INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
Course Code: PA 2

SY 2020-2021

BACHELOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

BRIEF OVERVIEW

This Learning Material includes the basic concepts of public administration and its
development as a field of study.
This Self-Learning Material is designed for use as guide for self-learning by the student
outside of the usual classroom setting. The student is therefore expected to achieve the learning
outcomes by him/herself, away from school and with minimal intervention by the teacher.

Each student will be provided with a digital folder containing all the documents pertinent to
the course. The student is strictly prohibited to share any of such documents to anybody. Doing so
will be treated as a disciplinary case and the perpetrator will have to face sanctions.

DISCLAIMER: This learning material is used in compliance with the flexible teaching-
learning approach espoused by CHED in response to the pandemic that has globally affected
educational institutions. Authors and publishers of the contents are well acknowledged. As such the
college and its faculty do not claim ownership of all sourced information. This learning material
will solely be used for instructional purposes not for commercialization.
Rommel R. Regala, Ph.D.
CatSU College of Arts and Sciences

GUIDELINES IN STUDYING WITH THE LEARNING MATERIAL

1. Start by taking note of the objectives. Then at the end of each lesson, check if you have
fulfilled all of the objectives.

2. Be sure to read first the required reading/s for each lesson before proceeding to the
summary provided in the “Content” part of the learning material. Remember, what is in the
lesson is only a summary which is not enough to gain adequate understanding of the topic/s
covered in the lesson. Also, it will be most advantageous for the student to read more
materials over and above what is required here. You can search for them in the internet and
at the CSU Library.

3. Have a separate notebook. Make your own notes as you read through the reading materials
and summary provided for here. Transferring the ideas, organizing and rendering them in
your own words and understanding, help you to absorb and internalize the content.

4. Have a dictionary or thesaurus handy to be able to check out the meaning of words that are
not very familiar to you.

5. Do the self-assessment activity to end your work for each particular lesson.

6. Answers to your self-assessment questions must be written in digital word document by

clusters and submitted either by email or in printed hard copies to your teacher. Clustering
and deadlines will be posted on Google Classroom.
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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

7. Be sure to write your name on your submission. Submit on or before deadline. Late
submission will not be accepted.

8. Compose your answers to the self-assessment questions in your own words. Do not copy
any portion/s of the learning materials from any source (book or the internet). DO NOT
COPY FROM YOUR CLASSMATE, in part or in full.

Both the original and the copied

papers will be given “0” mark.

It is advised therefore that a student should not show his/her self-assessment activity paper
to any classmate so as to prevent copying.

9. The rubrics below will be used in assessing your answers in the self-assessment questions
that you will be submitted.
EXCELLENT – 10 Points (1.0)
• Concise and direct to the point
• Precise explanation of concepts and exact illustrations

VERY SATISFACTORY – 8 Points (1.5-1.1)

• Concise and direct to the point
• Explanation and illustrations are quite adequate

SATISFACTORY – 6 Points (2.0-1.6)

• Moderately concise
• Explanation and illustrations are moderately adequate

LESS SATISFACTORY – 4 Points (2.5-2.1)

• Fairly concise
• Explanation and illustrations are fairly adequate

POOR – 2 Points (3.0-2.6)

• Vague but intelligible
• Explanation and illustrations are minimally adequate

VERY POOR – 0 Point (5.0)

• Answers is thoroughly out of range, or no answer at all

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

10. There will be written midterm and final examinations. You have to come to school for the
examinations. Examination will be on the following schedules:

Midterm Examination - _________________________________

Final Examination - _________________________________

11. We will create a group chat on Messenger. This will be used only for clarifications
regarding lessons/topics in the course. No submissions will be accepted on group
chat/messenger. Socializing and raising unrelated issues should be minimized.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this handout, you should be able to:

1. Define administration in general and public administration in particular, the

administrative principles and theories, delineating the scope and functions of public
administration.
2. Differentiate between classical and behavioural approaches; the relationship between
public administration and other social sciences.
3. Draw a dichotomy between public and private administration.
4. Draw a distinction between politics and administration.
5. Identify and explain various approaches in administrative inquiry.
6. Describe various theories in public administration and the new dimensions of public
administration.
7. Apply public administration approaches to real administration in public sectors.
8. Identify and discuss the various controls of public administration.
9. Elucidate the major distinctions in dominant approaches in public administration.
10. Explore the problems within the bureaucracy including corruption, unethical
behaviour, self-interest and lack of accountability.

COURSE CONTENT

A. The Principles of Public Administration

1. Definition of Terminologies
a. Meaning of Public Administration
b. Nature and Scope of Public Administration
c. Public Administration and Other Social Sciences

2. Public Administration: Art or Science

a. Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
b. Basic Principles of Public Administration

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

B. The Historical Development of Public Administration

1. The Scientific Management Theory

a. Principles of Scientific Management
b. Elements of Scientific Management
c. Contributions to the Development of Public Administration

2. The Human Relation Theory

a. The Hawthorne Experiments

b. Elements of Human Relation approach
c. Significant Contribution of the Human Relation Approach
d. Behavioural Science Approach
e. Behavioural Approach Contribution to Management Decision Making
f. Administrative Theory
g. Bureaucratic Theory

C. The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer and its Responsibilities

1. The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

2. The Major Responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer
3. Typology of the Concept of Chief Executive Officer
4. Operative Duties of the Chief Executive Officer

D. Control System in Public Administration

1. The Legislature
a. Legislative Control of Administration
b. Legislative Powers and Functions
c. Typology of Legislatures
d. Legislative-Executive Relations
e. The Declining Power of the Legislature

2. The Executive
a. Executive Powers and Functions
b. Typology of Executives
c. The Growing Concentration of Powers in the Executive

3. The Judiciary
a. Functions of the Judiciary
b. Need for the Independence of the Judiciary

4. Military Era and the Functioning of Public Administration

a. Military Decrees and Impact on Public Administration

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

E. Public Administration and the Law

1. Meaning of Administrative Law

2. Scope of Administrative Law
3. Reasons for the Growth of Administrative Law
4. Delegated Administration
a. Need for Delegated Legislation
b. Typology of Delegated Legislation

5. Administrative Adjudication

F. The Bureaucracy

1. Bureaucracy: Meaning and Definition of Concept

2. Characteristics of Max Webber’s Bureaucracy
3. Max Webber’s Ideal Types of Authority
4. Criticism of Bureaucracy

G. The Organizing Process

1. Organising Process: Definition and Concepts

a. Departmentalization

2. Establishing Authority Relationships

3. Division of Managerial Work

H. Communication in Organization

1. Meaning and Definition of the Concept of Communication

a. Importance of Communication
b. Fundamentals of Communication
c. Process of Communication

2. Organisational Communication
a. Downward Communication
b. Upward Communication
c. Horizontal/Diagonal Communication
d. Informal Communication/Grape Vine

3. Barriers to Communication
a. External Barriers
b. Emotional or Psychological Barriers
c. Organisational Barriers
d. Personal Barriers

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CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

4. How to make Communication Effective

I. Personnel Management and Public Administration

1. Aims and Objectives of Personnel Management

2. Major Personnel Management Functions: Public Sector Experience
3. Features of Personnel Management Functions in the Public Sector
4. Recruitment, Selection and Placement
5. Wages and Salaries Administration
6. Training and Manpower Development
7. Discipline, Promotion and Transfer
8. Staff Performance Appraisal
9. Human Resources Management Manpower Planning
10. Employee Motivation
11. Indus trial and Labour Relations
12. Communication

J. Comparative Public Administration and International Civil Service

1. Meaning and Scope of Comparative Public Administration

a. The Structure of Public Administrative System
b. The Nature of Public Administrative System

2. Comparative Role of Civil Service in the Modern World (International Civil Service)

K. Local Government Administration

1. Definition and Concept of Local Government Administration

a. Reasons for the Creation of Local Government
b. Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government Institution
c. Legal Framework of Local Government
d. Functions of Local Government

2. Local Government Finance

3. Central Government Controls of Local Governments

a. Legislative Controls
b. Judicial Control
c. Administrative Control
d. Financial Control

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

MODULE ONE THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1: The Principles of Public Administration

Unit 2: The Historical Development of Public Administration
Unit 3: Public and Private Administration

UNIT 1 THE PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Terminologies
3.1.1 Meaning of Public Administration
3.1.2 Nature and Scope of Public Administration
3.1.3 Public Administration and Other Social Sciences
3.2 Public Administration: Art or Science
3.2.1 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
3.2.2 Basic Principles of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Unit is the foundational Unit of not only this course, but of the programme. It focuses
mainly on the definitions, meaning, features, scope and basic principles as regards Public
Administration.

The concept of Public Administration would be examined from the context of its universality and
its relevance to all human formations.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

• explain the term “Administration.”

• define the term “Public Administration.”
• state the Scope of Public Administration
• state whether Public Administration is Art or Science.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Terminologies

Administration is a universal practice and also of universal importance. Administration exists

whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups and such achievements require
planning, organization, command, cooperation and control. It involves the mobilization,
deployment and direction of human and material resources to attain specified objectives.

Public Administration may be considered both a field of action and a field of study. As a field of
action, Public Administration refers to the mechanics and structures through which government
policies are implemented. As a field of study or discipline, Public Administration refers to the
academic discipline which studies the mechanics and structures through which government
implement its programmes.

Public Administration, according to Woodrow Wilson, is a detailed and systematic application

of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.

In the words of Dwight Waldo, “Public Administration is the art and science of management as
applied to the affairs of the states and for ….”

Luther Gullrich, “Public Administration is that part of science of administration which has to do
with the government and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive branch where the work
of government is done.”

All these definitions of Public Administration exhibit the following characteristics:

• Organization and Direction and material resources into an organized structure. This
organized entity is well guided to attain – Here Public Administration brings together
human acceptable goals for the interest of all.

• The issue of cooperation and unity of purpose for the welfare of all; Public
Administration is a collective caring process for the welfare and well-being of all. It,
therefore, involves the harmonization of personal and group goals. It harmonizes
personal and group goals.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1.1

Define Public Administration

3.1.2 Nature and Scope of Public Administration

The nature of Public Administration may be narrow and management whereby it is defined only
as the Action Side of government or mainly the activities of the executive arm of government.
Also, it deals with the functions of the Manager or the Chief Executive Officer only.
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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

There is also the broader view of Public Administration where it embraces the tree organs of
government being the executive, legislative and the judiciary. It reflects the collective caring
activities of the three organs of government. Furthermore, it involves the role of the least
personnel to the highest in a work situation.

The scope of Public Administration is as follows:

• the formulation and implementation of public policies;

• the executive arm of government
• the involvement of problems concerning human behaviour at governmental level;
and
• a field that is differentiated in several ways from private administration.

However, Public Administration is broad and cannot be restricted to a specific detail. It is multi-
discipline because students and practitioners alike need to draw from several discipline like
political science, psychology, sociology and especially the sciences in order to reach the truth
about a particular administrative problem or before the best decision can be taken and
implemented.

3.1.3 Public Administration and other Social Sciences

Public Administration is a distinct discipline of its own. However, as human beings and nations
relate to each other through interactions so do various disciplines. There is a close relationship
between Public Administration with other social sciences.

Psychology and Public Administration. Psychology is the science of the mind. Mental activity
is known to guide the behaviour of an individual. Public Administration is mostly for the
implementation of public policies efficiently. How do we get efficient human beings to carrying
public related tasks? This is why psychology comes in from recruitment, the individual stay and
the exit from the organization. Public Administration is able to master human behaviour to a
reasonable degree due to the assistance of psychologist and the knowledge of psychology in a
work place would definitely produce well-motivated and happy workers.

Law and Public Administration. Laws are carefully established rules and regulations that are
made to regulate conduct and performance of individuals and groups as Public Administration is
the administration of public laws.

In democratic process under the separation of power, checks and balances, rules and regulations
are analysed by the Legislature. The judiciary is well known by the function of judicial reviews.
Therefore, every political settings and administrative processes in public administration has legal
connotations in law making, execution and interpretation.

Philosophy and Public Administration. The knowledge of philosophy enables public

administration to systematically accumulate knowledge and wisdom from all fields of human

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CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

undertakings. This enables administration to guide, teach, lead and serve the human society in
the creation of pleasant world for the benefit of the entire humanity.

Religion and Public Administration. Religion is a social science which deals with human
relationship with the Supreme Being. In all contents and purposes, the essence of religion is to
truly identify with the Almighty. Religion is one instrument of peace and obedience to
constituted authority which public administration symbolizes.
3.2 Public Administration: Art or Science

Public Administration is the implementation of rules and regulations by the executive arm of
government. It is the totality of all government activities.

There is always this friction about Public Administration being an Art or Science course. Art is
the knowledge acquired by learning and practice and Science is the act of doing an activity in a
systematic way. But Public Administration can be viewed as a Science base on certain criteria.

Existence of Agreed Principles. The principle of Public Administration as agreed by writers in

the field, are: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
There is also a span of control that limits the number of subordinates one can conveniently
control.

The outcome of good administration can be predicted to be efficient work force and efficient and
productive output. Therefore, the ability to determine future occurrence through present indices
makes Public Administration Science-oriented in nature.

Public Administration is concrete and exact because it has the organizational outlook.
Organization is the putting in their right perspectives human and material resources to achieve
set goals. It further creates formal authority structure and allocates duties and functions.
Another proof the Public Administration is Science is that in an attempt to carry out its various
functions, there is some form of experiments. The whole world can be termed “the laboratory”
of Public Administration. Policies and Laws are tentative intentions to regulate human affairs.
They (law and regulations) are experimented upon to see how good it would work for the benefit
of mankind.

Lastly, it is an agreed principle that everyone is equal before the law. This involves the
calculated use of resources to actual set goals. A calculated sue of resources must involve
careful and uniform use of thoughts, words and actions both in theory and practice. This is
scientific because it is a systematic accumulation of knowledge.

As an art, Public Administration can be seen as having more than one definition. For Science,
the definition would have been only one. Public Administration as an art, has various definitions
both at a narrower or broader view. Another attribute of Public Administration that makes it an
art subject is that human behaviours are subject to irrational acts which may also affect the policy
content which may vary due to the variation in human nature.

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There is also the issue of unequal treatment of people when it comes to Public Administration.
This unequal treatment may be due to corruption, nepotism and favouritism. Irregular human
behavior cannot be subjected to laboratory experiment. Therefore, Public Administration is an
art because knowledge is gained through learning. But in all, it should be noted that it is not
absolutely true to say that Public Administration is absolutely an art or science.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1.2

Posit Public Administration as an Art or Science.

3.2.1 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration

The word “approach” means to come nearer or closer to something. The approaches discussed
here depend on the definition of Public Administration and the extent to which the boundaries of
the subject are adjusted. The following are the approaches to the study of Public Administration.

Judiciary Approach: Of all the approaches to the study of Public Administration, the judicial
approach is the oldest. This approach assumes that Public Administration carried out primarily
by the executive organ of government is nothing more than the implementation of rules and
regulations as passed by the legislature.

Public Administration is the Science of government and is the knowledge of the laws by which
every society is regulated. It can be concluded here that Public Administration originated from
the study of the judiciary or Administrative Law

Scientific Approach: Fredrick W. Taylor’s, the father of Scientific Management, effort was to
develop public administration into a science from principles within the engineering and
management sciences. Taylor’s desire was to increase production by motivating the workers to
work harder.

Comprehensive Approach: Here, Public Administration is considered as the total performance

of governmental functions or organizational functions by those placed in position to do so. This
approach to the study of Public Administration sees both the functional and the administrative
tasks as Public Administration and hence the term “comprehensive.”

Administrative Process Approach: As the name suggest, this approach sees administration as
the make-up of some processes or functions which include policy, organization, personnel,
finance procedures and control.

Conventional Approach: This is a transition from the comprehensive and the administrative
process approaches. Here, a distinction is drawn between specialized professional and the
“generalists” or the administrative staff. The question that arises here is, the generalists or
administrators as the technical experts, who is “fit” to head the organization?

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Virac, Catanduanes

Economy and Efficiency Approach: Under this approach, economy is replaced with the issue
of efficiency. There is a strong relationship between the scientific approach and the economy
and efficiency approach. While the scientific approach attempts to identify the principles of
making management of men and materials in any organisation more efficient, the efficiency
approach largely introduces and applies these management principles in the organisation of men
in the public and private sectors of a political system.

Historical Approach: This approach sees Public Administration from the perspective of
historical developments or events in a nation’s public service. A typical type is the reforms in
the Nigerian civil service from 1922 till date. The Nigerian civil service is growing and getting
refined due to the several reforms she has undergone to make it what it is today.

Equity Approach: The equity approach to the study of Public Administration states that public
officials should become sensitive to the needs, desires and aspirations of the public. This
approach is the outcome of the widespread disorder experienced in the United States of America
in the fifties and especially the development and spread of ideologies of Socialism which
emphasized equity of human beings – have the concept of equity.

Realising that man’s actions towards his fellow man had been inhuman, the equity approach is
aimed at rectifying man’s injustice or inhumanity towards man by encouraging the American
public servants to discard self-interest and to be sensitive towards man’s social problems.

3.2.2 Basic Principles of Public Administration

Public Administration is defined as a body of knowledge systematized and synthesized from

various public utterances and actions. Therefore, it has certain principles which are essential
tools for providing goods and services to the people. Principles are sources for action or
essential regulations or fundamental truths capable of guiding human conduct or behavior and
performance. Public Administration has the capacity to organise and direct human and material
resources to achieve set goals. The principles of Public Administration include the following:

Hierarchy: This simply means the orderly arrangement and distribution of power, functions,
positions and authority in an organization. Here, the objectives of the organisation are sub-
divided into sub-objectives; tasks are broken down into smaller units, power and authority
delegated downwards.

Administrative hierarchy provides a determinate procedure that decides who is to decide. To

avoid contradictory authority-relationship, there is the need to establish a determinate hierarchy
of authority either by zoning authority along functional lines or by maintaining organisational
structure. Formal organisational structure is a plan for the division of work and allocation of
authority. The organization gives each member of the group his status and role in relation to the
other members, but specifies the content of his work and his functions in general terms. The
whole operation of the organization is organized into an unbroken order and clearly defined
hierarchy.

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CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

Political Direction: Public Administration obtains leadership from politics. It is said that
Public Administration is the youngest branch of political science. Furthermore, public
administration is a political system in action. A political system is a set of interaction, abstracted
from the totality of social behavior through which authoritative values are allocated to the
society. This principle shows that administration obtains instruction from politics in providing
the needed services to the people. The top frames the broad policies or laws which the
administration executes.

Unity of Command: This means that each member of the organization should receive order
from only one supervisor. This is to avoid conflict and confusion. A situation where two
supervisors issue two conflicting orders to a subordinate will create conflict and confusion within
the organization.

Public Responsibility: Political representatives are responsible to the people for their acts of
omissions and commissions. Public responsibility ensures the exercise of certain power and
authority in the execution of specified duties of functions for the benefit of the people. It also
stipulates the need for accountability to the people.

Unity of Direction: Organisation is effective when members work together towards achieving
same objectives. There must be subordination of individual interest of the organizational.
Members should not work at cross-purposes with the organisation. The objectives of the
organisation can be best achieved if members work towards the same goal, that is, the goal of the
organisation.

Public Relations: Public relations is a means through which people are informed about the
policies and intention of the government. It relates to the people that government is aware of
their problems and steps taken to solve the problems. It also picks up the reactions of the people
on government policies and laws as well as the solution to problems. The general public must be
aware of the happening in the government.

Chain of Command: There must be a chain of command in an organisation. This is the power
and authority linkage order and power must flow from the top to the bottom in an unbroken order
that makes for proper communication of decision taken at each level of authority. There must be
a clearly defined level of authority and decision-making and each decision taken should be
communicated downward through these defined chains of command.

Social Necessity: The essence of public administration is the process of formulating and
implementing public policies. Public here refers to the people or the masses in the society.
Public policy goes to express the will of the people through providing them the civic amenities as
well as developing them socially, economically and politically.

Span of Control: This has to do with the number of the people that a supervisor should
conveniently control. There is the need for a smaller number of people to be supervised and
controlled so as to allow for an effective control/supervision. A supervisor should also be able to
coordinate the activities of the subordinates. This coordination involves orderly arrangement of

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group effort to provide for unity of action in the pursuit of common purpose. To do this
effectively, the number supervised should not be too large as to be uncontrollable.

Division of Labour: This is the division of work or specialisation which gives room for higher
productivity. This is because each worker can work at his or her area of competence.

Authority and Responsibility: This is the right to give orders to subordinates and be
responsible and accountable for such orders. They should also be responsible for the
consequences of such orders.

Discipline: This is the respect for or obedience of rules and objectives of the organisation. It is
also obedience to constituted authority as represented by management of the organisation.

Efficiency: The power to accomplish expected result is efficiency. Public administration,

therefore, must have efficient personnel to execute public programmes, satisfy the needs of the
society and promote its expansion and growth. Career development of public and civil servants
is achievable through pre-entry and in-service training programmes for the officials both senior
and junior cadre. It is essentially meant to promote efficiency.

Organisation: These are observable levels of government at the local, state and federal
government. In addition to this organization, public administration is also organised into
legislature, the executive and the judiciary. There are also visible formal and informal structures
within the system. This organisation is the basic principle of public administration capable of
bringing human and material resources together for effective use and service to the people.

Equity: This means kindness and justice based on pre-determined conditions which must be
known to all workers. The management should not be partial and should treat all workers fairly
and as equals.

Esprit-de-Corps: This is unity. Union is strength; workers must cooperate and regard
themselves as one in an attempt to achieve the organizational goals and objectives.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The unit was able to define public administration as that which involves the coordination of all
organised activities, having as its purpose, the implementation of public policy.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit explained the meaning, the nature, scope and approaches to pubic administration.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is administration? Attempt a historical sketch of the development of the discipline.

2. Make a distinction between private and public administration.

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Virac, Catanduanes

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Willoughby, W. F. (2014). Principles of Public Administration.

White, L. D. (2013). Introduction to the Study of Public Administration.

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CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

UNIT 2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Scientific Management Theory
3.1.1 Principles of Scientific Management
3.1.2 Elements of Scientific Management
3.1.3 Contributions to the Development of Public Administration
3.2 The Human Relation Theory
3.2.1 The Hawthorne Experiments (Western Electric Plant)
3.2.2 Elements of Human Relation approach
3.2.3 Significant Contribution of the Human Relation Approach
3.2.4 Behavioural Science Approach
3.2.5 Behavioural Approach Contribution to Management Decision Making
3.2.6 Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)
3.2.7 Bureaucratic Theory (Max Webber)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Though Public Administration changed greatly in the 1950s and 1960s, the nature of such
changes and its significance can only be understood in terms of past doctrines. Up to the 19th
century, the predominant concerns of the study of government affairs were political philosophy,
constitutional arrangement and law making.

However, the complexity in economic and social life was forcing a change of emphasis.
European countries had begun taking very seriously the training of civil servants and the
scientific study of administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• trace the historical development of Public Administration

• state the significant contribution of different management school of thoughts to the
development of Public Administration.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Scientific Management Theory

The industrial revolution of 1890 was several decades old. Power-driven machines were being
developed which now performed the work hitherto done by workmen with hand tools.
Therefore, the effective use of high output specialized machines was sine quo none of
the emerging industrial society. With it came the factory system and the efficient use of highly
productive machines and the need to develop an efficient man-machine and man-work
relationship. Thus the emergence of scientific management school of thought in 1900.

The scientific management school of thought evolved in three phases:

(1) Classical or traditional school of management theory – Administrative Management

Theory.
(2) Human Relations Movement or Neo-classical thoughts.
(3) Behavioural Science Approach.

The classical organizational school of thought comprised of two distinctive namely, scientific
management theory and administrative management theory. The scientific management theory
was developed by writers whose primary interest was to improve the practice of administration
and management. As they were not contented with mere description of organization like
bureaucracy theorists, they prescribed principles and practices for better organizational
performance. The emphasis of scientific management movement was on individual workers and
the foreman (supervisor) particularly in manufacturing activities.

Historically, Henry R. Towne initiated the search for a science of management but scientific
management is generally credited to Frederick who has been honoured with the title Father of
Scientific Management. He published a book in 1911 titled “The Principle of Scientific
Management” in which he enunciated his thoughts on management and administration.

Taylor focused his unit of analysis on the physical activities of workman-machine relationship
and how productivity and job efficiency can be enhanced.

He believed that the principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity
for the employer, coupled with maximum prosperity for each employee.

Taylor made a determined effort to change the system of management. He strongly believed that
workers were holding back production. His emphasis was productivity rather than the workers.
He felt that the greatest obstacle to a harmonious relation between labour and management lay in
management’s ignorance of what really is a proper day’s work for a workman.

Taylor was resolutely committed to eliminating the inefficient and wasteful practices of the past.
To him workers were truly rational and real economic men who could be programmed to be
efficient machines.

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3.1.1 Principles of Scientific Management can be summarized as follows:

• Scientific management is thought of broadly as application of the scientific method of study,

analysis and problem-solving to the organization.

• A set of mechanisms or techniques for improving organizational efficiency.

• Frederick Taylor’s principles as guides for an effective management are as follows:

• Formal grouping and organization of employees into specialist functional departments.

• Hierarchically structured organizations with authority flowing from top to bottom.

• There should be organizational chart indicating the chain of command and the means of
organizational communication.

• Span of control should be limited to allow for effective supervision.

• There should be job description.

• Authority should be commensurate with responsibility.

• Categorization of departments, e.g., “line” of “staff.”

Other outstanding contributions to the scientific management school of thought were made by
Gantt, Frank and Lilian Gilbreth and Hamington Emerson.

Gantt (181-1919). He was a disciple of Frederick Taylor’s idea of scientific management

especially the incentive system. He organized a charting system for production scheduling,
called Gantt Chart for which he is mostly remembered. The charting system is considered as one
of the management techniques.

Gantt’s useful contribution to management includes the following:

• Man is goal-oriented: Here Gantt stressed the most important and valuable means of
stimulating interest in people is to set a task which gave birth to the idea of task and bonus
plan.

• Training should be the responsibility of management: To Gantt, management will benefit

from training its workforce because it will increase productivity.

• Authority and Responsibility: Gantt stressed the need to accord a corresponding authority
with the representative assigned to a worker. According to him, this will encourage their
performance on the job.

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• Planning and Control: The work to be done must be properly planned before execution and
proper control mechanism must be put in place to ensure strict compliance with the set goals.

Frank and Lilian Gilbreth (1868-1924; 1878-1972)

Frank and Lilian were husband and wife who immensely contributed their quota to the scientific
management movement. They concentrated on fatigue and motion studies. However, Lilian
showed interest on how best the welfare of the workers could be protected and encouraged.

Frank started his career as an artisan, a bricklayer. He later rose to the level of management as
was the case with Frederick Taylor. His experience while a bricklayer made him to note that
bricklayers used three different sets of motions:

(i) one for teaching apprentices

(ii) another for working fast
(iii) the third for deliberately holding down the pace.

He believed that motion and fatigue were interwoven and consequently every motion that was
eliminated also reduced fatigue. They then attempted to find the most economical motions for
each task, thus upgrading performance and reducing fatigue. They argued that motion study
raised workers’ morale not only because of its obvious benefits but because it demonstrates
management’s concern for the workmen. He also devised a system of dividing work into its
most elementary elements which were called THERBLIGS. His goal was the development of
methods of least waste.

Hamington Emerson

He was another contributor to scientific management. His major works are: efficiency as the
basis for operational efficiency and wages. Emerson stated basic principles of efficiency to be
the following:

• Clearly defined goal(s)

• Common sense
• Competent courses
• Discipline
• The fair deal
• Dispatch
• Standards and schedules
• Standardized operations
• Written standards and practice institutions
• Efficiency reward.

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3.1.2 Elements of Scientific Management

The scientific management theorists developed a science for each element of a man’s work
which replaces the old “rule of thumb” method.

They scientifically select, train, teach and develop the workman whereas in the past he chose his
own work and trains himself as best as he could.

There was cooperation with men so as to ensure that all of the work is being done in accordance
with the principles of science which has been developed.

There is an almost division of work and the responsibility between the management and the
workman. Scientific management further stressed that, although planning under the old system
was by initiative and incentive, the new system must be done by management in accordance with
the laws of science; and that, the most important single element in modern scientific
management is the task idea. That is, the work of every workman is fully planned out by the
management at least one day in advance and each man receives complete written instructions
describing in details the table to be accomplished as well as means of doing the work.

3.1.3 The Contributions of the Scientific Management School to the Development of

Public Administration

It advocated management by systems and standards and production as its major concern.

The work organization is purposeful with set goals to be achieved and that the goals of the
organization are to stimulate activities that must be performed.

That the best method of accomplishing organisational goals must be discovered, and the task of
the manager is to discover these methods, use them, and back them up with adequate
supervision.

It developed motivation – theory of the piece rate system, which is a method of adequate
compensation for work done. A fair day’s work deserves a fair day’s pay.

It also attempted to develop a first class and functional foreman.

It made contribution in the area of work study, motion and time study.

Planning is another area, as all work to be done must first of all be planned ahead.

The system also leads to specialization and work standardization.

It also made great contribution in the development of work instructions and work serving
implements.

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Lastly, it introduced wage system into management

Despite its several contributions to the development of public administration, the theory has been
criticized as follows:

• That it is too mechanical and impersonal and does not recognize workers’ social group and
their informal relationships.

• That it is too interested in techniques which bring about too much pressure on workers.

• That too much specialization brings about monotony.

• That it is applicable in repetition production jobs.

• And that it over-emphasized purely economic motivation.

3.2 The Human Relation Theory

Human relationist movement also referred to as the traditional era or neo classicist movement.
The human relationists movement set in motion a vast amount of serious scientific research on
the psychological aspects of work and administration. /the movement focused on people and
their relationship in the organization rather than emphasizing increase in productivity as was the
case in scientific management theory.

3.2.1 The Hawthorne Experience

Human relationists movement started from the puzzling discovery of Elton Mayo and
Roethlisberger and N. J. Dickson in Chicago between 1924-1932. Theirs is regarded as a Neo-
Classical Theory. After their discoveries, they defined an organization as “a group of persons
with common objectives. The human relationists emphasized social factor at work, which they
called the informal organization. They made a famous Hawthorne studies conducted between
1927 and 1933 to study the relationship of varying illumination of workers output at Hawthorne
plant of the Western Electric Company at Cicero near Chicago in USA.

The researchers noted that workers output increased with an intense illumination up to the point
where the workers could barely see what they were doing.

Elton Mayo and his associates have discovered that when special attention is given to workers
by management, productivity is likely to increase regardless of actual changes in the
working condition, this one being illumination.

Secondly, that informal work group, the social environment employers, has great influence on
productivity.

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To Mayo, the concept of the social man (motivated by social needs, job relationship and more
response to work group than to management control) of the rational man motivated by personal
economic needs.

It is known that the outcome of the Hawthorn experience marked the beginning of the
recognition of human factor in the effectiveness of an organization. Consequently, the privilege
of annual maternity and sick leaves accorded workers as at when due came to existence as a
result of the perception that the temporary absence of workers from work will not hinder or
reduce productivity but increase it when the workers are allowed some form of the rest.

Other proponents of Human Relationists Movement were Mary Parker Follet, Douglas
Macgregor and a host of others.

Mary Parker Follet (1968-1933)

Follet fell into the category of socio-political philosopher and a protagonist of human relations
perspective. Mary Parker Follet initiated the ideal of contingency or situational approach when
she spoke on the “Law of the Situation.” She noted that different situations require different
kinds of knowledge and the man who possesses the knowledge demanded by a certain situation,
tends, in the best managed business, to become the leader. It should be noted that an integral
part of the human relations theme was the interest in group dynamics and interpersonal relations
in small groups. The emphasis on meeting the psychological needs of workers as a motivating
force was a major departure from the strict economic motivation concept. Follet point of view
was different from that of classical management theories.

Her basic contention was that any enduring society or organization must be based upon a
recognition of the motivating desires of the individual and of the group. She believes that all
organizational problems are fundamentally human relations problem.

Follet considered “coordination” as the key to building an effective organization. She expressed
“coordination” in four fundamental principles of organisation.

Douglas Mcgregor’s Theory X and Y (1906-1964)

Douglas compared the two ideal type of management philosophies along with the assumptions
which emerged from these views of human nature as outlines below under X and Y assumptions.

Theory X Assumption

• That an average human being has inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if possible.

• That because of this human characteristics of dislike of work, most employees must be
coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth
adequate effort towards achieving organizational goals.

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• That an average human being lacks ambition, dislikes responsibilities, prefers to be led.

• He is by nature resistant to change.

• That he is self-centred, indifferent to organization needs.

Theory Y Assumption

Theory Y is the opposite of theory X. Theory Y assumption describes man in his objective
nature and this must have been based on the Human Relations theory.

The assumptions of the Y theory include the following:

• That commitment to organizational objective is a function of reward associated with their

achievements.

• That the average human-being learns under adequate conditions.

• That external control and threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about
efforts towards organizational objective to which they are committed.

• That the average human being does not inherently dislike work.

• And that under the conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities of the
average human being are only partially realized or utilized.

3.2.2 Element of Human Relations Theory

Elton Mayo is generally regarded as the father of the school. Mayo and his associates
discovered, after the Hawthorne experiment, that:

• The amount of work out by a worker hence organizational level of efficiency is determined
by his social capacity and not his physical capacity.

• That the non-economic rewards play a central role in determining the motivation and
happiness in the work place.

• That the highest specialization is by no means the most efficient form of division of labour.

• That the worker do not react to management and its norms and rewards as individuals but as
members of a group or groups.

• They emphasized the role of communication, participation and leadership in setting

and enforcing group norms.

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• The human relations school discovered three variants of leaderships: authoritarian, who uses
order in directing groups but remains aloof, democratic leader who allows for participation in
decision-making, laissez-faire leader who supplies knowledge to group members of a social
group working with the same objectives which may or may not correspond with
organizational objectives.

3.2.3 The Human Relations Theory and Contribution to the Development of

Public Administration

Through the Human Relation Approach, the importance of the human element in work
organization is stressed. The concept of informal group was developed. It helps the organization
and the management to view workers not only as individuals but as members of a social group
working with the same objectives which may or may not correspond with organization objective.

They made contributions in their discoveries of informal social group that help boost workers’
morale and production. The importance of the informal group and knowledge of their activities
also helped management in taking decisions as it affects them and the organization. This
includes man’s need for satisfying social interaction with others in the organization.

Finally, the approach made a great contribution to public administration because of its emphasis
on participatory management.

3.2.4 Behavioural Science Approach

Robert A. Dahl and Herbert Simon are too great scholars that made significant contributions to
behaviourism as an approach to administration.

According to Dahl in his book “The Science of Public Administration” a study of certain aspects
of human behaviour must be a major priority in public administration. The study of
administration, therefore, must embrace the whole psychological man and must not presume that
man is a simple machine responding only and fully to goals of self-interest narrowly concerned.
His views and that of others led to the development of science of public administration.

Chester Barnard originated much of the behavioural science approach. In his book titled
“Function of the Executive” he introduced social aspect into the analysis of administrative
functions and processes, though a theory of cooperation and orgnisations focused principally on
the role of human beings as the starting point for the success of any administrative organization.

He equally brought into being a comprehensive theory of cooperative behavior in all formal
organization – cooperative system. He sees the entire organization as a system making up for
inter-related and inter-dependent units functioning differently and the functions so performed by
different units contribute to the survival and overall existence of the organization. This
cooperative system, he maintained should have a common impersonal purpose, the process of
organizational communication to allow for functional dynamism within the organization and the
satisfaction of individuals needs and desires.

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Chester Barnard’s concept was ore or less a mixture of both the formal and informal
organizations and in this perspective, sees a formal organization as a system of consciously
coordinated activities to two or more people.

The two types of organizations that Chester Barnard focused on are relatively inter-related and
inter-dependent on each other.

Another important area emphasized by Chester Barnard is the vital role of communication in
modern organizations. He maintained that managers accomplish the functions of planning,
organizing, leading and controlling, and that communication is the activity to which managers
devote an overwhelming proportion of their time. Effective communication in organizations
involves getting an accurate message from one person to another or perhaps to several people.
Unclear organizational communication lines, according to Chester Barnard, can make a complex
idea or process completely unintelligible.

In their interpersonal roles, managers or administrators act as the figure heads and leaders of
their organizational unit, interacting with subordinates, customers in the organization, and in
their informational roles, administrators seek information from peers, subordinates and other
personal contacts about anything that may affect their job and responsibilities.

Chester Barnard also emphasized the motivational techniques as a crucial force in organizational
growth and development. Here, the extent to which an organisation succeeds depends on the
way in which individuals in the organization are treated. The attention here is on the manner or
system of recruitment employed by an organization. It is, however, important to note that the
best hands which are the skilled labour be employed, the ability to recruit the best hands and the
ability to retain them through various motivational techniques. Behavioural science – human
relation theory – made tremendous progress because the discovery of the informal group was a
breakthrough in administrative thought.

3.2.5 Behavioural Approach Contribution to Management Decision-Making

Most of behavioural contributions centred on management/administration and their behavior in

work organization.

Since decision-making is the heart of administration, there is the need for rationality in taking
decisions so that the best decisions would be arrived at.

Decisions determine the success of an enterprise or administration and also its quality.
Management success, therefore, depends on the quality of decisions taken. Decision is
commitment to one of several options. Decision is a movement in an on-going organizational
process at which a commitment is made.

A decision that maximizes benefit is a quality decision. A decision can be organizationally

rational, that is made towards achieving organizational goals. It can be personally rational, if it
is made to satisfy individual goal. It can be objectively rational if it is based on facts. It can be

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subjectively rational if it is relative and not factual. It can be deliberately rational if it is

deliberately brought about by an individual or the organization.

All these decisions, according to the behaviouralists, are to be made within the environment
surrounding such choices. An environment surrounding choice is described as a set of
alternative behaviours each leading to a definite anticipated consequence. Knowledge is to
discover a single unique possibility which is consequent on each behaviour. Therefore, to
discover this unique possibility we need to use those techniques that guarantee quality decision.
Such techniques include operational research, management game, critical path analysis,
performance evaluation, reporting technique and so on. These techniques are used by managers
and administrators today and it is significant contribution of the behaviouralists.

3.2.6 Administrative Theory by Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

The administrative management theory emerged concurrently with the scientific management
theory in the 12th century. The administrative management theory has some peculiarities in idea
with the scientific school of thought. Henri Fayol, the founder of this management school, was a
French Geologist. He concentrated his management theory on the management level of the
organization. Hence, he was referred to as the father of administrative process. Fayol was the
first to present a breakdown of the functions of management as follows:

Planning: It is an idea or method that has been thought about in details, in advance towards the
realization of organizational goals and objectives.

Organising: This involves the organisation’s structure of authority, responsibility, assigning

tasks, human and material resources of the organization to specific role which will lead to the
attainment of organizational aims and objectives.

Commanding: This refers to directing the subordinates and making the staff do their work.

Coordinating: It refers to the correlation of the activities of all factors of production in the
organization with a view to achieving the organizational activities..

Controlling: Controlling is to ensure that everything is done in accordance with the established
rules and expressed command. Fayol was the first to formulate a universal list of good
management principle as a guide in the management of decisions.

Henri Fayol also highlighted the principles of management as the following:

• Division of Labour
• Authority and responsibility
• Discipline
• Unity of Command
• Unity of Direction
• Subordination of individual interest to general interest
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• Payment for work done

• Centralisation
• Scalar chain
• Order
• Equity
• Stability of tenure
• Initiative
• Espirit-de-Corp.

3.2.7 Bureaucratic Theory by Max Webber (1864-1920)

Bureaucracy is a formalised and systematized method of administration which emphasizes

impersonal relationship, hierarchy of command and control, rationality, merit, objectivity and
formal communication.

Max Webber, a German Sociologist, is unduly acclaimed to have propounded the concept of
bureaucracy. He tried to give a model form of administration that was not in existence
anywhere. This was to aid the industrialized society.

The idea of bureaucracy though had already been mentioned by many scholars such as Von
Stein, Saint Simon, Spencer and Schomoller, but Max made it popular.

Max Webber’s contribution to the study of organizations was his focus on authority structure
which caused him to group organizations in terms of the authority relations, and this has creates
substantial impact on the comparative study of administrative systems. Basically, Webber’s
concept of bureaucracy is normally said to be the “Ideal Type” on its application to authority
patterns.

An ideal type of bureaucracy according to Max Webber, is a conceptual pattern bringing together
some relationships and events of historical life into a complex and consistent administrative
system.

Bureaucracy forms an important element of the modernizing elite in many of the economically
less developed countries.

Before the present industrial stage in the western world, administration was carried out in an
informal way because positions of responsibilities were obtained through favour, and officials
had no training and possessed little competence. During this period, there was no systematic and
coordinated administrative action and in many cases, administrative actions were governed by
whims and caprices than reason and rationality. This method of administration became
irrelevant in the post industrial age as a result of administrative and societal transformation
which allowed for increasing need in expanding the number of public employees and systematic
methods of operations. This and many more forces compelled the early administrators into
establishing formal organizational structures based on impersonal rules and hence bureaucracy.

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Bureaucracy constitutes a social sub-cultural segment, the high prestige strata of the society.
Entrance into it was not theoretically barred to any section of the society, although in actual
practice only the traditionally privileged could provide the necessary general background and the
expensive education required for the success in the stiff tests prescribed for entry into the higher
hierarchy. Bureaucracy has a class bias and it is highly class stratified. It is upper crust,
functions as a privileged class. On the whole, it symbolizes achievement rather than ascription,
and it has come to have a distinct vested interests and is sensitive to all threats to its position and
privilege which it guards jealously against encroachments.

The concepts relevant to understanding Webber’s types of authority system include power and
authority. Power is the ability to make other people do what they would not ordinarily have done
left on their own. It could also mean participation in decision-making or ability to bring about a
change in a desired direction. To Webber, power is the “probability that one actor within a
social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own despite resistance.”

Within the context of “ideal-type” power and authority exist when a command with a given
specific content will be obeyed by a given group of people – legitimate power without resistance.
Webber classified the ideal-type authority on the basis of legitimacy, authority exercised and
available staff.

Power is an ability to achieve results through concerted effort and action. But the evolution of
governmental techniques does not terminate with power. Power is able to include the ingredient
of force that makes government ultimately effectively, because of the support mobilized in its
favour. The force that power may deploy may be resented, resisted or disagreed with.
Opponents may have to submit to the decisions of power, but submission is different from
acquiescence. The imperatives of power may secure compliance but this is not the same as
allegiance.

Authority is a power that all accept as valid, right and adequate. What demarcates authority from
power is that the former is power recognized as “rightful.” Its exercise is, therefore, sanctioned
by those who approve the particular act or agent and is tolerated by those who disapprove it.
Confronted with authority, it is the citizens’ duty to obey.

Resistance to power may be lawful; resistance to authority is regarded as unlawful. Power is

naked and authority is power legitimized.

According to Max Webber, there are different types of authority:

• Traditional
• Charismatic
• Legal – rational

Traditional Authority: Under traditional authority, power is reposed on traditional institutions.

The right to issue command and be obeyed is attributable to customs and belief system and

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traditional way of behavior of the people over a period of time. Legitimacy is claimed and
accepted on the basis of sanctity of order.

Personnel here are recruited from patrimonial – persons tied to traditional loyalties and non-
patrimonial personal loyalties. Many positions are occupied on the basis of kinship. But here
traditional administrative staff lacks a clearly defined area of competence, regular appointment
and promotion, technical training.

Charismatic Authority: Charisma and personal magnetism is another type of authority. A

charismatic authority or right to command and be obeyed is attributed to personal qualities of the
leader. A leader with this attributes is better able to use personal identification, inspirational
appeals, and rational faith to influence subordinates. The subordinates will tend to identify with
him, imitate his behavior and possibly emulate his beliefs. An important characteristic of
charismatic leadership seems to be insight into the needs, hopes and values of followership.

Another attribute of charismatic leadership is a dramatic, persuasive manner of speaking which

enables the leader to enunciate the hopes, ideals and fears of followers and inspire faith in his
ability to lead them properly. Charismatic leaders usually radiate the impression of complete
confidence and intense inner conviction, which implies either that they really have extreme self-
confidence, or that they possess the acting ability necessary to project this impression to
followers. The charismatic leader appears somewhat mysterious and larger than life, a person
who can be trusted to succeed where many cannot.

Legal Rational – Authority: Max Webber postulated the third ideal type of authority, which is
the foundation of modern civilizations, namely, legal – rational authority. It is based on a belief
in the legitimacy of the pattern of normative rules and the rights of those appointed or elected to
authority under such rules to issue command. Here, obedience is based on the legally established
impersonal rules and regulations governing a particular group of people within a stated society.

Legal – rational authority vests power on the office, rather than the occupier of the office. Thus,
anyone can rule as long as he or she comes to office according to the rules.

Legal – rational authority sometimes requires rational persuasion – a logical argument that
includes evidence supporting the instrumentality of the recommended behavior and a rational
faith which is the suggestion of a particular person occupying position of authority is sufficient
to evoke compliance by the subordinates without any necessary explanation

The subordinates act out of faith in the expertise and credibility of the person in authority.
Rational faith as an aspect of legal – rational authority is a form of influence that is most likely to
occur when the subordinate is confronted with a problem he has little or no knowledge of how to
solve it ad perceived as the person in the position of authority can be trusted to indicate the best
cause of action.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Public Administration touches every aspect of human life. The greatest merit of public
administration lies in its educative value. The modern state is a welfare state and the
administrations are expected to provide the people with all the increasing demands for a
comfortable life.

5.0 SUMMARY

Public Administration is the action side of the government. Its importance as an instrument for
the expression of the will of the people, sustenance of democracy and as a discipline cannot be
over-emphasized. This unit was able to trace the growth of public administration from the
rudimentary …. Stage to the present day period of sophistication as expounded by Max Webber.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. State and explain the salient features of the scientific management theory.

2. Why was the need in the shift of paradigm from scientific management to human
relation?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Willoughby, W. F. (2014). Principles of Public Administration.

White, L. D. (2013). Introduction to the Study of Public Administration.

Anifowose and Enemuo (1999). Elements of Politics.

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UNIT 3 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of Public and Private Administration
3.2 Their Differences
3.3 Their Similarities
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public Administration is defined as all the activities that are involved in the implementation of
public policies and orders as made by the executive, the legislature and the judicial arms of
government, while private administration on the other hand, can be defined as all activities that
are concerned with the implementation of policies of private organization and institutions that
are not owned jointly or principally by the government.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• define public and private administration.

• state the differences between public and private administration.
• state the similarities between the public and private administration.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of Public and Private Administration

Public Administration is synonymous with all the activities of government and its agencies,
while private administration is concerned with the activities of private enterprise.

All activities that involve the implementation of government orders either in the ministries,
extra-ministerial departments, parastatals, local governments, educational institutions owned by
government, the police and the armed forces, are regarded as Public Administration. But such
activities that are concerned with implementation of policies or rendering of services to the
public by private enterprises or organizations not owned by the government are private
administration.

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3.2 The Differences between Public and Private Administration

Differences in Terms of Recruitment

Personnel procurement in the public sector is done by a centralized body, the Civil Service
Commission or by ministries acting on their behalf and according to the guideline formulated by
it. But in the private sector, individual organization is responsible for the hiring of the staff.
Also in the private sector individual organizations are responsible for the recruitment of their
staff. While well established private organizations like Shell, Chevron, PZ Industries, etc. have
their own recruitment sections or departments, other private organizations employ the services of
consultancy agencies like Arthur Anderson, Cooper and Lybrands, Omolayole and Associates
for the recruitment of their staff.

The Principle of “To Whose Benefit”

Public organizations are mean for the promotion of the overall public interest. Therefore, the
“public” is the major beneficiary of any functions it is expected to perform. But with respect to
private organization, except humanitarian organizations like the Red Cross/Red Crescent, and
advocacy groups, the major objective of private administration is to maximize profit. In effect,
the main beneficiary of the private organization is the individual owner or the private group.

Focus on Service or Profit

The overriding aim of most private organizations is to make profit. Accordingly, administration
within such organizations is concerned with the management of men and materials to attain
private aims, usually the maximization of profit. This is not the case in public administration.
The primary purpose of public administration is service to the public, even when government
establishes agencies which undertake commercial activities such as electricity, telecoms and
transportation.

Accountability and Measure of Success

Private organizations are usually established and financed by individuals and groups.
Administration within private organizations are expected to reflect the needs and aspirations fo
the citizens. Besides, public organizations are supported with public funds. Therefore, public
officials who manage public organizations are made accountable to the public. The parliament,
the press and even the ordinary citizens have a right to inquire into the activities of such public
officials in order to ensure that the public purpose is served, and that resources are not
misappropriated.

It is noted also that while efficiency can easily be measured in private organizations by reference
to profit, this is not so in most public organizations. It is not possible to measure the profitability
of some of the services provided by public agencies because of the nature of such services.
Furthermore, in order to promote public welfare, government often undertakes unprofitable
projects or provides services at subsidized rates.

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Level of Complexity

It has been suggested that public administration is more complex than private administration.
The reasons for this viewpoint are that public agencies, much more than private organizations,
need to respond to more conflicting demands of the public. Public administration is required to
respond to demands for provision of services, equal representation of all sectors of the societies,
minorities and majorities, equal and fair treatment of all citizens.

Organisational Procedure

The process of administration in government organization is much slower when compared with
the process in private organizations. This is often referred to as “red tapism” and unnecessary
bureaucracy.
Public organizations respond more slowly to the wishes of the people. One major reason for the
delays in procedure is the need to ensure adherence to established rules and to protect public
funds.

3.3 Similarities

In spite of the differences between them, administration in the public and private sectors share
important similarities. Administration in both sectors requires effective mobilizations and the
use of human and material resources to achieve specified goals. Both public and private
administrations face the challenge of regularly reviewing their goals in the context of existing
resources.

Although profit still remains the critical focus of private organizations, they are also being urged
to “treat employees fairly and take account of the effect of the firm’s” activity on the community
it serves and the environment in which it functions.

Many private organizations have grown greatly in size, numerous businesses raise their capital
from the public through the Stock Exchange, and the management of these firms is in the hands
of professionals who are different from the shareholders. These developments come to mean
that administration in the private sector has grown in complexity and is also sometimes marked
by “red tapism” as in the public sector.

In recent times, governments have adopted many management practices that were hitherto
exclusive to private business organization. Governments’ adoption of private management
practices is as a result of changing times, particularly rapid changes in technology, which
government bureaucracy cannot ignore. Some of these changes are also brought about by the
environment under which public administration takes place.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Administration is the ability to state objectives and striving to achieve it.

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5.0 SUMMARY

The Unit was able to state administration both in the public and private spheres.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

(1) What is administration? Attempt a history sketch of the development of the discipline.

(2) Make a distinction between public and private administration.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Patrick Mbeli (2016). Public Administration: A Broad View

Dahl Robert A. (2015). The Science of Public Administration

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MODULE 2
Unit 1: The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer and its Responsibilities
Unit 2: Control Systems in Public Administration
Unit 3: Public Organizations
Unit 4: The Legal Aspect of Administration

UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER AND ITS

RESPONSIBILITIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
3.2 The Major Responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer
3.3 Typology of the Concept of Chief Executive Officer
3.4 Operative Duties of the Chief Executive Officer
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit discusses on the concept of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO). You will learn about
the definition of the CEO, their major roles in any organization and their oversight functions.
Their importance in any organization that might lead to the success or failure in any
organization.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

• define the concept of a Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

• state the major responsibilities of the Chief Executive Officer
• typology of the concept of the Chief Executive Officer
• the management duties of the CEO.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of the Chief Executive Office

The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), in the context of a governmental organization, is that person
who coordinates the entire activities of the organization. He is at the apex of the organisation’s
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management structure. He is an administrator or the coordinator of all the activities in an

organization. Therefore, the CEO is directly or indirectly involved in all major functions or
activities that will lead to the achievement of set goals of the organization. He is basically
responsible for formulating the goals of the organization.

Management consists of the determination of corporate or organizational goals and the means of
accomplishing them. In addition, it consists of the evaluation of the product thereof against the
backdrop of the established goals with a view to determining the degree of success and the CEO,
the overall leader of a team i.e., the management, is entirely involved in decision making. In
making decisions, he relies on the report of the decision taken by the various departments of the
organization. In this context, communication and information are important. The Chief
Executive Officer will have to communicate with others both inside and outside the organization.
Communication is important to the CEO in order to solve all the perceived problems of the
organization.

The Chief Executive in a private organization is normally referred to as the Managing Director
or the Chairman. But in public organizations they are referred to as either a Minister, Director-
General or Director and Commissioner.

In educational institutions, we have the Vice-Chancellor of a university, Rector for the

polytechnic or Provost in colleges of education. He is mainly concerned with the formulation
and definition of the goals of the enterprise or organization.

The CEO emphasizes the importance of effectiveness in the realization of the common goad or
goals of the organization. He is also mindful of staff efficiency, which is the satisfaction of
individual and organizational motives towards achieving high productivity.

3.2 The Major Responsibilities of the CEO

A Chief Executive Officer is an administrator or the coordinator of all the activities in an

organization. He is directly and sometimes indirectly involved in all major functions or activities
that will lead to the achievements of set goals of the organization. He is basically responsible for
formulating the goals of the organization. A good CEO must bear in mind staff welfare,
customers’ interest and the achievement of the goals and objectives of the organisation.

Some of the major responsibilities of the CEO includes the following:

• Motivating, activating and training subordinates

• Responsible for monitoring the environment for a variety of special information required for
adequate understanding and exploiting the environment as well as the organization.

• CEOs are responsible for disseminating information to all the vital sector externally and
internally.

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• The CEO scans the environment for investment opportunities especially those in the private
sector.

• They are responsible for allocating organizational resources of all kind, b it human and non-
human resources.

The responsibilities of a CEO can also be grouped to be as follows:

Planning

Planning as a process involves anticipating, predicting and forecasting. It is a process of

articulating the aspirations of the organisation and the means to achieving the corporate goals.
Corporate plan can be defined as the embodiment of the dreams of an oragnisation and how to
realize it. Corporate planning is the process of accomplishing these dreams.

Planning as a decision making process is a rational process of determining he goals and

objectives of the organization and how to accomplish them. The main role of the CEO in the
planning is to identify all option and alternatives open to the organization, analyse the
cost/benefits of all alternatives comparing the alternatives in terms of cost/benefits to be derived
making a choice of an alternative with the least cost and maximum benefit and lastly, make a
commitment to implement the preferred alternative/option.

The CEO’s ability to scan the environment and ability to respond to changes will build flexibility
into the plans. These plans help guide the activities of the management. It also helps in the
rational allocation and uses of resources. It helps in forecasting and predicting the future. It is
also a benchmark for evaluating the achievement or performance of the organisation. It
identifies responsibility and achievement and non-achievement of those given responsibilities.
Lastly, it is a management control mechanism as there cannot be control without planning.

Selection

The selection process in the organization involves the hiring of the right quality and quantity of
staff needed to man the organization for effective realization o f the organization goals.

The role of the Chief Executive is to put in place effective machinery for hiring the right caliber
of staff. The CEO must make sure that there is a job related man-fit-job. Here, the man hired
must be qualified and be able to perform the job to be given. He provides the job specification
which enumerates in details the nature of the job to be done and the qualifications and experience
needed to perform the job. He will then match the man specification with that of the job
specification to arrive at a man-fit-job. By doing this, qualified staffers are employed. Selection
process involves the identifying the area in which the organization needs personnel, followed by
advertising either through the print or electronic media. This includes the short-listing of
candidates by placing job and man specifications side-by-side.

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Induction and orientation of newly employed staff is undertaken. In some low brow private
organization the CEO is always involved in the processes that will lead to the selection of the
right caliber of persons into the organization.

Organising

This involves the building of structures which deals with essential elements in the organization.
These elements are power, responsibility, division of labour, specialization and the
interdependence of various departments in the organization. The Chief Executive’s role is to
construct, develop and maintain an effective organizational structure.

Organisational structures can be viewed as a process of analysis by which a particular area or

work is sub-divided into divisions, departments and finally jobs assigned to particular persons.

The CEO takes the goal of the organization and the work to be done into consideration in
organising the whole mass by dividing the work and delegating authority to people, so as to
achieve the set corporate goals. Work can be divided into levels and functions. The levels
provide a scale or grading of duties according to the degree of authority and responsibility.

Concurrently with division into levels, the work must be divided into different kinds of dut ies.
This is functionalism and it specifies the type of functions performed by the individuals in the
different departments of the organisational structure. For effective performance of these
functions, the CEO is required to delegate authority to individuals responsible for carrying out
the duties. The relationships and duties determined by division of work are communicated and
assigned to persons by means of delegation which is defined as the assignment of duties,
authority and responsibility to others. Delegation of duty enables the CEO to extend his
influence and authority beyond the limits of his own personal time, energy and knowledge. This
is now as decentralization of authority. Decentralization is a useful practice in any organization
that is to succeed.

Directing and Leading

The Chief Executive is the leader of a team and his main responsibility is to direct his numerous
staff towards achieving the corporate set goals. Leadership is part of management and it is the
ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives willingly and enthusiastically. It is the
human factor that binds a growth together and motivates it towards achieving the organization
goals. The CEO can direct his staff towards achieving the desired goals by motivation.
Motivation takes various forms and depends on the leadership style.

Autocratic leaders centralize power and decision making in themselves. A benevolent autocrat
achieves productivity and job satisfaction in some situations because certain workers have an
expectation of an autocratic leader and they derive security and satisfaction from working with
them. These set of workers lack initiative and their principal job is to carry out orders.

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They do negligible planning, organizing and decision making. Free-Rein or Laissez-faire are
those leaders who avoid power and depend largely upon the group to establish its own goals and
work out its own problem. Group members, therefore, provide their own motivation.

The participative leadership style is the best. Participative leadership decentralizes authority and
decisions taken are not unilateral but a result of consultation with followers. The leader and the
workers are acting as a social unit and workers are thoroughly informed about conditions
affecting heir jobs, which encourages them as their ideas and suggestions are used. Generally,
the trend nowadays is towards the use of participative practices. This is because it motivates
workers, as they regard themselves as part of the decision making process. It then follows that
they will try to make sure that such decisions are carried out satisfactorily in order to achieve
corporate goals. A CEO must, therefore, use his technical, human and conceptual skills in
setting meaningful goals. This is often referred to as Management by Objectives (MBO).
Leadership is situational, that is, different styles are required and needed in different situations.

Coordinating and Controlling

The last of the roles of a CEO and an important one, is indeed the coordinating and controlling of
the various activities of the organisation. Internal coordination is concerned with the integration
of ideas, plans, functions and activities within the organization. External coordination involves
activities which the CEO faces as a result of the problem pertaining to individuals and agencies
outside the organisation. There is a corrective coordination designed to rectify error or
preventive coordination which anticipates problems that might occur and device early action to
ward off a possible difficulty. In all respect, the goal of coordination is to unify or harmonise
policies, plans and programmes of the organization. Controlling is checking to determine
whether plans are being made and acting, if necessary, to correct any deviation.

It is checking to ascertain whether the work is being executed as intended. Control is action
directed at bringing work activities into conformity with pre-determined objectives. The Chief
Executive, in controlling, therefore, must devise a means of assessing performance and to correct
perceived deviations.

3.3 Typology of the Concept of the Chief Executive Officer

There are different types of Executives. In the olden days most heads of state were hereditary
monarchs who were either absolute monarchs in the sense that they welded legislative, executive
as well as judicial powers.

Though in modern times they are being replaced with constitutional monarchies of limited
monarchies with seriously curtailed powers.

3.3.1 Titular and Real Executives

This group of executives are the heads of state as found in Britain, Australia, India and in
Nigeria’s first Republic, who serve as the emblems of national unity. They perform symbolic

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and ceremonial functions, thus relieving the real executives from numerous public engagements
and thereby enabling them to concentrate upon the solution of governmental problems.

The titular heads of state have the right to be informed and consulted about public issues by the
head of government who are the real executive. The real executive is the head of government
who perform the day-to-day business of government. In parliamentary system of government,
the real executive is the cabinet headed by the Prime Minister, while in the presidential system,
the read executive is the president, a single individual who serves as chief of state as well as head
of government. The role of the political head of state and ceremonial head of state is thus fused
in one individual. He carries final decision making power and ultimate responsibility.

3.3.2 Single and Collegial Executives

In the single executive, a chief to whom all other executives are subordinate has final control.
The outstanding instance is the President of the United States of America. He appoints cabinet
Ministers who are directly responsible to him. They are his advisers and not his colleagues.

A clear advantage of the single executive is that it secures unity, singleness of purpose, energy
and promptness of decision so necessary for the success of an executive. The advantage of a
single executive is apparent during the period of emergency when unity of control is absolutely
necessary.

In collegial executive, executive powers are performed by a council or a cabinet. The number of
persons constituting collegial executives varies from seven (7) in Sintizerlaw to fifteen (15) or
twenty (20) in the cabinet systems of some nations. Although a collegial executive impairs unity
of control by dividing responsibility, it is safer than a single executive.

It renders more difficult the encroachment of the executives on the liberties of the people in
general.

3.3.3 Parliamentary and Non-Parliamentary Executives

Another distinction is between an executive as in (Britain), chosen from the parliament and
holding office only so long as it commands a majority in that parliament and another as in USA
chosen independently of the legislature and holding office for a fixed term.

In the British cabinet system, the Queen is the tilular head of state. The real executive powers
are lodged not in a single person but in a cabinet which is composed of a Prime Minister and
abut twenty other ministers. The members of this collegial executive are selected from the
parliament and are responsible to it. A majority in the House of Commons can force the cabinet
out of office but the cabinet can also dissolve the house and force the members to undergo
expensive election campaigns.

The American Presidential system of government is an outstanding example of the non-

parliamentary executive. All executive powers are subject to few limitations and are vested in a

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single chief executive, the President, who exercises wide constitutional and discretionary powers.
He or she is elected for a fixed term, and except in the case of some definite crime being
judicially powered against him, he cannot be removed before the expiration of their terms of
office. However, both the parliamentary and presidential executives have their advantages and
defects.

3.3.4 Corporate Executives

This type of executive in any organization is that he or she coordinates the entire activities of the
organization. He is at the apex of the management structure. He or she is a policy maker and in
charge of major decisions. But in taking decisions he or she relies on the report of the decisions
taken by the various departments of the organization.

A corporate executive may be for a government establishment or a private organization. In the

governmental organization, if it is a ministry, he or she is referred to as a Minister but in the
extra-ministerial departments they are known as Permanent Secretaries or Directors-General.
The Chief Executive in a private sector is referred to as a Managing Director or the Chairman.

3.4 Operative Duties of the Chief Executive Officer

A Chief Executive Officer is an administrator or the coordinator of all the activities in an

organization. He is directly or indirectly involved in all major functions or activities that will
head to the achievement of set goals of the organization especially in the area of formulation of
goals and objectives of the organization.

Some of operative duties of the Chief Executive Officer includes the following:

3.4.1 Interpersonal Role

The first decisional role of the entrepreneur is that of functional leadership. Here, he or she has
the motivational role in the area of staffing (especially in the banking industry), activating and
training with its associated duties.

The second decisional role is that of liaison. The CEO maintains self-developed network outside
the organization and as an informer who provides information through the functional head.

The third role which is operative in nature is the symbolic head of the organization who
represents the organization that are obliged to perform a number of routine duties which is legal
or social in nature. Some good Chief Executives do delegate this all important function.

3.4.2 Informational Role

The Chief Executive acts as a monitor by receiving special and current information to develop
through understanding of the organization and the environment. In this aspect the Chief
Executive emerges as a nerve centre of the organization.

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Information dissemination is another informational role of the Chief Executive Officer.

Information collected are transmitted to all the departments of the organization. However, some
of this information will be factorial and others will be subject to value interpretations of top level
managers and functional heads.

3.4.3 Decision Maker

The CEO is responsible for corrective action when the organization faces important but
unexpected disturbances among workers and colleagues.

He is also a resource allocator for, he allocates resources of all kinds, materials, human and
financial resources.

The CEO may be sometimes involved I the negotiation process within and outside the
organization. He or she could negotiate with union officials and also government officials and
potential investors in the organization.

He also handles disturbances in the organization. He is responsible for corrective action when
the organization faces important but unexpected disturbances among workers and colleagues.

Lastly, he/she plays the role of an entrepreneur which is a motivator in any organization. He
converts factors of production into productive use. He searches the environment and the
organization for opportunities and improvement. He then initiates good projects that would
bring about changes. He furthermore supervises the implementation of projects through the
managers who are directly responsible for such tasks

4.0 CONCLUSION

The Chief Executive Officer of any organization is the head of the management team of that
organisation. He or she is directly involved in all the management activities of that organization.
The Unit was able to explain the concept, responsibilities and typologies of the CEO.

5.0 SUMMARY

For any organization to thrive and succeed, the CEO plays a very vital role. Their
responsibilities are the life wire of such an organization.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. State and explain the managerial activities of the Chief Executive Officer in any concern.

2. The CEO is the head of an organization. Explain.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Sharfritz, J. M. and Russell, E. W. (2005). Introducing Public Administration. Pearson

Education Inc.

Ajayi, K. (2000). International Administration and Economic Relation in a Changing World.

Ibadan: Majab

Waldo, D. (1955). The Study of Public Administration. New York: Random House.

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UNIT 2 CONTROL SYSTEMS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Legislature
3.1.1 Legislative Control of Administration
3.1.2 Legislative Powers and Functions
3.1.3 Typology of Legislatures
3.1.4 Legislative-Executive Relations
3.1.5 The Declining Power of the Legislature
3.2 The Executive
3.2.1 Executive Powers and Functions
3.2.2 Typology of Executives
3.2.3 The Growing Concentration of Powers in the Executive
3.3 The Judiciary
3.3.1 Functions of the Judiciary
3.3.2 Need for the Independence of the Judiciary
3.4 Military Era and the Functioning of Public Administration
3.4.1 Military Decrees and Impact on Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In all the political systems of the world, there are three arms of government – the Legislature, the
Executive and the Judiciary. These are respectively the rule making, rule application and rule
adjudication organs of government.

In this unit, you will be introduced to the organs of government, the three arms of government.
We will also describe and analyse the functions of the three arms of government we shall
identify the reasons behind the declining power of legislature.

Finally, we will state and explain the impact of military decrees in public administration.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this Unit, students should be able to:

• explain what an organ of government is

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• describe the three organs of government – Legislature, Executive and the Judiciary
• analyse the functions of these organs in the present dispensation
• identify the reason behind the declining power of the legislature
• state and explain the impact of military decrees in public administration.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Legislature

The Legislature is usually elected body which has the primary responsibility of making laws for
the whole society. Although practically everywhere, the universal duty of the legislative body is
law making, yet it does more than simply write laws.

3.1.1 The Legislative Control of Public Administration

The legislature is that arm of government whose responsibility is to make laws for the entire
country or state or local government as the case may be. Apart from law making, the legislature
also acts as a check on the activities of the other arms of government. Since administration
involves the implementation of public policies and laws made by the legislature, there is the need
for the legislature to exercise control over such implementation. This is to ensure that these
policies or laws are being implemented as intended.

The major reason behind this is to avoid and prevent tyranny, autocracy and maladministration.
It also allows for good government that will meet the yearnings and aspirations of the populace.
Though public administration theorists suppo rt the claim for administrative independence from
detailed legislative controls, the massive growth in the size of government and its extended
powers over all the citizenry has necessitated legislative intrusion in details of administration.
Such controls run into the particulars of policy formulated and to its manner of implementation
and not just its general shape.

Moreover, the emphasis of the legislature is on controlling current activities up to the highest
level of tell the Executive President “No” when he wants to act on certain matters when there is a
disagreement. A typical example is when President Musa Yar’Adua of Nigeria and the National
Assembly on the performance of the 2009 budget.

Legislative control of administration is through three (3) devices.

First is legislative evaluation. This device occurs after an administrative action has taken place.
This is to determine whether the intention equals the outcome.

The second is what is known as legislative vetoes that influences pending administrative actions.

The third is the legislative authorization that permits the legislature to shape government
administrative policies, prior to their initiations.

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The executive arm of government controls the functions of government and since administration
is the source of power in modern government, public administration, it must, be noted, functions
in the service of executive power. Therefore, controlling it means indirectly controlling the
executive.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Name and explain the three devices used by the legislature to control administration.

3.1.2 Legislative Powers and Functions

The legislature constitutes the chief organ of popular government. Their major powers and
functions include:

Statute-Making

The main role of the legislatures all over the world is statute or law making. In the process of
governance, they examine and discuss in details bills on various subjects that are brought before
them. They can repeal, alter or add to the provisions of existing laws and make them applicable
to changing conditions.

Control of Administration

In many countries, the most important function of the legislature is the control it exercises over
the administrative authorities. Since most existing departments and other administrative
agencies were created by the legislature, it may alter or abolish them at will. It may grant them
generous or little or no money at all.

Secondly, the legislature must ratify treatises and approve appointments to important state
offices before they become effective. It also has the power to discipline members of the
executive or any administrative officer by impeachment, by address or by voting due to lack of
confidence. Such control is necessary to check the abuse of office and excesses of the
government, thereby enhancing individual liberty.

Electoral

Most democratic legislatures play a significant role in selecting public officials. An example
could be seen in parliamentary dispensation where the prime minister is elected by the
legislature. These legislatures do not always, of course, directly cast ballots for various
candidates for the office, yet every time one votes on a question of confidence, it is, in effect re-
electing or defeating the incumbent prime minister. Even in presidential democracies, the
legislatures have some electoral powers. The constitution of the United States provides that,
when no candidate for president or vice-president receives a majority of electoral votes the
House of Representatives (each state casting one vote) will choose the president from among the
top three candidates.

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Financial

The legislatures also hold what is known as financial power. The legislature determines the
nature and amount of taxes and how public money should be spent, and only as a result of
legislative appropriations.

Executive

In addition to acting upon executive budgets, most democratic legislatures also pass upon certain
other executive proposals. International treatises are negotiated by the executives but must be
approved the legislatures before they become effective. In the United States of America and the
1979 Constitution of Nigeria, presidential appointments are only provisional until approved by
the majority of the senate.

Judicial

Some democratic legislatures also perform judicial functions. This is done through the
instrument of impeachment. Examples can be seen during the Nigerian Second Republic (1979-
1983). Governor Balarabe Musa was impeached by the State Legislature of Kaduna State. Also
in 1974, President Nixon resigned when it became clear that the House was going to impeach
him. This all important function of impeachment is to curtail the excesses of the executive arm o
government.

Investigative

The legislatures of most democratic nations perform investigative functions. Legislative

committees are set up for the purpose of digging up information desired by the legislators. These
committees hold hearings, subpoena witnesses, keep records and correspondence and often
submit reports to the legislatures. In the United States the Watergate Scandal investigations are
good examples of congressional investigations.

Constitutional

The legislatures in most democratic systems have certain powers over the establishment and
amendment of their nation’s constitutions. Many constitutions were originally drawn up by the
legislative bodies, and every legislature is authorized to play some role in formal amendments.

Representation

The legislature is the very essence of representative government. Law making has often been
treated as the method of expressing the sovereign will of the whole political community. In a
number of nations, provisions are made for submitting certain legislative proposals to popular
referendum, so that there can be no mistake about what the majority of the people or electoral
desires. The legislature may be considered a mechanism for achieving some form of

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representation. A legislature, more than any other government institution, includes among its
members, individuals representing the broadcast range of interest and wide range of viewpoints.

Interest Articulation and Aggregation

The legislature might be viewed as one of the areas in which conflict occurs, or as a forum in
which demands made by different interests are identified, exposed and communicated. Demands
and interests by various groups in society can be articulated within the context of a national
legislature. Once interests and demands are articulated, the legislature can play an important role
in aggregating them. Aggregation means some efforts of reconciliation and compromise.

Supervision, Scrutiny and Surveillance

Legislatures serve as an overseer of the executive on behalf of the general public. The
supervisory function of the legislative extends to public institutions established by the legislature
such as public corporations, local authorities or activities which are supported by public funds.
The legislature may supervise the operation of such institutions to see if it is meeting the goals
set forth for it, if the funds are being well spent and if the operation is being performed within the
limits prescribed for it. A popular instrument of surveillance is the parliamentary commissioner
or ombudsman. An ombudsman is an officer of the legislature. Generally, his purpose is to
investigate complaints about the behavior of administrative officials.

Educating and Informing the Public

The last but not the least is the function which occurs in legislative debates, committee hearings
and elections and during the period between elections when legislators attempt to maintain ties
with their constituents by interpreting major issues in newsletters, in television and radio talks
and through visiting their constituencies. Legislatives are thus forums for educating the people
about the activities of government. The media coverage given to legislative debates and
answers provided to questions raised by the opposition enable the broader pubic to learn about
what is going on in the polity.

3.1.3 Typology of Legislatures

Legislatures are classified according to the number of chambers. There are two main types:
unicameral and bicameral.

3.1.3.1 Unicameral Legislatures

Unicameral legislature is one made up of only one chamber and usually composed of members
who are directly elected by the electorate. Examples of unicameral legislatures include Greece,
Turkey, Bulgaria, Israel, Denmark and New Zealand.

Countries adopt unicameral legislatures due to certain factors. They work well in small countries
with homogenous, social and economic organizations. The structure is simple and definitely

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locates responsibility. Here, legislations are easily passed into law without delay unlike
bicameral legislatures. Unicameral legislatures are less costly to maintain. The financial burden
of paying salaries and allowances to members of the second chamber is removed. But at times
unicameralism is often frowned at due to certain factors.

The factors in favour of unicameralism rest on the supposed demerits of bicameralism and
conversely, factors opposed to it are the assumed advantages of bicameralism.

Concretely, the virtues of checks and balances and the lessened likelihood that the two houses
could be subject to a demagogue, are absent in the single-chamber legislature. Also, in a state
with many conflicting interests, it is often impossible to provide a formula for representation in a
single house.

3.1.3.2 Bicameral Legislatures

This type of legislature has two chambers: the upper and the lower house or the upper or lower
chambers. Examples of bicameral legislatures include Nigeria, United States, Canada, Britain
and India.

The lower chambers are made up of members elected in direct elections on the basis of universal,
equal and secret suffrage. Usually members of the upper chambers belong to an older age group
and are more experienced in public affairs than members of the lower house.

The upper house is in the main hereditary, but this is not applicable in the case of Nigeria as
every member of the Senate or House of Representatives are periodically elected.

Certain merits are likely to be attached to bicameralism. Here, two houses are less likely than
one to be carried away by the excitement of the moment or the influence of a demagogue. In
bicameralism there is greater likelihood of temperate and deliberate discussion resulting in
balanced equitable careful legislation. It checks upon hasty passages of laws by a single
chamber. It is a safeguard against the despotism of a single chamber. The bicameral system is a
bulwark of individual freedom against the tyranny of a legislature made up of a single interest.

In federal states, the second chamber affords an opportunity for equal representation of units. It
enables the use of the people of political and administrative experience and ability without
necessarily subjecting them to the rigorous process of electioneering.

Bicameralism allows the special representation of certain interests in a country. Thus, apart from
regional representation different interests, socio-economic, traditional and aristocratic are given
special representation in the second chamber. Such representation may serve to secure national
unity.

The existence of two chambers allows a division of labour through the assignment of certain
minor matters to one house or the other. Despite the several advantages of bicameralism, there
are certain arguments against it.

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The two houses are often deadlocked, preventing or delaying the business of legislation
especially during the period of emergency. A typical example can be seen in the Nigerian
National Assembly on the issue of constitution review where the House of Representative that
wants to assume equal status with the Senate which is often regarded as the upper house of upper
legislative chamber.

Bicameralism encourages unhealthy competition between the two houses which may lead to the
paralysis in the process of governance.

Apart from the above mentioned, it is expensive to run. The financial burden of maintaining two
houses is considered an unnecessary waste of resources. There is also the issue of duplication of
efforts as both houses seek independently to obtain the same information and as both debate on
the same “que stion.”

The operation of a cabinet system of government may become almost impossible where either
house can cause a cabinet to fall just by voting “lack of confidence” in the government.
Bicameralism may breed political instability of government.

If membership is by nomination it can be used as a dumping ground for those who were rejected
at the polls by the electorate.

3.1.4 Legislative-Executive Relations

In most nations, the legislature exercises some degree of control and influence over the
executive. Legislatures in parliamentary system of government influence the decision making
process of the executive during the “question period.” Law makers are provided the opportunity
to question members of the government on many points of policy administration.

In presidential system of administration, the legislature may influence the executive by delaying
or disapproving presidential nominations to high offices. Thus the powers of the legislature to
approve certain presidential appointments and ratify treatises negotiated by the president,
provides an opportunity for the legislature to influence the policy of the executive.

In parliamentary-cabinet systems of government, members of the cabinet are chosen from the
legislature. The prime minister and his cabinet are collectively responsible to the legislature.
Even in presidential systems where the executive is chosen outside the legislature, the executive
still depends upon the support of the legislature since all executive policies need its approval to
become effective. The success and stability of the executives in both systems of government
depends significantly upon the continuous mutual cooperation and understanding between the
legislature and the executive. A hostile legislature can frustrate the execution of executive
programme.

The issue of financing government projects rests squarely on the shoulders of the legislature.
Legislatures in most countries debate on the appropriation bill before the President or the Prime
Ministry assents it to become a budget. Legislatures in most countries authorize the raising and

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spending of the money by the executive. Financial control is a traditional weapon in the hands of
the legislature in seeking to exercise some control and influence over governmental policies. If
the legislature refuses to appropriate money, the executive cannot prosecute designated
programmes.

There is also the investigative function of the executive. The legislature can launch
investigations into the conduct of administrative activities and into the personal conduct of and
lives of members of the executive. These investigations may be carried out by committees of the
legislature. The abuse of executive powers can be checked by the investigatory power of the
legislature.

Moreover, parliamentary executives can be defeated by the legislature through ensure motion or
vote of no confidence in the executive. This system is designed to keep the executive closely in
tune with the desires of the voters and a majority of their representatives in the legislature. There
is also the issue of impeachments. The executive can be impeached and removed from office on
being found guilty of an impeachable offence by the parliament.

3.1.5 The Declining Power of the Legislature

The legislatures in most countries have declined while the executive continues to arrogate more
powers to itself. In most democratic nations, the legislatures have largely lost their traditional
policy-initiating role and have become checkers, revisors, and critics olicies initiated by the
executives. What are the probable factors responsible to the declining fortunes of the
executives?

First and foremost is the growing volume and complexity of problems requiring public policy
intervention. The legislative bodies cannot cope with the increasing governmental functions,
because of its size, limited time ad processes of decision making.

Secondly, there is the erosion of legislative functions by the executive when there is the need for
the exercise of the emergency powers by the executive.

Some legislatures lack technical expertise. Since most bills are technically in nature, most
members of the legislature do not understand them and are, therefore, unfit to participate
effectively in the legislative processes. There is also the lack of adequate time to devote to
discussion of legislature bills.

Lastly the limitation imposed on the powers of the legislature that influences it includes the
activities of pressure groups, public opinion and the growth of disciplined political parties.

3.2 The Executive

The executive arm of government is that organ whose sole responsibility is mainly to implement
rules and regulations as necessitated by the legislature, the law making arm of government.
Those who apply the authoritative rules and policies of a society are called the political

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executives. This arm of government gives effect to the will of state by carrying out or executing
the law of the land being constitutions, statutes, decrees and treatise as the case may be.

A Chief Executive is invested with the executive power and are assisted by the ministries extra-
ministerial departments. In modern times those officials generally called “Executives” perform
two distinct principal roles.

The first here is the chief-of-state. Here, he or she is acting as the nation’s official ceremonial
head and spokesman for the entire political entity.

Secondly, he or she is referred to as the “Head of Government” acting as the leader of office
holders who propose, direct and enforce the nation’s public policies. In a parliamentary system
of government each role is performed by distinctly different officials or groups of officials
whereas in the presidential system both are performed by the same official.

3.2.1 Executive Powers and Functions

The executive arm of government derives its powers mainly from the country’s constitution and
the laws that may be reviewed by the judiciary. Their major functions includes that of law
enforcement, the execution of administrative policy, the conduct of foreign affairs, the control of
armed forces and the authority to grant pardon and amnesty to offenders against the state. An
example of this is that which President Umaru Musa Yar ‘adua granted amnesty to Niger Delta
militants on 4th October, 2009.
The powers of the executive are enormous. Its discretionary authority is very great. It must not
merely execute laws, but must take action on many matters not covered by law. The executive
branch of government is responsible for much of the planning of the modern state. In reality, the
executive is the active force in any government. But these enormous powers conferred on the
executive can be grouped under the legislative, administrative and judicial.

Administrative Functions

The major function of the executive here is that of coordinating and controlling the
administration of the state; direction and supervision of the execution of law.

The power to nominate individuals and sending them to the senate for screening before their
appointments; the executive is also in control of the armed forces. These include the supreme
command of the army, navy and the air force. In some states, the chief executive has the power
to declare and prosecute war.

They also conduct foreign relations. The executive in every state is charged with conducting
relations with other states. At his discretion the chief executive appoints, instructs and controls
the activities of ambassadors, ministers, consuls and other foreign-service officers. He/she may
dismiss the ambassador of a foreign state by recalling his or her own ambassador. He determines
the direction of the country’s foreign policy and also sends representatives to international

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assembles and conferences. He/she has the power to negotiate binding treatise with foreign
countries.

Legislative Functions

The executive recommends and initiates bills for the consideration of the legislature. The
executive exercises suspensive veto of bills. They delegate legislation which is power to issue
statutory orders and rules under the power vested on t by the legislature. Such power is
necessary to meet the changing circumstances of modern day exigencies.

There is also the power of summoning, proroguing and dissolution of the legislatures especially
in parliamentary systems.

Judicial

The last but not the least is the judicial functions. The chief executive has the power to issue
pardons for offences against the state either before or after trial and conviction. Such a pardon
either releases a person from the legal consequences of a crime or remits the penalties imposed.
The chief executive may reduce a sentence or by a reprieve, delay its execution. Also he may
issue a proclamation of amnesty whereby a specifically described class of persons is freed from
the legal consequences of their actions.

3.2.2 Typology of Executives

In the ancient time, most heads of kingdoms as they were then known, were either hereditary
monarchs, although some were absolutes monarch in the sense that they wielded
legislative,executive as well as judicial powers.
Today, most executive have drastically curtailed their powers.
Most nations have been replaced with constitutional monarchies or “Limited Monarchies.” In
constitutional monarchies, government is formally conducted in the monarch’s name. The
British Queen is a typical example as she opens and dissolves parliament; gives her assent to all
acts of parliament before they become law and appoints ministers.

Despite all these assumed functions in parliamentary system of government, the real executive
power is vested in the cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Constitutional monarchs then are
chiefs of state who perform symbolic and ceremonial functions.

But with increasing civilization, some nations have entirely abolished their monarchies and
replaced them with republic regimes formally headed by elected officials called President.

There are three (3) types of executives:

• Parliamentary and Non-Parliamentary Executives;

• Titular and Real Executives; and
• Single and Collegial Executives.
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Parliamentary and Non-Parliamentary Executives

We have what is known as Parliamentary Executive when an Executive normally referred to as

the Prime Minister is elected in the parliament and not directly by the electorate. This is the case
of Britain. The Prime Minister holds on to office only as long as it commands majority in the
parliament. Then Presidential system is where the executives are chosen independently of the
legislature and holding office for a fixed term.

A presidential system of government is an outstanding example of the non-parliamentary

executive. Here all executive powers, subject to a few limitations are vested in a single chief
executive which is the president, who exercises wide constitutional and discretionary powers.
He/she is elected for a fixed term and except in the case of some definite crime being judicially
proved against him, he cannot be removed before the expiration o his term of office. However,
both the parliamentary and presidential executives have their good and bad points.

Titular and Real Executives

The titular executives are heads of states who serve as emblems of national unit. They perform
solely symbolic and ceremonial functions, thus relieving the real executives from numerous
public engagements and thereby enabling them to concentrate upon the solution of governmental
problems. The titular heads of state have the right to be informed and consulted about public
issues by the heads of government who are the real executives. The real executive is the head of
government who performs the day-to-day business of government.

In parliamentary system of government, the real executive is the cabinet headed by the prime
minister while in the presidential system the real executive is the president, a single individual
who serves as chief of state as well as head of government. The role of the political head of state
and ceremonial head of staff is thus fused on one individual. He carries final decision making
power and ultimate responsibility.

Single and Collegial Executive

In the single executive, a chief to whom all other executives are subordinate has final control.
The outstanding instance is the President of the United States and Nigeria. He appoints cabinet
ministers who are directly responsible to him. They are mainly advisers and not his colleagues.

A clear advantage of a single executive is that it secures the unit, singleness of purpose, energy
and promptness of decision so necessary for the success of an executive. The advantage of a
single executive is apparent during the period of emergency when unity of control is absolutely
necessary.

In collegial executives, executive powers are performed by a council or a cabinet. The number
of persons constituting collegial executives varies from seven as in the case of Switzerland or
twenty in the cabinet system of most nations.

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Although a collegial executive impairs unity of control by dividing responsibility, it is safer than
a single one. It renders more difficult the encroachment of the executive on the liberties of the
people in general.

3.2.3 The Growing Concentration of Powers in the Executive

In recent times there is a noticeable growth in the powers of functions of both the presidential
and parliamentary executives. This also is an indication that the legislative powers in modern
democracies are declining. This may be due to a lot of reasons.

The growth of disciplined party system: The chief executive is usually the party leader who
exercises considerable influence over the legislature. Political parties spell out the basic policy
lines a government will follow and assume a particular policy line by putting their people or
trusted allies into cabinet and other important administrative positions.

Second, is the growing number and complexity of governmental policies and problems.

Third, National Emergencies, whether real or imagined also brings extensive increases in
executive powers.

Lastly, the nature of modern government is such that leadership, continuous concentrated and
coordinating, adequately informed and equipped, is virtually necessary. In all nations, there is a
deep seated human impulse to centre responsibility for leadership in a single person. This is
especially of great advantage during the period of national emergency when the chief executive
should act much more speedily and effectively in taking vital and necessary decisions than
legislative bodies which are by nature deliberative organs.

3.3 The Judiciary

This constitutes the third arm of government. It entails law, judges and courts. The primary dut y
of the judiciary is the interpretation of law and application f existing laws to individual cases.

The role of the judiciary in modern day democracies cannot be over-emphasized. The liberty of
individuals depends upon the fairness of courts in protecting them both from other individuals
and from tyrannical or over-zealous member of government. To enable the judiciary to fulfill
this important role, it is separated from the control of the other branches of government – the
legislature and the executive. Also important to the preservation of individual liberty is that the
judiciary should consist of judges who are men of honesty, impartiality, independence and sound
legal knowledge.

3.3.1 Functions of the Judiciary

The overall function of the judiciary is to interpret and apply the law with certainty and
uniformity to specific cases as they arise.

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The major function of the judiciary is that of settlement of disputes. Here, the court deals with
cases between private individuals and the government. Both civil and criminal cases are settled
by the court.

A civil case is the one brought in the name of the state against a person accused of a
misdemeanour or felony. It is the duty of the court to determine whether a person is innocent or
guilty and accordingly invoke appropriate penalties.

Prevention of Wrongful Act

This is done by means of writs and restraining orders. Courts may act to prevent violations of
the law. Failure to obey an injection constitutes contempt of court, and may be punished by fine
or imprisonment.

Judicial Review

This refers to the process by which courts, especially in the federal systems, are given the power
to determine whether the legislative statutes are in conflict with the constitution. The courts will
declare them void on rounds of unconstitutionality. Judicial Review is thus a valuable check
upon headstrong executive or legislative action.

Preservation of Civil Liberties

The courts frequently play a leading role in the preservation of civil liberties. In most countries,
the courts are effective in protecting civil rights. They make certain that the executive branch, in
carrying out its functions, adheres to the rules of procedure laid down by law.

Declaratory Judgments

Many countries provide by law that courts may in actual controversies render declaratory
judgments – that is judicial determinations of the rights of parties existing under statutes,
contracts, will or other documents.

Such judgments enable the parties to ascertain their respective rights, without becoming involved
in wasteful and unnecessary litigations. Declaratory judgments are binding on the parties.

3.3.2 The Need for the independence of the Judiciary

Independence of the judiciary refers to the absence of bias in the administration of justice by the
courts. The independence of the judiciary is essential to individual freedom.

Judges must as far as humanly possible, be made independent of the liberties and rights of
individuals are protected against the encroachment of tyrannical executives, judges must be able
to act independently without fear or favour.

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Before law can be properly administered, there must be a thorough knowledge of the aw and a
developed judgment, which is the ability to be impartial and non-partisan as well as the highest
personal integrity and honesty.

To perform their role effectively judges should be selected based on merit and not any other
criteria. To secure the impartiality of the judiciary, certain modes should be used in the selection
of judges.

The appointment of judges should be based upon the recommendations of an impartial body,
which in Nigeria, is the National Judicial council (NJC).

Under system of tenure: Judges should have a secured tenure of office, so long as they are not
guilty of any crime known to the law, they continue in office. This system serves to maintain
judicial independence and high integrity. Under no circumstances should judges be removed
from office until the prescribed retirement age except on grounds of incapacity, infirmity of mind
and proof of stated misdemeanour.

Short tenure tends to place on the bench judges who are under the temptation to please the public
rather than fulfill the law. Anything less than these makes the law inconsistent.

Security of Salaries

The salaries of judges must be fixed and charged on the consolidated fund, which means that
whether the annual budget is passed or not, judges should not be denied their pay. Salaries of
judges should not be subjected to legislative debates.

The judiciary should be independent of the pressures of both executive and the legislature. To
this end, members of the judiciary should not belong to either the executive or the legislature.

The judiciary should be kept distinct and separate from the organs of government so that the
members of the bench are not unduly influenced in the discharge of their functions.

The independence of the judiciary is to be secured by appointing as judges, men of exemplary

quality, impeccable character, high integrity and honesty, especially those who are not easily
susceptible to financial, social and political influences and pressures.

Immunity of judges from Prosecution as regards the Performance of their Official Duties

This protection of the law enables the judge to perform his function without fear and favour. The
immunity of judges from legal liability for words spoken and acts done by them in the
performance of their functions enhances their independence and impartial administration of
justice.

From the above discussion, it is clear that judicial independence can be secured and maintained
through the selection of judges by an impartial body, a secured tenure of office, adequate

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remuneration and absence of prosecution arising out of performance of duties. However, the
experience of some countries especially in Africa, has demonstrated that many factors can limit
judicial independence. These factors include the political contract and manipulation of the
judiciary by the executive as well as Walihood of bias arising out of personal interest of
members of the judiciary themselves.

3.4. Military Era and the Functioning of Public Administration

3.4.1 Military Decrees and Impact of Public Administration

Decrees are laws made by the military under military regimes. Such decrees when no repealed,
are laws which any administration must comply with.

Even though military government or military rule is an aberration, the Nigeria populace has been
contending with it because out of about 37 years of independence the military had been in power
for more than three decades in Nigeria.

The purpose of military decrees is to expedite actions in the implementation of government

policies. Military decrees guide the actions of the public administration under military
government. Such decrees are made by the highest body under the military. At various times,
they are called the Supreme Military Council (SMC), Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) and
Provisional Ruling Council (PRC).

Their modus operandi includes:

• setting up of military tribunals to try public officers.

• making decrees guiding the activities of the administration especially on how to raise and
spend funds.

• making decrees restricting the amount and types of information a public officer can release
for public consumption.

• making decrees ousting the power of the judiciary (courts) to entertain any case brought
against the administration in the exercise of their executive powers or actions taken by them.

• establishing decrees used to suspend the constitution, thereby making many administrative
actions not to be subjected to judicial review when such contravenes the provision of the
constitution.

Other forms of control over administration include:

• Public opinion; and

• Activities of pressure groups which may influence government decisions.

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All the above are effective in controlling the administration and each can be used depending on
the circumstances and situations. The general purpose is to provide good government.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this Unit, you learn the functions of the three arms of government being the legislative, the
executive and the judiciary. You also learnt the reasons behind the declining power of the
legislature and the growing concentration of powers in the executive arm of government.

You were also enlightened on military decrees and their impact on public administration. Also
highlighted was the need for the independence of the judiciary.

5.0 SUMMARY

This Unit was solely about control systems in Public Administration, where three arms of
government were examined and their impact on public administration.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How can the independence of the judiciary be guaranteed in any democratic

dispensation?

2. What is accountable to the declining influence of the legislature and the growth in the
powers of the executive?

3. Name and explain the various types of the executive.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Olaniyi, G. (1997). Element of Public Administration. Ibadan: Jeddidiah publishers

Waldo, D. (1955). The Study of Public Administration. New York: Random House.

Anifowose, R. and Enemuo, F. (1999). Element of Politics. Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.

Agagu, A. A. (2001). Comparative Political and Administrative Studies. Department of

Political Science. Ado-Ekiti: UNAD

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UNIT 3 PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Public Corporation
3.1.1 Meaning of Public Corporation
3.1.2 Origin of Public Corporation
3.2 Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporations
3.2.1 Classification of Public Corporation
3.2.2 Characteristics of Public Corporation
3.3 The Control of Public Corporations
3.3.1 Management and Control of Public Enterprises
3.3.2 Performance, Probes and Commissions of Enquiry into Public
Corporations
3.3.3 Privatization and Commercialization of Public Corporations
3.4 Analysis and Types of Organisations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this Unit, students would be introduced to the concept of Public Corporations. This is to
enable you know the definition, meaning and the origin of public corporation. The
comprehension of any concept depends on the analysis, its features, problems and prospects.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• know the definition of public corporation

• trace the origin of public corporation
• know the concept behind pubic corporation.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Public Corporation

A Public Corporation can be defined as “financially semi-autonomous body created by an Act of

Parliament to provide goods and services on a commercial basis and is ultimately responsible to
the minister through the parliament and the general public.”
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It is an organization that is set up as a corporate body and as a part of the governmental apparatus
for entrepreneurial or entrepreneurial-like objectives.

Public enterprises are organizations which merged as a result of government acting in the
capacity of an entrepreneur. Public enterprises also known as public corporation can also be
defined as publicly-owned enterprise that has been chartered under Federal, State or Local
Government law for a particular business or financial purpose. It is a body framed for the
purpose of enabling a number of persons to act as a single person.

3.1.1 Meaning of Public Enterprises

A public enterprise is viewed as an artificial person which is authorized by law to carry on

particular activities and functions. It essentially has the features of several individuals who act as
one. It is described as a corporate body created by the legislature with defined powers and
functions and independently having a clear-cut jurisdiction over a specified area or over a
particular type of commercial activity. It is a part of government apparatus and three
implications are hereby highlighted.

Public Enterprise, by virtue of its intricate relationship with government, is an instrument of

public policy and its primary mission is in connection with governmental objectives and
programmes. It is, therefore, naturally under governmental control.

Second, a public enterprise by its nature mostly manages public resources, especially public
money and this means that attention must be paid to mechanisms for enforcing accountability.

Third, the combination of financial and economic objectives with social and political arms
invariably makes it difficult to devise appropriate performance measurement instrument.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Define the term “Public Corporation.”

3.1.2 Origin of Public Corporation

The origin of public enterprises could be traced to early 20th century when government
intervened in economic management through departmental organizations, which did not involve
creating autonomous public bodies. In the alternative, it granted license to private enterprise for
the management of natural or national monopolies and where public bodies were involved n
managing economic ventures, such bodies did not enjoy financial autonomy.

Public corporations made a very strong appearance after World War I for a variety of reasons
including managing the consequences of the war especially the economic crisis of the 1930s.
However, public enterprises sector developed rapidly because of the spread of Keynesian
Interventionist.

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Between the two world wars political and ideological consideration prompted the establishment
of parastatals in the former colonies. The movement toward the establishment of public
enterprises received new impetus after the World War II for reasons related to both ideological
and political considerations and economic efficiency.

Economic nationalism and the success of the sonnet revolution paved the way for nationalization
and the strong state intervention in national economic management. When the former “European
colonies in Africa became independent in the late 1950s and the 1960s, they were only a few
public enterprises in different countries. The public enterprises sector then developed at a
tremendous pace in the immediate years after independence through the 1980s and a huge public
enterprise sector was firmly established in most of the countries. The weakness of the private
sector, the lack of infrastructure, the low level of social and human development and the
unfavourable social, economic and financial environment are some of the reasons given to
explain the proliferation of public enterprises in all areas of economic and social development.
Other reasons include the urge to generate revenue to limit foreign economic domination and to
provide a substitute for private initiative where it was not forthcoming.

Public enterprises in Nigeria dates back to the colonial era when the colonial government
established some public enterprises to private essential services like electricity, railway and
water. The post-independent era marked a watershed in the growth and spread of public
corporations. At independence in 1960, Nigeria had 50 public enterprises, 200 in the 1970s and
500 in 1987, when government embarked upon economic reform programmes.

The factors that account for the phenomenal increase include the evolution of the Federal
administrative structures from four units in the 1950s to twelve in 1976, twenty-one in 1987,
thirty in 1991 and thirty-six in 1996 and the oil boom and successive governments commitment
to making public enterprises an instrument of state economic intervention in the 1970s .

Self Assessment Exercise 2

State two main factors for the establishment of public enterprises.

3.2 Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporations

There are many reasons for the establishment of public enterprises. They include:

• the desire to use the public enterprise as an instrument of effective plan implementation in a
context where it appears a futile devise; a development plan for the private sector.

• the need to secure economic independence.

• the urgent desire to assure government control over “strategic” sectors of the economy, e.g.
the Central Bank.

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• the need to separate some activities from the civil service and allow more autonomy in their
running.

• the perceived need to provide employment for the citizens in context where the private sector
offers very lucrative employment opportunities.

• the need to ensure state control of key profitable enterprises with a view to generating
revenues that will add to available national capital for financing development programmes
and projects.

• the desire of some socialist-oriented regimes to use sate control of key profitable enterprises
to pursue the objectives of preventing the concentration of wealth or of the means of
production and exchange in the hands of few individuals or of a group, i.e., promoting
equitable distribution of wealth.

3.2.1 Classification of Public Corporation

Public Corporations are classified into three:

• Public/Statutory;
• State-owned; and
• Public/Private Partnership.

Public/Statutory Corporations

These are enterprises which arise when the government assumes responsibility for the
management of an economic or social pur suit through a special entity that has its own legal
personality and still keeps some of the special prerogatives or privileges associated with a
governmental organization.

The blend of these features is aimed at enabling the organization to function effectively as an
autonomous body while it remains an instrument of government policy. Enterprises that fall
under statutory corporations include Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA).

State-Owned Companies

These are companies created by the government under the provisions of ordinary company law,
though they belong entirely to the government. They are registered in the registry of companies,
with the government as the sole proprietor.

Government, therefore, appoints the Board of Directors as is customary in private companies,

e.g., the New Nigeria Development Company, Odua Investment Company Limited, etc.

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Public/Private Partnership

These are enterprises where the government is the majority shareholder in a partnership with
private entrepreneurs. In such companies government usually dominates the board since it is the
major shareholder. An example is the Peugeot Automobile Nigeria (PAN).

3.2.2 Characteristics of Public Corporation

Public corporation came into existence as a result of an Act passed by the legislature or a decree
under a military rule. Public enterprise also defines its aims and objectives, powers and duties,
immunities, the form of management and relationship with established departments and
ministries.

It is a legal person, capable of suing and being sued, entering into contracts, acquiring and
owning property in its own name and can also dispose of property in its own name and can also
dispose of property than ordinary government departments. It is wholly owned by the state.

Except for appropriations to produce capital or to cover losses, a public enterprise is usually
independently funded or financed. It obtains its funds from the treasury or the public and from
revenues derived from the sale of goods and services. It is authorized to use and re-use its
revenues.

It is generally exempted from most regulatory and prohibitory statutes applicable to expenditure
of public funds. There are no hard and fast rules behind them in the matter of making contracts
of buying and selling, works, etc. Thus a great deal of liability and discretion is left for the
management in the matter of procedure. It is ordinarily not subject to the budget, account and
audit laws and procedures applicable to government departments. Their audit is done by the
Accountant-General of Nigeria or any other person appointed by him. However, both account
and audit are commercial in nature.

Excluding the offices taken from government departments on deputation, the employees of
public corporations are not civil servants and are not governed by government regulations in
respect of conditions of service. The recruitment is not subject to civil service rules, promotion
is by seniority and personnel can be fired easily, if they are incompetent.

Corporations are free from the control of the legislature.

3.3 Control of Public Corporations

3.3.1 Management and control of Public Corporations

The management and control of public corporations are necessary in order to have effective and
efficient public enterprises. The management of public corporations is done through the
management boards and the policy board.

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The Executive Board

In the executive board, majority of the board are staff of the organisation. They are usually the
heads of the various departments of the organization. However, a few outside representatives are
brought to be in charge of some outside interest.

The Policy Board

Majority of the members of the policy board are from outside the organization with few
members from within the organization. The policy board is responsible for managing all the
policy decisions of the organization, but the implementation of policies and the day-to-day
operation of the organization are carried out by the Managing Director. This method is applied
to most public corporations in Nigeria.

Control of Public Corporations

Even though public corporations are created to enable them have some degree of freedom to
manage their affairs, they are still subject to various levels of control.

Ministerial Control

The supervising minister controls the public corporations under his portfolio in the following
modes:

i. By the appointments of Board members

Since the minister is politically responsible for appointing members of the board, he can
dissolve it, if he is not satisfied with their performance. These controls may include the
appointment of external auditors to audit the account of public corporations, re-
organisation of departments and controls on borrowing.

ii. Parliamentary Control

This control is necessary to ensure that the operation of public corporations is in

accordance with public policy. Such a control is through the Annual Report. Public
corporations are expected to submit comprehensive annual reports of their activities to
the parliament through the minister and such reports are tabled before the parliament.

3.3.2 Performance and Probes of public commissions of Inquiry

Into Public Enterprises

3.3.2.1 The Performance of Public Enterprises in Nigeria

The performances of public corporations are dismal in nature. Instead of improving their
services most of them seemed to be retrogressing and became drain pipes on the economy

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without making any meaningful contribution to the nation’s economic development through
service delivery.

Virtually all public corporations in Nigeria render epileptic and unsatisfactory service to the
people. Due to problems faced by public corporations in Nigeria in the recent past, which
included corruption, inefficiency and poor management, the Nigerian Government attempted to
solve these problems by taking certain measures.

A commission was set up under Michael Ani, the then Minister, to look into the problems of
public corporations and make appropriate recommendations. The Ani Commission
recommended that the responsibility for personnel matters be removed from the boards and
entrusted to an independent body to be called the Statutory Corporation Service Commission
(SCSC). The recommendations were implemented at both the Federal and State levels.
However, after its review in the early 1970s, the Udoji Commission recommended that it should
be abolished. The government accepted the recommendation and SCSC was eventually
abolished.

The second option to solve the problems of public corporations by the government was to invite
foreign management consultants to manage some of them. In 1979, the Federal Government
brought into the country some experts to manage public corporations. A two-year management
services agreement was signed between the Federal Government and Rail India Technical and
Economic services Corporation (RITES) for the management of Nigerian Railways.

Another agreement was signed with the Metallurgical Engineering Consultants of India
(MECON) to manage the Nigerian Steel Authority. The government later terminated these
agreements and reverted to the previous methods of management.

3.3.3 Privatisation and Commercialisation

Privatization is the fact that business should be left for those who are better qualified to handle
them, which is the private sector, while the government concentrates on its core duty of
governance and policy regulation through the ministries. Government involvement in business
takes the form of regulation and this is done through its agencies.

The main motive about government regulation in a purely private sector, amongst other things, is
to achieve public policy objectives of financial stability, high economic growth, stable prices,
full employment, levels of output and equilibrium and balance of payments position.

This privatization, without adequate regulatory agency measures, will mean allowing laissez-
faire attitude pervade the economy which may lead to what is known as economic disorder and
financial chaos. Businessmen driven by the pursuit of profit, employ both ethical and unethical
means. It is only law that will restrain their activities thereby protecting the people, business and
society in general.

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3.3.3.1 Privatisation and Public Corporation

In the Nigerian context, privatization involves the disposal of all part of shares held by the
government directly or through any of its agencies. Privatisation involves the sale of
government shareholding in any enterprise to non-governmental entities.

The Nigerian economy is non-cultural being dependent on petroleum for 90% of its foreign
exchange earnings.

In July, 1988, the Federal Military Government promulgated Decree No. 25 on Privatization and
Commercialization which gave a legal backing to the execution of the privatization and
commercialization programme in Nigeria.

The major objectives were:

• to re-orientate the enterprises for privatization and commercialization towards a new horizon
of performance improvement viability and overall efficiency.

• to develop the capital market.

• to restructure the capital of affected enterprises in order to facilitate good management and
access to capital market.

• to restructure and rationalize the public sector in order to lessen the dominance of
unproductive investments in that sector.

• to ensure positive reforms on public sector investments in commercialise enterprises.

• to check the present absolute dependence on the treasury for the funding by the otherwise
commercially-oriented parastatals and encourage their approach to the capital market.

• to initiate the process of gradual cession to the private sector of such public enterprises which
by their nature and type of operations are best performed by the capital market.

• to promote wide share ownership.

The decree provides for the establishment of the Technical Committee on Privatization and
Commercialization (TCPC) which is vested with the responsibility of implementing the
programme.

Commercialisation: This is the re-organisation of enterprises wholly or partly owned by the

government in which such commercialized enterprises shall operate as a profit-making
commercial venture and without subvention from the government.

The main reason behind the commercialization projects includes:

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• to restructure and rationalize public enterprises to ensure an effective, cost-conscious and

goal-oriented management and staff whose future is linked with the fortunes of the
organization they operate.

• to undertake a comprehensive review of the accounting and management information system

of the parastatals with a view to installing and maintaining modern and effective accounting
systems which will produce promptly the necessary data for monitoring their financial and
operational performance.

• to re-orientate the enterprises for commercialization towards a new horizon of performance

improvement, viability and overall efficiency through the enforcement of strict commercial
principles and practices.

• to check the present absolute dependence on the treasury for funding the otherwise
commercially viable parastatals through a more realistic capital structure which will enable
them approach the capital market to fund their operations without government guarantees.

3.4 Analysis and Types of Organisations

According to Spiers (1975) organisations can be analysed through six (6) different perspectives:

Organisations as Machines

The most basic of all approach to the study of organization assumes that organizational
behaviour can be considered to be most usefully described in terms of machines. According to
him, if one supposes that organizations can in some sense, be perceived as machines, the
following consequences ensue.

First, the conception of organsiations as a system of interrelated parts predisposes one to think
that coordination is a primary task in the evaluation of organizational behavior.

Second, this necessitates the definition of functions in relation to work to be done, both for
separate parts of the organization and for interrelated parts.

Third, behaviour and activity are viewed primarily in terms of their work coordination.

Fourth, unsatisfactory circumstances are viewed in the same mechanical sense.

Organisations as needs and Responses

There are certain thinkers who give more emphasis to structure and function in the interpretation
of organizational behavior. The functionalist approach mainly concentrates on needs and
responses to needs.

He defines needs in terms of the “goals” or purposes of:

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(a) an individual;
(b) groups within the organization;
(c) the organization as a whole;
(d) a group order than the organization but less than the society; and
(e) the society itself.

Organisation as Societies

This analysis closely resembles the functionalist approach. It views the organization as a
miniature society. The functionalists believe that the central problem from a society as a whole
is the reconciliation of varying needs and interests of its members. The social functionalism as
this may be called, points out the prior necessity of a shared value system in order that such
reconciliation may take place.

The broad administrative consequence of this kind of approach is that there is a predisposition to
see the organization not simply as a system of relatively discrete and interrelated parts but as a
community of people. The structure of this community is analogous to the structure of the
society at large. This conception aids in understanding the internal life of an organization.

An organization can be seen as an individual person. Instead of seeing organizations as elements

in society-wide system, this approach concentrates on the experience of the individual member.
This human relations approach stresses the need for organizations to make provision for the
adjustment of individual psychological needs as expressed through small group relationships, to
the wider needs of an organsation’s behavior.

Organisation and the Technological Core

There are some theorists who give importance to the concept of socio-technical system. This
means that in any organization there is always a kind of technological core. In administration,
the work processes of routine information systems could be regarded as the technological core.

They state that the consideration of internal technology must have certain important
consequences for administrative section. First, attention is shifted to the physical environment of
the work process. Second, the conception of the person and his physical environment leads to
much more flexible possibilities to see that changing technology or even the technical expression
of changing economic circumstances may have psychological effects because of its impact on
the system.

Organization as a Culture

This theory states that the activities of persons in organizations cannot be understood apart from
meanings given to them by the persons themselves, colleagues, supervisors and officials, goals
which condition their actions and relationships.

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The main impact of this cultural approach is that individuals and groups are seen as constrained,
not by formal structures or even beliefs but by roles and expectations, personally concerned,
which in turn determines norms in an essentially relative fashion. Secondly, it is assumed that
the organizational change and possibilities for change to have taken account of these roles and
expectations. It also diverts attention towards the exploration of internal sub-cultures and subtle
cultural factors which determine norms and attitudes to work, authority and types of
organization.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This Unit dwelt mostly on public corporations, the definitions, origin, reasons for establishment,
classification and characteristics of public corporations/enterprises. There was also control and
typo logies.

5.0 SUMMARY

This Unit was able to x-ray all the issues as regards public corporation.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Give a thorough analysis of organizations.

2. Trace the origin of Public Corporation.
3. Why should Public Corporations be privatized?

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1

Public Corporation is an organization that is set up as a corporate body and as part of

government apparatus that has entrepreneurial objectives.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2

(1) The weakness of the private sector.

(2) The urge to generate revenue by government.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpan, U. N. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria. London: Longman

Ujo, A. A. (1994). Understanding Public Administration. Kaduna: Solmora Ventures Ltd

Fubara, B. A. (1983). Government in Business Management in Nigeria. Lagos: Spectrum

Sexty, R. W. (1985). Currency Issues in Public Enterprises, Commercialisation and

Privatisation. Public Sector, 8 (4)

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UNIT 4 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND THE LAW

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Administrative Law
3.2 Scope of Administrative Law
3.3 Reasons for the Growth of Administrative Law
3.4 Delegated Administration
3.4.1 Need for Delegated Legislation
3.4.2 Typology of Delegated Legislation
3.5 Administrative Adjudication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this Unit, you would be introduced to the concept of Public Administration and the Law. This
is to enable the student to know the definition, meaning and impact of administrative law. The
comprehension of any concept depends on the analysis of its features.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this Unit a student should be able to:

• know the meaning of Administrative Law.

• understand the scope of Law and Public Administration.
• give the reasons for the recent growth in Administrative Law.
• Understand the concept of Delegated Administration.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Administrative Law

Due to the fact that Public Administration is what a state does, it is both created and bound by an
instrument of the law. It is an academic subject that has never escaped from the faculties of law.

Public Administration is inherently the execution of public law. Every application of general
law is necessarily an act of administration. Administration cannot exist without legal foundation.

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The law that creates an agency is known as its enabling legislation. Therefore, in theory, no
government administrator can do anything if it is not provided for in the legislation or in the
rules and regulations and that the legislation allows the agency to promulgate. While public
administration is the law in action, the law on how, when and where these actions can be taken is
called administrative law. It does not deal with the substantive content of agency policies and
practices. Instead, it focuses on the procedures that agencies use in exercising their authority. In
effect, administrative law is the totality of constitutional provisions, legislative statutes, court
decisions and executive directives that regulate the activities of government agencies.

3.2 Scope of Administrative Law

Administrative Law covers the whole of Public Administration. The scope of Administrative
Law covers the following areas:

• The public service;

• Problems surrounding financial administration;
• Government agencies and policy regulations;
• Remedies against administrative actions; and
• Law relating to the status and recognition of professional association of plural head
administrative bodies.

The scope of administrative law can also be seen as the law of internal administration which
expounds the nature of public office or elucidate official relation. It comprises such areas as
legal qualifications for office, legal disqualifications for officers, legal aspects of appointments,
tenure and conditions of service, legal aspects of the hierarchical form of departmental
organizations, the legal relation of administrative superior to the subordinate and the legal
relation between the power of removal and of administrative management.

Meanwhile, the law of external administration comprises:

• the powers and duties of administrative authorities related directly to private interests

• the scope and limits of such power

• sanctions attached to official decisions

• the remedies against official action and the nature of administrative law.

3.3 Reasons for the Growth of Administrative Law

Urbanisation and Industrialisation

The complexities and growth of modern cities and industries resulted in exploitation and
helplessness of the individuals. The administrative law simply goes to establish socio-economic
conditions for providing help to citizens in a complex economy. The industrial revolution led to
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a concentration of production in the hands of comparatively small number of capital owners.

This resulted in the emergence of special type of laws known as administrative laws which
subordinated the common law rights of personal freedom and private property to the conception
of common good.

Since Administrative Law stands for the furthering of policies of social improvement, there
must, therefore, be flexibility of standard. It lays down certain flexible standards to be applied to
cases instead of cut and dried legal rules or precepts to be powered.

Thus the substitution of general standards for legal rules makes Administrative Law more
flexible than the traditional body of the older law. Such a flexibility of standard is the need of
the hour.

Administrative Law allows the officials discretion and freedom for the efficient management of
public services. The modern state is a welfare state. Hence it manages the business which was
previously the monopoly of a few individuals. This necessitates freedom of action. Hence,
discretionary powers to the state officials will equip them with requisite freedom of action
without which the government is apt to fail in the fulfillment of its newly spring up functions.

Moreover, matters of highly technical nature necessitate laying down of certain standards. The
interpretation and applicability entrusted to administrative courts which are composed by
suitable subject matter experts. The ordinary courts manned by judges having legal acumen can
hardly be the best judges of such standards.

Administrative Law provides bases for experiment into the new social and economic order.

3.4 Delegated Administration

Delegated administration is a power where the legislature confers on the executive to carry out
certain orders. It is the rule-making power vested upon the executive by the legislature. The
legislature has the major function which is statute-making.

However, due to the pressure of time and the peculiar nature of certain functions of the
legislature, the need t delegate arises. The rules made by the executive have the force of law and
are enforced by the courts of law. This rule of law enforcement is known as Delegated
Legislation. It is the exercise of minor legislative power by ministers or subordinate authorities
and bodies in pursuance of statutory power and authority given by the parliament itself.

3.4.1 Need for Delegated Legislation

Expansion is State Activity

Due to the impact of science and technology the functions of the state have very much expanded.
The legislatures of today are burdened with so much work so the need to delegate authority. The

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pressure of work and want of time on the part of the legislature have resulted in the growth of
delegated legislature.

Lack of Expertise among the Legislature

The average member of a legislature is not an expert, but probably a layman in certain fields that
are highly technical in nature. Therefore, the legislature, by its very nature is not in a position to
deal with too technical matters which can be handled efficiently only by experts. Here, their
major function is to lay down the guidelines for the experts to now take charge. Law set down
may require amendment with the change of time. Parliament, because it is not always in session
cannot make instant changes to meet the changing conditions so as to allow the executive to
make rules and provide alterations in them whenever necessary.

Delegated legislation is very apt in emergency situation. This is needed in order to meet
emergencies like natural disasters, epidemics or war. In complex situations, it is not possible for
the legislature to foresee and include in the law itself all the contingencies which may possibly
arise especially in cases of large and complex issues. Therefore, exigencies of this nature are
naturally delegated for proper regulation.

3.4.2 Typology of Delegated Legislation

Contingency Type of Legislation

This happens where the legislature provides that the act will be applied on the occurrence of a
certain exigency.

Supplementary Type of Delegated Legislation

This fleshes up the skeletal law passed by the legislature in a skeletal form.

Interpretative Delegated Legislature

It clarifies and explains the provision of the law to which it relates. This power may be given by
the statute itself or on the administrative agency on its own account, may issue clarifications of
law without any statutory authorization.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Define the true administrative law.

3.5 Administrative Adjudication

This is an inter-disciplinary concept which reveals the quasi-judicial nature of administration. It

can also be defined as the investigation and settling of disputes involving a private party on the
basis of a law and fact by an administrative agency.

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Modern public administration is the latest edition to the administrative department or agency.
Administrative Adjudication is a legal role played in administration department technically
recognized as quasi-judicial functions in determining certain rights or interest of concerned
persons or parties.

The features of administrative adjudication are:

• It is quasi judicial in nature.

• It determines individual rights in administrative Acts.

• It is performed outside the ordinary court of the law.

• The functions here because they are technical in nature and are carried out by experts.

Self Assessment Exercise 2

Define the term “Administrative Adjudication.” What are the types of Administrative
Adjudication?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This Unit was able to define Public Administration Law or aptly called administrative law; the
scope of administrative law, the reasons for the growth of administrative law, delegated
administration, types, the reason behind it and administrative adjudication.

5.0 SUMMARY

Public Administration is defined as a detailed and systematic application of public law. Every
act in the application of public law is an act of administration.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define the term “Administrative Adjudication.” Why is it necessary in a democratic

dispensation?

2. Define Public Administrative Law. Elucidate reasons for the growth of Administrative
Law in the Philippines.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Administrative law is the law relating to administration. It determines the organization’s powers
and duties of administrative authorities and indicates to the individual remedies for the notation
of his rights.

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Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Administrative adjudication is the investigating and settling of disputes involving a private party
on the basis of law and fact by the administrative agency. Types of administrative adjudication
includes:

Contingency type of legislation: It takes place where the legislature provides that the Act will
be applied on the occurrence of a certain contingency and existence of that contingency to the
administrative agency and the law is applied accordingly.

Supplementary type of Delegated Legislation: It is the one which fills up the gaps of a law
passed by the legislature in a skeletal form.

Interpretative Delegated Legislation: This clarifies and explains the provision of the law to
which it relates. This power may be given by the statute itself on the administrative agency on its
own account may issue clarifications of law, without any …

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Gortner, H. F. (1977). Administration in Public Sector. New York: Ronald Press

Pfiffner, J. M. and Presthus, R. V. (1960). Public Administration. New York: Ronald Press

Stillman, H. R. J. (1980). Public Administration: Concepts and Cases. London: Hauaghton

Mifflin

Waldo, D. (1955). The Study of Public Administration. New York: Random House

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MODULE 3

Unit 1: The Bureaucracy

Unit 2: The Organizing Process

UNIT 1 THE BUREAUCRACY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Bureaucracy: Meaning and Definition of Concept
3.2 Characteristics of Max Webber’s Bureaucracy
3.3 Max Webber’s Ideal Types of Authority
3.4 Criticism of Bureaucracy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit attempts to define the term “bureaucracy,” evaluate bureaucracy in the Nigerian
public sector and the solutions to the problems of democracy in Nigeria.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit a student should be able to:

• explain the meaning and concept of bureaucracy.
• highlight the different types of authority as expounded by Max Webber.
• state the different criticisms of bureaucracy.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Bureaucracy: Meaning and Definition of Concept

The mention of the word “bureaucracy,” especially workers in the private sector connotes
everything that is negative in nature. Generally, people equal democracy with unexplained delay
and general delay and frustration and red-tapism. It means to them “inefficiency, corruption,
self-interest, secrecy and slowness of action.” These set of people vent the anger on the irritating
aspect of democracy, without grasping the central importance and meaning which bureaucracy
as a phenomenon has for the study of public administration.

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From the several sciences and public administration in general, bureaucracy means “the general
formal structural elements of a type of human organization particularly the collective personnel
and structures of a governmental organization.”

Bureaucracy has both good and bad aspects. It is a term generally used in modern organization
to refer to orderly and structural arrangement of things rather than the hostile and negative traits
associated with the organization.

In the field of public administration, bureaucracy is like a lens by which the core of modern
organization can be viewed. Bureaucracy in its purest sense, does not exist, though it has
contributed immensely to the discipline of public administration and it is a reliable way of
efficiently achieving organisational aims and objectives.

3.2 The Characteristics of Max Webber’s Bureaucracy

Hierarchy of Authority

This refers to the label of grades of authority whereby the superior officers supervises the lower
officers under their control. Administrative hierarchy provides a determinate procedure that
decides who is to decide. To avoid contradictory authority-relationship, there is need to
establish a determinate hierarchy of authority either by zoning authority along functional lines or
by maintaining organizational structures.

Hierarchical structure of organization is to plan for the division of work and allocation of
authority. The organization gives each member of the group his status and role in relation to the
other members. The hierarchical order of bureaucracy separates the supervisor from the
subordinates on the basis of this hierarchy.

Rules, Regulations and Procedure

Decisions in a bureau are governed by consistent system of abstract rules, regulations and
procedures. There is a large use of records and files. Here the rules, regulations and procedures
give room for rationality, routine objectivity and consistency in the running of the organization.
If the orgnisational goals and objectives are to be achieved, then there must be rules and
regulations to regulate the employees’ behavioural patterns in the organisation. This will help to
coordinate activities in the hierarchy and also ensure uniformity in the action of the employee.

Impersonality

Bureaucrats or officials in the bureau or organizations are not free to act arbitrarily, for their
discretion – any choices are confirmed to prescribed patterns of conduct imposed by legal rules
and laid down procedures. Bureaucratic rules provide systematic control of superior over
subordinates, thus limiting the opportunities for arbitrariness and personal favouritism. An office
holder takes a impersonal formalistic orientation in dealing with others in the execution of its
official duties.

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Written Records and Documentation

Modern organization administration placed high importance on written records and

documentation as emphasized by Max Webber. This allows community decisions, instructions
and adequate planning.

Career Orientation

This refers to the technical competence in handling specific responsibilities in the organization.
Max Webber corroborated Frederick Taylor’s preference for scientific methods of appointing
employees into ay post. Webber emphasized on the need to base promotion on security and the
ability of the employee to meet the target outlines for him/her. He emphasized the need for
training and development of workers through internal movement from one position to another.
Discipline

This is the respect for obedience of rules and objectives of the organisation. It is obedience to
superior officials orders by their subordinates and obedience to constituted authority as
represented by the management of the organization.

Division of Labour

This brings about specialization of labour. Specialization of labour means that work in a
bureaucracy is rationally divided into units that can be undertaken by an individual or groups of
individuals competent to perform such tasks. In a bureaucracy workers do not won their offices
but enjoy tenure of office based on their abilities and competence to perform the work assigned
to them.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Explain the term “bureaucracy” as expounded by the German sociologist, Max Webber,

3.3 Max Webber’s Ideal Type of Authority Concept

To Webber, there are only three ideal types of authority or reasons why individuals throughout
the modern world obey their leaders.

The Traditional Authority

One of the earliest is the traditional authority of primitive societies which is rested upon the
established belief in the sanctity of tradition as providing status and power to those who exercise
authority. They state that their rulership is done by nature. Because a family of rulers has
always ruled, they are presumed to be just and right in whatever decision they take and should be
obeyed. True precedent and the authority of tradition, custom and conventions give the rulers
their legitimacy in the eyes of the people they rule.

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Charismatic Authority

Charismatic authority is based upon the attractiveness of the leader. Charismatic figures are self-
appointed leaders who command obedience because of the extra-ordinary qualities they posses to
exercise authority.

The group of leaders under the charismatic authority includes popular party leaders, founders of
religious groups and great nationalist.

Legal-Rational Authority

According to Max Webber, the Legal-Rational Authority is the third – ideal type, which is often
recognized as the foundation of modern civilization. It is based on a belief in the legitimacy of
the pattern of normative rules and the right of those appointed or elected to authority under such
rules to issue command. That is obedience is owed to the legally established impersonal set of
rules rather than a personal ruler. Legal-rational authority vests power in the office, rather than
the occupier of that office. Thus everyone can rule as long as he or she comes into office
according to the rule.

The legal-rational authority type is the basis for Webber’s concept of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy
is the normal way the legal-rational authority appears in an institutional form and holds a central
role in ordering and controlling modern societies. For Webber, bureaucracy is indispensible in
modern government or administration in spite of its inadequacies. To Max Webber, it will be
sheer illusion to think for a moment that continuous administrative work can be carried out in
any field or organization except by means of officials working in offices.

3.4 Criticism of Max Webber’s Ideal Type of Bureaucracy

Max Webber’s concept of bureaucracy has a lot of criticisms surrounding it.

Over-emphasis on Rules and Regulations

This is a draw-back on the speed of carrying out official functions. The too-much of emphasis
laid on rules and procedures, record-keeping and paper work may become more important in its
own right, that has a means to amend and so to bring about delay and unnecessary delays in
handling official matters.

There is too much officialdom; therefore, there is the tendency in stifling initiative.

Position and responsibilities in the organization can lead to officious bureaucratic behaviour.
They may also be the tendency to conceal administrative procedures from outsiders.
Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behavior and a lack of responsiveness to individual
incidents or problems.

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Lack of attention to the informal organization and the developments of groups with goals of their
own and inadequate recognition of the organisation.

Bureaucracies restrict the psychological growth of the individual and cause feelings of failure,
frustration and conflict. There is, therefore, a suggestion that organizational environment should
provide a significant degree of individual responsibility and self-control. Commitment to the
goals of the organization, productivity and work, are opportunity for individuals to apply their
full potentials.

Self Assessment Exercise 2

Name three of Max Webber’s authority type.

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the social science and public administration point of view, bureaucracy cannot be
jettisoned if a sound governmental organization should be in place. Bureaucracy has both good
and bad qualities for it is the orderly and structural arrangement of things rather than the hostile
and negative traits associated with roganisations.

5.0 SUMMARY

Bureaucracy has been thoroughly defined. in this Unit, the characteristics, its negative and
positive attributes and certain solutions proffered for problems bedeviling the Nigerian public
service.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define the term “Bureaucracy.”

2. Name and explain five characteristics of Max Webber’s ideal bureaucracy.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Bureaucracy is defined here as the general formal structural elements of a type of human
organization, particularly the collective personnel and structures of a governmental
organization.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

• Traditional
• Charismatic
• Legal-Rational Authority

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1981). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria. Spectrum

Ltd.

Fajayomi, S. B. (1986). Topical Issues I the Nigerian Public Administration.

Olamiyi, G (1997). Elements of Public Administration. Lagos: Jeddidial Publishers

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Unit 2 THE ORGANISING PROCESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Organising Process: Definition and Concepts
3.1.1 Departmentalization
3.2 Establishing Authority Relationships
3.3 Division of Managerial Work
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit attempts to explain the concept and process of organization in a work place.
Organisation process would be seen in terms of departmentalization, establishing authority
relationship and the division of managerial work.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• define the organizing process.

• state the ideology behind departmentalization.
• establish authority relationships in a work place.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Organising Process: Definitions and Concepts

An organization is a group of people who jointly work to achieve at least one common goal.
Organising is the process by which the Chief Executive, by combining the efforts of the people
under his or her supervision….. While the success of a company or an organization may be
attributed to many factors, the skill with which the chief executive determines and implements its
organisational plan is one of the factors in the end result.

3.1.1 Departmentalization

Due to today’s large and complex organizational structures, which are characterized by a high
degree of division of labour and task specialization, the operating and managerial work of the
organization must be broken up or differentiated to determine which department and persons are

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responsible for a certain specialized activity. Departmentalization can be in terms of hierarchy

or horizontal differentiation to managerial tasks. Departmentalization deals with the horizontal
dimension of organizational structure and is the process of rationally grouping the work
necessary to achieve the goals of the organisation or a basis that permits cooperation and
coordination. This process takes place at all levels in an organisation and in most cases the
activities are grouped on the basis of functions, process, geographical area, products and
customers.

By Function

Departmentalization by function occurs when the activities of the organisation are grouped into
the primary tasks to be performed such as production marketing and finance. This grouping also
includes any aspect of operation or management that requires technical knowledge or skill such
as legal works, computer engineering or customer relations.

By Process

This type of departmentalization refers to a functional specialized type of operation, e.g. in a

carpentry workshop we may have the manufacturing, welding, polishing, paints and the
assembly departments.

By Geographical Area

Here all the organizational activities performed in a particular region or location are brought
together and integrated into a single unit. Geographical divisions are common especially in the
breweries and bottling companies.

By Products

Activities directly associated with a product or service are grouped together, e.g., food, drinks,
snacks and perfumes.

By Customer

Departmentalization by customer is often found in sales operation as large customers with their
purchasing department and technical requirements may have to be treated differently than
smaller customers or even military customers.

Likewise a hardware company may group its activities into wholesale and retail division in order
to serve the different types of customers who buy from the company.

Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Define departmentalization.

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3.2 Establishing Authority Relationship

An organogram or organization chart of a company shows how the work load is divided and
assigned to specific individuals or departments. An equally important step that rarely appears on
organization chart describes authority responsibility relationships between the persons doing
these jobs. Chief Executive must have an understanding of who is suppo sed to do what before a
managerial team is effectively organized.

These relationships are usually established on the basis of:

• Line authority
• Staff authority
• Functional authority

The organisation manual or management guide defines each position.

Line Authority Relationship

Managers functioning in a line authority relationship or other persons or department are involved
with the direct supervision of subordinates in the chain of command. The chain of command
indicates the formal authority relationships that run in a direct line from the top to the bottom of
the organization. This is a vertical relationship.

Line managers are in the chain of command because they are responsible for an activity that
directly contributes to the earnings of the company. They are usually concerned with the
accomplishment of quantitative objectives, cost control and the on-going decision that allows
them to accomplish the tasks for which they are responsible.

Staff Authority Relationship

Staff authority relationship is based on expertise in specialized activities and includes the
authority to advise, plan, gather information and provide guidance to line manages in the
organization.

Functional Authority Relationships

Individuals who have functional authority have the right to issue policies and procedures for their
functions or area of expertise throughout the organization and to expect compliance. Staff
prepare recommendations for the line manager, persons with functional authority issue directives
in their names instead of submitting them through the line manager.

A Production Manager may have the authority to specify maintenance schedules for machines in
any part of the company. A Personnel Manager may have the right to establish policies and
procedures used throughout a company in the hiring of employees.

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3.3 Division of Managerial Work

This specialization of managerial work is accomplished through two organizational concepts:

• the span and level of management, and

• the decentralization of managerial authority.

Span and Levels of Management

The horizontal and vertical differentiation of activities in an organization are costly in terms of
managerial and staff personnel and also in terms of communication and co-ordination. They
remain crucial factors in organizing because of the span of management or span of executive
control - the number of subordinates a manager can effectively supervise. The smaller the span
the more levels that are needed and, of course, the more executives needed to manage the various
levels.

Decentralization of Managerial Authority

A broader span of management occurs when a managerial decentralizes authority.

Decentralization is the delegation of authority for making managerial decisions to subordinate at
lower levels in the organisation. The degree of decentralization in an organization is not
measured by the quality of the decision but rather the importance and the scope of the decision
and their impact on the entire organization.

Self Assessment Exercise 2:

In the organizing process, division of managerial work is accomplished through two

organizational concepts. What are they?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This Unit was mainly about the organizing process as a concept in an organization.

5.0 SUMMARY

Organisation process in any organization is mainly about the process in which the executive
officer strives to achieve its objectives by the combination f the people under his supervision.
An organization can be termed successful when there is a proper combination of capital and
personnel resources in that organization.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. (a) Define the term “Departmentalization.”

(b) How is departmentalization carried out in an organization?

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2. How can you establish authority relationships in an organization?

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Departmentalization is the breaking down into units, the activities of an organization to

determine which department or person is responsible for a given activity.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

(1) Span and level of management

(2) Decentralization of managerial authority.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Silverman, D. (1970): The Theory of Organization. Heineman.

Webber, M. (1964): The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Colher Machmillan.

Obisi, C. (1996): Personnel Management. Ibadan, Jackbod Enterprises.

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MODULE 4
Unit 1: Communication in Organization
Unit 2: Personnel Management and Public Administration
Unit 3: Comparative Public Administration
Unit 4: Local Government Administration

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning and Definition of the Concept of Communication
3.1.1 Importance of Communication
3.1.2 Fundamentals of Communication
3.1.3 Process of Communication
3.2 Organisational Communication
3.2.1 Downward Communication
3.2.2 Upward Communication
3.2.3 Horizontal/Diagonal Communication
3.2.4 Informal Communication/Grape Vine
3.3 Barriers to Communication
3.3.1 External Barriers
3.3.2 Emotional or Psychological Barriers
3.3.3 Organisational Barriers
3.3.4 Personal Barriers
3.4 How to make Communication Effective
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this Unit, the issue of information dissemination in an organization which is referred to as

communication is considered. No organization can function without communication.

We shall state and define he importance of communication as a management function, explain

the fundamentals of communication. We shall list the barriers to effective communication and
explain the process of communication.

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2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• state and define the importance of communication as a management function.
• explain the fundamentals of communication.
• explain the process of communication.
• list the barriers of communication.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning and Definition of the Concept of Communication

Communication is a process by which all forms of information re transferred from one person to
the other. So, for the communication to take place there must be some information to be
conveyed and there must be two or more persons – one to deliver the message and the other to
receive it. Communication is said to be perfect only when the receiver understands it in the
sense the sender expected him to understand.

According to Dale S. Beach, communication is defined as “the transfer of information and

understand from one person to another.” Communication is further defined as “a process of
meaningful interaction among human beings.” It is also a process involving the transmission and
accurate replication of ideas reinforced by feedback, purporting to stimulate section to
accomplish organizational goals.

3.1.1 The Importance of Communication

In the sphere of public administration the importance and functions of communication cannot be
over-emphasized.

All the functions of management such as planning, organizing, leading and controlling involve
the set of communication without which they cannot be performed at all.

Secondly, public administration denotes a major part of their time to the activity of
communication. Thirdly, interpersonal relations and group relations are maintained and
developed only through the system of communication.

Communication is essential to integrate and coordinate the activities of the people in the
organization. In the absence of communication, no individual worker can appreciate the overall
objectives of an organization and there is a possibility that people in the same organization will
work towards different goals instead of a common goal.

3.1.2 Fundamentals of Communication

The effectiveness of management largely depends on communication styles and abilities.

Therefore, the fundamentals of communication cannot be overlooked.

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Words do not have meaning on themselves. A word may represent a certain thing, an action or a
feeling, the meaning of words actually depends on the way they are interpreted. Words mean
different things to different people. Also different people may interpret the same word in
different ways when their background, education and the culture are different. Perceptions of
people may differ from the reality. If two people experience the same phenomenon, it cannot be
taken for granted that they have felt or perceived it in the same way, because a person’s
perception does not depend only on the physical and social environment, but also depends on his
background attitudes, prior knowledge and experiences accumulated since birth. An optimist
may say that the cup is half-full while a pessimist says that the cup is half-empt y.

Sometimes, the emotional state of a person also affects understanding. Facts must be
distinguished from opinions.

Lastly, communication is deemed complete when the receiver has understood it in the same
sense the sender has conveyed it. It is up to the sender to find out whether the receiver has
understood the true meaning of the message. So constant feedback becomes an essential
component of the communication process.

3.1.3 Process of Communication

For the communication process to be complete, it must have three elements. These are: the
Sender-Message-Receiver. Communication is a complex process that involves the following
components:

Source Encoding Transmission of Message Medium Reception Decoding

Action.

Sender - This is the person who has a message to communicate. He/she is the source where the
idea originates. He/she is the one who invites or begins the process of communication.

Encoding - This involves the translation of information into a series of symbols or gestures
which will carry the same meaning to the receiver

Message - When the information is encoded into a physical firm, it is called a message. The
form of he message should be such that it can be experienced and understood by one or more of
the senses of the receiver.

Channel - A channel is a vehicle by which the message travels to the receiver. For spoken
words, air is a channel and for written message, paper is a channel. Efficient communication
also involves the selection of appropriate channel depending on the kind of message to be
conveyed.

Decoding - When the channel brings the message to the receiver, he interprets the message and
translates it into information that is meaningful to him.

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Receiver - Receiver is a person who has to perceive the meaning of the message in its proper
sense. If the receiver does not receive the message then there is no communication.

Feedback - All that helps the sender to know what and how the receiver understood the
message is called the feedback. This is important for effective communication. Better feedback
always results in better communication. Without feedback, the communication process is not
said to be complete.

3.2 Organisational Communication

What is relevant about interpersonal communication is also true of organizational

communication. However, there are certain factors that are unique to the organization which
influences the effectiveness of communication.

According to Raymond V. Lesikar there are four factors that influence the effectiveness of
organizational communication.

• The formal channels of communication.

• The organsiation’s authority structure.
• Job specialization
• Information ownership.

The communication effectiveness is influenced by formal channels in two ways.

First, the formal channels cover the widening distance that usually occurs when the organization
develops and grow.

Second, the formal channels inhibit the free flow of information between organizational levels,
particularly in upward communication.

The authority structure in the organization also influences the effectiveness of communication.
The content and accuracy of information are also affected because of the differences in authority
and status.

Job specialization also affects the effectiveness of communication. Members belonging to the
same work group use the same jargon and understand each other better, while communication
between the highly differentiated groups is likely to be a problem for both.

Information ownership refers to the unique knowledge and information about their jobs
possessed by the individuals. For many individuals such information is a sort of power that
helps them to function more effectively than others. Most of the persons with such scales are
often reluctant to share the information with others. Hence, open communication is not always
possible in the organization.

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Organisational communication takes place in a variety of ways. It may flow vertically or

horizontally. The vertical communication can be either downward or upward.

3.2.1 Downward Communication

Downward communication starts at the top management level and goes down through all
management levels to workers. This is mainly used to advise, inform, direct, instruct and
evaluate subordinates. This is also to inform the members about organizational goals and
policies.
3.2.2 Upward Communication

What is happening at the lower levels is made known to the upper levels through the upward
communication. This is usually in the form of progress reports, suggestions, explanations and
requests. This information is particularly useful for the top management to make their policies
consistent with the attitudes of the people below.

3.2.3 Horizontal or Diagonal Communication

Communication is said to be horizontal when it takes place between two employers working at
the same level in the orgaisational hierarchy. An example is the communication between the
Accountant and the Personnel Manager.

Horizontal communication is essential because of the fact that the departments in an organization
are interdependent and the coordination of their activities is necessary.

3.2.4 Informal Communication or Grape Vine

The communication that arises not out of formal relations between people, but out of informal or
social relationships is called the grape vine or informal communication. The management has no
absolute control over this type of communication as they are not created or destroyed by it. This
kind of communication does both good and bad to the organization.

The informal channel satisfies the communication needs of the various persons. Most of the time
the information passed on this channel is false or at least inaccurate as each person may add to or
subtract from the message as desired b the perpetrators. It should be remembered that it is a part
of the manager’s job to have a little control over this informal communication so that he can take
appropriate action to minimize the adverse effects of this channel.

Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Name the four factors that influence the effectiveness of organizational communication.

3.3 Barriers to Communication

A barrier can be defined as a blockade or distortion. There are certain factors that impede the
proper floor of communication. All those factors that adversely affect effectiveness of
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communication may be called barriers to communication and are classified into six distinct
forms.
3.3.1 External Barriers

External barriers are usually in the following forms:

Semantic Barriers. These barriers arise at the stage of encoding or decoding in the process of
communication. These barriers are often due to linguistic capacity of the sender and the
receiver.

Badly Expressed Message. Here, if the message is not expressed clearly and precisely and when
the right word is not used at the right place, it may not convey the proper meaning that the person
has in mind.

Faulty Translation. Managers are often required to translate the message into a form suitable to
their superiors or subordinates. Unless one has good linguistic capacity one cannot do the job
well.

Specialized Language. Technical personnel and other experts usually fall into the habit of using
their own technical terms, which others outside their group fail to understand. Examples are
Medical Doctors and Pharmacists. This hinders communication to a large extent.

3.3.2 Emotional or Psychological Barriers

The emotional or psychological state of a person also influences the communication. The
following examples abound.

• Premature Evaluation. People often jump into conclusion even before the message is
completely communicated. This discourages the sender.

• Existence of pre-conceived notion;

• Inattention due to lack of interest;

• Distrust in the Communicator. Here, if the receiver does not trust that sender for any
reason, he does not pay the required attention to the message and he does not believe in the
message received.

• Fear

(1) Fear of misinterpretation of message by the receiver.

(2) Fear of distortion. Sometimes the message of the sender is filtered when it gets to the
receiver. This is also known as loss by transmission.

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(3) Fear of exposing self to criticism.

(4) Information is held back deliberately by the sender with the feeling that some action will
be taken against him if he expresses his opinion frankly. This is known as fear of
reprisal.

• Poor retention by the receiver due to certain disabilities;

• Defensive behavior. Employees have a tendency to become defensive when they feel they
are being threatened. In such circumstances, they tend to stop listening to the sender’s
message.

3.3.3 Organisational Barriers

Organsiational policies, rules and regulations, status relationships also affect the effectiveness of
communication. Here, the subordinates are afraid of the supper-ordinates or their superiors.

3.3.4 Personal Barriers

There are two types of personal barriers, namely: (1) Barriers in superiors; and (2) Barriers in
subordinates.

Under the barriers in the superiors are:

(a) Attitude of superiors. Here, if the superior has an unfavourable attitude to the
subordinates’ act of giving message, adequate information cannot flow from the
subordinates to the superior.

(b) Lack of Confidence in Subordinates. The information from the subordinates does not
interest the superior when he lacks confidence in him or her.

(c) Lack of Awareness of Importance of Communication. The manager does not

understand the communication with the subordinates if he does not know its importance.

(d) Insistence on Proper Channel. Superiors always insist that subordinates are often
reluctant to provide information through proper channels and this definitely discourages
him to furnish the factional information.

(e) Barriers in Subordinates

(a) Unwillingness to Communicate: Subordinates are often reluctant to provide

information for the fear of its adverse effect on the attitudes of the superiors. Even
when the information is provided, there is a tendency for certain modification.

(b) Lack of Proper Incentive: When information provided by the subordinates are not
accepted and/or ignored, they may be unwilling to provide more.

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Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Name barriers to communication.

3.4 How to make Communication Effective

For communication to be effective, four elements must be in existence.

The Content: It calls for clear thinking about the objective of the information, which must be
definite, frank and sensible, accurate clear, convincing and ……….. planned, appropriate and
effective.

The system must be clearly defined and recognized.

The technique must involve the selection of the most appropriate; the technique may be oral,
written, graphic and psychological.

The media or mode of transmission may be personal, contact, meetings, conferences, telephone,
talks, letters, reports, minutes, notices, etc.

A proper regard for content, system, technique and medium will help to communicate
effectively. The basic elements of good communication should include honesty, sincerity, clear
thought and simplicity.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Communication is conceived with the creation, transmission and the use of information. It may
be oral or written. Most of the functions of the organization are performed through
communication.

5.0 SUMMARY

It is through communication that management keeps its employees informed of policies and
plans that may affect them and what action the management expects from them in order to fulfill
the organizational objectives.

In this case communication is used as a means of monitoring and controlling performance. It is

presumed in communication concept that management can adopt this trio-way communication
system to foster the loyalty of its workers.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Examine the process of communication.

2. What do you regard as “Barriers” to communication? List and explain.

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Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

• The formal channels of communication

• The organisation’s authority structure
• Job specialization
• Infation ownershop.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

External, organizational, personal and emotional.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Rao, P. S, Rao, V. S. P. (1997): Personnel/Human Resource Management: Text, Cases, Games.

New Delhi. Ronask Publishers PVT Ltd

Adebayo, A. (1981): Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria. Spectrum

Books.

Banjoko, S. (1996): Human Resources Management: Expository Appraisal. Lagos. Sabau

Publishers

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UNIT 2 PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Aims and Objectives of Personnel Management
3.1.1 Major Personnel Management Functions: Public Sector Experience
3.1.2 Features of Personnel Management Functions in the Public Sector
3.1.3 Recruitment, Selection and Placement
3.1.4 Wages and Salaries Administration
3.1.5 Training and Manpower Development
3.1.6 Discipline, Promotion and Transfer
3.1.7 Staff Performance Appraisal
3.1.8 Human Resources Management Manpower Planning
3.1.9 Employee Motivation
3.1.10 Indus trial and Labour Relations
3.1.11 Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Personnel Management is that field of administration which is responsible for the planning,
organizing and controlling various operative functions of procuring, developing, maintaining and
utilizing the human capital in a work place.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• define Personnel Management;

• state and explain the features and functions of Personnel Management in the Public
Sector;

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Aims and Objectives of Personnel Management

As earlier defined in this Unit, Personnel Management is concerned with the procurement,
development, compensation, integration and maintenance of the human capital in any
organization.

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The aims and objectives of Personnel Management irrespective of whether in the public or
private sector, include:

• To achieve an effective utilization of human resources on the achievement of organizational

goals.

• To help the organization to secure the right type of men and women to employ.

• To maintain a high morale and better human relations inside an organization by sustaining
and improving the conditions which have been established so that employees may stay in
their jobs in a longer period.

• To recognize and satisfy individual needs and group goals by offering an adequate and
equitable remuneration and economic and social security in the form of monetary
compensation.

3.1.1 Major Personnel Management Functions: Public Sector Experience

Functions performed by personnel management could be divided into two major sectors, viz:

• Management Functions; and

• Operation Functions.

The Management Functions include:

• Planning;
• Controlling;
• Coordinating; and
• Organizing,

while the Operation Functions include:

• Recruitment, Selection and Placement;

• Manpower Planning;
• Compensation, Wages and Salaries Administration;
• Training and Development;
• Employee Motivation;
• Labour and Industrial Relations;
• Staff Performance Appraisal;
• Discipline, Promotion and Transfer; and
• Communication.

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Public Sector Experience

The management of personnel functions in the public sector can hardly be differentiated from the
political process. The Government holds political sovereignty in trust of the people.
Consequently, certain actions which may have far reaching implications for the conduct of public
personnel functions may not be issues of negotiations between the government and the workers.

In addition, the public sector is characterized by lengthening chains of command, which tends to
de-personalize the employment relationship on the part of the workers. However, in view of the
unique role of government as a pace-setter, the administration of public sector personnel
functions does not only call for policies which are consistent with economic reality and political
stability, but also the maintenance of industrial peace and democracy.

3.1.2 Features of Personnel Management Functions in the Public Sector

It is generally observed that the organization of public personnel functions is disjointed,

fragmented and highly uncoordinated especially in developing economies. In Nigeria, there are
various organs which are responsible for personnel management functions in the public sector
and these are:

• The Ministry of Establishment;

• The Public Service Commission; and
• The Head of the Civil Service.

According to the report of the Public Service Review Commission of 1974, there is lack of clear
definition of authority and responsibility for the overall management of the civil service, unlike
the private sector where the personnel functions are handled by parent organization. But the
public sector personnel functions are shared between the office of the Head of Service and
Federal Ministry of Establishment and the Federal Public Service Commission.

Even then, it is sometimes difficult to determine who has the ultimate responsibility and
authority for some personnel functions. The office of the Head of Service, which is responsible
for ensuring the efficiency of the machinery of government, has the ultimate control and
responsibility for the management or personnel functions.

3.1.3 Recruitment, Selection and Placement

Recruitment is simply the process of attracting and stimulating job applicants in order to locate a
poo l from which selection will be made.

Selection, on the other hand, takes place after the recruitment had been done and it involves
choosing the best which meets the job requirement from among the pool of recruits who have
applied for the job.

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Placement is the process of ensuring that the employees are given responsibilities for which they
are best suited considering their qualification, experience, skills as well as knowledge.

Since the objective of the recruitment, selection and its processes is to appoint the best for the job
available, employment process comes in the following manner:

• Completed Job Application

• Initial Screening Interview
• Testing
• Background Information
• Indepth Selection Interview
• Physical/Medical Examination
• Job Offer
• Placement.

Unlike the private sector which bases its employment decision strictly on merit, entry into the
Nigerian Civil Service to a large extent is based on political or tribal considerations. Political
connection is more of a qualification than merit or capability. The reason for this is not far-
fetched, the main objective of the public sector is to give as many as possible employment as
against the profit motive objective of the private sector.

The use of the quota system in appointments to Federal Institutions of higher learning has
become the order of the day. The use of the quota system is predicated on the belief that they
distribut ion of government jobs should be proportional to or representative of the population at
large. Appointments here reflect the Federal character. Whenever the quota system is used
individual’s ability and potentials are relegated to the background. Mediocrity and
incompetency are encouraged unlike the private sector where this is not allowed.

3.1.4 Wages and Salary Administration

Wages are earnings for the performance of services in a given period of time which may be daily
or weekly, while salaries can be for a prolonged period of time usually monthly.

The major factors which influences how workers will be compensated in the public sector is
based mainly on the salaries and wages commission, although lately the Unions like ASSU and
NASU have taken over the responsibility. General pay levels and policies in the public sector
are determined by a number of factors.

Notable among them is the buoyancy of the national economy, the productivity of workers, the
supply of labour and social and ethical values. The nation’s wealth reflects its ability to pay.
Government ability to pay is a function of the size of its revenue which is chiefly obtained from
oil, customs duties and taxes.

Another distinguished feature of wages and salary administration is the pay uniformity.

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3.1.5 Training and Manpower Development

Training and development is very important in a work place. Training and development
programmes foster the initiative and creativity of employees and help to prevent manpower
obsolesce, which may be due to age, temperament or motivation or the inability of a person to
adapt self to technological changes.

Training is a process or procedure trough which the skill, talent and knowledge of an employee
is enhanced and increased. Development on the other hand, is those programmes designed for
higher level personnel to enable them have under scopes.

Training is specific, short and designed for the technical staff and lower level personnel, while
development is general, long and conceptual skills are learnt.

The objectives of training and development include the following:

• high performance of the employees.

• to impact knowledge, skills and capabilities to new and old employees.
• to broaden and equip employees to carry out future rules.
• to bring about team spirit and high morale in the organization.
• to help in adapting to changing work environment and technology.

In the Nigerian public sector, any noticeable appreciation of the importance of training is only
recent. Even the training is generally not highly developed functions in most public personnel
programme.

In the Federal civil service there is no central body or agency charged with the determining
coordinating training efforts. Each department identifies its training needs, selects candidates
and organizes training programme where possible. When employees are sent on training, no one
really knows what is gained owing to the absence of any systematic evaluation of the training
and development programmes.

3.1.6 Discipline, Promotion and Transfer

Discipline can be defined as sanctions meted out to erring workers. It can come in form of
queries, warnings and in severe cases outright dismissals. Admittedly, public personnel
managers have excessive constraints on their power to dismiss or discipline event the most
grossly inefficient employee.

The notion that government jobs are “second jobs” has created a lot of laxity and indiscipline in
most public sector employees. Hence, laziness, lateness to work, violation of rules and other
undisciplined behavior permeate the civil service.

Promotion, on the other hand, is a form of level upgrade in the service as a motivational tool. It
encourages employees to perform their duties well. It has been discovered until recently, that
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promotion in the public sector is not based on merit, but rather on seniority, quota system,
federal character, ethnicity and political lineage.

The same goes with transfer which has to do with the relocation of a staff from one place to
another. Transfer can be intra and inter. Inter has to do with movement between two locations
within the service, while intra transfer is within the same office.

3.1.7 Staff Performance Appraisal

This is a systematic evaluation of the employee’s work performance and potentials with the
organization. Factors that normally come under evaluation include:

• Job Knowledge
• Amount of work performed
• Quality of work performed
• Time of Completion
• General Company information
• Appearance.

Performance appraisal is the systematic deception of an employee’s ob-relevant strengths and

weaknesses.

The basic purpose is to find out how well the employee is performing the ob and establish a plan
of improvement. They are arranged periodically according to a definite plan. Appraisals are
continuous process.

3.1.8 Human Resources/Manpower Planning

This involves all the activities that will lead to the acquisition of the right number and quality of
staff who are to do certain jobs in the organisation.

The public sector in Nigeria hardly embarks on comprehensive human resource planning,
thereby heading to over-staffing. Here, many workers are redundant and this gives room to the
existence of “ghost workers.” This usually constitutes inflated and huge labour cost to the
government.

Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Explain the term “recruitment.”

3.1.9 Employee Motivation

The specific wants of an employee may include pay, security of job, recognition, advancement,
etc. Motivation is the force behind a person’s behavior. Motivation is derived from the work
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motive. A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates and moves, directs or channels
behavior towards goals. Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of
tension or disequilibrium causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards a
state of equilibrium by satisfying the need.

According to the Encyclopedia of Management, “motivation refers to te degree of readiness of

an organization to pursue designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and focus
of the forces including the degree of readiness. There are two ways that people can be motivated:

Positive motivation - People are motivated positively when they are shown a reward which may
be financial or non-financial.

Negative Motivation – By instilling fear in the minds of people, one can get desired work done.
In this method a motivation fear of consequences of doing something or not doing it, keeps the
worker in the desired direction. This method of motivation has several limitations. Fear creates
frustration, a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude towards the job, which hinders
efficiency and productivity.

3.1.10 Industrial and Labour Relations

The need for Industrial Relations arises from the fact that attainment or organizational goals are
largely influenced by the type of relationship that exists between employers, employees and the
management.

Industrial Relations is the system, rules and procedures used by employees, unions, employers
association and government agents to determine the following:

• how to share economic return.

• how to protect the interest of staff involved.
• terms and Conditions of Employment.

The practice of industrial relations is turbulent in the public sector because of the strong central
labour organization which exists to fight against low-wage income of the public servants. The
dominant central labour organisation is the Nigerian Labour Congress.

Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Name two types of motivation.

3.1.11 Communication

Here, communication is defined as the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes
both verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept underlying all kind
of living systems.

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In the public sector because the majority of the Federal civil servants are scattered all over the
country, government gazette, radio and television and the newspapers and magazines are relied
upon by the civil servants in all tiers of government for receiving information. This is usually
slow and at times gives room for rumour and apprehension. The line of communication is longer
in the public sector and is characterised by red-tapism and bureaucracy.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The Unit was able to explain in details the personnel functions in the public sector. The
management of personnel functions is not distinguished from the political process.

5.0 SUMMARY

The Unit was able to state the salient functions of personnel management in the public sector
included recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, etc.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Isolate and discuss the environment of the practice of personnel management in the
public sector.

2. Distinguish between managerial functions and the operation functions of personnel

management in the public sector.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Recruitment is simply the process of attracting and stimulating job applicants in order to locate
the pool from which selection of employees would be made.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Positive and negative motivation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Silverman, D. (1970): The Theory of Organisation. Heineman Publishers

Lawal, A. A. (1993): Management in Focus. Abdul Indus trial Enterprises

Klatt, L. A, Murdic, Schuster, F. E. (1978): Human Resources Management. Homeroun, Illinois

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UNIT 3 COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND INTERNATIONAL

CIVIL SERVICE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning and Scope of Comparative Public Administration
3.1.1 The Structure of Public Administrative System
3.1.2 The Nature of Public Administrative System
3.2 Comparative Role of Civil Service in the Modern World (International Civil
Service)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit focuses mainly on the comparative studies of several systems of Comparative Public
Administration. Public Administration is a social science or management discipline which relies
on scientific approach to its findings. There is a need also for comparative studies to find a
suitable system for modern democracies.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• define comparative administration

• state their nature and features
• explain the structure of comparative studies
• analyse the structure of the international civil service.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Meaning and Scope of Comparative Public Administration

The primary goal of the discipline is in line with the scientific demand which is to build and test
propositions about administration and assumption that is universally shared within the public
administration fraternity. It is committed to verifiable generalized statements about public
administration across political systems and different environments.

Essentially, therefore, comparative public administration’s major interest in building theories

from the study of public administrative practice indifferent political setting so as to generate a

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universal theory of public administration that can be applied to varied cultures and political
environments.

3.1.1 The Structure of Public Administrative System

Public Administration in modern concept is a political system in action. Political system is a

modern term used to replace government, society, state and the nation. A political system is a set
of interactions abstracted from the totality of social behavior through which authoritative values
are allocated to the society.

Under this classification are:

Despotism – Here, only one man known as a despot controls the administration.

Democracy – Here, the will of the people dictates the direction of the administration.

Limited Monarchy – Here, the head of state is a king who is generally a hereditary one but the
real authority is not enjoyed by the king but by the people. He acts on the advice of his
ministers.

Republic – Here the head of state is elected by the people either directly or indirectly. His tenure
of office is fixed but he can be removed before the expiration of the tenure.

Unitary – In a unitary state, the central government is the fountain head of all the process and
states are completely subordinated to the centre.

Federal – Here, state process are distributed between the states and local governments by the
constitution. Both the centre and the states are independent and autonomous in their own
sphere.

Parliamentary – Parliamentary system represents dual leadership in administration. On the

other hand, the Head of State is two-in-one – normal and real executive.

The real executive is the prime minister and the cabinet and the normal chief executive is either
the king or the president. This is based on the principles of collective responsibility.

Presidential – Here the head of state is the head of state and is regarded as the real executive
which is called the president.

It is not an easy task to make a comparative study of various structures in public administration
due to variations in different political systems.

However, the nature, the scope and the structure of public administration depends largely on the
cultural and ideological background of different people in different geographical locations.

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3.1.2 The Nature of Public Administration Systems

Here the nature is divided into two – broad and narrow.

The narrow concept looks at public administration from:

• the narrow angles of public sector only.

• the executive side of government.
• the function of the chief executive.

The broad nature looks at public administration from a wider angle, viz:

• Public, Private and the joint sectors of the economy;

• The organs of government – judiciary, executive and legislature;

• The environmental conditions – treats comparative administration within the fields of

traditional, transitional and modern administration. It further handles administration from
internal and external management environment.

• The study aspect – handles public administration as a subject or programme of study.

Self Assessment Exercise 1:

Define Comparative Public Administration.

3.2 Comparative Role of Civil Service: International Civil Service

International Civil Service is organized on the same principles on which national civil services
are organized. The merits are political neutrality, impartiality, independence and loyalty.

International civil servants are persons who, on the basis of an international treaty, constitution
and a particular international community, are appointed by the international or by an organ of it
and are under its control to exercise, in a continuous way, functions on the interest of this
particular international community and who are subject to a particular personnel status.

On comparative analysis, the role of civil service and modern international affairs were seen
from various contributory bases. In service to humanity, the civil servants within the civil
service structure made efficient and effective use of these principles and practices in providing
the much needed services to humanity.

Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Name 5 structures in comparative Public Administration.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this Unit, the issues of Comparative Public Administration were thoroughly analysed.

5.0 SUMMARY

The Unit was able to define the Comparative Public Administration, the nature, structure and the
bases for comparison.

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Make a commentary on the broad nature of Public Administration.

2. Structuralized the concept “Comparative Public Administration.”

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

It is a system of administration where political systems are compared.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 2:

Despotism
Democracy
Monarchical
Republican
Unitary
Federal
Presidential
Parliamentary

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Allan, D. (1995): Good Government and Sustainable Anti-Corruption Agencies: A Journal of

Public Administration and Development, 15

Stillman, R. J. (1980) : Public Administration Concepts and Cases. 2nd Ed. Houghton Muflin
Company

Kwaku, A. ( ): Principles of Modern Government. University of Ghana’s Institute, Adult

Education

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Unit 4 LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION

Table of Content

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Concept of Local Government Administration
3.1.1 Reasons for the Creation of Local Government
3.1.2 Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government Institution
3.1.3 Legal Framework of Local Government
3.1.4 Functions of Local Government
3.2 Local Government Finance
3.3 Central Government Controls of Local Governments
3.3.1 Legislative Controls
3.3.2 Judicial Control
3.3.3 Administrative Control
3.3.4 Financial Control
3.4 Problems Facing Local Governments in Nigeria and the Region in General
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Questions
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit will introduce a student to some basic concepts that describe local governments on the
basis of how much power local governments enjoy vis-à-vis the central government.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the time you go through this Unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of Local Government.

• state explain the legal framework and control in Local Government Administration
• reasons for the creation of Local Government
• highlight the principles behind the creation of Local Government institutions.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Concept Classification in Local Government Administration

Local Government is the closest tier of government to the people. In a unitary system, power is
shared between the central government and the local government.

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In a Federal system, power is shared between Federal, State and Local Governments.

Local Governments are grass root governments recognized by law. It is further defined as a sub-
unit of government controlled by a local council which is authorised by the central government
to pass ordinances having a local application, levy taxes, or exact labour and within limit
specified by the central government which by implication the constitution, vary centrally decided
policies in local applications.

3.1.1 Reasons for the Creation of Local Government

The reasons for the creation of local governments include the following:

• The consideration and the making of recommendations to a state commission on economic

planning or any similar body on the economic development of the state, particularly in so far
as the area of authority of the council and of the state are affected and proposals made by the
said commission or body.

• Collection of rates, radio and television licenses;

• Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, etc.;

• Licensing of bicycles, trucks, etc.;

• Registration of births and deaths;

• Provision and maintenance of health services;

• Naming and numbering of streets.

3.1.2 Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government Administration

In establishing local units and in assigning powers to them a state should observe the following
norms:

• Firstly, it should attempt to set units that have homogenous populations whose affairs need
common local management.

• Secondly, it should retain the two to rearrange the units when local conditions change.

• The state should guard against designating an excessive number of units as this would result
in overlapping powers, duplication of functions and consequent wastage of public funds.

• It should centre the responsibility clearly within each unit, so that separately appointed
officers will not abscond or relegate their duties.

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• The central government should reserve the executive power to appoint and certainly to
remove officers entrusted with the administration of state laws.

• It should properly supervise the exercise of power within the local government by working
towards the prevention of dishonesty and inefficiency.

3.1.3 The Legal Framework of Local Government

Local authorities are “corporations with perpetual succession.” This means that:

1. They have a legal existence like an ordinary individual. They can sue and be sued in the
courts of law as if they are individuals.

2. Unlike individuals, they never die. They are continually in existence, though all the
counselors may change owing to death or defeat in the council polls.

3. Local Councils can only act within the framework of the law.

4. The law which binds local authorities may be either mandatory or permissive. A
mandatory law is one which orders a local authority to do something and a permissive
law permits if it wishes.

5. Local authorities may pass bye-laws which have the full force of laws with the authority
areas to enable them to carry out their responsibilities.

3.1.4 Functions of Local Government

The functions of local governments are usually spelt out by the central government and the local
units are expected to operate within the framework of the statutes establishing it. That is to say
that local government functions are contained in the constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, which pronounces their existence.

The functions or services provided by local authorities include the provision of the followings:

(a) Health and environmental services such as public health, etc.

(b) Personal services, e.g. church, school, hospital, market, etc.
(c) Protective services like fire fighting
(d) Trading services, e.g. bus transport
(e) Economic ventures.
(f) Legal services – marriage services, etc.

It is pertinent to restate that the functions are of two main types: mandatory and permissive.

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3.2 Local Government Finance

Local authorities need money to be able to perform both mandatory and permissive functions.
Each year draft estimate of what it proposes to spend during the financial year is prepared.

Local authorities derive their funds from two main sources - external and internal sources.

Internal Sources

These are local revenues (revenues that are within the tax jurisdiction of local government) and
are classified as local tax revenues, user charges and administrative revenues. The dominant and
the most promising of this three is tax revenue. The principles of taxation are efficiency, equity
and revenue productivity.

Tax administration must be much easier to manage at the city or urban level than the rural area.
Under taxes we have property tax and user charges.

Self Assessment Exercise 1:

List the general/administrative revenues of local government.

External Sources

The major external source available to local governments is generally classified as grants. Here
there are two types of grants – general revenue or unconditional grants, specific or conditional
grants and loans.

3.3 Central Government Controls of Local Governments

There are three main central government organs – the legislative, executive and the judiciary.

3.3.1 Legislative Control

Local governments normally operate within the framework of the laws passed by the legislature
because local authorities are the creations of the supreme legislative organ of the state. The
parliament can amend the law establishing such authorities at any time.

Besides it can also enact laws forbidding the local authority to take certain actions. All bye-laws
must be approved by the appropriate authorities before enactment.

3.3.2 Judicial Control

Judicial control is exercised by the courts under the doctrine of ultra vires. The court may
declare void any Acts of local authorities which are contrary to the law in excess of the powers
granted her by the legislature. Any citizen or group of citizens who consider themselves to be

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angered by any action of a local government can institute a legal action against the local
authority.

3.3.3 Administrative Control

The central government, through the minister for local government, has regulating powers over
the appointment conditions of service and dismissal of local government officers.

Central government has the power to suspend or dismiss local authorities and may, in certain
circumstances, order a private or public inquiry into a local authority’s affairs. A management
committee may be set up to take over the functions of a council.

Ministers, commissioners or senior civil servants as in Western Nigeria, are appointed by central
government to take responsibility for the local administration of major areas of the country.
These representatives of the central government are expected to take a close interest in the affairs
of local authorities in their areas and often attend council and supervisory powers prescribed by
statute.

3.3.4 Financial Control

The bulk of local government revenue comes from grants from the central government. The
central government, after warning the local government, may decide to reduce the grant or to
withhold its entirely if the services for which such grants have been allocated are either not being
provided or provided unsatisfactorily. If the grant is withheld, the council can hardly function.

At the end of the financial year, annual accounts are prepared showing active revenue and
expenditure and are subject to audit. If the auditor detects ay improper, unauthorized or charge
upon the person on whom the surcharge is imposed must refund to local authority out of his or
their own pocket the sum of money surcharged.

3.4 Problems Facing Local Governments in West Africa

As important as local government administration is to the development of any nation,

nevertheless it is confronted with many problems.

Financial

Lack of adequate financial resources is the major handicap of local authorities in Nigeria. A
collection of several factors have compounded these problems, e.g. some local governments have
a weak revenue base; people do not pay taxes as amenities which they are taxed are never
provided.

Excessive embezzlement is another factor confronting the local councils. Furthermore, lack of
proper method of revenue collection had in the past resulted in inadequate financial support. The
method of collection was inefficient.

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Political

Changes in government accompanied by changes in local government structures have not

provided the required stability and performance that local government institutions need to fulfill
their objectives.

Besides the presence of ineffective and incompetent political functionaries in the membership of
the councils coupled with the interference in the operations of the local governments have not
only discriminated against certain areas in terms of the provision of social amenities but also by
such actions encouraged the people to refuse to support the councils financially.

Another political constraint has been the lack of political or ideological framework with its
consequent ill-denied functions of the agencies of local government. There have been duplicate
operational inefficiencies and waste of material and human resources because the federal
government agencies at the local level used to exercise similar functions.

Administrative

Although the Federal government controls over local government authorities have been spelt out
in details yet there is lack of rigid enforcement of these federal government controls.
Consequently, the local authorities have, in certain areas, neglected the performance of the
statutory functions with impunity.

The appointment of incompetent staff to manage the local government machineries is another
major constraint. The qualified personnel often migrate to the urban centres for well-paid jobs.
The effect of this is moral brain drain which gives opportunity to half-baked individuals who are
also incompetent in their duties.

Secondly, border dispute amongst the local government authorities is another major problem
confronting local councils. This problem had caused serious problems which had led to killings
and arson. Examples are those of Osun and Bauchi States.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This Unit was able to highlight everything about the local government in Nigeria – definitions,
concepts and problems confronting it.

5.0 SUMMARY

This Unit, in a nutshell, was able to define local government, the reasons for its creation, the
principles underlying its creation, financing, control system and problems confronting the
system.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY
Virac, Catanduanes

6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. State and explain the four characteristics of local government that enjoy dissolution of
powers.

2. Discuss the reasoning being the concept of grass root government.

3. Highlight and explain the problems confronting local government councils.

Answer to Self Assessment Exercise 1:

• Taxes
• Rates
• Local fees
• Earnings from commercial ventures
• Local Government property
• Interest payment on dividends

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpan, P.C. (1984): Modern Local Government Administration in Nigeria.

Barber, M. P. (1975): Local Government. 3rd Ed. Macdonald and Evans

Adigwe, F. (1974): Essentials of Government for West Africa. University of Ibadan Press

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