Questioned Document Examination

INTRODUCTION
Document – is any material which contains marks, symbols or signs, either visible partially visible, that
may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.
Questioned document – which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
Disputed document – suggest that there is an argument or controversy over the document, disputed is
always questioned document.
The examination of questioned document falls into two broad classes:
1. Criminalistics Examination – for detection of forgeries, alterations and obliterations.
2. Handwriting Examination/Identification – to find out who is the author of the writing.

Scientific handwriting examination consists of three essential phases, namely:

1. Recognition/ analysis of characteristics – properties/characteristics are observed (measured),
determined
2. Complete comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thru analysis are
now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items 
3. Evaluation – the similarities/dissimilarities are determined to have certain value for identification.
Kinds of Documents
1. Public Document - any instrument notarized by a notary public or competent public official with
solemnities required by law.
2. Official Document - any instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers having
the authority to do so.
3. Private Document - every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or of any other person legally authorized, by which documents,
some disposition or agreement is proved.
4. Commercial Document - any instrument executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or
any Mercantile Law containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.

Various aspects of questioned documents examination

The examination of questioned document principally covers the examination of handwriting
(which include signatures) and hand printing for purposes of determining their authorship or
genuineness, typewriting’s and type prints for purposes of determining their genuineness source, and
miscellaneous aspect such as the detection of alterations, decipherment of erased writings, restoration
of obliterated writings, determination of age of documents, identification of stamps, seal and other
authenticating devices, currency bills and coins and the like.

Classes of questioned documents examination

1. Documents with questioned signatures which commonly encountered in documents
examination
2. Documents containing allege fraudulent alteration
3. Holograph documents- completely written and signed by one person. (suicidal note)
4. Documents questioned as to their age or date
5. Documents questioned as to the materials used their production
6. Documents involving typewriting, and investigated or examined for purposes determining the
following:

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a. Their source
b. Their date
c. Whether or not it contains fraudulent alterations or substituted pages.
7. Documents which may identify a person through handwritings (anonymous letter such as
extortion notes, letter of treat, ransom note)
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed.

BRIEF HISTORY
(Historical Background)

From the earliest times, man has put down marks on different materials to make record or send
messages to other people. The first forms of writing were simple pictures on the walls of caves. Man
soon found he could not express all of his thoughts by means of pictures so systems of writing were
developed. Early writings were on stones and metal. Later skins of animals were used called as
parchment or vellum. The Origin of the word paper is ‘papyrus’, which was discovered by the Egyptian
more than 4,000 years ago. It is the early form of writing surface made from grasses called “reeds”
Paper was first invented by the Chinese more than 2,000 years ago from the bark of the mulberry tree
but it was not common in other countries for a long time. With the making of paper in 1150, writing
became more common to many people.
INK – another important aspect of document is the ink. MAN discovered and used ink long
before the Christian era.
Ancient writing inks were compounds of lampblack (carbon) and a gum or glue were mixed with water
 INDIA INK- virtually permanent because the carbon in the lampblack is chemically inert, not
bleared or not affected with sunlight.
 CHINA INK/ CHINESE- Made from soot, lampblack and glue and other ingredients
 IRON GALLO- TANNATE INK- Is made of gall tonic acid from the gall nuts obtained from oak trees
and iron sulfate Found in Asia Minor
 LOGWOOD INK-Potassium Chromate in saturated logwood -1850. Purple dark in color and turns
black on the paper and can be washed off chemically
 NIGROSINE/ANILINE- 1870, derived/made from a coal tar. With improved qualities are used as
fountain pen
 ALKALINE INK- made from alkaline solutions difficult to remove from paper composed of
different colors
 INDILIBLE INK-Surely used in paper because of its permanent heavy ink that penetrates the
paper and cannot be removed at all
 PRINTING INK- Are varnishes which contains pigments and consist of boiled moil with various
natural/synthetic resins.
 COPYING INK-Contains of glycerin or sugar
 STAMP PAD INK-Slow evaporating ink that dries in the paper, compound of coloring materials
that contain glycerol and glycols
 SECRET INK/ INVISIBLE INK-To write secret notes/codes. Early secret inks/writing fluids are urine,
milk and lemon juice
 SYNTHETIC INVISIBLE INK – chemical/ vegetable substances called sympathetic/cryptographic
inks cobalt, chloride, citric acid and lemon juice

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 CANCELING INK- often contains carbon and this fact should be borne in mind when it is required
to decipher faint cancellation marks on postage stamps or wrappers.
 RECORD INK - considered as a high quality ink which contain between 0.5 to 0.6 percent of iron
with the minimum concentration of acid.
 FOUNTAIN PEN INK - a record ink which contains about half the normal concentration of iron
compounds, but an increased proportion of dyestuff.
 HECTOGRAPHIC INK - consists of a layer of either a gelatin glycerol mixture of special clay.
 LIQUID-LEAD PENCIL INK - is an ordinary ballpoint pen with a fluid containing finely carbon
substituted for the usual dyestuff containing.
Principal fluid writing inks in common use today:
a. Iron gallotannates such as the blue-blacks popularly advertised as “permanent”
b. Synthetic dye inks, such as the frequently observed aniline blues usually marketed as “no-
permanent”
c. Carbon blacks, including india and drawing or lettering inks.

Other inks:
1. Black ink – from nutgalls and a solution of some salt of iron and consists of gallate of
iron(indigo sulphate)
2. Blue ink-solution of Prussian blue and methylene blue with potassium ferric ferrocyanide
plus oxalic acid.
3. Red ink- from carmine (cochineal) and brazil wood with potassium cosin.

Alphabet
The first form of written communication which started as far as 20, 000 years ago was graphically
represented by arranged and drawings on the walls of the caves and big stones – ICONOGRAPHS (3500
BC) ------ represent things and sounds of those things

IDEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM-Combining pictures to represent the words of ideas example China- SUN and
TREE to represent the word for EAST. Until this symbols and forms which later developed into a system
by the Egyptian tribes – SUMMERIANS which produced a CUNIEFORM SYSTEM when the conquered
MESOPOTAMIA in 3200 B.C.

CUNIEFORM SYSTEM – means wedge-shaped. It was adopted by many semitic tribes and evolved into
different versions under the Acadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Elamites, Hittites and Kassites.
Egyptian writing developed 3 different styles of symbol system:

1. HIEROGLYPHICS - characters in any system of writing in which symbols represents objects and
ideas Greek term “Sacred Carving” – on Egyptian movement. Ex.: tomb of Queen
Amonherkhepsef. 
2. HIERATIC - There is pen/papyrus, employed simpler form to depict draw/portray the same
figure. It became the choice of business and private documents. 
3. DEMOTIC- A highly cursive form of hieratic developed about 700 B.C. – used I Egypt.

PHOENICIANS
Are created with the spread of the first alphabet bet from 1, 200 to 900 BC
Adaptation of Greek Letters

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MINUSCULES – a Greek new form of handwritten design emerged in the 7 th and 8th century AD-it is a
small letters in the alphabet.

ETRUSCAN First latin alphabet consist of 21 greek letters (alphabet in Northern Italy which combined
Semitic and Greek letters) in the first century BC two more Greek symbols were added Y, Z and other
latin letter, U, W , J – total of 26 letters

ROMANS developed the alphabet through centuries until the creation of small letters and the capital
everyday writing in private and business dealings there is Hebrew alphabet, Cyrillic alphabet, Arabic

Alphabet – comes from the Greek letters “ALPHA” – beginning or first letter of Greek alphabet and BETA
is second alphabet of Greek alphabet.

Early Writing Instruments:

1. Roman metal pen - metal writing instrument devised by the roman in ancient times; It is the
ancestor of the modern metal pen which appeared in the 19 th century.
2. Cane pen – instrument that was used from antiquity through the middle ages to write on papyrus
and parchment.
3. Quill- large feather with a hollow stalk that is sharpened to a point and dipped in ink to write.
4. Egyptian reed pen – small reed that is sharpened to a point and used to draw hieroglyphics on clay
tablets or to write in ink on papyrus.
5. Steel pen – curved point mounted on a handle and it is dipped in an inkwell to write.
6. Writing brush – natural or synthetic bristles set into a handle and dipped in ink to write; it has been
used for Chinese calligraphy for 4,000 years.
7. Goose-quill – is a pen made from a large feather of a goose. It is used in medieval times to write
on parchment.
8. Fountain pen – instrument with a metal nib that is attached to a body containing an in reservoir,
usually in a form of a catridge. Nicolas Bion French inventor (1652-1733), often called bion
pens.
9. Sharpened stone – among the document writing instrument, sharpened stone were used by
prehistoric people to engrave symbols with caves on rocks.
10. Roman beaver – roman scribed this into thin sheets of wax when they no longer need the writing,
they rubbed it out with the flat end.

Instruments and apparatus needed in questioned documents examination

1. Shadowgraph- is a machine which enlarges minute details as 20x but with no ocular piece, as in
the microscope. It facilitates examination of hand writing and type writing.
2. Transmitted light examination -documents are subjected to transmitted light examination to
determine the presence o erasure, matching of serration and some other types of alteration.
3. Indirect lighting equipment (oblique light examination) – this an equipment with controlled
illumination. The document is viewed with the source of illumination behind it and the light
coming through the paper. Oblique light examination is the proper technique to be used in
decipherment of faded handwritings, erased entries in the document, determination of outlines
in traced forgery, embossed impression, and viewing watermark and other element of
characters in the document.
4. Photographic examination- very essential in every document examination in the application of
photography. Enlarged photographs of documents to be examined will aid the documents
examiner his thorough examination of the same, enabling him to view clearly detailed

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characteristics of questioned and standard specimens of a hand writing or signature which will
be the base of interpretation. The enlargement of documents in question is in preparation of
comparison chart for court presentation whenever the examiner renders opinion.
5. Ultra violet examination-done through the used of Ultra-violate lamp machine in which ultra
violet radiation is invisible and occur in the wave length just below the visible blue-violet end of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The use of ultra violet light is essential in documents which
consist several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and intensity of
fluorescence reaction is very apparent in case of a substituted page. In cases of erased
documents, either mechanical or chemical erasures, it will certainly change reflectivity and
fluorescence of the area affected.
6. Electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA)- is good and useful in detecting indentation/ indented
writings on a document. Records transparencies of any indentations.
7. Video spectral comparator (VSC)- this comparator is useful in the examination of marked or
obliterated text, watermarks, visible fluorescence, paper fluorescence and oblique illumination
of indented writing and embossing. It also detects variation in the infra-red characteristics of
inks, reveals alterations by eliminating interfering background luminescence.
8. Hand lens examination- in almost all questioned document examination, hand lens is commonly
utilized in aid to examination because it is a convenient instrument to handle. It enlarges the
size of the letter or character for the clear view of the examiner.
9. Paper thickness gauze- some documents are questioned or disputed in reference to its kind and
age of paper used in the document. Paper thickness gauze is used to measure the thickness of
the paper.
10. Typewriting measuring plate- appropriate because this equipment measures the number of
characters and letters in typewriter.
11. Type angle measurement- is a technique used to measure the angle or degree of mal-alignment
in horizontal of a typewriter.

Photography and Questioned Documents

Photography is very necessary and useful in every questioned document examination, especially
for those who are required to present the facts in a court or any investigative body or agency. With the
help of photography, it is easier for an expert witness to convince the court or investigative body about
the result of his examination whether the questioned document is disputed or not.

Purposed of photographs in Questioned Documents Examination

 Photograph serves as a record of the initial condition of a questioned document.
 Photograph makes clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct.
 By means of photograph, a writing in question can be accurately enlarge so that every quality
and characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted whether the facts so shown
point to genuineness or to forgery.
 Any number of accurate reproductions of the documents could be made through photographs,
thus affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by a number of
examiners that would not be possible by using the documents alone.
 Photographs can be cut apart as maybe desirable and the various part classified for comparison.
 Photographs are also useful in showing delicate discoloration due to chemical erasures or other
fraudulent changes, which may otherwise be overlooked, denied or misinterpreted.
 Erasures by abrasion made by an ordinary rubber eraser can sometimes by shown very clearly
and recorded in permanent from by a photograph taken with the paper placed obliquely to the

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plane of the lens and plate inclined at just the right angle of reflection so as to show differences
in the reflected light from different portions of paper surface.
 Transmitted light photography is useful in the examination of watermarks, determining the
identity or the difference in papers by showing arrangement of the fibers and the markings of
the wire gauge and dandy roll, showing continuity of strokes, determining retouching or
patching of a writing by showing clearly the presence of added ink film and the uneven
distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.
 Stereographic photomicrograph shows condition of writing in three dimensional enlargements
and is useful in showing sequences of cross lines or showing writing across a fold preceded or
followed by the folding of a paper.

Physiological basis of handwriting

The impulses to form a letter begin in the cortex. This center is a kin to brain areas that control
vision, hearing, talking and walking, and it guides the muscles of the hand as they weave through the
complex movement that makes the words. Since writing begins in the mind, emotions and attitudes
influence how we write just as they influence how we walk and talk. In writing, the pen or other writing
instrument functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the pen the directive impulses
and the variation in the muscular tension that, according to the nature of the writers’ nervous
organization, occur during the act of writing. Hand contains 2 groups of muscles :
 Extensor- muscles pushes up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the tension produced
as a result of flexion by a group of muscles
 Flexor muscles which pushes the pen to form the downward strokes.

Agraphia- one loses the ability to write although he could still grasp a writing instrument. Thus the
ability or power to hold a pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from this
cortical center.
 Writing- is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a combination of certain
forms, which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits, acquired by long, continued,
painstaking effort.
 Handwriting – is visible effect of bodily movement which is on almost unconscious expressions of
certain ideas associated with script form.
 System of writing- is the combination of basic design of letters and writing movements as taught in
school.
 Natural writing- is any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control or alters
its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
 Disguised writing- is a way of writing in which the writer deliberately tries to alters his usual writing
habits in the hope of hiding his identity.
 Writing habit- is any repeated element or detail that may serve to individualize writing.
 Significant writing habit- is term applied to any characteristic of handwriting which is sufficiently unique
and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification of the writer.

DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING
FIRST STEP- begins to learn the art of handwriting through drawing. – Imitations
SECOND STEP- the focus of attention is centered on the execution of each letter
THIRD STEP- more or less automatic – attain maturity in writing- which modified by education, training,
personal taste, artistic ability.

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Individuality of handwriting
How does one person acquire individuality of handwriting? The following factors may be considered.
1. The influence of writing system- formal handwriting instruction is given in schools.
2. Constant compulsion to write – the young writer, who is forced to write daily lessons and tasks,
rarely aims at writing excellence, but succumbs to a personal legibility which will finally become his
individual handwriting and his alone.
3. Personal legibility- continued handwriting usage in one’s daily pursuits develops maturity in each
writer’s personal characteristics which is the trademark the aggregate identifier of his handwriting.
4. writing maturity- about the time the average writer graduates from high school, his writing
individualities have stabilized in a considerable extent, taking into account his/her training, personal and
occupational experiences. This development earmarks each writer through life.

Causes of Modifications of Handwriting

1. Simpl1ication – discarding of unessential details and may go to the strip (long narrow piece) the letter
to the skeleton making – clear- cut and precise. 
2. Elaboration – decorative strokes are added to the plain letter- too ornate character (elaborate-
ornate)
3. Linear pattern – shows no concern for form so that lines and angles predominate.
Movement or manner of execution
Is related to the handling position of the writing instrument that creates certain type of motion
affecting the quality of writing done specifically, the skill, speed, freedom, hesitations, tremors, quality
and alignment.

Kinds of movement
1. Finger movement- using the thumb, the first and slightly the third fingers that are in actual
motion. It is one employed children and illiterates.
2. Hand movement or wrist movement- actions come from the wrist with the combination of
fingers. The wrist is the center of action, but with some action of the fingers. Results of this kind
may show regularity of lines and considerable speed.
3. Whole arm movement- actual movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the
table. The center of the action is the elbow. The result of this kind of movement are; artistic
design, and similar to blackboard writing.
4. Forearm movement- writing using the forearm, letters is formed due to the action of the elbow,
forearm resting on the writing surface. Results of this kind of movement are clear cut, fine
quality regular gradations of heavy and light pressure.

Recognition of writing characteristics

Handwriting examination of a questioned document usually has the following purposes:
 To determine whether or not a writing in dispute is a forgery and
 To determine whether or not writing in dispute is that of another.

Distinctive features
1. Slope or slant- is the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.
2. Size of handwriting- means the relative size of the letters and length of ascending stroke in
relation to the size of another letter. The proportion of height to the width of letters, the height
of initial letter in proportion to the other or the height and length of the ending letter in
proportion to the initial one may signify habit of writing.

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3. Ratio- the relation between the tall and short letters

4. DIVIDED TWO GROUPS:
a. SHORT – letters written entirely between the lines are referred to as a, c, e, l, m, n, r, s,
u, v, w, and x
b. TALL – letters with upper/lower loops or other projected portions will be classed. b, d, f,
g, h, j, I, p, t, y, z
5. Connecting strokes- this refers to the strokes of links that connects a letter with the one
following.
6. Connecting Strokes can be classified by:
1. circular
2. oblong/elliptical
3. angular
7. Hesitation- is the irregular thickening of the ink line when the writing slow down or stops while
the writer takes stock of the position.
8. Lateral spacing- in defining spacing, it should be observed from three point of view
a. The space between the letters
b. Space between words and words
c. Space between lines and lines.
9. Line quality- refers to the features of the lines and curve of the handwriting. Line quality can be
either good or poor.
10. Speed in writing- writing is executed fast or rapid, slow or drawn, deliberate or average.
a. Slow- heavy pressure, pen lifts, blunt initial and terminal strokes
b. Very rapid- sloping direction, strokes have short path from start to finish.
c. The greater shaded strokes generally reduce degree of speed.
11. Pen pressure- maybe defined as a weight of the hand or muscles on the pen during the act of
writing.
12. Baseline – an imaginary line where the letters are supposed to be aligned; the rules or imaginary
line upon which the writing rests.
13. Shading- it is said to be the difference between the thickest and the finest or thinnest strokes.
14. Alignment- indicates that line of writing in relation with the arrangement of letters and words.
Alignment maybe straight, irregular, sloping upward or sloping downward.
15. Rhythm- defined as the flowing succession of motion, stresses or impulses in handwriting.
16. Arrangement- is called the relation of the letters and characters with each other. This system of
arranging the word, sentences and paragraphs become so unconscious and automatic that it
serves to identify the writing of particular persons.
17. Tremor-is defined as a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes.

Kinds of Tremors:
1. Genuine tremor such as: of age, illiteracy ad weakness
– showing too many or few tremors, wrong portions of the litters, depends by the momentum of the
hand, otherwise “natural”. Through weakness: shows unusual and erratic movements. Illiteracy shows
lack of skill and a mental uncertainly so to the form general clumsiness due to unfamiliarity with the
whole writing process . Old age – indicate lack of muscular control, does not show fine, rough strokes .
2. Tremor of fraud – actually drown/imitated Show hesitation at the placer and tremor wrongly
placed.

18. Natural variation- this may refer to deviations or changes found between repeated specimens of
any individual handwriting.

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HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTIC
is any property/ mark which distinguishes and in questioned document examination, commonly refers
to identifying details.

Classification of writing characteristics

1. CLASS – are identifying details which are common to a group. Some of the common qualities
or class characteristics in handwriting are the ordinary letter forms (copy book form)
2. INDIVIDUAL – which are highly personal and peculiar and are unlikely to occur in other
instances.
Individual style or form of writing
Every individual writes in some form style which id distinct from others despite its close resemblance.
The preceding are descriptions and illustrations of individual style or form of writing which describe the
foregoing statements.
  1. Script Writing – any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately.
2. Cursive Writing – the writing is flowing, running and the letters are joined
3. Block Style – letters of the alphabet are capitalized.

Others different individual characteristics

1. Body – the main portion of the letter which remains when the upper and lower projection,
upstrokes and terminal strokes and diacritics are removed. Ex. : the oval of the letter “Q” is
the body, minus the downward strokes and the loop
2. Diacritics – are elements added to complete a letter; “t” crossing and dots of the letters “i”
and “j”. The matrix of the Indian script is also known as diacritic signs.
3. Eye/eyelet – a minute or small loop or curve formed inside the letter, inside the oval of the
letters “a”, “d”, or “o”.
4. Connection – the stroke which connects two strokes or letters
5. Foot – the lower part which rests on the baseline. The small letters “m” has three feet and
the small letter “n” and “h” have two feet.
6. Hiatus or Pen Jump – a failure to complete a junction of a connecting stroke without lifting
the pen; a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen such
occurrences was due to speed. The hiatus may also be stated as pen jump.
7. Hook – it is a minute curve or angle which often occurs at the end of the terminal stroke.
The terminal curves of the letters “a”, “d”, “h”, “u”, id the hook. In small letter “w”, the
initial curve is the hook; or a hook is a minute involuntary talon-like formation often found
at the commencement of the initial stroke or a terminal stroke.
8. Initial stroke – the first element of a stroke
9. Loop – an oblong curve such as found in small “f”, “g”, “l” and letters “h” and “j”. A loop may
be formed at the upper or lower part of the letter. It can be blind or open loop. A blind loop
is usually the result of the ink having filled the open source.
10. Oval – the portion of a letter which is oval in shape. The small letter “a”, “d”, “g”, and “q”
contain oval; the portion of the letter which form an oval design
11. Retrace – any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon the original stroke; any stroke
which goes back over the same writing stroke.
12. Shoulder/Hump – outside portion of the top curve; the garland form of the letter as in small
letter “m” has three shoulders and the small letter “n” has two; the small letter “h” has one
shoulder.
13. Staff or Stem – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward stroke
of the letter “b”, “g”.

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14. Spur – short horizontal terminal strokes mostly found on a small letter, short initial or
terminal stroke
15. Arc/garlanded – a curve formed inside the top curve or loop, as in small letters “h”, “m”, “p”
16. Beard/Embellishment - a preliminary embellish initial stroke which usually occurs in capital
letters
17. Buckle/bucket knot - – a loop made as flourish which is added to the letters as in small
“letters “k”, “f” or in capital letters “A”, “K”, and “H”.
18. Terminal stroke – the last element of a letter.
19. Re-touching- may mean to repeat the contact previously made on the handwriting.

STANDARD DOCUMENTS
In questioned document investigation refers to those things whose origin are known and can be proven
and which can be legally used as samples to compare with other matters in questioned.
Classification of standard documents:
1. Procured or collected standard – those which can be obtained from files of document executed in
the course of a person’s day to day business, official, social or personal activities.
2. Requested standard – those which are given or made upon the request of an investigator for
purposes of making a comparative examination with the questioned writing.

Points to be considered in gathering procedure or collected standards.

The document examiner can never arrive at sound conclusion unless he has on hand the best standards
of comparison, therefore, he has to abide and observe, first and foremost the principles in choosing
standards of comparison which follow:
 Amount of standard writing available-at least seven standards usually constitute sufficient
amount of these standard.
 The best standard of comparison are those of the same general class as those of the questioned
writing; as nearly as possible of the same date before and after the date of writing of the
document in dispute (contemporaneous).
 The established rule is that writing to be admitted as standards of comparison must be proved
to be genuine and cannot be admitted in evidence as a basis for comparison with the disputed
matter if their genuineness is in doubt (acceptability of standards).
 The selection should comprise those writings known to be genuine and made under favorable
conditions and in a natural manner (proof of genuineness).
 Kinds of instrument and paper used might influence or affect writing.

 That there are evidence showing that the subject writer had written such standards in his
business transactions or other concerns.

Points to be considered in containing request standards

Questioned material must be dictated
Never allow a suspect to see the questioned document. If dictation is not possible, a copy of
the material (typewritten or in another person’s writing but not a photograph or similar
reproduction) must be the one given to the subject.
 Dictated test must be carefully selected.

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It is not a good practice to dictate the contents of the questioned document. Therefore, a
substitute text to be devised may be a composition or paragraph which contains all of the
alphabetical letters and other writing characters and which contains most of the words in the
questioned document.
 Adequate amount of writing must be included
 Some portions of dictation must be repeated at least three times
Writing should be made on three different sheets of paper, each sheet being removed from
the writer’s view upon completion.
 Writing instrument and paper used should be similar to those used in the questioned
document.
 Dictation should be interrupted at intervals so that the suspect will feel relaxed and will write his
own natural writing. Rest between dictations usually makes a writer forget about his previous
writing.
 Normal writing condition should be arranged
If a subject must be required to give a statement or make a written explanation, he must be
required to make such statement or explanation in his own handwriting. Disguise is eliminated in
writing, as attention of the writer is not focused in the act but on some other reasons that may serve
as his alibi.

What are considered proper standards?

Proper standards are writing of a suspect or known author which are legally obtained. These are
normal or natural handwriting specimens written before and after and nearest the date of the
appearance.

In order to test the genuineness of standards, the document examiner must not forget to
observe the following:

 That such standard was admitted by the person charged with the authorship of the disputed
writing and such admission are done at the trial in his testimony or for the purpose of the
trial.
 The witnesses are available who could testify that they saw the author write and or
acknowledge the writing thereof.
 That there are evidence showing that the subject writer had written such standards in his
business transactions or other concerns.

To take a handwriting sample in court, it is advisable;

1. To ask the person to sit as comfortable as possible
2. If he has his own pen, he should use it.
3. Give him enough space to sit and enough space to write.
4. Explain the situation and reassure him that it is natural for everyone to be nervous is such a
situation, but that he should try to write as naturally as possible under the circumstances, and if his

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handwriting shows any nervousness, that will change the handwriting only in appearance, but not
in characteristics. On the other hand a disguised writing can be revealed and established.
An important condition is that people should not gather around him and watch him while he is
writing.
1. First, he should be asked to write things which are familiar to him; his name address, telephone
number, occupation, name of the family members, etc.
2. Next, dictate to him an innocuous paragraph, for example, from the days newspaper.
3. Then, ask him to write the text or signature in question at least six times.
4. Finally, ask him to write anything he wishes. Then ask him to sign the paper. These simple
instructions will give the natural writing of the person as accurately as it will be possible to obtain.
Principles by which the force and significance of writing characteristics are to be measured:
 Those identifying or differentiating characteristics are of the most force which are divergent
from the regular system or handwriting under examination.
 Those repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should first be sought for and should be
given the most weight, for these are likely to be so inconspicuous that they would not
intentionally be omitted when the attempt is made to disguise and would not be successfully
copied from the writing of another when simulation is attempted.
 Ordinary system or national features and elements are not alone sufficient on which to base a
judgment of identity of two writings, although these characteristics necessarily have value as
evidence of identity if present in sufficient number and in combination with individual
characteristics.
SIMILARITIES – those features or characteristics common to two writings (class characteristics).
They may be mere similarities that are found to be common to a group or writer or they may be
significant similarities which in combinations serve to particularized or individualize a certain writer
(individual characteristics)
DIFFERENCES- characteristics of a certain writing that diverge from those of another writing in such
a manner and degree that the differences cannot be reasonable explained or accounted for by any
unusual conditions of the writer or those surrounding him; these differences are more than the
trivial or usual variations normally found in any writing.
VARIATION- variation in the writing of a person is partial changes, alterations, departures and
modifications in the normal formation of the alphabetical characters. These variations in any
genuine writing are peculiarities in letter formation resulting directly from force or habit or some
definite cause at the time of writing.

The most common forms of variation in a writing developed by use are:

 Abbreviating-taking away or reducing essential parts
 Embellishment-extension of strokes that are easily made, and are the natural outgrowth of
speed, freedom or individual taste or caprice.
 Disguise-any changes or alternations and modifications employed by a person to distort or alter
his usual or normal writing styles and habits in the hope of hiding his identity.

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 Questioned Document Examination

Comparison of handwriting characteristics

Handwriting characteristics of the questioned and the standard specimen must be compared with
each other to weigh and evaluate its points of similarities and points of dissimilarities and later
deduce conclusion. A sound conclusion is derived from thorough investigation of sufficient number
of standard exemplars and best standard of comparison, by the document examiner, determining
every identifying detail.
For better viewing of detailed hand writing characteristics possessed by the questioned and
standard specimen and for the convenience of the document examiner, both the questioned and
standard specimen must be arranged in a juxta position on the table.
Mere similarities do not necessarily prove genuineness any more than mere superficial
differences necessarily prove lack of genuineness.
It is first necessary to establish the standard, and their identity or difference is shown by a
careful comparison of all the characteristics which in combination constitute the basis for a
conclusion, the force of the mere conjecture up to moral certainty. To arrive at a conclusion:
 That two writing are by the same hand (writer) there must not only be present class
characteristics but also individual characteristics in sufficient number to exclude the theory of
accidental coincidence, or
 That two writings are by different hand (writer) numerous likeness may be found in class
characteristics but divergences in individual characteristics or divergences may be found in both
but the divergences must be something more than mere superficial differences.

Care and handling of documents

Documents being disputed should be handled and cared for in a manner that will not impair
their value as frequently happens that either through carelessness or ignorance the evidential value of
an important document is seriously impaired and important interest are thus imperiled.
As early as possible the exact physical conditions of every part of a suspected document should
be carefully observed and made a matter of definite written record thereafter it should be preserved, as
far as possible in exactly the same condition it is in when first suspected. It is advisable that a plastic
container or covering should be provided.

In this connection, the following negative direction are necessary;

1. Disputed document should not be cut, torn or in any manner mutilated in the slightest degree.
2. Document should not be touched with an erasure of any kind, nor with pen, pencil or sharp
instrument.
3. Document should not be folded in a new place, it should not be folded and unfolded
unnecessarily.
4. Document should not be wet
5. Except by special permission, no chemical analysis should be made on the document of the
opposing party as chemicals applied may injure or deface document. Test of this kind should be
made only by those properly qualified to perform them.
6. Portions of the documents that are of particulate importance, such as signature, amounts or
dates, should not be encircled in any manner that the strokes or portions are affected.

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 Questioned Document Examination

IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNATURES
Identification of signatures

The identification or so-called “verification” of signature is a specialized branch of handwriting

examination for the following reasons:
 A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written
 a signature is a means to identify a person and has a great personal significance.
 a signature written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
 a signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production
and is written automatically
 a signature is the only word the illiterate can write confidence.

The identification of a signature is based on the combination of the two personal attributes of letter
form and line quality.
Note: no two specimens of a person’s signature are absolutely identical. The signatures normally vary
from each other in some details and the degree with which vary from each other depends on the
individual writer and the condition under which was written. As pointed out in “standard of comparison”
it is because of normal variation in signature that several signatures should be used to identify the one
in questioned.

Characteristics of a Genuine Signature

 Degree of skill- genuine signature even if showing tremors will show some free, connecting, and
terminal strokes made by the momentum of the hand.
 Firmness of strokes- in genuine signatures, hesitations and stops are on natural places
 Habitual speed of writing- even in slow and unskillful signatures, there will be consistency in
speed.
 Fundamental muscular movement- in genuine signatures, the upward strokes show more
smoothness and freedom than the downward strokes
 Pattern of shading and pen emphasis
 Presence of natural variation- as no two signatures are exactly alike, a certain amount of natural
variation is expected and consequently allowed for letter design.
 Coordination, continuity and rhythm in writing
 Carelessness in stroke and movement.

Forgery is committed by any person who, with intent to defraud, signed the name of another
person, or of a fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters,
forges, or counterfeits any check, draft and due-bills for the payment of money or property, or
counterfeits or forges the seal or handwriting of another knowing the same to be fake, altered, or
forged or counterfeit with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any person.

A forge signature is the signature of another person, or of a fictitious person, written by a

person who has no authority to do so, with intent to defraud.

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 Questioned Document Examination

The forger produces fraudulent signatures, from the elementary process of merely writing the
name without attempt at making a close resemblance of the genuine signature to the more complicated
process of simulated on or tracing in an effort to produce a close facsimile of the genuine signature.

KINDS OF FORGERY:

1. SIMPLE FORGERY
This kind of forgery is best termed as a “ spurious signature”. In committing fraud, the forger
who is confronted with the absence to produce a facsimile of the genuine, but merely signs the name in
his own, or in a modified (disguised) Handwriting, and then contrives some means of passing the
document as his own with intent to gain before the obvious fraud is discovered. This is commonly
employed by the check-chief who steals, endorses and passes government, corporation, or other checks,
or who procures printed check forms, completes and endorses them with fictitious signatures in order to
pass them off as genuine.
2. SIMULATED FORGERY
  As previously stated, genuine signature, especially done by a good writer, exhibit fluency and
smoothness of strokes. In simulated or traced forgeries, the motion of the pen is slow and careful. The
beginning and ending lines are usually blunt or clumsy in appearance.
3. TRACED FORGERY
A traced forgery is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact
facsimile of a genuine signature or writing by some tracing process. It is any fraudulent signature
executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing.

Different Process of tracing:

 Carbon processes or carbon outline method
  A carbon paper is placed between the genuine signature (top sheet) and the fraudulent document
(below). Outline of model signature is traced with dry pen or pointed instrument to make a carbon
offset on the lower sheet. Outline is finally rewritten or retraced with suitable ink strokes.
 Indentation process
  An intended or canal-like outline of the genuine signature is produced in the fraudulent document
by tracing (with suitable pressure or force) the outline of the genuine signature with a pointed
instrument. The outline is then directly inked in some instances. The outline is first retraced lightly with
a pencil before it is finally retraced with suitable ink.
 Projection process or transmitted-light process
  A spurious document is placed immediately over the genuine signature, with strong light directed
through the two sheets of paper from below or behind. The outline that is seen through the upper
sheet is then traced.

4. OPTICAL FORGERY - Simply known as “cut and paste” forgery, this is done either by:
Photoshopping through the use of any other graphic editing program.
Copy paste, by taking a genuine signature, placing and pasting it in a document over the printed
name of the intented victim, have the documents photocopied or scanned and made it appear as copy
of the original.
5. ELECTRONIC AND DIGITAL FORGERY - This is so-called counterfeit reality where documents, images,
videos, sounds and any kind of representation that appear to be convincingly realistic illustration of such
representation, electronically or digitally created, that is inexistent or is not exactly as represented.

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 Questioned Document Examination

Some Individual uses at least 3 classes of signatures:

Formal, complete, correct signature – signatures used for an important document such as wills and
marriage contracts.
Informal, cursory signature – used for routine documents and personal correspondence.
Careless scribble - usually used for the mail carrier, delivery boy and the autographed collector.

ALTERATION
Alteration-changes or alteration, which usually affect the original meaning of a document, are made
either at the stage of preparation and are already part of the document when it is “signed, sealed and
witnessed”, or fraudulently after its execution.
Note: “an obvious, necessary change in a document often is evidence not of fraud, but of
genuineness. “
“A delicate and partly conceal change may be very suspicious.”
Alterations are made in any of the following means:
a. Erasure
i. Mechanical –rubbing off with rubber erasure or scrapping off with sharp
instrument.
ii. Chemical –ink eradicator or other bleaching solutions.
b. Addition- new pages of writing, typewriting or printing may be inserted.
c. Substitution- when an entire page has been remove from an instrument and has been
replaced by another piece containing matters different from those of the remove page.
d. Interlineation or intercalation (insert between the line)- writing between the lines of an
instrument for the purpose of adding a part to it or correcting what has been written.
e. Obliteration or “smeared-over” writing (blacking out portions of writing by some
opaque material) – the blotting out of writings to make the original invisible.

TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION
Some important dates:
January 7, 1714 - is the first recorded attempt to invent a typewriter found in the records of the British
patent office, granted by her majesty Queen Anne, to Henry Mill, and English Engineer.

1827 – the first United States patent for a mechanical writing machine was issued to William, A. Burt of
Detriot Michigan.

1867 - Christopher Lathan Sholes developed the Sholes glided and sole typewriter patented on June 23,
1568 it mechanically the upper cased letter for the alphabet into a piece of paper. It may be viewed at
the Smithsonian Institute, Washington D.C.

1868 – 3 American inventors: CHRISTOPHER LATHAM SHOLES, CARLOS GLIDDEN and SAMUEL SOULE -
they invented a machine until in 1873 they were contracted with E. REMINGTON 8 SONS OF NEW YORK
– manufacturers of rifles and sewing machine – to produce their typewriter -> “BLIND WRITING
MACHINE”

1870 – DANISH PASTOR, RASMUS MALLING HANSEN

“writing ball” – looks a pincushion.

1874 - the Remington TYPEWRITER model No. 1 and followed by Remington model No. 2 (1878).

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 Questioned Document Examination

1892 - the first visible writing machine was invented by the U.S which was introduced by the
“Underwood COMPANY” ROYAL & WOODSTOCK.

1912 - portable typewriter was developed.

1920 – IBM (International Business Machine Corporation) introduced the print elective typewriter.

Importance Details of Typewriter

Typeface – It is the printing surface of the type block. The most popular type used in business before
are PICA and Elite.

PICA - it is composed of ten (10) characters in an inch.

ELITE – it is composed of twelve (12) characters in an inch.
ROMAN - larger in size than pica.

Character – refers to letters, symbols, numeral, or any point of functions in typewriter.

Typeface Defects - refers to any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the typeface
metal. Type face refers to the printing surface of the type block.
 Defect – is used to describe any maladjusted or abnormality in a typewriter which is reflected in
its work and which leads to its identification and individualization.
o Permanent defect - refers to any identifying attribute of typewriter which cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon.
o Transitory defect – refers to identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated by replacing the ribbon or cleaning the machine.

Basic of typewriting identification

1.) SAME TYPE SIZE – pica/elite spacing
lBM – proportional
2.) SAME TYPE DESIGN - 8 letters, all alphabet
numerals 1-9

3.) SIMILAR CONBINATIONS OF CORRECTLY AND DEFECTIVE WRITING CHARACTERS.

a.) alignment defect: horizontal
vertical
character print of all feet
tilted
4.) TYPEFACE DEFECTS EITHER: permanent
transitory
5.) LOOK FOR ERASURE MARKS.
6.) LOOK FOR MORE THAN ONE KIND OF INK HAVE BEEN USED.
7.) COMPARE.

Generally, 3 major types of typewriter machine

1. Office typewriter machine

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 Questioned Document Examination

2. Portable typewriter
3. Electric typewriter

TYPO – an error made by the printer.

SERIF – a light line/minute line or stroke erasing or projecting from the end of a main line or stroke in a
letter.

TYPO GRAPHY - the arrangement style and appearance of printed matter.

TYPE FACE - the face or impression of a types

TYPE WRITER – keyboard machine for producing characters, letters, numbers, etc.

Principal technique utilized in typewriting identification:

The principal technical utilized in comparing questioned typewriting with a known

typewriting on their proper sequence are the following:
1. Measure the type pitch
2. Verify the size and design
3. Look for individual type face defects
Type face defects
1. Vertical Mal-alignment- A character printing above or below its proper position is vertical alignment.
2. Horizontal Mal-alignment -An alignment defect in which the character prints to the right or left of its
proper position
3. Off-its Feet-The condition of a typeface orienting heavier on one side or corner than the remainder of
outline
4. Rebound-Typeface defect in which a character is design to prints a double impression with the lighter
slighter off-set to the right or left 
5. Twisted Letter- Letter and character is design to print at a certain fixed angle to the baseline due to
the wear and damage to the type bars and the type bars and the type block some letters become
twisted so that they loan to the right or left their correct slant.
6. Actual Breakage- Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the typeface metal which
maybe actual breakage in the line of the letters.
7. Clogged- The typeface became filled with dirt and ink. Particularly in enclose letters such a small letter
o, e, p, and g.

Forgers – were punished by Kings by corporal punishments – hanging, burning … even in U.S. there is a
currency printed by
Benjamin Franklin after bore the phrase “to counterfeit is death” - one who had the skill to counterfeit
currency was considered a threat to the safety of the state, had be eliminated.
 
Counterfeit – to make a copy of without authority for fraudulent purposes – to forge/ to imitate
-to carry on deception
COUNTERFIETING – is probably as old as money itself before the paper money was introduced,
counterfeiting was done by way of mixing base metals – supposed pure gold/silver.
Clipping – the process to which individual should “shave” the edges of a coin so that it weighed less than
it was supposed to

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this not counterfeiting but the precious metals clippings use to make counterfeits
fourree – ancient type of counterfeit coin, in which a base metal core has been plated with a precious
metal to look like its solid metal counterpart
Definition of counterfeiting
A counterfeit is something made to imitate the real thing. It is an imitation that is
usually made with the intent to deceptively represent content or origin.
The word is usually applied to a form of forgery involving money. The right to make
coins and print paper money is limited by law to governments. Respective nations cannot make the
coins of their own but also the making of coins or paper money of other governments.
The word counterfeit most frequently describes forged currency or documents, but can
also describe clothing, software, pharmaceuticals, watches, or, more recently, cars and motorcycles,
watches, or, more recently, cars and motorcycles, especially when this results in patent in fringement or
trademark infringement.

THE STORY OF MONEY

The story of money is told from the earliest trading times in the Philippines when
primitive money was used and barter was practiced to the creation of modern coins and banknotes.
------------ PRE HISPANIC PERIOD ------------
Small seafaring communities existed throughout the Philippine Archipelago for at least
2000 years before the arrival of the Spaniards. The early Filipinos traded with neighboring countries, and
the chief means of trading was barter. Chinese merchants brought in porcelain, silk and metalware in
exchange for gold, pearls, beeswax and medicinal plants. Gold barter rings and piloncitos, the first
recognized form of coinage in the country, were also used as medium of exchange.

SPANISH ERA
The Gallon Trade started during the colonization of the Philippines in 1565 and lasted
for 250 years. It was responsible for transforming Manila into a trade center for oriental goods that
were brought across the Pacific in exchange for odd-shaped silver coins called cobs or macuquinas.
Other coins that followed were the dos mundos or pillar dollars in silver, also in silver.
In the 18th century, the Royalty of Spain authorized the production of copper coins by
the Ayuntamiento or Municipality of fractional coins. These were called barrillas, and first appeared in
1728. The first banknotes called pesos fuertes were issued in 1852. In 1861, the Casa de Moneda de
Manila minted the first gold coins with the worl “Filipinas” inscribed. These were called Isabelinas and
later Alfonsinos.

REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
The Cry of Balintawak led by Andres Bonifacio signaled the start of the Philippine
Revolution on 23 August 1896. After the proclamation of General Emilio Aguinaldo as President of the
First Philippine Republic, two types of 2-centavo copper coins were struck in the army arsenal of
Malolos. Because their mintage was so few, they are considered extremely rare. Paper notes were also
issued, but the circulation was limited because the government was short-lived.

AMERICAN REGIME
When the Americans took over the Philippines in 1901, the US Congress passed the
Philippine Coinage Act, which authorized the mintage of silver coins from 1903 to 1912. Silver
Certificates were issued until 1918. These were replaced with Treasury Certificates that circulated until

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 Questioned Document Examination

1935. To save on cost of minting silver coins, the Manila Mint was reopened in 1920. It produced coins
until the Commonwealth Period.

JAPANESE PERIOD
During the Japanese Occupation (1941-1944), two kinds of notes circulated – the Japanese
Invasion Money issued by the Japanese Government, and the Guerrilla Notes or Resistance Currencies
issued by Filipinos guerrillas.
REPUBLIC PERIOD
Republic Act No. 265 created the Central Bank of the Philippines on 3 January 1949,
which was vested with the power of administering the banking and credit system of the country. The
Central Bank initially issued the Victory notes with the overprint “Central Bank of the Philippines” in
1949. In 1951, it issued its first official banknotes, the English series. This was followed by the Pilipino
series in 1967, the Ang Bagong Lipunan series in 1973, and the New design series in 1985.
The Central Bank issued coins of the English series in 1959, followed by the Pilipino series in
1967, and the Ang Bagong Lipunan series 1975. It introduced the Flora and Fauna series in 1983. All of
the series were demonetized in 1997.
On the July 1993, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP series) was created pursuant to Republic Act No.
7653, establishing an independent central monetary authority. The new logo of Bangko Sentral was
carried in both its banknotes and coins in 1995.

Philippine Banknotes: New Generation Currency Security Features

The New Generation Currency (NGC) banknotes of our country feature some interesting security
features never before seen in previous Philippine paper money in circulation. I would like to share these
security features in this post. I am quoting from a publication by Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas entitled, The
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas’ New Generation Currency Notes: Safeguarding the Integrity of the
Philippine Currency by Maja Gratia L. Malic & Nenette E. Malabrigo. This details the new security
features of the new banknotes that help consumers identify counterfeit bills from the real deal.
What follows is quoted from the publication.
For greater protection, the NGC notes were provided with four layers of security features:
Level I : Security features which can be easily recognized by the public without use of   special instrument.
These are the “look, feel, tilt” elements in the notes such as  watermark, security thread, security fibers,
and others.
Level II: Security features recognizable by professional cash handlers/bank tellers with  the use of
magnifying lens or ultraviolet light. Examples are fluorophosporescent  features, security fibers, and
microprinting.

Level III: The hidden or covert security features reserved for the use of the Bangko  Sentral.
Level IV: Forensic security features for the use of law enforcers in testifying whether a  banknote is
genuine or counterfeit. These are detectable at specialized laboratories.
The publication goes further to detail Level I security features for public knowledge. Some of the Level II
security features can be seen, but Levels III and IV are not for public use.

Level I: Security features which can be easily recognized by the public without the use of special
instrument. These are the “look,” “feel,” and “tilt” elements in the notes, enumerated below.
1. Embossed prints: The embossed or raised print nature of the ink deposition combined with the quality
of cotton-based paper gives the traditional banknote a unique tactile effect that makes it the first and
the most important line of defense against counterfeiting. This can be felt over the words “REPUBLIKA

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 Questioned Document Examination

NG PILIPINAS,” denominational value in text, signatures, and value panels particularly, the one located
at the lower right corner of the obverse.

2. Asymmetric Serial Number: Alphanumeric characters at the lower left and upper right corners of the
note bearing one or two prefix letters and six to seven digits, with font increasing in size and thickness.

3. Security Fibers: Visible red and blue fibers embedded on the paper and randomly scattered on the face
and back of the note.
4. Watermark: Shadow image of the portrait with the highlighted denominational  value that is
particularly seen against the light from either side  of the blank space on the note.

5. See-Through Mark: The pre-Hispanic script (Baybayin) at the lower right corner of the face of the note
slightly above the value panel. This is seen in complete form only when the note is viewed against the
light. This script means “PILIPINO.”

6. Concealed Value: The denominational value superimposed at the smaller version portrait at the upper
left portion of the note. This becomes clearly visible when the note is rotated 45 degrees and slightly
tilted.

7. Security Thread (Embedded or Windowed): Embedded thread that runs vertically across the width of
20- and 50- piso notes when viewed against the light. Also, the stitch-like metallic thread on the 100-,
200-, 500- and 1000-piso notes which changes color from red to green and bears the cleartext of “BSP”
and the denominational value on the obverse and “BSP” on the reverse, both in repeated series.

8. Optically Variable Device (OVD) Patch: Found only in 500- and 1000-piso notes, this patch is a
reflective foil, bearing the image of the Blue-naped parrot for 500-piso/clam with South Sea pearl for
1000-piso, changes color from red to green when the note is rotated 90 degrees.
*Incorporated on the OVD patch is a logo of BSP that also changes color when viewed from different
angles, the denomination at the upper right and bottom center, the text BANGKO SENTRAL NG
PILIPINAS on the upper left of the oval, and a micro print right below the clam or parrot.

9. Optically Variable Ink (OVI): Found only in the 1000-piso note, this embossed denominational value at
the lower right corner of the face of the note changes color from green to blue when viewed at different
angles.

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REFERENCES:

 Huber and Headrick’s Handwriting Identification. 2018

 Ellen, D. et. al. Scientific Examination of Documents: Methods and Techniques. 2018
 Camara. Questioned Documents Examination: An instructional Manual.2016
 Castillo, R. O. & Magbanua, C. C. Forensic Documents Investigation. Wiseman Books
 Trading.2008
 Cutamora, M. Forensic Handwriting Examination and the Rules on Evidence on Handwriting
Expert Testimony.2014
 Sally S. Kalalang, M.S. Crim. Questioned Document Examination (An Instructional Handbook),
Wiseman’s Books Trading. 2009
 Gonzales, J.A. Forensic Questioned Document Examination. Wiseman’s Books Trading.2008

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