5211 INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTS - 2

REVISION – Module 4

ABHILASH MANJUL P A
IE DEPARTMENT
GPTC PALAKKAD
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 Syllabus: 5211 INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTS 2

Module 4 – Force, Speed, Torque, Acceleration

Measurement

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 SYLLABUS - MODULE 4

➢ Force measurement: Load cells – hydraulic –

pneumatic – strain gauge load cells

➢ Speed measurement: Classifications - Mechanical

tachometer – Stroboscope – Non-contact method

➢ Torque measurement: Technique using strain gauge

➢ Acceleration measurement: Seismic accelerometer -

LVDT accelerometer - Piezoelectric accelerometer

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 COURSE OUTCOMES
General On completion of the study of this Module the
Outcome student will be able
4.1.0 To understand the various methods of force
measurement
4.1.1 To list different types of load cells
4.1.2 To describe hydraulic load cell
4.1.3 To explain pneumatic load cell
4.1.4 To describe strain gauge load cell

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 COURSE OUTCOMES
General On completion of the study of this Module the
Outcome student will be able
4.2.0 To understand the various methods of speed
measurement
4.2.1 To classify the different types of tachometers
4.2.2 To explain the construction & working of
mechanical tachometer
4.2.3 To describe the method of measurement of speed
by stroboscope
4.2.4 To describe the method of measurement of speed
by non contact type instruments

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 COURSE OUTCOMES
General On completion of the study of this Module the
Outcome student will be able
4.3.0 To understand different types of Torque
measurement
4.3.1 To explain the technique of torque measurement
using strain gauges

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 COURSE OUTCOMES
General On completion of the study of this Module the
Outcome student will be able
4.4.0 To comprehend Acceleration measurement
4.4.1 To study the principle of accelerometer
4.4.2 To explain the construction & working of seismic
accelerometer
4.4.3 To explain the construction & working of LVDT
accelerometer
4.4.4 To explain the construction & working of
Piezoelectric accelerometer

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 ABHILASH MANJUL P A
IE DEPARTMENT
GPTC PALAKKAD
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 FORCE MEASUREMENT

1) Write the principle of operation of (2 Marks) (Model)

strain gauge.
2) List out any two types of load cells. (2 Marks) (Apr’19)
3) With a sketch explain pneumatic load (8 Marks) (Oct’17)
cell.
OR
Explain the construction and working (7 Marks) (Apr’18,
of a pneumatic load cell. Oct’19)
4) Describe the working principle of a (7 Marks) (Apr’19)
hydraulic load cell.

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 FORCE MEASUREMENT

5) Explain the working of strain gauge (7 Marks) (Oct’19)

load cell using a neat diagram.

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 FORCE
➢ Force (F) is a vector quantity that causes a change of
momentum in a body of mass m . Unit is Newton
➢ Force may be defined as a cause that produces resistance or
obstruction to any moving body, or changes the motion of a
body or tends to produce these effects
➢ Force is given as: F = ma
➢ Where ‘F’ is the Force, ‘m’ is Mass & ‘a’ is acceleration
➢ If a force applied to a body does not alter its acceleration, then
the force and the body constitute a system in equilibrium

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 STATIC & DYNAMIC FORCE

➢ Forces that do not change in time are said to be static

and are usually due to some potential energy (e.g.,
weight)
➢ Forces that change in time, such as those due to shock
waves, are said to be dynamic

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 FORCE MEASUREMENT APPLICATIONS

➢ The measurement of force overlaps somewhat with the

detection of strain, displacement, load, pressure, and
acceleration
➢ Force is a quantity whose measurement is important in
fields so different as the petrochemical industry, medicine,
robotics, automotive industry, civil construction, and
electrical machines.

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 FORCE MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

1) Balance the unknown force with a known one, such as a

standard mass and a system of levers or an electrical
force
2) Measure the acceleration that the unknown force
produces on a known mass
3) Measure the pressure it produces on a known surface
4) Sense and measure the effects that the unknown force
produces on various materials

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 LOAD CELLS

➢ Mechanical Dynamometers
➢ Load cells are devices that convert force into pressure
which is then measured.
➢ The area on which the load is placed being known, the
calibration can be done directly in load or force units
➢ The operation of Load Cell is based on the deformation
produced on an elastic supported body by the applied
force

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 LOAD CELLS

➢ Force measurement is converted into a measurement of

strain or into the displacement experienced by the elastic
body
➢ Mechanical force transducers composed of a supported
elastic body and of a strain/displacement sensor are
usually called load cells because the force is a load to the
body.

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 LOAD CELLS

➢ Force sensors based on the change of oil pressure

(hydraulic load cell) or air pressure (pneumatic load cell),
are also called as load cells, when the force is applied to
an elastic surface of a closed chamber.

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 LOAD CELL - TYPES

➢ Hydraulic Load Cell

➢ Pneumatic Load Cell
➢ Strain Gauge Load Cell
➢ Capacitive Load Cell

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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL

➢ The hydraulic load cell (hydraulic force meter) operates

on the principle of a force counter balance
➢ The force is applied to a definite area of fluid surface
➢ Thus a hydrostatic pressure is produced in the fluid
➢ The hydrostatic pressure can be measured by a Bourdon-
tube, manometer or any other type of pressure gauge
➢ The transmitting element between force and pressure
may be piston, bellows or diaphragm
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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL

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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL - CONSTRUCTION

➢ A hydraulic load cell consists of a metal diaphragm on

which force to be measured is applied
➢ The metal diaphragm is attached to a fluid chamber
➢ Fluid chamber is connected to a spiral-type Bourdon tube
pressure gauge through tubings
➢ A pointer is attached to the Bourdon tube with linkages
and gearings
➢ Pointer moves on a scale calibrated in units of force
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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ When the force to be measured acts against the

diaphragm, it creates a fluid pressure in the chamber
➢ The pressure created is equal to the magnitude of force
divided by the effective area of the diaphragm
➢ This pressure is indicated by the pointer of the bourdon
tube on the calibrated scale and gives the value of the
applied force

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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL - FEATURES
➢ They are self-contained and require no outside power for
operation
➢ They are inherently explosion-proof
➢ Available for both tension and compression force
measurements
➢ Accuracy is of the order of 0.1% of full scale
➢ Resolution is about 0.02%
➢ Used for the measurement of force in the range 0 to 30000
Newton

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 HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL - ADVANTAGES

➢ Respond quickly to load changes

➢ Relatively insensitive to temperature changes
➢ Well-suited for high impact loads
➢ Can be used in hazardous areas since they require no
electrical power
➢ Can withstand high overloads without loss of accuracy
➢ Relatively trouble-free over extended periods of use

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL

➢ The pneumatic load cell (pneumatic force meter) operates

on the force balance principle
➢ The variable downward force to be measured is balanced
by the upward force of air pressure against the effective
area of the diaphragm

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL - CONSTRUCTION

➢ A pneumatic load cell consists of a diaphragm to which a

rod and baffle are attached
➢ Just near the baffle, a nozzle is placed
➢ It is connected to the air supply and a pressure
measuring device such as a manometer, Bourdon tube
etc…

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ When the force to be measured acts on the diaphragm

rod, the diaphragm moves downward and the baffle
covers the nozzle
➢ It causes an increase in the nozzle back pressure, since
the nozzle is more nearly shut off
➢ This increase in the nozzle back pressure acting on the
diaphragm produces an effective upward force, which
tends to return the diaphragm to its former position

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ An equilibrium position or a balanced position is achieved

for a particular constant downward force at a specific
nozzle opening and corresponding nozzle back pressure
➢ The force magnitude is indicated by the height of the
Mercury column if a manometer is used

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL - ADVANTAGES

➢ They are suitable for use in hazardous or explosive areas

➢ They require no special transmitting system
➢ They are relatively free from temperature related errors
➢ They cannot cause product contamination due to leakage
or hydraulic fluid

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 PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL - DISADVANTAGES

➢ The air or other gases used as the operating medium

must be dry enough to prevent condensation of water
vapour and subsequent freezing at temperatures below
0ºC
➢ They respond slowly to sudden load changes and
therefore are not generally used for test work

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 STRAIN GAUGE
➢ The principle of operation of strain gauge is Piezoresistive
Effect
➢ If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes on account of the fact that both length and diameter of
conductor change
➢ Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the
conductor when it is strained and this property is called
Piezoresistive Effect
➢ Strain gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL

➢ The strain gauge load cell is an electro-mechanical

transducer which translates changes in force (or weight)
into changes in voltage
➢ The change in voltage can be calibrated directly in terms
of the force (or load) applied to the cell

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - CONSTRUCTION

➢ Strain gauge load cell is constructed of wire grids (known

as strain gauges) bonded to precisely machined
supporting columns
➢ These grids are connected electrically to form a balanced
Wheatstone bridge
➢ Additional compensation resistors are added to the circuit
for maintaining the accuracy of the bridge over a wide
range of temperatures

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ The principle of operation of the strain gauge load cell

depends upon the deflection of the column
➢ When a force (or load) to be measured is applied to the
supporting column [fig.(a)], the column is compressed
➢ It causes the wires in the grids bonded to sides X1 and Y1
to decrease in length and increase in cross sectional area,
thus decreasing their electrical resistance

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ The grids bonded to sides X2 and Y2 are virtually

unaffected by the compression of the column
➢ These grids are attached to the column to minimise errors
due to temperature variations
➢ When the column is stressed in tension, the strain gauges
are lengthened and their resistance is increased
➢ The change in resistance of the strain gauges is directly
proportional to the force applied to the column

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - WORKING

➢ The change in resistance of the strain gauges causes the

Wheatstone bridge to become unbalanced, thus providing
a linear output voltage signal with respect to the force
➢ In Fig.(b) the resistance Rmc is used to compensate for
the temperature dependence of the modulus of elasticity
of the load-sensing column, resistance Rtc is used to
compensate for the slightly different temperature
coefficients of resistance of the four strain gauges

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - WORKING
➢ The resistance Rss is adjusted to standardize the sensitivity for
a nominal input excitation to a desired value
➢ Ris is used to adjust the input resistance to a desired value
➢ Strain gauge load cells are made for compression, tension or
universal loading of either type
➢ The output signals of strain gauges are relatively small, in the
range 1 to 3 mV per volt of excitation and are proportional to
excitation
➢ The excitation voltage can be ac or dc and may be in the range
5 to 25 volts

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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - ADVANTAGES

➢ They are small and compact in size

➢ Well suited for measurements where an electrical output
signal is desired
➢ Respond rapidly to load variations
➢ Inexpensive
➢ Relatively maintenance free
➢ If hermitically sealed they may be installed in practically
any environment
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 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL - LIMITATIONS

➢ They have to be protected from angular or non-axial

loads as they have no way to discriminate between
bending and axial loads
➢ Overloads greatly in excess of their ratings should be
avoided. Generally they should not exceed 125% of rated
load

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 SPEED MEASUREMENT

1) What is a tachometer. (2 Marks) (Oct’19)

2) Explain the working of simple (5 Marks) (Oct’19)
mechanical tachometer with a neat
diagram.
3) With a diagram explain magnetic (6 Marks) (Model)
drag type tachometer.
4) Describe the measurement of speed (6 Marks) (Model)
by non-contact type instruments.

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 SPEED MEASUREMENT

5) Write short notes on stroboscope. (6 Marks) (Oct’17)

OR
Describe the working of a (6 Marks) (Apr’18,
Stroboscope. Apr’19)
6) Illustrate the working of a Mechanical (6 Marks) (Apr’19)
Drag Cup Tachometer.
7) Explain the measurement of speed (7 Marks) (Oct’17)
by revolution counter.
8) Explain the construction & operation (8 Marks) (Model)
of Drag – cup tachometer.

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 SPEED MEASUREMENT

9) With a neat diagram, explain the (8 Marks) (Apr’18)

principle & working of any one type
of Mechanical Tachometers.
10) Describe any one method of non (8 Marks) (Apr’19)
contact type speed measurement.

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 VELOCITY

➢ Velocity is the first derivative of displacement

➢ It is a vector, i.e. it has both magnitude and direction

➢ There are two types of velocity:

✓ Linear velocity: Along the axis
of movement
✓ Angular velocity: Around the
axis

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 SPEED

➢ Speed is the rate of change of position or it is the

distance travelled per unit time
➢ It is a scalar quantity
➢ The magnitude of speed and velocity are same
➢ In Industrial Processes, speed as a variable refers to the
revolutions per minute (RPM) of any rotating equipment
➢ Tachometers are the most frequently used device for the
measurement of rotary (angular) speed
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 DEFINITION OF TACHOMETER

➢ An instrument used for the measurement of angular

velocity either by registering the total number of
revolutions during the period of contact, or by indicating
directly the number of revolutions per minute (RPM)
➢ An instrument which either continuously indicates the
value of rotary speed or continuously displays a reading of
average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of
time

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TACHOMETERS

➢ Based on working principle

✓ Mechanical
✓ Electrical

➢ Based on Data acquisition

✓ Contact Type
✓ Non-contact Type

➢ Based on method of display

✓ Analog
✓ Digital
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 CLASSIFICATION OF TACHOMETERS

➢ Based on Measurement technique

✓ Time based
✓ Frequency based

➢ Based on Mounting
✓ Hand held
✓ Panel Mount

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 CONTACT TYPE TACHOMETER

➢ The tachometer has to be in physical contact with the

rotating shaft
➢ They are preferred where the tachometer is generally
fixed to the machine
➢ Generally, optical encoder / magnetic sensor is attached
to shaft of tachometer

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 NON-CONTACT TYPE TACHOMETER

➢ The tachometer does not need to be in physical contact

with the rotating shaft
➢ They are preferred where the tachometer needs to be
mobile
➢ Generally, laser is used or an optical disk is attached to
rotating shaft and read by a IR beam or laser

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 ANALOG TACHOMETER

➢ It has a needle and dial type of interface

➢ No provision for storage of readings
➢ Cannot compute average, deviation, etc

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 DIGITAL TACHOMETER

➢ It has an LCD or LED readout

➢ Memory is provided for storage
➢ Can perform statistical functions like averaging, deviation,
etc…

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 TIME BASED TACHOMETERS

➢ The tachometer calculates speed by measuring the time

interval between the incoming pulses
➢ More accurate for low speed measurement
➢ Time to take a reading is dependant on the speed and
increases with decrease in speed
➢ The resolution of the tachometer is independent of the
speed of the measurement

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 FREQUENCY BASED TACHOMETERS

➢ The tachometer calculates speed by measuring the

frequency of the incoming pulses
➢ More accurate for high speed measurement
➢ Time to take a reading is independent of speed of rotation
➢ The resolution of the tachometer depends on the speed
of the rotating shaft

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 PANEL MOUNT & HAND HELD
TACHOMETERS
➢ Panel mount tachometer is fixed to a particular location
and measures a specific machine.
➢ A handheld tachometer is portable; you can carry it with
you and measure any number of machines

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 MECHANICAL TACHOMETER

➢ Mechanical tachometers employ only mechanical parts

and mechanical movements for the measurement of
speed
➢ Different types of mechanical tachometers are:
✓ Revolution counter
✓ Hand speed indicator
✓ Tachoscope
✓ Centrifugal tachometer
✓ Resonance (vibrating read) tachometer
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 REVOLUTION COUNTER

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 REVOLUTION COUNTER - CONSTRUCTION
➢ A Revolution Counter consists of a worm gear attached to a
spindle
➢ It is coaxially attached to the driving shaft which provides the
speed source
➢ The worm gear meshes with a spur gear
➢ The spur gear is connected with its rotating axis perpendicular
to the axis of the worm gear
➢ The spur gear moves a calibrated dial to indicate revolutions;
Pointer indicates number of revolutions.

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 REVOLUTION COUNTER - CONSTRUCTION

➢ The dial of the pointer is attached on the frame.

➢The spur gear moves a calibrated dial to indicate
revolutions
➢ Two dials, outer and inner are provided
➢ Each division on the outer dial represents one revolution
of the spindle; Each division on the inner dial represents
one revolution of the outer dial
➢ A stop watch is attached for indicating time
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 REVOLUTION COUNTER

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 REVOLUTION COUNTER - WORKING

➢ For measuring the speed a revolution counter is manually

held by pressing the spindle against the rotating shaft
(whose speed is to be measured)
➢ The worm gear is driven by the speed source
➢ The rotating worm gear drives the spur gear which in turn
actuates the pointer on the dial
➢ The stop watch is started and stopped simultaneously
with the counter and thus average speed is calculated

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 REVOLUTION COUNTER - ADVANTAGES

➢ It gives average rotational speed with respect to time

➢ Ideal for measuring speed of engines having low
operating speed
➢ Assembly is sturdy and the mechanism lasts for longer
duration without maintenance
➢ Ideal for heavy duty machinery

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 REVOLUTION COUNTER - DISADVANTAGES

➢ It can not give instantaneous velocity of driving shaft

➢ Impose a load on the shaft on which they are connected,
as a result they absorb power
➢ The counter and timer cannot be started simultaneously
➢ Not ideal for high speed operations and low power
engines as it may show errors

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 ELECTRICAL TACHOMETER

➢ It consist of a transducer which converts the rotational

speed into an electrical signal
➢ An indicator or recorder indicate the measured value of
speed
➢ The electrical signal may be an analog signal or pulses
➢ Analog signal can be used for analog indication
➢ Pulses can be digitally counted in terms of revolutions in
a unit time
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 ELECTRICAL TACHOMETER

➢ Different types of Electrical tachometers are:

✓ Eddy current or drag cup tachometer
✓ Tachogenerator (DC and AC)
✓ Contactless electrical Tachometers
1. Magnetic pickup tachometer
2. Photo-electric tachometer
3. Stroboscope

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 MAGNETIC DRAG CUP TACHOMETER

➢ Also called Eddy current tachometer

➢ The source angular speed rotates a permanent magnet.
➢ An Aluminum disc or cup is held close to the rotating
magnet restrained by a control spring.
➢ When the magnet rotates eddy current is set up in the
drag cup or disc and a torque is produced which tries to
oppose the field produced by the eddy current

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 EDDY CURRENT TACHOMETER

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 MAGNETIC DRAG CUP TACHOMETER

➢The cup is thus dragged or rotated in the direction of the

rotating magnet
➢ Due to the restraining action of the spring angular rotation
is indicated by the pointer which is proportional to the
speed

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 STROBOSCOPE

➢ The instrument operates on the principle that if a

repeating event is only viewed when at one particular
point in it’s cycle it appears to be stationary.
➢ A mark is made on rotating shaft, and a flashing light is
subjected on the shaft
➢ The frequency of the flashing is one very short flash per
revolution

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 STROBOSCOPE

➢ To determine the shaft speed we increases the frequency

of flashing gradually from small value until the rotating
shaft appears to be stationary, then note the frequency.
➢ The frequency then doubled, if there is still one apparent
stationary image, the frequency is again doubled.
➢ This continued until two images appear 180º apart.
➢ When first appear for these two images the flash
frequency is twice the speed of rotation.

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 STROBOSCOPE

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 STROBOSCOPE

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 STROBOSCOPE

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER

➢ It is also called as magnetic pickup sensor

➢ It produces pulses from a rotating shaft without any
mechanical contact

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER -
CONSTRUCTION
➢ It consist of a cylindrical permanent magnet placed
behind a soft-iron pole, around which a coil is wound
➢ The magnetic pickup sensor is placed in front of the shaft
gear
➢ Shaft gear is made of ferrous material

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER - WORKING

➢ As the gear rotates, the magnetic flux in the soft iron pole
piece becomes high when the tooth of the ferromagnetic
gear comes in front of the magnetic pickup
➢ The flux drops off as the tooth of the gear is passed
➢ A voltage is generated in the coil which is proportional to
the rate of change of flux in the pole piece and also
proportional to the speed at which the ferromagnetic gear
makes the flux build up or collapse

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER - WORKING

➢ The output voltage waveform varies depending upon the

teeth shape of the gear, thickness and spacing
➢ Output voltage amplitude is proportional to the clearance
between the pickup tip and the surface of the gear
➢ The frequency of the voltage is linearly proportional to
rpm
➢ The output frequency of the magnetic pickup is given as,

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 CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER - FEATURES

➢ Accurate speed measurement

➢ It can be used on any type of surface such as vibrating,
rotating or moving surface
➢ It can be operated when oil, water or non-corrosive liquids
are present
➢ Available in ranges from 0-25 rpm to 0-72000 rpm
➢ Calibrated accuracy of ± 0.5% of full scale
➢ Reproducibility of 0.2% of full scale
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 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

1) Explain the working of absorption (7 Marks) (Model)

Dynamometer.
2) Explain the working of transmission (7 Marks) (Model)
Dynamometer.
3) Explain the different types of torque (7 Marks) (Oct’17)
measurements.
4) Describe the measurement of torque (8 Marks) (Apr’18)
by using Strain Gauges.
5) Explain how a strain gauge load cell (6 Marks) (Apr’19)
can be used for measuring torque.

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 TORQUE

➢ Torque is defined as the force which tends to change the

linear motion or rotation of a body
➢ It may also be defined as the turning or twisting moment
of a force about an axis
➢ Torque is given as: T = FD
➢ Where ‘T’ is the Torque, ‘F’ is the Force and ‘D’ is the
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation of the line
of action of the force

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 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

➢ Reaction torque sensors (the sensors that measure

torque on a machine housing rather than on a shaft) are
not suitable for process measurement because connecting
power and pipe lines affect the measured torque
➢There are two types of torque sensors available for the
measurement of torque on process machines:
1. In-line rotating torque sensors
2. In-line stationary torque sensors

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 IN-LINE ROTATING TORQUE SENSOR

➢ It is used for the torque measurement of rotating

equipments
➢ They are temperature sensitive and hence temperature
compensation is required

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 TORQUE MEASUREMENT USING STRAIN
GAUGE

Fig. (a)

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 IN-LINE ROTATING TORQUE SENSOR –
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
➢ It consist of a metal shaft with bonded strain gauges
electrically connected in the form of a Wheatstone bridge
➢ Fig.(a) illustrates the stresses acting on a rotating shaft
subject to torsion
➢ The strain gauges are kept on the shaft at precisely 45º to
the shaft axis to sense compressive and tensile
deformation due to torsion

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 IN-LINE ROTATING TORQUE SENSOR –
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
➢ The strain gauges 1 and 3 must be diametrically opposite as
must strain gauges 2 and 4
➢ In one direction, at 45º angle to the axis pure tensile stress
exists whereas 45º in the other direction pure compressive
stress exists
➢ The rotor shaft is elastic and will deflect minutely under the
imposed stresses.
➢ The output of the Wheatstone bridge is in proportion to torsion
and hence to the applied torque on the shaft

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 IN-LINE ROTATING TORQUE SENSOR –
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
➢ Bridge power and output voltage may be connected to the
sensor through slip rings and brushes
➢ This type of pickoff is limited to rotational speed in the order of
30 m/s at the brush surfaces
➢ The measurement is affected due to contact resistances,
contact friction and heating effect
➢ To avoid the disadvantages of slip rings, a sensor with non-
contacting power supply and signal pick off is used [Fig.(b)]

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 SENSOR WITH NON-CONTACTING POWER
SUPPLY AND SIGNAL PICKOFF

Fig. (b)

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 SENSOR WITH NON-CONTACTING POWER
SUPPLY AND SIGNAL PICKOFF
➢ The bridge power and output signals are transmitted between
the rotating and stationary members through transformers T1
and T2
➢ The bridge power is a constant amplitude, high frequency sine
wave; The output is a sine wave of the bridge power frequency
whose amplitude is a function of torque
➢ Power supply system consists of an oscillator to generate
carrier frequency
➢ The output circuit consist of a rectifier to produce a dc signal
proportional to the output sine wave

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 ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT

1) List out the types of accelerometers (2 Marks) (Oct’17)

2) Define Acceleration. What is it's unit? (2 Marks) (Apr’18)
3) Explain the working of an LVDT type (7 Marks) (Model,
accelerometer. Apr’19,
OR Oct’19)
Explain the construction& working of
LVDT accelerometer. (8 Marks) (Oct’17)

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 ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT

4) Explain the principle of operation of a (6 Marks) (Apr’18)

Seismic Accelerometer.
OR
With a neat diagram illustrate the (8 Marks) (Oct’19)
working of seismic accelerometer.
5) Explain the construction & working of (8 Marks) (Model,
piezoelectric accelerometer. Apr’18)
OR
Explain the principle and working of (8 Marks) (Apr’19)
a Piezoelectric Accelerometer.

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 ACCELERATION

➢ Displacement, velocity and acceleration are products of

motion and they are related to each other by time
➢ The basic philosophy in the mechanical measurements
like displacement, velocity or acceleration is to obtain an
electrical signal proportional to either of these quantities
and perform successive differentiation or integration to
obtain the other two.

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 ACCELERATION

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 ACCELERATION

➢ Position, Velocity, Acceleration and Jerk are kinematic

quantities
➢ All the kinematic quantities can be derived from a single
known quantity by either differentiation or integration
➢ In practice, only the integration is widely used since it
provides better noise characteristics and attenuation.
➢ Because of ease in measurements, acceleration is
particularly an important section of kinematic quantities

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 ACCELERATION - DEFINITION

➢ Acceleration is the rate of change of Velocity

➢ Unit of Acceleration is m/s2
➢ Acceleration is an important parameter for general-
purpose absolute motion measurements, vibration and
shock sensing
➢ Many different accelerometers are commercially available
in a wide a range and type to meet diverse application
requirements

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 ACCELEROMETER - APPLICATIONS

➢ Commercial applications: automobiles, ships,

appliances, sports and other hobbies
➢ Industrial applications: robotics, machine control,
vibration testing and instrumentation
➢ High reliability applications: military, space and
aerospace, seismic monitoring, tilt measurements,
vibration and shock measurements

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 ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT

➢ There are two classes of acceleration measurements

techniques:
✓ Direct measurements by specific accelerometers
✓ Indirect measurements where velocity is differentiated

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 ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT – DIRECT &
INDIRECT
➢ The applicability of acceleration measurement methods
depends on the type of motion (rectilinear, angular,
curvilinear motions) or equilibrium centered vibration
➢ For rectilinear and curvilinear motions, the direct
measurement accelerometers are preferred
➢ The angular acceleration is usually measured by indirect
methods

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 ACCELEROMETERS - CLASSIFICATION

➢ Accelerometers can be classified in a number of ways,

including mechanical or electrical types, active or passive
types, deflection or null-balance types, and others
➢ Accelerometers used in vibration and shock
measurements are usually the deflection types
➢ Accelerometers used for the measurement of motions of
vehicles, aircraft, etc. for navigation purposes may be
either deflection or null-balanced.

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 ACCELEROMETER - TYPES

➢ Seismic Accelerometer
➢ LVDT Accelerometers
➢ Potentiometric Type Accelerometer
➢ Piezoelectric Accelerometers
➢ Variable Reluctance Accelerometers
➢ Strain Gauge Accelerometers

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 SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER

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 SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER

➢ The mass is connected through a parallel spring and

damper arrangement to a housing frame
➢ The housing frame is connected to the source of vibrations
(or the source of acceleration)
➢ The mass has the tendency to remain fixed in its spatial
position so that the vibrational motion is registered as a
relative displacement between mass and housing frame
➢ This displacement is sensed and indicated by an appropriate
transducer
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 LVDT ACCELEROMETER

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 LVDT ACCELEROMETER

➢ Linear Variable Differential Transformer

➢ LVDT has a primary winding (marked as P) and two
secondary windings (S)
➢ The core of the LVDT acts as the mass
➢ Two flexible reeds attached at each end of the core
provide necessary spring action
➢ The reeds are attached to a housing which is subject to
vibration (acceleration)
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 PIEZOELECRIC ACCELEROMETER

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 PIEZO-ELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER

➢ When a force F is applied to a piezoelectric crystal it

develops a charge Q = dF (Coulomb); where d is the
charge sensitivity of crystal
➢ Through incorporation of mass m, in direct contact with
the crystal, we have the essential components of an
acceleration transducer
➢ By applying a varying acceleration to the mass-crystal
assembly, the crystal experiences a varying force

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 PIEZO-ELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER

➢ Force, F = ma

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13-04-2021 [IE] GPTC PKD 109