1.

Ground Improvement by Heating and Freezing Method:

Hydraulic modification methods cause changes in soil state due to water content variation. Apart from
water content variation changes in soil structure can be brought about by using temperature based
modifications and by the application of appropriate modifiers.
Temperature control methods are classified as:
1. Heat treatment method.
2. Ground freezing method.

These temperature control methods depend upon:

 Thermal conductivity of the soil.
 Heat capacity of soil.
 Heat of fusion.
 Heat of vaporization.
We first define these parameters one by one.

1. Thermal conductivity of the soil:

The amount of heat passing through unit cross-sectional area of soil under unit temperature gradient is
defined as to be the thermal conductivity of the soil.

Kt = q/A(T2-T1)/L
q = heat flow in watts. (W)
A = cross-sectional area in m2.
T = temperature. (K)
L = length of soil element (m)
At 0oC Kt for water = 0.58 W/m.K
And for ice Kt= 2.2 W/m.K
For denser frozen sand Kt = 4 W/m.K and less when the state of sand in unfrozen.
For soils , thermal conductivity has a direct relationship with water content and dry density. i.e. it
increases with water content and dry density.

2. Heat capacity of soil.

The amount of heat required to raise temperature by 1 oC or 1oK is known as heat capacity.
It is expressed in unit volume (Volumetric heat capacity) or per unit mass (Specific heat capacity).

Heat capacity of water = Cw = 4.2 kJ/kg oC = 4.2 mJ/m3 oC

Heat capacity of ice = Ci = 2.2 kJ/kg oC = 2.2 mJ/m3 oC

3. Latent Heat of fusion (Lf):

The change in thermal energy when water freezes or ice melts is known as latent heat of fusion.
For water Lf = 334 MJ/m3
Lf for 1 cubic meter of soil having water content w
Lf = 334 *dry density * water content
4. Heat of vaporization(Lv):

Defined as the energy required to boil water from liquid to gaseous state.
Heat of vaporization of water = Lv = 2.26 MJ/kg = 2260MJ/m3

To remove all the free water at 100oC from on cubic meter of soil:
Lv = 2260 * dry density * water content

Now coming to main topic:

1.1. Heat treatment of soils:

Heat treatment to a Clay soil to about 400oC produces pronounced changes in its engineering properties.
A large amount of energy is required for this process i.e. to stabilize one cubic meter of soil 50 to 100
litres of oil fuel is required.
Now a days use of geothermal piles as heating systems is prevalent in most parts of the world.

1.1.1. Geothermal Piles for Heat treatment of soils:

It is an innovative system of building foundations to be used in combination with ground source energy
technology. Conventional ground loops are installed in building piles through which water or any other
fluid is pumped. The fluid and the ground transfer heat energy is then passed through a heat exchanger in
the building to provide cooling or more commonly heat in winter.
The geothermal system is essentially the same as closed loop bore-hole system, however since they are
installed in the building foundations, the technology serves as dual purpose.
1.2. Ground Freezing:

It is the process of making water bearing strata temporarily impermeable and to increase its compressive
and shear strength by transforming joint water to ice. Freezing is usually provided for structural
unpinning, for temporary support for an excavation, and to prevent ground water flow into an excavated
area. Successful freezing of permeable water bearing strata affects a seal against water and strengthening
of incoherent ground. No extraneous material needs to be injected apart from contingency of frost heave,
the ground normally inverts to its normal state.

The technique is applicable to a wide range of soils but it takes considerable time to establish an ice wall
and the freeze must be maintained by continuous refrigeration.
This technique may be used for any type of soil and rock formation regardless of its structure, grain size
or its permeability. However it is best recommended for soft grounds.
The frozen earth barrier constructed prior to excavation generally eliminates need for compressed air,
dewatering, or concern for collapse during dewatering or excavation.

1.2.1. Freezing Principals:

The effectiveness of freezing depends upon availability of water to create ice, cementing the particles
together and strengthening the ground. A saturated ground is rendered as an impermeable one.
It becomes necessary to add water if moisture does not fill the pores.
Strength achieved is dependent upon freezing temperature, moisture content and nature of the soil.
Upon freezing water expands 9% by volume which does not imposes any serious stresses and strains on
the soil unless the water is confines within restricted volume. When water content is about 30% the direct
soil expansion becomes 3%.
When flow water through ground is frozen, freezing time is increased by continuing supply of heat energy
and if flow is large and temperature of water is high then freezing becomes completely inhibited.
After completion of initial freezing the frozen barrier is in place and the required refrigeration capacity
reduces to maintain the frozen barrier.
As freezing is imposed uniformally on a wide range of soils in a single operation it thus offers greater
security in mixed ground than treatment by injecting various grouts.

1.2.2. Applications:

 Stabilization of soil.
 Sinking of shaft through water bearing strata.
 Construction of shaft within non cohesive saturated data.
 Mixed ground tunneling.
 Tunneling through a full face of granular soil.

1.2.3. Freezing Process:

Freezing process is achieved in following ways:

 Indirect method, by circulation of secondary coolant through driven tubes in strata.

 Direct method, by circulation of primary refrigerant fluid through ground tubes.
 Direct method, by injection of coolant like liquid nitrogen into the ground.

1.2.3.1. Indirect cooling:

Heat in abstracted from a secondary coolant circulating through pipes driven into grounds by the help of
a primary refrigeration plant.
Commonly used primary refrigerants are Ammonia, NH 4 (-33.3oC) and Carbon dioxide (CO2).
Calcium Chloride is used as a secondary coolant circulated through the network of tubes in ground. Brine
having 30% concentration has a freezing point well below than that of primary coolant.
Primary refrigeration process is a Carnot cycle of compression and expansion reversed and the time
required to freeze the strata is dependent upon the capacity of freezing plant relative to the volume of
ground to be frozen and size and spacing of freezing tubes and water content in the ground.
1.2.3.2. Direct cooling:

A primary refrigerant is circulated through ground by a system of tubes, extracting the latent heat of
fusion directly, and therefore having a higher efficiency than indirect process.
Freezing time is similar to that in indirect process. The choice however depends upon availability of
plant, cost and personal preferences.

Liquid Nitrogen (LN2):

A large portable refrigeration plant is not necessary in this process and also temperature is much lower in
this process and therefore it is quicker in application.
Nitrogen is brought to site under moderate pressure and in insulated containers in the form of liquid
which boils at -196oC.

For nitrogen circulation an array of freezing tubes is installed, including return pipes for exhausting to
atmosphere. The speed with this method is much quicker but liquid nitrogen proves to be very costly.
For short period of freezing this method is particularly appropriate. With the same array of freezing tubes
and a network of insulated distribution pipes, this method may be used in conjunction with other process,
but for this for happen liquid nitrogen is first used to establish freeze quickly then followed by ordinary
refrigeration to maintain the condition while work is being executed.
Thermal properties of underlying soil govern the design of frozen earth barrier.
Frozen earth barrier develops at different rates and are dependent on the thermal and hydraulic properties
of each stratum.
When cooled clay stiffens because some portion of its pore water begins to freeze.
A temperature of 20oF is appropriate for sands, whereas soft clays require temperature as low as -20 oF.
The frozen earth first forms in the shape of a vertical cylinder surrounding the freeze pipes.
The cylinders gradually enlarge as they intersect, forming a continuous wall.
The frozen wall will expand in thickness with time if the heat extraction is continued at high rate.
The freeze plant is operated at reduced rate to remove heat flowing towards wall once the wall has
achieved its design thickness.
Most common freezing process is circulation of chilled brine (a strong saline solution as of calcium
chloride).
Liquid nitrogen process is successfully applied to ground freezing but through this the cost per unit heat
extracted is much more than with circulated brine.

The Procedure of ground freezing can be summarized as:

1. Assemble the freeze pipes.

2. Install the freezing pipes.
3. Application of freeze with electronically controlled refrigeration plant.
4. Development of frost on freeze pipe headers.
5. Excavation following completion of freeze well.
6. Construction of freeze liner. Once completed refrigeration can be shut down.