. Assume a traction
is applied on the edge containing nodes 4, 8 and 12. The boundary mesh is composed of two linear isogeometric
elements 1 and 2 .

NURBS surface is a NURBS curve due to the use of open knots. Inhomogeneous Dirichlet BCs applied on corner control

points (black points in Fig. 15) are enforced by simply setting the corner control variables equal to the prescribed

values since the NURBS shape functions at these points satisfy the Kronecker delta property (assuming the use of open

knot vectors). This is called direct imposition of Dirichlet BCs.

For cases other than the ones previously discussed such as a prescribed displacement imposed at interior control

point 3 or a non-uniform Dirichlet BC–Dirichlet BCs that vary from point to point applied on edge BC, special

treatment of Dirichlet BCs have to be employed as is the case for meshless methods. Techniques available include

the Lagrange multiplier method, the penalty method, the augmented Lagrangian method and we refer to [119] for

an overview of these techniques in the context of meshless methods. In [121] a transformation method was proposed

to impose inhomogeneous Dirichlet BCs in IGAFEM. However this method requires modifications to the stiffness

matrix which breaks the usual structure of a FE code. The authors in [71] presented a weak enforcement of general

inhomogeneous Dirichlet BCs using a least squares minimization and the implementation is described in what follows.

The same procedure was used in imposing BCs in meshless methods when coupling a fluid to a solid domain through a

master-slave concept [122]. Imposing Dirichlet boundary conditions with Nitsche’s method was presented in [123] for

spline-based finite elements.

40
 1

N12 N22 N32 N42

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1

eta1 eta2 eta3

d
a

8
2

6
b

c
1

5
3

Figure 15: Imposing Dirichlet BCs: black points denote corner control points where the NURBS basis satisfies the
Kronecker delta property.

41
 The basic idea of the least squares method is to find the parameters of the boundary control points that minimize

the following quantity

1X 2
J= ||u(xC ) − ū(xC )||
2
C
 2 , (76)
1 X X 
= RA (xC )qA − ū(xC )

2

 
C A

where xC denotes a set of collocation points distributed on the essential boundary Γu , qA are the parameters of the

control points defining Γu , ū(x) represents the prescribed displacements and RA represents the NURBS basis functions

that are non-zero at xC which are univariate NURBS functions RA (ξ) for the boundary of a NURBS surface is a

NURBS curve. For the sake of clarity, let us consider the case where there is only one collocation point and a quadratic

basis (thus there are 3 non-zero RA at xC ). So, we have

1 2
J= ||R1 (xC )q1 + R2 (xC )q2 + R3 (xC )q3 − ū(xC )|| . (77)
2

The partial derivatives of J with respect to qi are given by

∂J
= [R1 (xC )q1 + R2 (xC )q2 + R3 (xC )q3 − ū(xC )]R1 (xC )
∂q1
∂J
= [R1 (xC )q1 + R2 (xC )q2 + R3 (xC )q3 − ū(xC )]R2 (xC ) (78)
∂q2
∂J
= [R1 (xC )q1 + R2 (xC )q2 + R3 (xC )q3 − ū(xC )]R3 (xC ).
∂q3

∂J
The condition ∂q = 0 thus gives the following linear system

     
R1 R1 R2 R1 R3 R1  q1
x
q1y  ūx (xC )R1 (xC ) ūy (xC )R1 (xC )
     
q x y = 
. (79)
R R R2 R2 R3 R2  q2  ūx (xC )R2 (xC ) ūy (xC )R2 (xC )
 1 2   2
     
R1 R3 R2 R3 R3 R3 q3x q3y ūx (xC )R3 (xC ) ūy (xC )R3 (xC )
xC

By collecting all the NURBS basis at point xC in a column vector N(xC ), the control points displacements in the x

42
and y directions in qx and qy , respectively, Eq. (79) can be written in a compact form as

[N(xC )NT (xC )]qx = ūx (xC )N(xC )

(80)
[N(xC )NT (xC )]qy = ūy (xC )N(xC ).

Repeating the same analysis for other collocation points xC on the Dirichlet boundary, one obtains the linear system

Aq = b with two different b (one for the x component and the other for the y component). The dimension of A

is nD × nD where nD denotes the number of control points defining the Dirichlet boundary. Having these boundary

control point displacements, the enforcement of Dirichlet BCs (when solving Ku = f ) are then treated as in standard

FEM.

We note that this procedure involves only control points that define the essential boundary. This is in sharp contrast

to meshless shape functions such as the MLS used in the Element Free Galerkin method [124] where the displacements

at a point on the essential boundary depend not only on the nodes on that boundary but also the neighbouring interior

nodes. It is said that NURBS therefore satisfy the so-called weak Kronecker delta property as local Maxent interpolants

approximations [125].

Listing 1 gives the Matlab

R
implementation of the least-squares method. Note that in our implementation, the

collocation points are uniformly distributed in the parameter space. We refer to [71] for a discussion on the influence

of the collocation points on the accuracy. We refer to Fig. 16 for an illustration of this method.

Listing 1: Matlab
R
implementation of the least-squares method
A = zeros ( noDispNodes , noDispNodes ) ;
bx = zeros ( noDispNodes , 1 ) ;
by = zeros ( noDispNodes , 1 ) ;
noxC = 4 ; % number o f c o l l o c a t i o n p t s / e l e m e n t
% l o o p o v e r bottom edge
f o r i e =1: noElemsU
sctr = bottomEdgeMeshIGA ( i e , : ) ; % s t a n d a r d c o n n e c t i v i t y a r r a y ( g l o b a l numbering )
pts = controlPts ( sctr , : ) ; % c o n t r o l pts of element i e
sctrA = bndElement ( i e , : ) ; % c o n n e c t i v i t y array f o r A matrix
xiE = elRangeU ( i e , : ) ; % parametric coords of i e

43
 7

6
2

control 5

1
col

1 2 3 4

1 2

Figure 16: Illustration of the implementation of the least squares method: a quadratic NURBS surface with knot
vectors Ξ1 = {0, 0, 0, 0.5, 1, 1, 1} and Ξ2 = {0, 0, 0, 0.5, 1, 1, 1}. Essential BCs are imposed on the bottom and right
edges. A one dimensional mesh for this boundary is created. The control points defining the essential boundary are
numbered from one to the total number of boundary control points (seven in this example). Note that this numbering
is required only for assembling the matrix A.

xiArr = linspace ( xiE ( 1 ) , xiE ( 2 ) , noxC ) ; % c o l l o c a t i o n p t s x C

f o r i c =1:noxC
xi = xiArr ( i c ) ;
[N dNdxi ] = NURBS1DBasisDers ( x i , p , uKnot , w e i g h t s ) ;
A( sctrA , s c t r A ) = A( sctrA , s c t r A ) + N’ ∗N;
x = N ∗ pts ;
% exact displacements
[ ux , uy ] = e x a c t G r i f f i t h ( x , E0 , nu0 , sigmato , xTip , seg , c r a c k l e n g t h ) ;
bx ( s c t r A ) = bx ( s c t r A ) + ux∗N ’ ;
by ( s c t r A ) = by ( s c t r A ) + uy∗N ’ ;
end
end
% loop over other edges i f neccessary
% s o l v e t h e system Aq x=bx and Aq y=by
[ LL UU] = lu (A ) ;
qxTemp = LL\bx ;
qyTemp = LL\by ;

44
 qx = UU\qxTemp ; qy = UU\qyTemp ;
% l a t e r , b e f o r e s o l v i n g Ku=f , qx and qy w i l l be used t o e n f o r c e BCs a s i n c o n v e n t i o n a l FEM.

In our Matlab
R
code implementation are provided for the penalty method, the Lagrange multiplier method and

the least squares method. The implementation of the two former methods are considered standard and the reader is

referred to [119] for details.

5. Extended isogeometric finite element method

There are basically two ways in which discontinuities can be modeled in the context of IGA: PUM based enrichment

and knot insertion. For the former, there are works of [110, 71, 72, 73]. For the latter, we refer to [69, 76]. PUM

based methods are general for they can be applied to any kinds of discontinuity such as weak and strong discontinuities

whereas knot insertion used to produce the C −1 continuity is only suitable for cracks. Knot insertion found great

applications for delamination analyses [76] where the crack path is known a priori. Note that in [69], knot insertion

was used in combination with T-splines to model cracks of which trajectory is not known in advance. However the

implementation is tedious.

In the category of PUM based IGA methods which are sometimes called XIGA (eXtended IGA), the method in

[73] is different from existing XIGA formulations [110, 71, 72] in a way that discontinuities (holes/inclusions/cracks)

are exactly isogeometrically represented by NURBS. Note that in most of XIGA techniques, discontinuities are defined

implicitly using level set method. This section briefly presents the XIGA formulation of [71, 72] and implementation

aspects are deferred to Section 6.7.

The extended finite element method (XFEM) (see e.g., [70], [126] for a recent review and open XFEM library

[127]) is a local PUM enrichment method in which internal boundaries such as holes, inclusions, cracks are modeled

independently of the FE discretisation which allows for crack growth modeling without remeshing. Two dimensional

extended isogeometric finite element formulation (XIGA) was presented in [71, 72] in which the displacement field is

enriched for traction-free crack modelling using the following approximation

4
!
X X X X
h
u (x) = RI (x)uI + RJ (x)H(x)aJ + RK (x) Bα bα
K , (81)
I∈S J∈Sc K∈Sf α=1

45
where RI,J,K are the NURBS basis functions. In addition to the standard degrees of freedom (dofs) uI , additional

K are introduced. The set S includes the control points/nodes whose support is cut by the crack and
dofs aJ and bα c

the set Sf are control points whose support contains the crack tip xtip , see Fig. 17. Note that we use a topological

tip enrichment and in the literature another tip enrichment scheme called geometrical enrichment with a fixed area (to

ensure that the role of enrichment in the approximation space does not vanish as the mesh is refined) is present see

e.g., [128]. The Heaviside function H is given by


 +1 if (x − x∗ ) · n ≥ 0

H(x) = , (82)
 −1

otherwise

where x∗ is the projection of point x on the crack and n denotes the outward normal vector to the crack. And the

branch functions, which span the crack tip displacement field, are given by

√ θ √ θ √ √
 
θ θ
[B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 ] (r, θ) = r sin , r cos , r sin cos θ, r cos cos θ , (83)
2 2 2 2

where r and θ are polar coordinates in the local crack front coordinate system (see e.g., [70] for details). It is noted

that B1 is discontinuous along the crack face.

ver
hea

con
D C P N

A B Q M bra

Figure 17: Illustration of enriched node sets Sf and Sc for a quadratic NURBS mesh. The thick red line denotes the
crack.

Using the standard Galerkin procedure as outlined in Section 4.1 the discrete system of equations Ku = f are

formed by an enlarged B matrix given by

 
B= std enr , (84)
B B

46
where Bstd is the standard strain-displacement matrix B (cf. Eq. (65)) and Benr is the enriched B matrix of which

components are given by

 
 (RI ),x ΨI + RI (ΨI ),x 0 
Benr
 
I =
 0 (RI ),y ΨI + RI (ΨI ),y ,
 (85)
 
(RI ),y ΨI + RI (ΨI ),y (RI ),x ΨI + RI (ΨI ),x

ΨI may represent either the Heaviside function H or the branch functions Bα depending whether control point I is

Heaviside or near tip enriched. The unknown vector u contains both displacements and enriched dofs. This extended

IGAFEM can be implemented within an available IGAFEM code with little modification following the ideas given in

the meshless review and computer implementation aspects paper [119]. Some implementation aspects will be given in

Section 6.7. In our code enrichment for holes and material interfaces are also given. They are, however, not covered

here because the implementation follows the ideas given here.

6. MIGFEM- A Matlab IGA (X)FEM code

In this section we describe shortly the open source IGA Matlab (X)FEM program which can be downloaded from

https://sourceforge.net/projects/cmcodes/. The code supports one, two and three dimensional linear elasticity

problems. Extended IGA for crack and material interface modelling is also implemented. Geometrically nonlinear solid

and structural mechanics models are available. The features of the code include:

• Global h,p and k-refinement is provided for one, two and three dimensional meshes.

• Extended IGA for 2D/3D stationary traction-free cracks and material interfaces.

• Visualization of displacements and stresses in Paraview.

• Inhomogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions are treated with the penalty method, the Lagrange multiplier

method and the least squares method.

• Compatible multi-patch isogeometric formulation for two dimensional problems.

• Support for T-splines via the Bézier extraction operators.

47
 • Structural elements including beams, plates and thin shells.

• Implicit Newmark scheme and explicit central difference scheme for time discretisation.

• Python scripts to extract Rhino3d NURBS surfaces to be used for IGA.

6.1. Data structure

MIGFEM follows the Matlab FEM code described in [120]. The main data structures include (1) element (store the

element connectivity), (2) controlPts (store control point coordinates), (3) weights (store the weights) (4) K (stiffness

matrix) and (5) f (external force vector). Contrary to FEM in which the element connectivity and nodal coordinates

are inputs which have been created by a meshing program, in IGA, the input consists of CAD data including knots,

control points, order of basis functions. Therefore, one has to construct the element matrix based on the knots and

the basis orders.

Construction of the element matrix is illustrated by a 2D example shown in Fig. 18. Given the knot vectors uKnot

and vKnot together with the orders of the basis p and q, one can compute the number of control points along the ξ and

ζ directions, denoted by n and m. Then we define a two dimensional matrix of dimension m × n called node pattern

given by for the illustrated example shown in Fig. 18 which has 4 control points along ξ and 4 control points along η

directions

 
1 2 3 4
 
 
5 6 7 8
node pattern =  , (86)
 
9 10 11 12
 
 
13 14 15 16

which is simply an application of Eq. (8) for defining global indexes.

The number of elements along the two directions n1s − 1, n2s − 1 are noElemsU = length(unique(uKnot)) − 1

and noElemsV = length(unique(uKnot)) − 1 (in the Matlab language). The connectivity matrix for the ξ direction,

denoted by connU which is a noElemsU × (p + 1) matrix and the connectivity matrix for the η direction, denoted by

48
 node

13 14 15 16

1
4
N42

9 10 11 12 3 2
connV
2
N32

1
3 4
0.5

1
N22

5 6 7 8 1

2
1 2 3
1
N12

2
0
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

2 3 4
1 2 3 4

1
connU
n12 n22 n32 n42
0.8

basis 0.6 xi

0.4

0.2
et

0
0 0.5 1

Figure 18: Two dimensional isogeometric analysis: mesh generation for a bi-quadratic NURBS surface (2 × 2 elements).
The circles denote the control points.

connV which is a noElemsV × (q + 1) matrix are given by

   
1 2 3 1 2 3
connU =  , connV =  , (87)
2 3 4 2 3 4

for the example under consideration. Matrix connU stores the indices of the non-zero basis functions at each knot span

for the ξ direction. Having this information and the global indexes of the NURBS basis given in Eq. (86), we are able

49
to define the connectivity matrix for the whole mesh, called element which is a noElemsU ∗ noElemsV × (p + 1)(q + 1)

matrix. For the example being considered, this matrix reads

 
1 2 3 5 6 7 9 10 11
 
 
2 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
element =  . (88)
 
5 6 7 9 10 11 13 14 15
 
 
6 7 8 10 11 12 14 15 16

Note that the matrix element is the transpose of the IEN matrix. We decided to use element instead of IEN to be

compatible with the FEM code [120] on which MIGEM is built.

Finally in order to compute the mapping from the parent domain Ω̃ to the parametric space, we define the knot

intervals in two directions as

   
0 0.5 0 0.5
rangeU =  , rangeV =  . (89)
0.5 1 0.5 1

In order to retrieve the parametric coordinates of a specific element, the matrix index, that is a noElemsU ∗

noElemsV ×2 matrix, is used. For a given element e, its parametric coordinates are determined by rangeU(index(e,1),:);

rangeV(index(e,2),:).

The above discussion, together with the illustration given in Fig. 18 is implemented in Matlab in the file gener-

ateIGA2DMesh.m, located in folder meshing, and shown in Listing 2. In that folder, one can find similar M files

for generating 1D and 3D meshes.

Listing 2: Mesh generation for two dimensional problems. Input are uKnot, vKnot, and p, q.
uniqueUKnots = u n i q u e ( uKnot ) ; uniqueVKnots = u n i q u e ( vKnot ) ;
noElemsU = length ( uniqueUKnots ) −1;%#o f e l e m e n t s x i d i r .
noElemsV = length ( uniqueVKnots ) −1;%#o f e l e m e n t s e t a d i r .
noPtsX = length ( uKnot)−p−1; noPtsY = length ( vKnot)−q −1;
nodePattern = zeros ( noPtsY , noPtsX ) ;
count = 1 ;
f o r i =1: noPtsY
f o r j =1: noPtsX

50
 n o d e P a t t e r n ( i , j ) = count ; count = count + 1 ;
end
end
% d e t e r m i n e our e l e m e n t r a n g e s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g knot i n d i c e s a l o n g each d i r e c t i o n
[ elRangeU , elConnU ] = b u i l d C o n n e c t i v i t y ( p , uKnot , noElemsU ) ;
[ elRangeV , elConnV ] = b u i l d C o n n e c t i v i t y ( q , vKnot , noElemsV ) ;
noElems = noElemsU ∗ noElemsV ;
e l e m e n t = zeros ( noElems , ( p +1)∗( q + 1 ) ) ;
e = 1;
f o r v =1: noElemsV
vConn = elConnV ( v , : ) ;
f o r u=1: noElemsU
c = 1 ; uConn = elConnU ( u , : ) ;
f o r i =1: length ( vConn )
f o r j =1: length ( uConn )
e l e m e n t ( e , c ) = n o d e P a t t e r n ( vConn ( i ) , uConn ( j ) ) ; c = c + 1 ;
end
end
e = e + 1;
end
end
i n d e x = zeros ( noElems , 2 ) ;
count = 1 ;
f o r j =1: s i z e ( elRangeV , 1 )
f o r i =1: s i z e ( elRangeU , 1 )
i n d e x ( count , 1 ) = i ; i n d e x ( count , 2 ) = j ; count = count + 1 ;
end
end

6.2. Shape function routines

The shape function routines (evaluate NURBS basis functions and derivatives with respect to parametric coordi-

nates) are implemented using MEX files to improve the performance. They are located in folder C files. Listing 3

gives some commonly used shape function routines to compute the NURBS basis function and their first derivatives in

51
1D, 2D and 3D at a given point. In the last line, second derivatives are also computed.

Listing 3: Shape function routines: uKnot,vKnot,wKnot store Ξ1 , Ξ2 , Ξ3 .

% R, dRdxi : row v e c t o r s i . e . dRdxi d i m e n s i o n i s ( 1 , 3 ) f o r p=2
[R dRdxi ] = NURBS1DBasisDers ( Xi , p , uKnot , w e i g h t s ) ;
[R dRdxi dRdeta ] = NURBS2DBasisDers ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;
[R dRdxi dRdeta dRdzeta ] = NURBS3DBasisDers ( [ Xi ; Eta ; Zeta ] , p , q , r , uKnot , vKnot , wKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;
[R dRdxi dRdeta dR2dxi dR2det dR2dxe ] = NURBS2DBasis2ndDers ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;

Listing 4: Matlab code for 2D spatial derivatives of shape functions.

1 % i n p u t : e l e m e n t e and p a r a m e t e r c o o r d i n a t e s o f a Gauss p o i n t Xi and Eta
2 sctr = element ( e , : ) ; % element s c a t t e r vector
3 pts = controlPts ( sctr , : ) ; % o f d i m e n s i o n nn x 2 where nn : number o f nodes
4 % d e r i v a t e o f R=Nxi ∗ Neta w . r . t x i and e t a
5 [ dRdxi dRdeta ] = NURBS2Dders ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;
6 % Jacobian matrix
7 jacob = pts ’ ∗ [ dRdxi ’ dRdeta ’ ] ;
8 invJacob = inv ( j a c o b ) ;
9 % nn x 2 m a t r i x : f i r s t column d e r i v a t i v e s wrt x . . .
10 dRdx = [ dRdxi ’ dRdeta ’ ] ∗ i n v J a c o b ;

6.3. Assembly process

The assembly of an IGA-FEM code is given in Listing 5 where it can be seen that the procedure is almost identical

to that used in the conventional FEM. The minor differences lie in (1) the need of the elements in the parameter space

(lines 4 to 7) and (2) the second map (from the parent domain to the parametric domain) in the numerical integration

of the stiffness matrix (line 35).

Listing 5: Matlab code for IGA (2D elasticity problems).

1 [W,Q]= q u a d r a t u r e ( 4 , ’ GAUSS ’ , 2 ) ; % 4 x4 p o i n t q u a d r a t u r e
2 f o r e =1: noElems % Loop o v e r e l e m e n t s ( knot s p a n s )
3 idu = index ( e , 1 ) ;
4 idv = index ( e , 2 ) ;

52
5 xiE = elRangeU ( idu , : ) ; % [ x i i , x i i +1]
6 etaE = elRangeV ( idv , : ) ; % [ e t a j , e t a j +1]
7 sctr = element ( e , : ) ; % element s c a t t e r vector
8 nn = length ( s c t r ) ; nn2 = 2∗ nn ;
9 s c t r B ( 1 , 1 : 2 : 2 ∗ nn ) = 2∗ s c t r −1;
10 s c t r B ( 1 , 2 : 2 : 2 ∗ nn ) = 2∗ s c t r ;
11 B = zeros ( 3 , 2 ∗ nn ) ;
12 pts = controlPts ( sctr , : ) ;
13 f o r gp =1: s i z e (W, 1 ) % l o o p o v e r Gauss p o i n t s
14 pt = Q( gp , : ) ;
15 wt = W( gp ) ;
16 % compute c o o r d s i n p a r a m e t e r s p a c e
17 Xi = p a r e n t 2 P a r a m e t r i c S p a c e ( xiE , pt ( 1 ) ) ;
18 Eta = p a r e n t 2 P a r a m e t r i c S p a c e ( etaE , pt ( 2 ) ) ;
19 J2 = jacobianPaPaMapping ( xiE , etaE ) ;
20 % d e r i v a t e o f R=Nxi ∗ Neta w . r . t x i and e t a
21 [ dRdxi dRdeta ] = NURBS2Dders ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;
22 % Jacobian matrix
23 jacob = pts ’ ∗ [ dRdxi ’ dRdeta ’ ] ;
24 J1 = det ( j a c o b ) ; i n v J a c o b = inv ( j a c o b ) ;
25 dRdx = [ dRdxi ’ dRdeta ’ ] ∗ i n v J a c o b ;
26 % B matrix
27 B ( 1 , 1 : 2 : nn2 ) = dRdx ( 1 , : ) ; B ( 2 , 2 : 2 : nn2 ) = dRdx ( 2 , : ) ;
28 B ( 3 , 1 : 2 : nn2 ) = dRdx ( 2 , : ) ; B ( 3 , 2 : 2 : nn2 ) = dRdx ( 1 , : ) ;
29 % compute e l e m e n t a r y s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x and assemble i t to the g l o b a l matrix
30 K( s c t r B , s c t r B ) = K( s c t r B , s c t r B ) + B’ ∗C∗B∗ J1 ∗ J2 ∗wt ;
31 end
32 end

6.4. Post-processing

We present here a simple technique to visualize the IGA results that reuse available visualization techniques for

finite elements. To simplify the exposé, only 2D cases are considered here. In the first step, a mesh consisting of

four-noded quadrilateral (Q4) elements is generated, see Fig. 19. We call this mesh the visualization mesh (whose

53
connectivity matrix is stored in elementV and nodal coordinates are stored in node) whose nodes are images of the

knots ξi , ηj in the physical space. In the second step, quantities of interest e.g., stresses are computed at the nodes

of the Q4 mesh. This mesh together with the nodal values can then be exported to a visualization program such as

Paraview, see [129], for visualization. It should be emphasized that due to the high order continuity of the NURBS

basis, there is no need to perform nodal averaging as required in standard C 0 finite element analysis to obtain smooth

fields. Listing 6 gives the Matlab code (we have removed some code due to the similarity with the assembly code)

for building the Q4 visualization mesh, computing the stresses at the nodes of this mesh and exporting the result to

Paraview. The source code can be found in the file plotStress1.m located in folder post-processing. The results

can be then visualized directly in Matlab or exported to Paraview, see Listing 7.

Listing 6: Matlab code for computing stresses and displacements at nodes of the visualization mesh.
b u i l d V i s u a l i z a t i o n M e s h ; % b u i l d v i s u a l i z a t i o n Q4 mesh
s t r e s s = zeros ( noElems , 4 , 3 ) ;
disp = zeros ( noElems , 4 , 2 ) ;
f o r e =1: noElems
idu = index ( e , 1 ) ; idv = index ( e , 2 ) ;
xiE = elRangeU ( idu , : ) ; etaE = elRangeV ( idv , : ) ;
sctr = element ( e , : ) ; % element s c a t t e r vector
sctrB = [ s c t r s c t r+noCtrPts ] ; %v e c t o r s c a t t e r s B m a t r i x
uspan = FindSpan ( noPtsX −1 ,p , xiE ( 1 ) , uKnot ) ;
vspan = FindSpan ( noPtsY −1 ,q , etaE ( 1 ) , vKnot ) ;
% l o o p o v e r 4 nodes ( i n s t e a d o f l o o p o v e r GPs)
gp = 1 ;
f o r i v =1:2
% Q4 e l e m e n t s , t h e nodes a r e numbered c o u n t e r −c l o c k w i s e
i f ( i v ==2) xiE = sort ( xiE , ’ descend ’ ) ; end
f o r i u =1:2
Xi = xiE ( i u ) ; Eta = etaE ( i v ) ;
[N dRdxi dRdeta ]= NURBS2DBasisDersSpecial ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ , [ uspan ; vspan ] ) ;
% B matrix as usual
strain = B∗U( s c t r B ) ;
s t r e s s ( e , gp , : ) = C∗ s t r a i n ;
gp = gp +1;

54
 (a) NURBS mesh (b) approximate Q4 mesh

(c) stress visualization on a refined mesh

Figure 19: Exact NURBS mesh (top left) and approximate Q4 mesh (top right) for visualization purpose. The nodes
in the Q4 mesh are the intersections of the ξ and η knot lines. The bottom figure shows a contour plot of a stress field
in Paraview. It should be emphasized that the mesh in (b) does not provide a sufficiently smooth contour plot for it
to be directly usable. The result given in (c) was obtained with a refined NURBS mesh (hence a refined Q4 mesh).

55
 end
end
end

Listing 7: Matlab code for post-processing.

% p l o t s i g m a x x c o n t o u r d i r e c t l y i n Matlab
figure
p l o t f i e l d ( node , elementV , ’ Q4 ’ , s t r e s s ( : , : , 1 ) ) ;
% e x p o r t t o VTK f o r m a t t o p l o t i n Mayavi o r Paraview
sigmaXX = zeros ( s i z e ( node , 1 ) , 1 ) ;
sigmaYY = zeros ( s i z e ( node , 1 ) , 1 ) ;
sigmaXY = zeros ( s i z e ( node , 1 ) , 1 ) ;
dispX = zeros ( s i z e ( node , 1 ) , 1 ) ;
dispY = zeros ( s i z e ( node , 1 ) , 1 ) ;
f o r e =1: s i z e ( elementV , 1 )
c o n n e c t = elementV ( e , : ) ;
f o r i n =1:4
nid = connect ( in ) ;
sigmaXX ( n i d ) = s t r e s s ( e , in , 1 ) ;
sigmaYY ( n i d ) = s t r e s s ( e , in , 2 ) ;
sigmaXY ( n i d ) = s t r e s s ( e , in , 3 ) ;
end
end
VTKPostProcess ( node , elementV , 2 , ’ Quad4 ’ , ’ result . vtu ’ , . . .
[ sigmaXX sigmaYY sigmaXY ] , [ dispX dispY ] ) ;

For three-dimensional problems, the same procedure is used where a mesh of tri-linear brick elements is created and

the values of interest are computed at the nodes of this mesh (see file plotStress3d.m). The results are then exported

to Paraview under a structured grid format (*.vts files), see the file mshToVTK.m).

56
6.5. h, p, k-refinement

For the refinement of NURBS, we reuse the NURBS Toolbox described in [108]. We construct a NURBS surface as

shown in Fig.20a. The corresponding Matlab code is given in Listing 8. Using a uniform h-refinement (Listing 9) that

divides a knot span into two, we obtain the mesh given in Fig.20b. If one needs to use k−refinement (p−refinement

followed by h−refinement), then the code in Listing 10 can be used (see Fig.20c). Finally, Fig.20d gives the mesh which

is obtained by the process in which h−refinement is employed first and then p−refinement is performed (see Listing

11). After using the NURBS toolbox, the NURBS object is then converted to MIGFEM data structures using the

function convert2DNurbs located in folder nurbs-util.

Listing 8: Construct a NURBS surface using the NURBS toolbox.

a = 0 . 3 ; b = 0 . 5 ; % inner / outer radius
%% knots , c o n t r o l p o i n t s
uKnot = [ 0 0 0 1 1 1 ] ; %q u a d r a t i c b a s i s
vKnot = [ 0 0 1 1 ] ; %l i n e a r b a s i s
% homogeneous c o o r d s ( x∗w, y∗w, z ∗w, w)
% 3 p t s i n u−d i r , 2 p t s i n v−d i r
controlPts = zeros ( 4 , 3 , 2 ) ;

controlPts (1:2 ,1 ,1) = [ a ; 0 ] ;

controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,1) = [ a ; a ; ] ;
controlPts (1:2 ,3 ,1) = [ 0 ; a ] ;

controlPts (1:2 ,1 ,2) = [ b ; 0 ] ;

controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,2) = [ b ; b ] ;
controlPts (1:2 ,3 ,2) = [ 0 ; b ] ;

controlPts ( 4 , : , : ) = 1;
c o n t r o l P t s ( 4 , 2 , 1 ) = 1/ sqrt ( 2 ) ;
c o n t r o l P t s ( 4 , 2 , 2 ) = 1/ sqrt ( 2 ) ;
% homogenous c o o r d i n a t e s ( x∗w, y∗w, z ∗w)
controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,1) = controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,1)∗ fac ;
controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,2) = controlPts (1:2 ,2 ,2)∗ fac ;

57
 (a) Initial NURBS mesh (b) After h-refinement

(c) After k-refinement (d) After hp-refinement

Figure 20: Illustration of the utilization of the NURBS toolbox in building NURBS object (a). From the initial mesh,
different meshes can be obtained using either h−refinement, p−refinement or combination thereof. As can be seen from
(c) and (d), k−refinement (c) is more efficient than hp−refinement (d). The function plotMesh.m in folder meshing
is used to plot NURBS mesh and control polygon.

58
 %% b u i l d NURBS o b j e c t
s o l i d = nrbmak ( c o n t r o l P t s , { uKnot vKnot } ) ;

Listing 9: h-refinement using the NURBS toolbox.

1 refineLevel = 2;
2 f o r i =1: r e f i n e L e v e l
3 uKnotVectorU = u n i q u e ( uKnot ) ;
4 uKnotVectorV = u n i q u e ( vKnot ) ;
5 % new k n o t s a l o n g two d i r e c t i o n s
6 newKnotsX =uKnotVectorU ( 1 : end−1)+0.5∗ d i f f ( uKnotVectorU ) ;
7 newKnotsY =uKnotVectorV ( 1 : end−1)+0.5∗ d i f f ( uKnotVectorV ) ;
8

9 newKnots = {newKnotsX newKnotsY } ;

10 solid = n r b k n t i n s ( s o l i d , newKnots ) ;
11 uKnot = cell2mat ( s o l i d . knots ( 1 ) ) ;
12 vKnot = cell2mat ( s o l i d . knots ( 2 ) ) ;
13 end
14 convert2DNurbs % c o n v e r t t o t h e MIGFEM f o r m a t
15 plotMesh ( c o n t r o l P t s , w e i g h t s , uKnot , vKnot , p , q , r e s , ’r - ’ , ’ try . eps ’ ) ;

Listing 10: k-refinement using the NURBS toolbox.

1 % code from L i s t i n g 5
2 % o r d e r e l e v a t i o n , p=p+2 , q=q+1
3 s o l i d = nrbdegelev ( solid , [ 2 1]);
4 % then , knot i n s e r t i o n u s i n g t h e code from L i s t i n g 6
5 convert2DNurbs % c o n v e r t t o t h e MIGFEM f o r m a t

Listing 11: h-refinement followed by p-refinement using the NURBS toolbox.

1 % code from L i s t i n g 5
2 % then , knot i n s e r t i o n u s i n g t h e code from L i s t i n g 6
3 % o r d e r e l e v a t i o n , p=p+2 , q=q+1
4 s o l i d = nrbdegelev ( solid , [ 2 1]);
5 convert2DNurbs % c o n v e r t t o t h e MIGFEM f o r m a t

59
 Listing 12: A typical input file for MIGFEM.
1 % code from L i s t i n g 5
2 % code from L i s t i n g 6 ( i f o n l y h−r e f i n e m e n t )
3 convert2DNurbs%c o n v e r t t o t h e MIGFEM f o r m a t ( i f not done y e t )
4 generateIGA2DMesh % b u i l d t h e mesh ( e l e m e n t c o n n e c t i v i t y )

6.6. Input file for MIGFEM

A typical input file is given in Listing 12. This file replaces the standard FE mesh file. Note that, for backward

compatibility with older versions of the MIGFEM code, some input files do not use the NURBS toolbox to create the

NURBS object. For those input files, it is however impossible to perform order elevation and hence k−refinement. It is,

therefore, recommended to create the NURBS objects using the NURBS toolbox [108] which, besides the aforementioned

refinement functionalities, also supports many useful operations such as extrusion, rotation etc.

Incorporating NURBS into an existing FE code cannot be considered a trivial task due to the presence of various

spaces (index, parameter) that are not present in conventional FE codes, Bézier extraction [130, 52] provides a FE

data structure that allows for a straightforward implementation of NURBS/T-splines into any FE codes. Appendix D

briefly presents this concept and its implementation in MIGFEM.

6.7. XFEM implementation

There are certainly different ways to implement XIGA. We present a way that reuse most of the tools present in an

existing XFEM code. We use the approximate Q4 mesh used for visualization as discussed in Section 6.4 for selection

of enriched control points. The level set values defining the crack at the vertices of this mesh are then computed.

Based on these level sets, elements cut by the crack and elements containing the crack tip can be determined [131]. For

example, element ABCD in Fig. 17 is cut by the crack. In a FEM context, its four nodes are then enriched using the

Heaviside function. In an isogeometric framework, however, the control points associated to this element are enriched.

Listing 13 details the Matlab

R
implementation of this process. Note that this listing is taken directly from our XFEM

code [119] with only one small modification and thus the proposed technique is considered simpler than that adopted

in [72]. We emphasize that the crack geometry is defined in the physical space to keep the usual XFEM notation.

Listing 13: Selection of enriched control points/nodes.

60
 e n r i c h n o d e = zeros ( noCtrPts , 1 ) ;
c oun t1 = 0 ;
c oun t2 = 0 ;
f o r i e l = 1 : numelem
sctr = elementV ( i e l , : ) ;
sctrIGA = e l e m e n t ( i e l , : ) ;
phi = l s ( s c t r , 1 ) ; % normal l e v e l s e t
psi = l s ( sctr , 2 ) ; % tangent l e v e l s e t
i f ( max( p h i ) ∗min( p h i ) < 0 )
i f max( p s i ) < 0
c ou nt 1 = co un t1 + 1 ; % one s p l i t e l e m e n t
s p l i t e l e m ( c ou nt 1 ) = i e l ;
e n r i c h n o d e ( sctrIGA ) = 1;
e l s e i f max( p s i ) ∗min( p s i ) < 0
c ou nt 2 = co un t2 + 1 ; % one t i p e l e m e n t
t i p e l e m ( c oun t 2 ) = i e l ;
e n r i c h n o d e ( sctrIGA ) = 2;
end
end
end
s p l i t n o d e s = find ( e n r i c h n o d e == 1 ) ;
tip nodes = find ( e n r i c h n o d e == 2 ) ;

Remark 6.1. Note that for simple geometries as those tackled in this paper, the use of level sets is certainly not

necessary. More generally, describing open surfaces (cracks) with level sets requires two level sets functions that, for

crack growth simulations, must be reinitialised for stability (this decreases accuracy) and reorthogonalised every few

time steps. This is particularly cumbersome and probably explains along with the difficulties in dealing intersecting

and branching cracks the recent trend of research efforts in the area of phase field models of fracture, see e.g., [132, 74],

and the thick level set method [133].

61
 √
Crack visualization We have H(x+ ) − H(x− ) = 2 and B1 (x+ ) − B1 (x− ) = 2 r, therefore the displacement jump

at a point x on the crack face is given by

X √ X
[[u]](x) = 2 RJ (x)aJ + 2 r RK (x)b1K . (90)
J∈Sc K∈Sf

Note that the other branch functions Bα , α = 2, 3, 4 are continuous functions and thus do not contribute to the

displacement jump.

crack

(a) (b)
Figure 21: Crack visualization in XIGA: (a) build a mesh that is compatible to the crack by introducing double nodes
along the crack (square nodes) and (b) assign the displacement jumps to these new nodes. Note that the square nodes
in the tip element are used only for compatibility purposes. Exact mode I displacements are imposed on the bottom,
right and top edge using the Lagrange multiplier method while Neumann BCs from the exact stress field are enforced
on the left edge. We refer to [119] for a detailed description of this standard problem.

Fig. 21 illustrates the idea for crack visualization with the script post-processing/crackedMeshNURBS.m

providing implementation details. The contour plots of the displacement and stress field of a mode I cracked sample

are given in Fig. 22. Note that the stresses at points on the crack are simply set to zero (traction-free cracks) and the

stresses of the new nodes of the tip element are interpolated from the values of the four nodes of this Q4 element.

Remark 6.2. As is the case for XFEM, integration over elements cut by the cracks usually requires subdivision of

the elements into integration subcells. We refer to [134] for a recent discussion on this issue. In addition to this

popular technique, a simple integration rule is also provided–elements crossed by the crack and tip-enriched elements

62
Figure 22: Contour plots on a cracked mesh: (a) vertical displacement and (b) normal stress in the vertical direction.

are numerically integrated using a regular Gauss-Legendre quadrature with a large number of Gauss points as done in

[135].

7. Structural mechanics

Thanks to the high order continuity provided by NURBS/T-splines, the implementation of rotation-free thin beam/-

plate/shell elements becomes direct and simple. In this section, we are going to present the implementation of a rotation-

free IGA Kirchhoff plate formulation (rotation free shell elements can be found in folder structural-mechanics). The

plate geometry and the deflection are both approximated by NURBS. At control points there is only one unknown-the

deflection or transverse displacement. For simplicity only isotropic elastic plates are considered. We refer to [136] for

a treatment of plate theories.

The element stiffness matrix is defined as

Z
Ke = BT
e DBe dΩ, (91)
Ωe

63
where the constitutive matrix D reads

 
1 ν 0
Eh3

 
D= ν 1 0 , (92)
12(1 − ν 2 ) 



0 0 0.5(1 − ν)

where E, ν are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, respectively; h denotes the plate thickness and the element

displacement-curvature matrix Be that contains the second derivatives of the shape functions is given by

 
 R1,xx R2,xx · · · Rn,xx 
 
Be = 
 R1,yy R2,yy ,
· · · Rn,yy  (93)
 
2R1,xy 2R2,xy · · · 2Rn,xy

where n denotes the number of basis functions of element e and RA,xx ≡ d2 RA /dx2 .

7.1. Boundary conditions

For clamped BCs one needs to fix the rotations. The nodal unknowns are, however, only the transverse displacements

w. To fix the rotation of a boundary, we simple fix two row of control points at the boundary [20] because these control

points define the tangent of the surface at the boundary (cf. Fig. 3), see Fig. 23.

Figure 23: Enforcing BCs for a fully clamped plate: simply fixing the deflections of two rows of control points around
the clamped boundary. Note that the set of CPs next to the boundary CPs are not artificially added to impose the
rotations. They are simply the CPs defining the geometry of the plate.

64
7.2. Symmetry boundary conditions

Fig. 24 illustrates the use of symmetry boundary conditions when only 1/4 of the plate is modelled. Along the

symmetry lines, the rotation should be zero which can be enforced by constraining the deflection (w) of two rows of

control points along these lines together. These contraints can be implemented using a simple penalty technique as

shown in Listing 14.

cou

sym

fix
sym

fix

Figure 24: A fully clamped square plate: 1/4 model is analyzied using appropriate symmetry BCs. Along the symmetry
lines, the rotation is fixed which can be achieved by enforcing the deflection of two rows of control points that define
the tangent of the plate to have the same value.

Listing 14: Enforcing symmetry BCs.

w = 1 e7 ;
p e n a l t y S t i f f n e s s = w∗ [ 1 −1;−1 1 ] ;
f o r i =1: length ( topNodes )
sctr = [ topNodes ( i ) nextToTopNodes ( i ) ] ;
K( s c t r , s c t r ) = K( s c t r , s c t r ) + p e n a l t y S t i f f n e s s ;
end
% t h e same f o r t h e l e f t two rows

For completeness, we give the implementation of the rotation free Kirchhoff plate elements in Listing 15. Note that

we have skipped codes that are common with IGA code for 2D continua.

Listing 15: Computation of stiffness matrix for the rotation free Kirchhoff plate.
1 f o r gp =1: s i z e (W, 1 )

65
2 pt = Q( gp , : ) ; wt = W( gp ) ;
3 % shape f u n c t i o n s , f i r s t and s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e s w . r . t n a t u r a l c o o r d s
4 [R dRdxi dRdeta dR2dxi dR2det dR2dxe]=NURBS2DBasis2ndDers ( [ Xi ; Eta ] , p , q , uKnot , vKnot , w e i g h t s ’ ) ;
5 jacob = [ dRdxi ; dRdeta ] ∗ p t s ; % 2 x2 m a t r i x
6 j a c o b 2 = [ dR2dxi ; dR2det ; dR2dxe ] ∗ p t s ; % 3 x2 m a t r i x
7 J1 = det ( j a c o b ) ;
8 dxdxi = j a c o b ( 1 , 1 ) ; dydxi = j a c o b ( 1 , 2 ) ;
9 dxdet = j a c o b ( 2 , 1 ) ; dydet = j a c o b ( 2 , 2 ) ;
10 j33 = [ dxdxi ˆ2 dydxi ˆ2 2∗ dxdxi ∗ dydxi ;
11 dxdet ˆ2 dydet ˆ2 2∗ dxdet ∗ dydet ;
12 dxdxi ∗ dxdet dydxi ∗ dydet dxdxi ∗ dydet+dxdet ∗ dydxi ] ;
13 % J a c o b i a n i n v e r s e and s p a t i a l 1 s t and 2nd d e r i v a t i v e s
14 invJacob = inv ( j a c o b ) ;
15 dRdx = i n v J a c o b ∗ [ dRdxi ; dRdeta ] ;
16 dR2dx = inv ( j 3 3 ) ∗ ( [ dR2dxi ; dR2det ; dR2dxe]− j a c o b 2 ∗dRdx ) ;
17 % B matrix
18 B = dR2dx ;
19 B( 3 , : ) = B( 3 , : ) ∗ 2 ;
20 % compute e l e m e n t a r y s t i f f n e s s matrix , s c t r=e l e m e n t ( e , : )
21 K( s c t r , s c t r ) = K( s c t r , s c t r ) + B’ ∗ C ∗ B ∗ J1 ∗ J2 ∗ wt ;
22 end

8. Verification examples

In this section, numerical examples in linear elasticity and linear elastic fracture mechanics in 2D and 3D are

presented with the purpose to serve as a set of verification examples for MIGFEM. They include an infinite plate

with a circular hole under constant in-plane tension, the pinched cylinder, an edge cracked plate in tension, a three-

dimensional mode I fracture problem and a large deformation thin shell problem. Unless otherwise stated, standard

direct imposition of Dirichlet BCs is used. Units are standard International System (SI) units.

66
8.1. Two and three dimensional solid mechanics

8.1.1. Infinite plate with a circular hole

The problem considered is that of an infinite plate with a circular hole in the centre under constant in-plane tension

at infinity as shown in Fig. 25 where, due to symmetry, only a quarter of the plate is modeled. The plate dimension

is taken to be L × L and the circular hole has a radius R. The exact stress field in the plate is given by

R2 3 R4
 
3
σxx (r, θ) = 1 − cos 2θ + cos 4θ + cos 4θ (94a)
r2 2 2 r4

R2 3 R4
 
1
σyy (r, θ) = − 2 cos 2θ − cos 4θ − cos 4θ (94b)
r 2 2 r4

R2 3 R4
 
1
σxy (r, θ) = − 2 sin 2θ + sin 4θ + sin 4θ, (94c)
r 2 2 r4

where r, θ are the usual polar coordinates centered at the center of the hole.

The material properties are specified as E = 103 , Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3 and the geometry is such that L = 4,

R = 1. A plane stress condition is assumed. The problem is solved with quadratic NURBS meshes such as those shown

in Fig. 26. The control points and weights for the coarsest mesh can be found in [3] or file plateHoleCkData.m.

Fig. 27, generated in Paraview, illustrates the contour plot of numerical σxx . Note that the stress concentration at

point (R, 3π/2) is well captured and a smooth stress field is obtained throughout.

Remark 8.1. Using the visualization technique described in Section 6.4 for this problem, a note should be made on the

evaluation of the stress field at the top left corner where there are two coincident control points. This causes a singular

Jacobian matrix. Therefore at this corner, the stresses at a point slightly shifted from the original position are used.

8.1.2. Pinched cylinder

In order to demonstrate the performance of the 3D IGA implementation, we consider the pinched cylinder problem

as shown in Fig. 28. Note that we discretize the shell with solid NURBS elements. Due to symmetry, only 1/8 of

the model is analyzed. A tri-quadratic NURBS mesh (p = q = r = 2) was used for the computation. Details can be

67
 y
ex

E D

e eq v1

nu eq v2

sy

l
R eq v3
ex

l eq v4

R
theta
A B x

sy

Figure 25: Infinite plate with a circular hole under constant in-plane tension: quarter model. Boundary conditions
T T
include: uy = 0 (AB), ux = 0 (CD), t = (−σxx , −σxy ) (AE), t = (σxy , σyy ) (ED).

Figure 26: Plate with a hole: coarse mesh of 2 bi-quadratic elements (left) and refined mesh (right).

68
Figure 27: Plate with a hole: distribution of numerical σxx obtained with a 32 × 16 quadratic mesh having 4488 dofs.

found in the file igaPinchedCylinder.m. Fig. 29 shows the mesh and the contour plot of the displacement in the

point load direction. Post-processing is done in Paraview and we refer to Section 6.4 for details. We recognise that the

problem under consideration is a shell like structure that would be more accurately modelled using appropriate shell

elements, but the example is merely intended to illustrate the ability of the method to analyse 3D geometries.

Figure 28: Pinched cylinder. Problem description and data [137].

69
Figure 29: Pinched cylinder: (a) mesh of one octant of the cylinder and (b) contour plot of the displacement in the
direction of the point load.

8.2. Two and three dimensional fracture mechanics

8.2.1. Edge cracked plate in tension

A plate of dimension b × 2h is loaded by a tensile stress σ = 1.0 along the top edge and bottom edge as shown in

Fig. 30. In the computation, the displacement along the y-axis is fixed at the bottom edge and the bottom left corner

is fixed in both x and y directions. The material parameters are E = 103 and ν = 0.3. A plane strain condition is

assumed. The reference mode I stress intensity factor (SIF) for this problem is given in [138] and is calculated as

a √
KI = F σ πa, (95)
b

where a is the crack length, b is the plate width, and F (a/b) is an empirical function. For a/b ≤ 0.6, function F is

given by

a a  a 2  a 3  a 4
F = 1.12 − 0.23 + 10.55 − 21.72 + 30.39 . (96)
b b b b b

In the present implementation, this problem is solved using both XFEM and an extended isogeometric formulation.

The SIF is computed using an interaction integral. We refer to [70] for details.

We first verify the implementation of the XIGA code by comparing the XIGA result with the XFEM result for the

case of a = 0.45, b = 1 and h = 1. The XFEM and XIGA meshes are given in Fig. 31. Both meshes have the same

uniform distribution of nodes/control points. For the XFEM mesh, bilinear Q4 elements are used. For the XIGA mesh,

70
 si

h
a

h
b

si

Figure 30: Edge cracked plate in tension: geometry and loading.

cubic (p = q = 3) B-spline basis functions are adopted. Fig. 32 shows the contour plots of the vertical displacement

obtained with XFEM and XIGA.

We now consider the computation of the mode I SIF for a crack of length a = 0.3. The reference SIF for this

problem is KIref = 1.6118. Both a linear and a cubic B-spline basis are used for three different meshes. The results are

given in Table 1. It should be emphasized that in the computation of the interaction integral, we use bilinear Lagrange

shape functions i.e., shape functions of Q4 elements to compute the derivatives of the weight function. This guarantees

that the weight function takes a value of unity on an open set containing the crack tip and vanishes on an outer contour

as shown in Fig. 33. B-splines functions are not interpolatory and therefore cannot be used to approximate the weight

functions.

mesh disp. dofs KI (linear) Error (%) KI (cubic) Error (%)

9 × 18 324 1.4997 6.96 1.5560 3.46
18 × 36 1296 1.5823 1.83 1.6150 0.20
36 × 72 5184 1.5968 0.93 1.6117 0.01

Table 1: Edge cracked plate: SIFs results. The reference SIF is KIref = 1.6118. Note that linear NURBS are equivalent
to the conventional bilinear finite elements.

71
 (a) XFEM mesh (Q4) (b) XIGA mesh (cubic (c) XIGA mesh, enriched nodes
Bsplines)

Figure 31: Edge cracked plate: XFEM and XIGA meshes. Both have the same number of displacement dofs of 1296.
The thick line denotes the crack. Square nodes denote tip enriched nodes whereas star nodes represent Heaviside
enriched nodes.

(a) XFEM (b) XIGA

Figure 32: Edge cracked plate: uy contour plots on deformed configuration (enlargement factor of 30 used).

72
Figure 33: Distribution of weight function used in the computation of the interaction integral. Four-noded quadrilateral
elements with bilinear Lagrange shape functions are used to interpolate the weight function.

8.2.2. Three-dimensional mode I fracture problem

This example aims to show the capability of MIGFEM for solving three-dimensional (3D) fracture problems. For

3D cracks, the polar coordinates in the branch functions given in Eq. (83) are defined in terms of the level sets as [139]

 
p ϕ(ξ, η, ζ)
r= ϕ(ξ, η, ζ)2 + ψ(ξ, η, ζ)2 , θ = atan , (97)
ψ(ξ, η, ζ)

where the level set field Φ = (ϕ, ψ) is interpolated as

X
Φ(ξ, η, ζ) = RI (ξ, η, ζ)ΦI . (98)
I

We refer to [139] for details concerning the derivatives of the branch functions with respect to the parametric coordinates

(ξ, η, ζ).

73
 The mode I 3D fracture problem we are solving is given in Fig. 34. The exact displacement field is given by

2(1 + υ) KI √
 
θ θ
ux (r, θ) = √ r cos 2 − 2υ − cos2
2π E 2 2

uy (r, θ) = 0 (99)
2(1 + υ) KI √
 
θ θ
uz (r, θ) = √ r sin 2 − 2υ − cos2 ,
2π E 2 2

√
where KI = σ πa is the stress intensity factor, υ is Poisson’s ratio and E is Young’s modulus. In our example, a = 100
2
mm; E = 107 N/mm , υ = 0.3, σ = 104 N/mm2 . On the bottom, right and top surfaces, essential BCs taken from Eq.

(99) are imposed using the penalty method. A penalty parameter of 1e10 was used. We note that this problem can

be more effectively solved with two-dimensional elements. This example however aims at presenting how 3D extended

IGA can be implemented. Furthermore, it also illustrates how Dirichlet BCs are enforced on surfaces rather than the

usual case of line boundaries. To this end, a two-dimensional NURBS mesh for a given surface is generated from the

set of control points that define this surface (see the file surfaceMesh.m).

10
z

y
x

10

Figure 34: Three-dimensional mode I fracture problem: infinite plate with a center planar crack. The plate thickness
is 2, the crack length is 5 and the crack width is 2. The crack is located in the mid-plane of the plate.

The problem is first solved using a linear B-spline basis. A mesh of 9 × 9 × 1 elements is used. The mesh, enriched

74
nodes and comparison of the numerical deformed configuration against the exact profile are given in Fig. 35. Next, a

mesh of 7 × 7 × 2 elements is used where, in the through-thickness direction, there are two linear elements (q = 1) and

for the two other directions, a quadratic basis (p = r = 2) is used. The result is given in Fig. 36 and we note a good

qualitative agreement between Figs. 35 and 36. We did not perform a SIF computation for this problem as 3D SIF

computation is not yet implemented at present.

Figure 35: Three-dimensional mode I fracture problem: mesh of linear B-spline elements and enriched control points
(left); numerical deformed configuration (magnification factor of 40) superimposed on the exact deformed configuration
(right).

8.3. Structural mechanics

We consider the pull out of an open-ended cylindrical shell, see Fig. 37, as one of the most common benchmarks

for geometrically nonlinear thin shell problems [140, 141]. Due to symmetry only 1/8 of the model is studied. The

1/8 model can be exactly described using one single quadratic-linear NURBS surface as shown in Fig.38. Refined

meshes are then obtained from this initial mesh by using the k-refinement. The analysis was performed using a mesh of

8 × 8 bi-quartic NURBS elements (144 control points). The enforcement of symmetry BCs is achieved by constraining

two row of control points as shown in the same figure. These constraints–the so-called multipoint linear homogeneous

constraints are handled using the master-slave method [142] for the penalty method as described in Section 7.2 could

endanger the convergence of the Newton-Raphson solver. Note that for this particular nonlinear problem, of which the

M file is igaGNLFreeEndCylinderShell.m, the analysis was performed with a C++ implementation [143].

75
Figure 36: Three-dimensional mode I fracture problem: mesh of quadratic B-spline elements and enriched control points
(left); numerical deformed configuration (magnification factor of 40) superimposed on the exact deformed configuration
(right).

We adopt the Kirchhoff-Love thin shell model, see e.g., [144, 141] for details that involves only displacement dofs.

The maximum applied load 0.25Pmax is applied in 80 equal increments and for each increment the full Newton-Raphson

method is used to solve for the displacements. Fig. 39 shows the deformed configuration of the shell and in Fig.40 the

load versus the z-displacement at point A is plotted together with the result reported in [140].

Figure 37: The open-end cylindrical shell subjected to radial pulling forces: problem setup [140].

76
 ux

sym2

sym1
uxx uxxx
sym3

ui ui1

free

Figure 38: Open ended cylindrical shell: 1/8 of the model with one bi-quadratic NURBS surface. The control points
and weights are given in file freeEndsGNLCylinderShellData.m. For symmetry edges, in order to satisfy the
symmetry condition i.e., zero rotation, we constraint two rows of control points in the sense that the displacements of
the control points right next to the control points locating on the symmetry edges (uI1 ) matches uI .

Figure 39: The open-ended cylindrical shell subjected to radial pulling forces: deformed shape without scaling.

9. Conclusion

We presented a Matlab
R
implementation for one, two and three-dimensional isogeometric finite element analysis for

solid and structural mechanics. This paper is addressed to students or researchers who wish to learn the concepts of IGA

in a clear and concise manner and is especially suited to those with solid mechanics applications in mind. NURBS are

77
 40
IGA
35 reference

30

25

P x 1000
20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
displacement u

Figure 40: The open-ended cylindrical shell subjected to radial pulling forces: load-displacement responses.

used throughout, where the underlying construction of the basis functions is detailed along with associated refinement

algorithms essential for numerical analysis. Differences with conventional FE implementations are made clear with

the use of Matlab

R
source code to illustrate isogeometric FE concepts explicitly. In addition, the implementation of

an isogeometric XFEM formulation for both two-dimensional and three-dimensional problems is described allowing

for simple linear elastic fracture analysis to be performed directly from CAD data. The benefits of isogeometric

analysis are made evident. Although not presented, the code supports multi-patch analysis in which compatibility

between connecting patches is not required [145, 146]. Geometrical nonlinearities for solid elements under the Total

Lagrange framework are provided as well. In addition, PUM enrichment for holes and inclusions is provided along

with implementation of the least squares method for imposing essential boundary conditions. Mass matrices are

implemented for almost every elements and popular time integration schemes such as Newmark and central difference

explicit are available so that transient analysis on CAD objects can be performed. The code is available for download

from https://sourceforge.net/projects/cmcodes/ for Linux and Mac OS machines. A Windows version can be

found at http://www.softpedia.com/get/Science-CAD/igafem.shtml.

The preliminary concepts and implementation details of isogeometric analysis have been described, but many

challenges remain in the field. These include the creation of suitable volume discretisations from given CAD boundary

representations, efficient integration schemes and suitable error estimators.

78
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the partial financial support of the Framework Programme 7 Initial Training

Network Funding under grant number 289361 “Integrating Numerical Simulation and Geometric Design Technology”.

Stéphane Bordas also thanks partial funding for his time provided by 1) the EPSRC under grant EP/G042705/1

Increased Reliability for Industrially Relevant Automatic Crack Growth Simulation with the eXtended Finite Element

Method and 2) the European Research Council Starting Independent Research Grant (ERC Stg grant agreement No.

279578) entitled “Towards real time multiscale simulation of cutting in non-linear materials with applications to surgical

simulation and computer guided surgery”. The first author would like to express his gratitude towards Professor L.J.

Sluys at Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands for his support to VPN during the PhD period and the

Framework Programme 7 Initial Training Network Funding. The authors acknowledge the comments of Dr. Robert

Simpson at Cardiff University that has improved the paper.

Appendix A. Knot vector conventions

The definition of an open knot vector as Ξ = {ξ1 , ξ2 , . . . , ξn+p+1 } where the first and last knot values are repeated

p + 1 times is sometimes simplified to remove redundant information. It is found that if a knot vector is open, the first

and last knot values play no role in the definition of the curve and can be removed entirely. Knot vectors are then

defined as Ξ = {ξ1 , ξ2 , . . . , ξn+p−1 } where the first and last knot vectors are repeated p times. This notation is used

frequently through the CAGD community.

Furthermore, B-spline algorithms can be written entirely in terms of knot interval vectors [147], defined as

∆Ξ = {∆ξ1 , ∆ξ2 , . . . , ∆ξn+p−2 } where ∆ξi = ξi+1 − ξi (A.1)

using the previous simplified knot vector notation. T-splines are based entirely on knot interval vector notation.

Appendix B. C k and Gk continuity

Two types of continuity are commonplace in the CAGD community, referred to as C and G continuity. From a

numerical analysis perspective, C continuity refers to the traditional definition of continuity in which, given a parametric

79
function f : R → R2 which defines a 2D curve through a parameter t, the parameterisation is said to be C k continuous

at point a if dn f /dtn is continuous (single-valued) for n = 0, 1, . . . , k at t = a. Intuitively, for a curve to be C 0 , it must

contain no discontinuities with t single-valued throughout its domain. Letting df /dt represent the ‘speed’ of the curve,

C 1 continuity implies that the tangent vector is equal in magnitude and direction while also assuming C 0 continuity.

C 2 continuity assumes both C 0 and C 1 continuity and requires that the ‘acceleration’ of the curve is equal in magnitude

and direction.

G continuity (sometimes referred to as ‘visual’ continuity) is independent of the parameter t. For a curve to be G0

continuous at a point it must contain no discontinuities, but the parameter value may have multiple values. For G1

continuity, the tangent of the curve must be equal in its direction, but its magnitude may differ. And G2 continuity

implies that the direction of acceleration is continuous, but its magnitude may differ.

If desired, a Gk curve can be made C k -continuous through an appropriate ‘reparameterisation’.

Appendix C. Homogenous and non-homogenous coordinates

It is found that if rational basis functions are used, then it is often more appropriate to work in terms of homogeneous

coordinates, since they can be applied straightforwardly to non-rational basis function algorithms. For example, in the

case of NURBS, the use of homogenous coordinates allows B-spline algorithms to be used directly.

Given a physical coordinate PA = (xA , yA , zA ) with weighting wA , the corresponding four-dimensional homogeneous

coordinate P̃A is written as

P̃A = (xA wA , yA wA , zA wA , wA ) (C.1)

= (x̃A , ỹA , z̃A , wA ). (C.2)

To convert back to non-homogenous coordinates, it is a simple case of dividing x̃A , ỹA , z̃A through by wA .

Appendix D. Bézier extraction

Bézier extraction [130, 52] provides a tool to facilitate the incorporation of NURBS and even T-splines in to any

FE codes. The idea is based on the fact that any B-splines basis can be written as a linear combination of Bernstein

80
polynomials. Written for element e, the shape functions read

Ne (ξ) = Ce B(ξ̃) (D.1)

where Ce denotes the elemental Bézier extraction operator and B are the Bernstein polynomials which are defined

on the parent element Ω̃. Index space, knot vectors are all embedded in the Bézier extrators which are computed in

a pre-processing step. Therefore, existing FE solvers can use NURBS/T-splines straightforwardly. We refer to folder

bezier-extraction for examples.

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