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Object Oriented System Design (KCS-054)
Course Outcome ( CO) Bloom’s Knowledge Level (KL)
At the end of course , the student will be able to:
Understand the application development and analyze the insights of object oriented K2, K4
CO 1
programming to implement application
CO 2 Understand, analyze and apply the role of overall modeling concepts (i.e. System, structural) K2, K3
CO 3 Understand, analyze and apply oops concepts (i.e. abstraction, inheritance) K2, K3, K4
Understand the basic concepts of C++ to implement the object oriented concepts K2, K3
CO 4
CO 5 To understand the object oriented approach to implement real world problem. K2, K3
DETAILED SYLLABUS 3-0-0
Unit Topic Proposed
Lecture
Introduction: The meaning of Object Orientation, object identity, Encapsulation, information
I hiding, polymorphism, generosity, importance of modelling, principles of modelling, object oriented 08
modelling, Introduction to UML, conceptual model of the UML, Architecture.
Basic Structural Modeling: Classes, Relationships, common Mechanisms, and diagrams. Class
&Object Diagrams: Terms, concepts, modelling techniques for Class & Object Diagrams.
Collaboration Diagrams: Terms, Concepts, depicting a message, polymorphism in collaboration
Diagrams, iterated messages, use of self in messages. Sequence Diagrams: Terms, concepts,
II depicting asynchronous messages with/without priority, call-back mechanism, broadcast messages. 08
Basic Behavioural Modeling: Use cases, Use case Diagrams, Activity Diagrams, State Machine ,
Process and thread, Event and signals, Time diagram, interaction diagram, Package diagram.
Architectural Modeling: Component, Deployment, Component diagrams and Deployment
diagrams.
Object Oriented Analysis: Object oriented design, Object design, Combining three models, Designing
algorithms, design optimization, Implementation of control, Adjustment of inheritance, Object
representation, Physical packaging, Documenting design considerations.
Structured analysis and structured design (SA/SD), Jackson Structured Development
III (JSD).Mapping object oriented concepts using non-object oriented language, Translating classes into 08
data structures, Passing arguments to methods, Implementing inheritance, associations encapsulation.
Object oriented programming style: reusability, extensibility, robustness, programming in the
large. Procedural v/s OOP, Object oriented language features. Abstraction and Encapsulation.
C++ Basics : Overview, Program structure, namespace, identifiers, variables, constants, enum,
operators, typecasting, control structures
IV C++ Functions : Simple functions, Call and Return by reference, Inline functions, Macro Vs. Inline 08
functions, Overloading of functions, default arguments, friend functions, virtual functions
Objects and Classes : Basics of object and class in C++, Private and public members, static data
and function members, constructors and their types, destructors, operator overloading, type
conversion. Inheritance : Concept of Inheritance, types of inheritance: single, multiple, multilevel,
V 08
hierarchical, hybrid, protected members, overriding, virtual base class
Polymorphism : Pointers in C++, Pointes and Objects, this pointer, virtual and pure virtual
functions, Implementing polymorphism
Text Books
1. James Rumbaugh et. al, “Object Oriented Modeling and Design”, Pearson Education
2. Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh, Ivar Jacobson, “The Unified Modeling Language User Guide”, Pearson
Education
3. Object Oriented Programming With C++, E Balagurusamy, McGraw Hill.
4. C++ Programming, Black Book, Steven Holzner, dreamtech
5. Object Oriented Programming in Turbo C++, Robert Lafore, Galgotia
6. Object Oriented Programming with ANSI and Turbo C++, Ashok Kamthane, Pearson
7. The Compete Reference C++, Herbert Schlitz, McGraw Hill.
Curriculum & Evaluation Scheme CS & CSE (V & VI semester) 11
Object Oriented System Design 1–1 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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1 Introduction

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction, The Meaning ..................... 1–2L to 1–11L
of Object Orientation,
Object Identity, Encapsulation,
Information Hiding,
Polymorphism, Generosity

Part-2 : Importance of Modelling, ...................... 1–11L to 1–19L

Principles of Modelling,
Object-oriented Modelling

Part-3 : Introduction of UML, ............................. 1–19L to 1–22L

Conceptual Model of UML,
Architecture
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PART-1
Introduction, The Meaning of Object Orientation, Object Identity,
Encapsulation, Information Hiding, Polymorphism, Generosity.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Explain object-oriented approach with its benefits.

Answer
1. In the object-oriented approach, the focus is on capturing the structure
and behavior of information systems into small modules that combines
both data and process.
2. The main aim of Object Oriented Design (OOD) is to improve the quality
and productivity of system analysis and design by making it more usable.
3. In analysis phase, OO models are used to fill the gap between problem
and solution.
4. It performs well in situation where systems are undergoing continuous
design, adaption, and maintenance.
5. It identifies the objects in problem domain, classifying them in terms of
data and behavior.
6. Following are the benefits of object-oriented approach :
a. It facilitates changes in the system at low cost.
b. It promotes the reuse of components.
c. It simplifies the problem of integrating components to configure
large system.
d. It simplifies the design of distributed systems.

Que 1.2. Describe the elements of object-oriented system.

Answer
Following are the elements of object-oriented system :
1. Objects :
a. An object is something that is exists within problem domain and
can be identified by data (attribute) or behavior.
b. All tangible entities (student, patient) and some intangible entities
(bank account) are modeled as object.
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2. Attributes : They describe information about the object.
3. Behavior :
a. It specifies what the object can do.
b. It defines the operation performed on objects.
4. Class :
a. A class encapsulates the data and its behavior.
b. Objects with similar meaning and purpose grouped together as
class.
5. Methods :
a. Methods determine the behavior of a class.
b. They are nothing more than an action that an object can perform.
6. Message :
a. A message is a function or procedure call from one object to another.
b. They are information sent to objects to trigger methods.

Que 1.3. Describe the features of object-oriented languages ?

AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

OR
Explain the major features of Object-Oriented Programming.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Features of object-oriented language are :
1. Encapsulation :
i. Encapsulation means that data are encapsulated inside an inviolable
shell along with the methods required to use it.
Object 1 Object 2
Message C

Method 2
Method 1

Data Data

Method 1
Method 5
Method 3
Method 6
Message B

Message A

Fig. 1.3.1. Message passing between objects with encapsulation,

activating methods that can use or modify the data
within their object.
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ii. The only way to reach the data is through these particular methods
(see Fig. 1.3.1).
iii. It is the mechanism that binds together code and the data it
manipulates.
iv. This concept is also used to hide the internal representation, or
state, of an object from the outside.
2. Polymorphism :
i. Polymorphism means having many forms.
ii. Polymorphism is the ability of a message to be displayed in more
than one form.
iii. It plays an important role in allowing objects having different
internal structure to share the same external interface.
3. Inheritance :
i. Inheritance is the ability to create classes that share the attributes
and methods of existing classes, but with more specific features.
ii. Inheritance is mainly used for code reusability.

Que 1.4. Describe steps of object-oriented design.

AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
Steps of object-oriented design :
1. System analysis :
i. In this stage a statement of the problem is formulated and a model
is build. This phase show the important properties associated with
the situation.
ii. The analysis model is a concise, precise abstraction and agreement
on how the desired system must be developed.
iii. The objective is to provide a model that can be understood by any
application experts in the area.
2. System design :
i. At this stage, the complete system architecture is designed.
ii. In this stage the whole system is divided into subsystems, based on
system analysis model and the proposed architecture of the system.
3. Object design :
i. At this stage, a design model is developed based on the analysis
model.
ii. The object design decides the data structures and algorithms needed
to implement each of the classes in the system.
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4. Final implementation :
i. At this stage, the final implementation of classes and relationships
developed during object design takes place.
ii. Actual implementation should be done using software engineering
practice. This helps to develop a flexible and extensible system.

Que 1.5. Differentiate between structured approach and object

oriented approach.

Answer

S. No. Structured approach Object oriented approach

1. It wo rks with Top-down It works with Bo ttom-up
approach. approach.
2. Program is divided into number Program is organized by having
of sub-modules or functions. number of classes and objects.
3. Function call is used. Message passing is used.
4. Software reuse is not possible. Reusability is possible.
5. Structured design Object orie nted design
programming usually left until programming done concurrently
end phases. with other phases.
6. Structured Design is more It is suitable for in-ho use
suitable for off-shoring. development.
7. It shows clear transition from Not so clear transition from design
design to implementation. to implementation.
8. It is suitable for real time It is suitable for most business
system, embedded system and applications, game development
projects where objects are not projects, which are expected to
the most useful level o f customize or extended.
abstraction.
9. DFD & E-R diagram model the Class diagram, sequence diagram,
data. state chart diagram, and use cases
all contribute.
10. In this, projects can be managed In this approach, projects can be
easily due to clearly identifiable difficult to manage due to uncertain
phases. transitions between phases.

Que 1.6. Write short notes on : Compare procedural

programming with object-oriented programming with examples.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05
OR
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What is the difference between Procedure Based programming
language and Object-Oriented programming language ?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
OR
Write short notes on : Procedural v/s OOP.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer

S. No. Procedural Oriented Object-Oriented

Programming Programming

1. In procedural programming, In object-oriented programming,

program is divided into small program is divided into small parts
parts called functions. called objects.
2. Pro ce dural programming Object-oriented programming
follows top down approach. follows bottom up approach.
3. There is no access specifier in Object-oriented programming has
procedural programming. access specifiers like private,
public, protected etc.
4. Adding new data and function Adding new data and function is
is not easy. easy.
5. Procedural programming does Object-oriented programming
not have any proper way for provides data hiding so it is more
hiding data so it is less secure. secure.
6. In procedural programming, Ove rloading is po ssible in
overloading is not possible. object-oriented programming.
7. In procedural programming, In object-oriented programming,
function is more important data is more important than
than data. function.
8. Procedural programming is Object-oriented programming is
based on unreal world. based on real world.
9. Examples : C, FORTRAN, Examples : C++, Java, Python,
Pascal, Basic etc. C# etc.

Que 1.7. What do you understand by object-oriented technology ?

Discuss the pros and cons of object-oriented technology with
suitable example. AKTU 2011-12, Marks 10
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OR
What do you mean by object-oriented techniques ? Explain with
some examples. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 10

Answer
1. Object-Oriented Technology (OOT) is an approach to program
organization and development that attempts to reduce some of the issues
with conventional programming techniques.
2. It is a new way of organizing and developing programs and has nothing
to do with any particular programming language.
3. However, not all languages are suitable to implement the object-oriented
concepts or implement partial features of object-oriented concepts.
Pros of object-oriented technology are :
1. It allows parallel development : If we are working with programming
teams, then each can work independently of one another once the
modular classes have been worked out.
2. The modular classes are often reusable : Once the modular classes
have been created, they can often be used again in other applications or
projects.
3. The coding is easier to maintain :
a. With OOP, because our coding base has been centralized, it is easier
to create a maintainable procedure code.
b. That makes it easier to keep our data accessible when it becomes
necessary to perform an upgrade.
c. This process also improves the security of the programming since
high levels of validation are often required.
Cons of object-oriented technology are :
1. It is inefficient :
a. Object-oriented programming tends to use more CPU than
alternative options.
b. That can make it inefficient choice when there are technical
limitations involved due to the size.
2. It is scalable :
a. If OOP is out of control, then it can create a massive amount of
bloated, unnecessary code.
b. When that occurs, the overhead rises and that makes it difficult to
keep costs down.
3. It causes duplication :
a. OOP projects tend to be easier to design than implement.
b. That is because of the modular classes that are so flexible in their
application.
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c. We may be able to get new projects up and running at a greater
speed, but that comes at the cost of having projects sometimes feel
like they have been cloned.

Que 1.8. What do you understand by object identity ? Explain

with an example. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
1. Object identity is a property of data that is created in the context of an
object data model, where an object is assigned a unique internal object
identifier, or object ID.
2. The object identifier is used to define associations between objects and
to support retrieval and comparison of object-oriented data based on the
internal identifier rather than the attribute values of an object.
3. There are many techniques for identifying objects in programming
languages.
4. OO languages have built-in mechanisms for identifying objects. There
is no need to create explicit object identifier types.
5. For example : In C++ an objects actual memory address serves as a
unique identifier and can be obtained by applying the '&' operator to an
object or object reference.
6. Object identity can be tested by pointer comparison.

Que 1.9. Explain encapsulation with example.

OR
Discuss the concept of encapsulation with suitable example.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05
OR
What do you mean by encapsulation ? How does the object-oriented
concept of message passing help to encapsulate the implementation
of an object, including its data ?
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
1. Encapsulation consists of separating the external aspects of an object,
which are accessible to other objects, from the internal implementation
details of the object, which are hidden from other objects.
2. Encapsulation prevents a program from becoming so interdependent
that a small change has massive ripple effects.
3. The implementation of an object can be changed without affecting the
applications that use it.
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4. One may want to change the implementation of an object to improve
performance, fix a bug, consolidate code, or for porting.
5. To understand encapsulation, let us consider the object ‘Employee’.
6. The attributes of employees say ‘salary’ is kept hidden inside the object
and may be made accessible only through the method meant for the
purpose.
7. The method resides within the object.
For example, if getSalary() is a method of the object ‘Employee’ to get
the salary of an employee, then the salary of an employee can be obtained
by no other way but by this method.
8. Other objects can also send messages to the object ‘Employee’ and get
the salary of an employee by the getSalary() method.
9. Other objects need not be concerned with the attributes and internal
structure of the object.
10. This is shown in Fig. 1.9.1. The figure shows that attributes are hidden
inside the object by a method.

Methods

Message Attribute Message

hidden

Fig. 1.9.1. Encapsulation of an object.

Using message passing to encapsulate the implementation of

an object : Other parts of a system only see an object’s interface (services
it can perform and operation signatures). Internal details including data
are hidden and can only be accessed by a message that contains a valid
signature.

Que 1.10. Write short note on information hiding.

Answer
1. Information hiding is the process of hiding the details of an object or
function.
2. The hiding of these details results in an abstraction, which reduces the
external complexity and makes the object or function easier to use.
3. In addition, information hiding effectively decouples the calling code
from the internal workings of the object or function being called, which
makes it possible to change the hidden portions without having to also
change the calling code.
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4. Encapsulation is a common technique programmers use to implement
information hiding.
5. Advantage of information hiding is yielding flexibility, such as allowing
a programmer to more readily modify a program.
6. This also may be done by placing source code within modules for easy
access in the future, as the program develops and evolves.

Que 1.11. What do you mean by polymorphism ? Explain it with

an example. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

OR
What do you mean by polymorphism ? Is this concept only applicable
to object-oriented systems ? Explain.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05
OR
Define polymorphism. Is this concept only applicable to object-
oriented systems ? Explain. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. Polymorphism means having many forms.
2. Polymorphism is the ability of a message to be displayed in more than
one form.
3. It plays an important role in allowing objects having different internal
structure to share the same external interface.
4. An operation is a function that may be applied to or by objects in a class.
5. Open, close, hide, and redisplay are operations on class Window. All
objects in a class share the same operations.
6. Each operation has a target object as an implicit argument.
7. The behavior of the operation depends on the class of its target.
8. An object “knows” its class, and hence the right implementation of the
operation.
9. The same operation may apply to many different classes. Such an
operation is polymorphic; i.e., the same operation takes on different
forms in different classes.
10. For example, the class File may have an operation print.
11. Different methods could be implemented to print ASCII files, print binary
files, and print digitized picture files.
12. All these methods logically perform the same task. However, each method
may be implemented by a different piece of code.
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Applicability of polymorphism :
1. In programming languages there are two types of polymorphism ad-hoc
and universal.
2. There are two kinds of universal polymorphism: parametric and
subtyping.
3. Ad-hoc polymorphism is a kind of polymorphism in which polymorphic
functions can be applied to arguments of different types.
4. In universal (parametric) polymorphism, the polymorphic functions are
written without mention of any specific type.
5. The ad-hoc polymorphism is applicable in both traditional and object-
oriented programming environments, whereas universal polymorphism
only applies to object-oriented systems.

PART-2
Importance of Modelling, Principles of Modelling,
Object-oriented Modelling.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. What do you mean by modeling ? Discuss several

purposes served by models with suitable examples.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
1. A model is an abstraction of something for the purpose of understanding
it before building it.
2. Since a model leave out non essential detail, it is easier to manipulate
them.
3. To build hardware and software systems, the developer needs to :
i. Abstract different views of the system.
ii. Build models using precise notations.
iii. Make sure that the model satisfy the requirements of the system.
iv. Add details to transform the model into an implementation.
4. Model serves the following purpose :
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a. Testing a physical entity before building it :
i. Simulating a model is cheaper. Also, it provides information that
is too inaccessible to be measured from physical model.
ii. Computer models are usually cheaper than building a complete
system and it enable flaws to be corrected early.
For example : Scale models of airplane and cars are tested in wind
tunnels to improve their aerodynamic.
b. Communication with customers :
i. Software designers build models to show their customers.
For example : Demonstration products like mock-ups that imitate some
or all of the external behavior of a system.
c. Visualization :
i. Storyboards of movies, television shows, and advertisements allow
the writers to see how their idea flows.
ii. Using models unnecessary segments can be modified before the
final development begins.
d. Reduction of complexity :
i. Modeling helps in understanding the systems that are too complex
to understand directly.
ii. Model reduces complexity by leaving out the non essential details.

Que 1.13. What are the different models used in object oriented
languages ?
OR
Write short note on dynamic modeling and functional modeling.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
There are three types of models in object oriented languages are :
1. Object model :
a. The object model identifies the classes in the system and their
relationship, as well as their attributes and operations.
b. It represents the static structure of the system. The object model is
represented graphically by a class diagram.
2. Dynamic model :
a. The dynamic model indicates the dynamics of the objects and their
changes in state.
b. The dynamic model captures the functional behavior of the system
by exploring the behavior of the objects over time and the flow of
control and events among the objects.
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3. Functional model :
a. The functional model is a data flow diagram of the system and
describes what the system does, not how it is done.
b. A DFD is a network representation of the system to show the
functional relationships of the values that are computed by a system.
c. Data flow diagrams consist of processes, data flows, actors and data
stores.

Que 1.14. Write short notes on :

a. Data store
b. Actors
c. Control flow AKTU 2015-16, Marks 15

Answer
a. Data store :
1. A data store is a passive object within a data flow diagram that stores
data for later access.
2. Unlike an actor, a data store does not generate any operations on its
own but merely responds to requests to store and access data.
3. A data store allows values to be accessed in a different order than they
are generated.
4. A data store is drawn as a pair of parallel lines containing the name of
the store.
5. Input arrows indicate information or operations that modify the stored
data; this includes adding elements, modifying values, or deleting
elements.
6. Output arrows indicate information retrieved from the store. This
includes retrieving the entire value or some component of it.
b. Actors :
1. An actor is an active object that drives the data flow graph by producing
or consuming values.
2. Actors are attached to the inputs and outputs of a data flow graph.
3. Examples of actors include the user of a program, a thermostat, and a
motor under computer control.
4. An actor is drawn as a rectangle to show that it is an object. Arrows
between the actor and the diagram are inputs and outputs of the
diagram.
c. Control flow :
1. A data flow diagram shows all possible computation paths for values; it
does not show which paths are executed and in what order.
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2. This is done by including control flows in the data flow diagram.
3. A control flow is a Boolean value that affects whether a process is
evaluated.
4. The control flow is not an input value to the process itself.
5. A control flow is shown by a dotted line from a process producing a
Boolean value to the process being controlled.

Que 1.15. What are the principles of modeling ? What is the

importance of modeling ? AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

OR
What are the basic principles of modeling ? Explain in detail.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Principles of modeling are :
1. The choice of what models to create has a profound influence
on how a problem is attacked and how a solution is shaped :
This means choose correct model as per the requirement of problem
statement.
2. Every model may be expressed at different levels of precision :
This means all the user and developers both may visualize a system at
different levels of details at different time.
3. The best models are connected to reality : This means that the
model must have things that are practically possible. They must satisfy
the real word scenarios.
4. No single model is sufficient, Every non-trivial system is best
approached through a small set of nearly independent models :
This means we need to have use case view, design view, process view,
implementation view and development view. Each of these views may
have structural as well as behavioral aspects. Together these views
represent a system.
Importance of modeling :
Modeling help the development team better to visualize the plan of their
system and allow them to develop more rapidly by helping them build
the right thing.

Que 1.16. Define object-oriented modeling (OOM). Describe various

steps involved in OOM process. Explain.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05
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Answer
Object-oriented modeling :
1. Object-oriented modeling (OOM) is the construction of objects using a
collection of objects that contain stored values of the instance variables
found within an object.
2. Object-oriented modeling is an approach to modeling an application that
is used at the beginning of the software life cycle when using an object-
oriented approach to software development.
Steps involved in OOM process :
1. System analysis :
i. In this stage a statement of the problem is formulated and a model
is build. This phase show the important properties associated with
the situation.
ii. The analysis model is a concise, precise abstraction and agreement
on how the desired system must be developed.
iii. The objective is to provide a model that can be understood by any
application experts in the area.
2. System design :
i. At this stage, the complete system architecture is designed.
ii. In this stage the whole system is divided into subsystems, based on
system analysis model and the proposed architecture of the system.
3. Object design :
i. At this stage, a design model is developed based on the analysis
model.
ii. The object design decides the data structures and algorithms needed
to implement each of the classes in the system.
4. Final implementation :
i. At this stage, the final implementation of classes and relationships
developed during object design takes place.
ii. Actual implementation should be done using software engineering
practice. This helps to develop a flexible and extensible system.

Que 1.17. Define link and association. Discuss the role of link and
association in object modeling with suitable example.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05
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Answer
1. Link and association in object modeling represent the relation between
objects and classes.
2. Link : Link defines the relationship between two or more objects and a
link is considered as an instance of an association.
3. Association : It is a group of links that relates objects from the same
classes.
4. For example :
i. Let us take the two classes Person and Company. Now there is an
association relation between these two classes.
ii. A person may own stock in zero or more companies.
iii. Also it can be related in reverse that a company may have several
persons owing its stock.
iv. The object diagram below shows the links between the objects of
person and company class.

jhon:Person
name=“jhon”

Marry:Person
name=“jhon” jhon:Person
name=“jhon”
James:Person
name=“jhon”
jhon:Person

Sue:Person name=“jhon”

name=“jhon”

Kriti:Person
name=“jhon”

Links in Object Diagram

Fig. 1.17.1.

v. The class diagram below shows the association between the person
and the company class. Both link and association are represented
with a line in UML notation.
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Person OwnsStock Company
Name * * Name

Association in class diagram

Fig. 1.17.2.

Que 1.18. What do you mean by object modeling technique ?

Explain. Discuss the various stages of the object modeling
techniques with some example. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Object modeling technique :
1. The Object Modeling Technique (OMT) is the methodology that combines
the three views of modeling system, i.e., the object model, the dynamic
model and the functioned model.
2. These three models separate a system into orthogonal views that can be
represented and manipulated with a uniform notation.
Stages of object modeling technique :
1. Analysis :
a. Starting from a statement of the problem, the analyst builds a
model of the real-world situation showing its important properties.
b. The analysis model is a concise, precise abstraction of what the
desired system must do.
c. The objects in the model should be application-domain concepts.
d. A good model can be understood by application experts who are
not programmers.
e. For example, a Window class in a workstation windowing system
would be described in terms of the attributes and operations visible
to a user.
2. System design :
a. The system designer makes high-level decisions about the overall
architecture.
b. During system design, the target system is organized into
subsystems based on both the analysis structure and the proposed
architecture.
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c. The system designer must decide what performance characteristics
to optimize, developing strategy for solving the problem, and
making tentative resource allocations.
d. For example, the system designer might decide that changes to
the workstation screen must be fast and smooth and choose an
appropriate communications protocol and memory buffering
strategy.
3. Object design :
a. The object designer builds a design model based on the analysis
model but containing implementation details.
b. The designer adds details to the design model in accordance with
the strategy established during system design.
c. The focus of object design is the data structures and algorithms
needed to implement each class.
d. The object classes are augmented with computer-domain data
structures and algorithms chosen to optimize important
performance measures.
e. For example, the Window class operations are now specified in
terms of the underlying hardware and operating system.
4. Implementation :
a. The object classes and relationships developed during object design
are finally implemented.
b. During implementation, it is important to follow good software
engineering practice so that traceability to the design is straight-
forward and so that the implemented system remains flexible and
extensible.
c. For example, the Window class would be coded in a programming
language, using calls to the underlying graphics system on the
workstation.

Que 1.19. Wire is used in the following applications. For each of

the following applications, prepare a list of wire characteristics
that are relevant and also explain why each characteristic is
important for the application : (1) Designing the filament for a light
bulb; (2) Designing the electrical system for an airplane.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05
Object Oriented System Design 1–19 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Answer
Designing the filament for a light bulb :
1. Because the filament of a light bulb operates at a high temperature,
resistance to high temperatures is important.
2. Tungsten is generally used because of its high melting point, even though
tungsten filaments are brittle.
Designing the electrical system for an airplane :
1. Weight is important for wire that is to be used in the electrical system of
an airplane, because it affects the total weight of the plane.
2. Toughness of the insulation is important to resist chafing due to vibration.
3. Resistance of the insulation to fire is also important to avoid starting or
feeding electrical fires in flight.

PART-3
Introduction of UML, Conceptual Model of UML, Architecture.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.20. What do you mean by UML ? Discuss the conceptual

model of UML with the help of an appropriate example.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05
OR
Give the conceptual model of UML. Use some example to illustrate
the model in detail using diagram. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
UML :
1. UML stands for Unified Modeling Language.
2. UML is a pictorial language used to make software blueprints.
3. UML can be described as a general purpose visual modeling language to
visualize, specify, construct, and document software system.
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4. It is also used to model non-software systems as well.
5. UML is not a programming language but tools can be used to generate
code in various languages using UML diagrams.
6. UML has a direct relation with object-oriented analysis and design.
Conceptual model of UML :
1. A conceptual model is defined as a model which is made of concepts and
their relationships.
2. A conceptual model is the first step before drawing a UML diagram.
3. It helps to understand the entities in the real world and how they interact
with each other.
4. The conceptual model of UML has three major elements :
a. UML building blocks.
b. Rules to connect the building blocks.
c. Common mechanisms of UML.
5. A domain model, often referred to as a conceptual model, might be
represented by a particular kind of UML class diagram.
6. This model explains the structure of the application domain rather than
the application structure itself.
7. It focuses on the domain concepts, rather than on the software entities.
8. Fig. 1.20.1 shows the conceptual model for a library system.

Library
1
1
has
contains

* 1.. *
User * reserves Item
*
name Kind
0..1 title
* consults
1
has_copies
*
*
Copy
borrows
* location
status

Fig. 1.20.1. Conceptual model for a library system.

Object Oriented System Design 1–21 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Que 1.21. Describe the pros and cons of unified modeling language

(UML). AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
Pros of UML :
1. It has wide industry acceptance in comparison to previous modeling
language.
2. It supports OOAD methodology.
3. It bridges the communication gap between different entities of system
development (i.e., System Analyst, Developer, Client etc).
4. Constructed models are easy to understand, even for non-programmers.
5. It is a unified and standardize modeling language.
Cons of UML :
1. UML is often criticized as being large and complex.
2. It takes a lot of time to keep the diagram reasonable and synchronized
with the actual code.
3. You cannot represent every condition in a sequence diagram.
4. UML software costs money.
5. Complex to learn and takes time to master properly.

Que 1.22. Why UML required ? What are the basic architecture of

UML ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
The UML is required to help system and software developers accomplish
the following tasks :
i. Specification
ii. Visualization
iii. Architecture design
iv. Construction
v. Simulation and testing
vi. Documentation
Basic architecture of UML :
1. The UML is defined in a circular manner, in which a subset of the
language notation and semantics is used to specify the language itself.
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2. The UML is defined within a conceptual framework for modeling that
consists of four distinct layers or levels of abstraction.
3. This framework is based on the most fundamental UML notation that
concepts are depicted as symbols, and relationships among concepts
are depicted as paths (lines) connecting symbols. Both of these types of
elements may be named.
4. The concepts introduced by the UML are organized around architectural
views to define the various diagrams.
5. The UML diagrams are used to understand for conceptualize a problem,
solve the problem, and implement or realize the solution.


Object Oriented System Design 2–1 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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2 Basic Structural
Modeling

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Basic Structural Modeling, ....................... 2–2L to 2–8L
Class, Relationships, Common
Mechanism and Diagram

Part-2 : Class and Object Diagram, ...................... 2–9L to 2–14L

Terms, Concepts, Modeling
Techniques for Class and Object Diagram

Part-3 : Collaboration Diagram, Terms, ........... 2–14L to 2–17L

Concepts, Depicting A Message,
Polymorphism in Collaboration
Diagram, Iterated Message,
use of Self in Message

Part-4 : Sequence Diagram, Terms, .................. 2–17L to 2–22L

Concept, Depicting Asynchronous
Message With/ Without Priority,
Callback Mechanism, Broadcast Message

Part-5 : Basic Behavioural Modeling, ................ 2–23L to 2–31L

Use Cases, use Case Diagrams,
Activity Diagram, State Machine,
Process and Thread, Event and
Signals, Time Diagram, Interaction
Diagram, Package Diagram

Part-6 : Architectural Modeling, ......................... 2–31L to 2–33L

Component, Deployment,
Component Diagrams and
Deployment Diagrams
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Basic Structural Modeling, Class, Relationships, Common

Mechanism and Diagram.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Explain different types of modeling in object oriented

system design.
OR
What is UML ? Mention the different kinds of modeling diagrams
used. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
There are three important types of modeling :
1. Structural Modeling :
a. Structural modeling captures the static features of a system.
b. Structural model represents the framework for the system and
this framework is the place where all other components exist.
c. Hence, the class diagram, component diagram and deployment
diagrams are part of structural modeling.
d. They all represent the elements and the mechanism to assemble
them.
e. The structural model never describes the dynamic behavior of the
system.
2. Behavioral Modeling :
a. Behavioral model describes the interaction in the system.
b. It represents the interaction among the structural diagrams.
c. Behavioral modeling shows the dynamic nature of the system.
d. It consists of Activity diagrams, Interaction diagrams, Use case
diagrams.
3. Architectural Modeling :
a. Architectural model represents the overall framework of the system.
b. It contains both structural and behavioral elements of the system.
Object Oriented System Design 2–3 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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c. Architectural model can be defined as the blueprint of the entire
system.
d. Package diagram comes under architectural modeling.
UML : Refer Q. 1.20, Page 1-19L, Unit-1.

Que 2.2. What do you understand by architectural modeling ?

Explain its various concepts and diagrams with suitable example.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05
OR
Write short notes on architectural modeling with suitable example
and diagrams. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
Architectural modeling :
1. Architectural modeling represents the overall framework of the system.
2. It contains both structural and behavioral elements of the system.
3. Architectural modeling can be defined as the blueprint of the entire
system.
Diagrams used in architectural modeling :
1. The two types of diagrams that give descriptions of the physical
information about a system are deployment diagrams and component
diagrams.
2. Deployment diagrams show the physical relationship between hardware
and software in a system.
3. Component diagrams show the software components of a system and
their relationships.
4. These relationships are called dependencies.
A. Component diagrams :
1. The component diagrams are mainly used to model the static
implementation view of a system.
2. They represent a high-level packaged view of the code.
3. They can be used to model executables, databases and adaptable systems.
4. Component diagrams mainly contain the following :
i. Components :
a. A component is a physical, replaceable part of a system that
packages implementation and provides the realization of a set
of interfaces.
b. A component is a physical manifestation of an object that has
a well-defined interface and a set of implementations for the
interface.
c. A complex system can be built using software components. It
enhances re-use in the system and facilitates system evolution.
Basic Structural Modeling 2–4 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Component

Fig. 2.2.1. Component.

Component

Component dll

Fig. 2.2.2. Component diagram.

ii. Interfaces : An interface is a collection of operations that are used

to specify a service of a class or a component. It is represented by a
circle. An interface possesses the following properties :
a. Every interface is identified by a unique name, with an
operational pathname.
b. Interfaces do not specify any structure or implementation details
of the operations. When an interface is represented as a
rectangle, it has the same parts as a class. When it is represented
as a circle, the display of these parts is suppressed.

Component A

Realization

Interface Component A

Component A

Fig. 2.2.3. Realization of an interface.

<<interface>>
Name

Attributes
Operations
Interface name
Fig. 2.2.4. Representation of interfaces.
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B. Deployment diagrams : They display the configuration of run-
time processing elements and the software components, processes
and objects. The deployment diagram contains nodes and connections.
A node is a piece of hardware in the system. A connection depicts the
communication path used by the hardware (Fig. 2.2.5).

Node1

Communication
path

Node2

Fig. 2.2.5. Deployment diagram.

Que 2.3. What do you understand by classes in object oriented

system design ?

Answer
1. The phrase class is use to refer to a group of similar things.
2. A class describes a group of objects with similar properties, common
behavior, common relationships to other objects, and common semantics.
3. Objects in a class have the same attributes and behavior pattern.
4. Most objects derive their individuality from differences in their attribute
values and relationships to other objects.
5. The objects in a class share a common semantic purpose, above and
beyond the requirement of common attributes and behavior.
6. Each object “knows” its class.
7. Object-oriented programming languages can determine an object’s class
at run time.
8. An object’s class is an implicit property of the object.

Que 2.4. Explain relationship with its different types.

Answer
Relationships : A model is not complete unless the relationships between
elements are described properly. The Relationship gives a proper meaning to
a UML model. Following are the different types of relationships used in
UML.
1. Dependency Notation :
a. Dependency describes the dependent elements and the direction of
dependency.
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b. Dependency is represented by a dotted arrow as shown in the
following figure.
c. The arrow head represents the independent element and the other
end represents the dependent element.
d. Dependency is used to represent the dependency between two
elements of a system
2. Association Notation :
a. Association describes how the elements in a UML diagram are
associated.
b. In simple words, it describes how many elements are taking part in
an interaction.
c. Association is represented by a dotted line with (without) arrows
on both sides.
d. The two ends represent two associated elements as shown in the
following figure.
e. The multiplicity is also mentioned at the ends (1, *, etc.) to show
how many objects are associated.
3. Generalization Notation :
a. Generalization describes the inheritance relationship of the object-
oriented world.
b. It is a parent and child relationship.
c. Generalization is represented by an arrow with a hollow arrow
head as shown in the following figure.
d. One end represents the parent element and the other end
represents the child element.
4. Extensibility Notation :
a. All the languages (programming or modeling) have some
mechanism to extend its capabilities such as syntax, semantics, etc.
b. UML also has the following mechanisms to provide extensibility
features :
i. Stereotypes (Represents new elements)
ii. Tagged values (Represents new attributes)
iii. Constraints (Represents the boundaries)
c. Extensibility notations are used to enhance the power of the
language.

Que 2.5. Describe generalization and specialization.

AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

OR
Object Oriented System Design 2–7 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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What do you mean by generalization ? Explain. How is it related
with inheritance ? AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05
OR
Define aggregation and generalization. Explain.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
Generalization and specialization : Generalization and specialization
represent a hierarchy of relationships between classes, where subclasses
inherit from super-classes.
1. Generalization :
i. In the generalization process, the common characteristics of classes
are combined to form a class in a higher level of hierarchy, i.e.,
subclasses are combined to form a generalized super-class.
ii. It represents an “is - a - kind - of” relationship. For example, “car is
a kind of land vehicle”, or “ship is a kind of water vehicle”.
2. Specialization :
i. Specialization is the reverse process of generalization. Here, the
distinguishing features of groups of objects are used form specialized
classes from existing classes.
ii. It can be said that the subclasses are the specialized versions of the
super-class.
The following figure shows an example of generalization and specialization.

Vehicle
Specialization
Generalization

Land Water Air

Car Bus Ship Boat Aeroplane Helicopter

Fig. 2.5.1.

Relation to inheritance :
1. Developers use the term generalization or inheritance to refer to the
same concept of reusing shared attributes and operations that you show
in a superclass and reuse in subclasses.
2. Generalization refers to the concept of generalizing from specifics (the
subclasses) to the generic (the superclass).
Basic Structural Modeling 2–8 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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3. Inheritance refers to the effect of generalization on the subclasses.
Aggregation :
1. Aggregation is a stronger form of association. It represents the has-a or
part-of relationship.
2. An aggregation association depicts a complex object that is composed of
other objects.
3. For example, we may characterize a house in terms of its roof, floors,
foundation, walls, rooms, windows, and so on. A room may, in turn be,
composed of walls, ceiling, floor, windows, and doors, as represented in
Fig. 2.5.2.
House

Roofs Roofs

Doors Windows Walls

Fig. 2.5.2. A house and some of its component.

4. Hence object aggregation helps us describe models of the real world that
are composed of other models, as well as those that are composed of still
other models.

Que 2.6. Categorize the following relationship into

generalization, aggregation, or association :
1. A country has a capital city
2. Files contain records. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
1. A country has a capital city : It is an association relationship. A
capital city and a country are distinct things so generalization certainly
does not apply. You could argue that a capital city is a part of a country
and thus they are related by aggregation.
2. Files contain records : It is an aggregation relationship. The word
“contain” is a clue that the relationship may be aggregation. A record is
a part of a file. Some attributes and operations on files propagate to their
constituent records.
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Class and Object Diagram, Terms, Concepts, Modeling

Techniques for Class and Object Diagram.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.7. Explain class and object diagrams with examples.

AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Class diagram :
1. Class diagram is a static diagram.
2. It represents the static view of an application.
3. Class diagram is used for visualizing, describing, and documenting
different aspects of a system and also for constructing executable code
of the software application.
4. Class diagram describes the attributes and operations of a class and also
the constraints imposed on the system.
5. The class diagrams are widely used in the modeling of object-oriented
systems because they are the only UML diagrams, which can be mapped
directly with object-oriented languages.
For example :

Party
location
* children

0..1 parent

Person Organization

Fig. 2.7.1. Class diagram of party composition structure.

Object diagram :
1. Object diagrams represent an instance of a class diagram.
Basic Structural Modeling 2–10 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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2. Object diagrams represent the static view of a system but this static
view is a snapshot of the system at a particular moment.
3. Object diagrams are used to render a set of objects and their relationships
as an instance.
For example :
Engineering : Organization
Location = ‘‘Banglore’’

Parent

Tools : Organization Apps : Organization

Location = ‘‘Chennai’’ Location = ‘‘Mumbai’’

Parent

Abha : Person Kanika : Person

Location = ‘‘Champaign’’ Location = ‘‘Champaign’’

Fig. 2.7.2. Object diagram showing example instances of party.

Que 2.8. Differentiate between a class and object with some

example. Also prepare a list of objects that you would expect each of
the following systems to handle : (1) a program for laying out a
newspaper, (2) a catalog store order entry system.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer

S. No. Class Object

1. Class is a blueprint or template Object is an instance of class.
from which object are created.
2. Class is a group of similar objects. Object is a real world entity
such as pen, laptop, mobile, bed,
keyboard, mouse, chair etc.
3. Class is a logical entity. Object is physical entity.
4. Class is declared using class Object is created through new
keyword, for example, keyword mainly, for example,
Class student{} Student s1 = new student ();
5. Class is declared once. Object is created many times as
per requirement.
6. Class does not allocated memory Object allocates memory when
when it is created. it is created.
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For example :
1. A class is a way of grouping objects that share a number of characteristics:
attributes (like name, color, height, weight, etc.) and behavior (such as
ability to perform jumps, to run, to swim, etc.).
2. All objects in the class horse will have an attribute named height, for
example. That means that all object in that class have a height-the value
of the attribute height will be different for each instance of the class
(i.e., for each particular horse).
i. A program for laying out a newspaper : Classes that you would
expect in a program for newspaper layout include Page, Column, Line,
Headline, and Paragraph.
ii. A catalog store order entry system : For a catalog store order entry
system, classes include Customer, Order, Store, and Item.

Que 2.9. Give the general layout of a class diagram. Also prepare
a class diagram for the instance diagram shown in the Fig. 2.9.1.
Explain your multiplicity decisions. How does your diagram express
the fact that points are in sequence ?

(Point) Next (Point)

– 10 10
10 10
Next

(Polygon)

Next
(Point) Last First (Point)
– 10 10
– 10 – 10
Next
Fig. 2.9.1.

AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
0..1 1 1
Polygon first Point next
last x : real
0..1 1 y : real 1
Fig. 2.9.2. General class diagram for polygon and points.
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1. Fig. 2.9.2 shows the class diagram.
2. Fig. 2.9.2 permits a degenerate polygon which consists of exactly one
point. (The same point is first and last. The point is next to itself).
3. The class diagram also permits a line to be stored as a polygon.
4. Fig. 2.9.2 does not enforce the constraint that the first and last points
must be adjacent.
5. In Fig. 2.9.2 the sense of ordering is problematic. A polygon that is
traversed in left-to-right order is stored differently than one that is
traversed in right-to-left order even though both visually appear the
same.
6. There is no constraint that a polygon be closed and that a polygon not
cross itself.
7. In general it is difficult to fully capture constraints with class models and
we must choose between model complexity and model completeness.

Que 2.10. What is the difference between a class diagram and an

instance diagram ? Discuss the significance of each. Also prepare a
class diagram for the following instance diagram as given in
Fig. 2.10.1.

Mate

(Person) (Person)
a grandmother a grandfather

Child Child

(Person) (Person) (Person)

sibling Mate
an aunt your father your mother

Child Child Child

(Person) cousin (Person)

a cousin you

Fig. 2.10.1.

AKTU 2012-13, Marks 10

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Answer
A. Difference :
S. No. Class diagram Instance diagram
1. A class diagram is a schema, An instance diagram describes
pattern, or template for describing how does a particular set of
many possible instances of data. object relates to each other.
2. A class diagram describes the An instance diagram describes
general case in modeling a object instances.
system.
3. A class diagram describes object An instance diagram is useful
classes. for documenting test cases,
especially scenarios, and is used
to show examples to help to
clarify a complex class diagram.
4. The OMT symbol for a class is a Figure below shows the OMT
rectangular box with class name represe ntation of instance
in boldface. A line is drawn diagram. The class name in
between the class name and parenthesis is at the top of the
attributes. object box in boldface and object
names are listed in normal font
Person
with their attributes.

(PERSON)
Saurabh
26

B. Significance of class diagram :

1. Class diagram describes the attributes and operations of a class and
also the constraints imposed on the system.
2. The class diagrams are widely used in the modeling of object-
oriented systems because they are the only UML diagrams, which
can be mapped directly with object-oriented languages.
3. Class diagram shows a collection of classes, interfaces, associations,
collaborations, and constraints. It is also known as a structural
diagram.
C. Significance of instance diagram :
1. An object diagram represents an instance at a particular moment,
which is concrete in nature.
2. It means the object diagram is closer to the actual system behaviour.
3. The purpose is to capture the static view of a system at a particular
moment.
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D. Class Diagram :
wife 0..1 Cousin
Mate * *
0..1
husband *
Sibling
Person
*
mother father
1 1
child * * child

Fig. 2.10.2. Class diagram for family trees.

Que 2.11. Prepare a portion of an object diagram for a library

book checkout system that shows the date a book is due and the late
charges for an overdue book as derived objects.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer

Book * 1 Library * * Patron

1 1

CheckoutEvent
* *
checkoutDate
dueDate
CheckoutType
dateReturned
1 * /lateCharge
finePerDay

{lateCharge = (dataReturned - dueDate) * CheckoutType.finePerDay}

Fig. 2.11.1. Class diagram for library book checkout system.

Collaboration Diagram, Terms, Concepts, Depicting

A Message, Polymorphism in Collaboration Diagram,
Iterated Message, use of Self in Message.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.12. What do you mean by a collaboration diagram ? Explain

various terms and symbols used in a collaboration diagram. How
Object Oriented System Design 2–15 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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polymorphism is described using a collaboration diagram ? Explain
using an example. AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05
OR
What is a collaboration diagram ? How polymorphism is represented
in a collaboration diagram? Explain with an example.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
Collaboration diagram :
1. A collaboration diagram, also known as a communication diagram, is an
illustration of the relationships and interactions among software objects
in the Unified Modeling Language (UML).
2. These diagrams can be used to portray the dynamic behavior of a
particular use case and define the role of each object.
3. Collaboration diagrams are created by first identifying the structural
elements required to carry out the functionality of an interaction.
Various terms used in collaboration diagram :
1. Objects : Objects are shown as rectangles with naming labels inside.
The naming label follows the convention of object name; class name.
Object
name
2. Actors : Actors are instances that invoke the interaction in the diagram.
Each actor has a name and a role, with one actor initiating the entire
use case.

3. Links : Links connect objects with actors and are depicted using a solid
line between two elements. Each link is an instance where messages
can be sent.

Link
4. Messages : Messages between objects are shown as a labeled arrow
placed near a link. These messages are communications between objects
that convey information about the activity and can include the sequence
number.
Polymorphism using collaboration diagram :
1. Fig. 2.12.1 uses a collaboration diagram to illustrate polymorphism in a
business scenario.
2. The diagram assumes that there are different ways of calculating an
employee’s pay.
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3. Full-time employees are paid a salary that depends only on his or her
grade; part-time staff are paid a salary that depends in a similar way on
grade, but must also take into account the number of hours worked;
temporary staff differ in that no deductions are made for the company
pension scheme, but the salary calculation is otherwise the same as for
a full-time employee.
4. An object-oriented system to calculate pay for these employees might
include a separate class for each type of employee, each able to perform
the appropriate pay calculation.
5. However, following the principle of polymorphism, the message signature
for all calculate pay operations is the same.

Fixed monthly
amount depends only
on employee grade
2a:=calculatePay()
:FullTimeEmployee
Variable monthly
amount depends on
1:=getTotal grade and hours
2b:=calculatePay()
Pay()
MonthlyPayPrint :PartTimeEmployee

Fixed monthly amount

Pay clerk
depends on grade, but
no pension deductions
2c:=calculatePay()
:TemporaryEmployee
Fig. 2.12.1. Polymorphism allows a message to achieve the
same result even when the mechanism for achieving
it differs between different objects.

6. Suppose one of the outputs from this system is a print-out showing the
total pay for the current month: to assemble the total, a message is sent
to each employee object, asking it to calculate its pay.
7. Since the message signature is the same in each case, the requesting
object (here called MonthlyPayPrint) need not know that the class of
each receiving object, still less how each calculation is carried out.

Que 2.13. Explain Polymorphism, Iterated Messages and use of

self in message in collaboration diagram. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Polymorphism :
1. Polymorphism means having many forms.
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2. Polymorphism is the ability of a message to be displayed in more than
one form.
3. It plays an important role in allowing objects having different internal
structure to share the same external interface.
Iterated messages :
1. Collaboration diagrams use syntax similar to sequence diagrams to
indicate that either a message iterates (is run multiple times) or is run
conditionally.
2. We can indicate that a particular message iterates by prefixing a message
sequence number with an iteration expression.
3. We can simply use an asterisk (*) to indicate that a message runs more
than once, or we can get more specific and show the number of times a
message is repeated.
4. To indicate that a message is run conditionally, we can prefix the message
sequence number with a conditional clause such as [x = true].
5. This indicates that the message is sent only if the condition is met.
6. The UML leaves the syntax of conditional clauses wide open, so we can
create expressions that make sense in the context of our application.
Use of self in message :
1. Self represents the ability of an object to send a message to itself.
2. Messages in collaboration diagrams are shown as arrows pointing from
the client object to the supplier object.
3. Messages represent a client invoking an operation on a supplier object.
4. Message icons have one or more messages associated with them.
5. Messages are composed of message text prefixed by a sequence number.
6. This sequence number indicates the time-ordering of the message.

Sequence Diagram, Terms, Concept, Depicting Asynchronous

Message With/ Without Priority, Callback
Mechanism, Broadcast Message.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.14. What do you mean by sequence diagram? Explain

various terms and symbols used in a sequence diagram. Describe
Basic Structural Modeling 2–18 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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the following using sequence diagram : (i) asynchronous messages
with/without priority. (ii) broadcast messages.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 10
OR
Explain sequence diagrams with example.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Sequence diagram :
1. Sequence diagrams describe interactions among classes in terms of an
exchange of messages over time.
2. They’re also called event diagrams.
3. A sequence diagram is a good way to visualize and validate various
runtime scenarios.
4. In UML it is shown as a table that shows objects arranged along the X
axis and messages along the Y axis.
5. It has a global life line and the focus of control.
Various terms and symbols used in sequence diagram :
1. Class roles or Participants : Class roles describe the way an object
will behave in context.

Object

Fig. 2.14.1.
2. Activation or Execution Occurrence : Activation occurrence
represent the time an object needs to complete a task. When an object is
busy executing a process or waiting for a reply message, use a thin gray
rectangle placed vertically on its lifeline.

Activation
occurrence

Fig. 2.14.2.
3. Messages : Messages are arrows that represent communication between
objects. Use half-arrowed lines to represent asynchronous messages.
Asynchronous messages are sent from an object that will not wait for a
response from the receiver before continuing its tasks.
Asynchronous
message

Synchronous
message
Fig. 2.14.3.
Object Oriented System Design 2–19 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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4. Lifelines : Lifelines are vertical dashed lines that indicate the object’s
presence over time.

Lifeline

Fig. 2.14.4

5. Destroying objects : Objects can be terminated early using an arrow

labeled “<< destroy >>” that points to an X. This object is removed from
memory. When that object's lifeline ends, we can place an X at the end
of its lifeline to denote a destruction occurrence.
6. Loops : A repetition or loop within a sequence diagram is depicted as a
rectangle. Place the condition for exiting the loop at the bottom left
corner in square brackets.
A. Asynchronous messages without priority :
1. An asynchronous message can be implemented on the sequence
diagram by using a half arrowhead on the asynchronous message
arrow.
asyncMessage1 (inputArg)
senderObject: targetObject:
Class1 Class2

Fig. 2.14.5. A collaboration diagram showing a basic

asynchronous message.
2. When an asynchronous message is send, at least to loci of execution
are active in the system, because the target begins to execute
while the sender remains in execution.
3. Fig. 2.14.5 shows a specific example from a real-time system that
authorizes personnel to pass through electronically controlled
doors.
entryManager: personnelLog: door: doorSign: doorPlayer:
EntryManager Log SecureDoor IlluminatedSign MusicPlayer

holdOpen (doorDuration) operate (playerDuration)

permitEntry

operate
recordEntry (signDuration)
(personID, doorID,
actualTime)

time

Fig. 2.14.6. A sequence diagram for concurrently executing objects.

Basic Structural Modeling 2–20 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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4. The employee inserts an ID card into a reader, and if the employee
is authorized to enter, the system plays jingly music, displays a
greeting and slides the door open.
5. The operation that manages this piece of the application is
permitEntry.
6. After determining that the employee is allowed through the door
permitEntry sends the synchronous message holdOpen to the
object door.
7. The operation holdOpen then handles the sound, lights, and action
associated with opening the door.
8. For the action of opening the door, holdOpen sends messages to
a hardware driver.
9. For the sound-and-light show, holdOpen sends two asynchronous
messages, both named operate : one to doorPlayer and one to
doorSign.
10. The two operations named operate execute concurrently: door.
B. Asynchronous message with priority :
1. In concurrency the target object receives message from lots of
concurrently executing sender objects.
2. Since these messages may arrive faster than the target can process
them, they are ushered into the message queue.
3. The object then removes a message from the front of the queue;
process the message, and takes the next message from the queue.
4. These messages in a queue are ordered by priority.
5. Fig. 2.14.7 shows a set of parallel queues at the target, each queue
with its own priority level.
high
medium priority
msg msg
to the
priority msg msg msg msg target
low msg msg msg msg msg msg msg msg object
priority

Fig. 2.14.7. Three parallel queues, each with its own priority.

6. Fig. 2.14.8 shows an asynchronous message with its priority level.

7. The property {priority = 3} indicates that the message has a priority
of 3.
transmitMsg (eMailMsg)
{priority = 3}
senderObject: eMailPort:
SomeClass Port

Fig. 2.14.8. An asynchronous message (with priority 3) going

to an object with a multiple-priority message queue.
Object Oriented System Design 2–21 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Broadcast message :
1. A broadcast message treats every object in the system as a potential
target.
2. A copy of the message goes into the queue of every object in the
system.
3. An object may broadcast a message in response to some external
event that it detects.
4. For example, an object might detect a security compromise and
broadcast to all objects the need for a priority system shutdown.
5. Fig. 2.14.9 shows the UML for a broadcast message. Here, a start-
up sequencer is getting every object in the system that exists at
start-up time to load itself.
* : load ( )

<<broadcast>>
: StartUpSequencer : (Object)

Fig. 2.14.9. A broadcast message.

Que 2.15. Discuss the significance of sequence diagrams. How the

following is implemented using sequence diagrams :
i. Broadcast messages
ii. Callback mechanism
iii. Asynchronous messages with/without priority.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 10
OR
What do you understand by callback mechanisms ?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Significance of sequence diagram :
i. Sequence diagrams are one of the important dynamic modeling
techniques in the UML.
ii. These diagrams are used by software developers and business
professionals to understand requirements for a new system or to
document an existing process.
i. Broadcast messages : Refer Q. 2.14, Page 2-17L, Unit-2.
ii. Callback mechanism :
1. Here the subscriber object registers an interest in some event via
an asynchronous message to the target object.
Basic Structural Modeling 2–22 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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2. The target object continuous with other activities while it monitors
for the occurrence of an event of the registered type.

userSession: eMailListener: eMailRcvdWin:

Session EMailListener WinApplEMailRcvd

registerNewEMailEvent
(urgencyThresh)

newEMailReceived
(highestUrgency)
time

open (time,
highestUrgency)

Fig. 2.15.1. Callback mechanism used to detect e-mail.

3. When an event of that type occurs, the target object sends a

message back to the subscriber object to notify of the occurrence.
This is known as callback mechanism.
4. The sequence diagram in Fig. 2.15.2 shows an example of the
callback mechanism, where the event of interest is the arrival of
e-mail with an urgency above a certain threshold.
5. The userSession object registers its interest in new e-mail with
the emailLis tener o bje ct by se nding the me ssage
registerNewEMailEvent (urgencyThresh).
6. When e-mail that’s urgent enough arrives, eMailListener calls back
userSession with newEMailReceived (highestUrgency), whose
argument indicates the highest urgency among the messages that actually
arrived.
iii. Asynchronous messages with/without priority : Refer Q. 2.14,
Page 2-17L, Unit-2.
Object Oriented System Design 2–23 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Basic Behavioural Modeling, Use Cases, use Case Diagrams,

Activity Diagram, State Machine, Process and Thread, Event and
Signals, Time Diagram, Interaction Diagram, Package Diagram.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.16. Discuss in brief basic behavioural modeling.

AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

OR
What do you understand by basic behavioural modeling ?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
i. Behavioral models describe the internal dynamic aspects of an information
system that supports the business processes in an organization.
ii. During analysis, behavioral models describe what the internal logic of
the processes is without specifying how the processes are to be
implemented.
iii. In the design and implementation phases, the detailed design of the
operations contained in the object is fully specified.
iv. There are two types of behavioral models. First, there are behavioral
models that are used to represent the underlying details of a business
process portrayed by a use case model. In UML, interaction diagrams
(sequence and communication) are used for this type of behavioral
model.
v. Second, there is a behavioral model that is used to represent the changes
that occur in the underlying data. UML uses behavioral state machines
for this.
vi. During the analysis phase, analysts use behavioral model to capture a
basic understanding of the dynamic aspects of the underlying business
process.
vii. Traditionally, behavioral models have been used primarily during the
design phase where analysts refine the behavioral models to include
implementation details.
Basic Structural Modeling 2–24 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Que 2.17. Write a short note on use case diagram and time diagram
with suitable diagram and their utility in system design.

AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer

Use case diagrams :

1. Use case diagrams consist of actors, use cases and their relationships.
2. The diagram is used to model the system/subsystem of an application.
3. A single use case diagram captures a particular functionality of a system.
4. Hence to model the entire system, a number of use case diagrams are
used.
Utility of use case diagram in system design :
1. It is used to gather the requirements of a system.
2. It is used to get an outside view of a system.
3. It identifies the external and internal factors influencing the system.
4. It shows the interaction among the requirements of actors.
5. It is used for requirement analysis and high level design.
6. It models the context of a system.
7. It is used in reverse engineering and forward engineering.
For example :

Vending machine

Buy
beverage
Customer

Perform
scheduled
maintenance

Technician
Make
repairs

Load items
Clerk

Fig. 2.17.1. Use case diagram for a vending machine.

Object Oriented System Design 2–25 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Time diagram :
1. Timing diagram is used to show interactions when a primary purpose of
the diagram is about time.
2. It focuses on conditions changing within and among lifelines along a
linear time axis.
3. Timing diagram is a special form of a sequence diagram.
Utility of time diagram in system design :
1. It emphasizes at that particular time when the message has been sent
among objects.
2. It explains the time processing of an object in detail.
3. It is employed with distributed and embedded systems.
4. It also explains how an object undergoes changes in its form throughout
its lifeline.
5. It depicts a graphical representation of states of a lifeline per unit time.
For example :
State {Duration constraint
d ..... 3d}

User idle Wait card Wait access idle

Fig. 2.17.2.

Que 2.18. Define package. Explain the package diagram with

suitable diagram. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

OR
What are package diagrams and why are they used ?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
1. Package diagrams are structural diagrams used to show the organization
and arrangement of various model elements in the form of packages.
2. A package is a group of elements (classes, associations, generalizations,
and lesser packages) with a common theme.
3. A package partitions a model, making it easier to understand and
manage. Large applications may require several tiers of packages.
4. Packages form a tree with increasing abstraction toward the root, which
is the application, the top-level package.
5. As Fig. 2.18.1 shows, the notation for a package is a box with a tab. The
purpose of the tab is to suggest the enclosed contents, like a tabbed
folder.

PackageName

Fig. 2.18.1. Notation for a package.

Basic Structural Modeling 2–26 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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6. For example, many business systems have a Customer package or a
Part package; Customer and Part are dominant classes that are important
to the business of a corporation and appear in many applications.
Following are the uses of package diagram :
1. Package diagrams are used to structure high level system elements.
2. Packages are used for organizing large system which contains diagrams
and documents.
3. Package diagram can be used to simplify complex class diagrams; it can
group classes into packages.

Que 2.19. Write short notes on use case diagram with suitable
diagram and their utility in system design.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Use case diagrams :
1. Use cases describe how a system interacts with external user of a system
(i.e., actor).
2. Each use case represents a piece of functionality that a system provides
to its users.
3. Use cases are helpful for capturing informal requirements.
4. Use case consists of actors.
5. An actor is an object or set of objects that communicates directly with
the system but that is not part of the system.
6. The various interactions of actors with a system are quantized into use
cases.
7. A use case is a coherent piece of functionality that a system can provide
by interacting with actors.
8. For example, a customer actor can buy a beverage from a vending
machine. The customer inserts money into the machine, makes a
selection, and ultimately receives a beverage. Similarly, a repair
technician can perform scheduled maintenance on a vending machine.
9. Fig. 2.19.1 summarizes several use cases for a vending machine.
 Buy a beverage : The vending machine delivers a beverage after a
customer selects and pays for it.
 Perform scheduled maintenance : A repair technician performs
the periodic service on the vending machine necessary to keep it in
good working condition.
 Make repairs : A repair technician performs the unexpected service
on the vending machine necessary to repair a problem in its operation.
 Load items : A stock clerk adds items into the vending machine to
replenish its stock of beverages.

Fig. 2.19.1. Use case summaries for a vending machine.

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Utility of use cases diagram in system design :
1. Use cases identify the functionality of a system and organize it according
to the perspective of users.
2. Use cases describe complete transactions and are therefore less likely to
omit necessary steps.
3. The main purpose of a system is almost always found in the use cases,
with requirements lists supplying additional implementation constraints.

Que 2.20. What do you mean by activity diagram ? Explain in

detail. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

OR
What do you mean by activity diagram ? What are the two special
states shown in an activity diagram ? Explain with an example.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
1. An activity diagram is a flowchart that shows activities performed by a
system.
2. The two special states shown in an activity diagram are the Initial State
(Start Point) and Final State (End Point).
3. Initial State or Start Point : A small filled circle followed by an arrow
represents the initial action state or the start point for any activity diagram.
Start Point/Initial State
4. Final State or End Point : An arrow pointing to a filled circle nested
inside another circle represents the final action state.
Ent Point Symbol
For example :

data entry

generate
processing
output

Fig. 2.20.1. Notation for activity states and activity-state transitions.

Que 2.21. Define state machine ? Draw a state machine diagram

for answering a telephone call. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
State machine : A state machine diagram models the behaviour of a single
object, specifying the sequence of events that an object goes through during
its lifetime in response to events.
 Diagram :

State Self Transition

Basic Structural Modeling

calledPhoneHangsUp
Warning Timeout Recorded Message
onHook
timeout
Initial Pseudo State digit(n) invalidNumber
timeout
calledPhoneAnswers calledPhoneHangsUp
onHook digit(n) routed
Idle Tial Tone Dialing Connecting Ringing Connected Disconnected
valid Number

numberBusy trunkBusy

on-look Transition Final State

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BusyTone Fast Busy Tone

Fig. 2.21.1. State machine diagram for answering a telephone call.

2–28 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
Object Oriented System Design 2–29 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Que 2.22. What do you mean by event ? What are the types of

event explain with example ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. An event is something that happens at a point in time, such as user
presses right mouse button. An event is a one-way transmission of
information from one object to another. An event conveys information
from one object to another.
2. An event has no duratio n. By de finition, an e ve nt happe ns
instantaneously with regard to time scale of an application.
3. Following are three most common events :
A. Signal event :
1. A signal event is the event of sending or receiving a signal.
2. A signal is a one-way transmission of information from one
object to another.
3. A signal is a message between objects while a signal event is
an occurrence in time.
For example, TrainDeparture has attributes train, trainNumber, city,
and date. The UML notation is the keyword signal in guillements (<< >>)
above the signal class name in the top section of a box. The bottom section
lists the signal attributes.

<<signal>>
TrainDeparture
train
trainNumber
city
date

Fig. 2.22.1.
B. Time event :
1. A time event is an event caused by the occurrence of an
absolute time or the elapse of a time interval.
2. For example, Fig. 2.22.2 shows, the UML notation for an
abso lute time is the ke ywo rd when fo llo we d by a
parenthesized expression involving time. The notation for
time interval is the keyword after followed by a parenthesized
expression that evaluates to a time duration.

when (date = January 1, 2020)

after (30 seconds)

Fig. 2.22.2.
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C. Change event :
1. A change event is an event caused by the satisfaction of a
boolean expression.
2. The boolean expression is continually tested and whenever
the expression changes from false to true, the event occurs.
3. For example, the UML notation for a change event is the
keyword when followed by a parenthesized boolen expression.
Fig. 2.22.3 shows examples of change events.

when (cabin temperature < heating set point)

when (cabin temperature > cooling set point)

Fig. 2.22.3.

Que 2.23. Explain use case with example. How are the diagrams

divided ? AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
Use case diagrams :
1. Use cases describe how a system interacts with external user of a system
(i.e., actor).
2. Each use case represents a piece of functionality that a system provides
to its users.
3. Use cases are helpful for capturing informal requirements.
4. Use case consists of actors.
5. An actor is an object or set of objects that communicates directly with
the system but that is not part of the system.
6. The various interactions of actors with a system are quantized into use
cases.
7. A use case is a coherent piece of functionality that a system can provide
by interacting with actors.
8. For example, a customer actor can buy a beverage from a vending
machine. The customer inserts money into the machine, makes a
selection, and ultimately receives a beverage. Similarly, a repair
technician can perform scheduled maintenance on a vending machine.
9. Fig. 2.23.1 summarizes various use cases for a vending machine.
 Buy a beverage : The vending machine delivers a beverage
after a customer selects and pays for it.
 Perform scheduled maintenance : A repair technician
performs the periodic service on the vending machine necessary
to keep it in good working condition.
Object Oriented System Design 2–31 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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 Make repairs : A repair technician performs the unexpected
service on the vending machine necessary to repair a problem
in its operation.
 Load items : A stock clerk adds items into the vending machine
to replenish its stock of beverages.
Fig. 2.23.1. Use case summaries for a vending machine.
Use case diagrams are divided as :
1. Use case diagram are divided into three use cases diagrams i.e., Order,
SpecialOrder, NormalOrder and one actor which is the customer.
2. The SpecialOrder and NormalOrder use cases are extended from Order
use case.
3. Hence, they have extended relationship.
4. The actor Customer lies outside the system as it is an external user of
the system.

Architectural Modeling, Component, Deployment,

Component Diagrams and Deployment Diagrams.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.24. Describe in brief component diagram.

AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
1. Component diagrams :
1. The component diagrams are mainly used to model the static
implementation view of a system.
2. They represent a high-level packaged view of the code.
3. They can be used to model executables, databases and adaptable
systems.
4. Component diagrams mainly contain the following :
i. Components :
a. A component is a physical, replaceable part of a system that
packages implementation and provides the realization of a set
of interfaces.
Basic Structural Modeling 2–32 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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b. A component is a physical manifestation of an object that has
a well-defined interface and a set of implementations for the
interface.
c. A complex system can be built using software components. It
enhances re-use in the system and facilitates system evolution.

Component

Fig. 2.24.1. Component.

Component

Component dll

Fig. 2.24.2. Component diagram.

ii. Interfaces : An interface is a collection of operations that are used

to specify a service of a class or a component. It is represented by a
circle. An interface possesses the following properties :
a. Every interface is identified by a unique name, with an
operational pathname.
b. Interfaces do not specify any structure or implementation details
of the operations. When an interface is represented as a
rectangle, it has the same parts as a class. When it is represented
as a circle, the display of these parts is suppressed.

Component A

Realization

Interface Component A

Component A

Fig. 2.24.3. Realization of an interface.

Object Oriented System Design 2–33 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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<<interface>>
Name

Attributes
Operations
Interface name
Fig. 2.24.4. Representation of interfaces.

Que 2.25. Explain the deployment diagram. What is the difference

between components and nodes ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Deployment diagram :
1. They display the configuration of run-time processing elements and the
software components, processes and objects.
2. The deployment diagram contains nodes and connection. A node is a
piece of hardware in the system.
3. A connection depicts the communication path used by the hardware
Fig. 2.25.1.

Node1

Communication
path

Node2

Fig. 2.25.1. Deployment diagram.

4. Deployment diagrams are used to visualize the topology of the physical
components of a system, where the software components are deployed.
5. Deployment diagrams are used to describe the static deployment view
of a system.
Difference :
Node Component
Node represents the physical part Component represents any part
of the system for instance, server, of the system it might be physical
network and printer etc. aspect such as libraries, file,
executables, document, packages
etc., which reside on the node.


Object Oriented System Design 3–1 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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3
UNIT
Object Oriented
Analysis

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Object Oriented Analysis, ....................... 3–2L to 3–11L
Object Oriented Design, Object
Design, Combining Three Models,
Designing Algorithm, Design
Optimization, Implementation of
Control, Adjustment of Inheritance,
Object Representation, Physical
Packaging, Documenting
Design Consideration

Part-2 : Structured Analysis and Structured ... 3–11L to 3–17L

Design (SA/SD), Jackson Structured
Development (JSD), Mapping Object
Oriented Concepts Using Non-Object
Oriented Language, Translating
Classes In to Data Structures,
Passing Arguments to Method,
Implementing Inheritance,
Association Encapsulation

Part-3 : Object Oriented Programming, ........... 3–17L to 3–21L

Reusability, Extensibility,
Robustness, Programming in the
Large, Procedural v/s OOP,
Object Oriented Language Feature,
Abstraction and Encapsulation
Object Oriented Analysis 3–2 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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PART-1
Object Oriented Analysis, Object Oriented Design, Object
Design, Combining Three Models, Designing Algorithm, Design
Optimization, Implementation of Control, Adjustment of
Inheritance, Object Representation, Physical Packaging,
Documenting Design Consideration.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Write short note on object oriented analysis and object
oriented design.

Answer
Object oriented analysis :
1. Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA) is the procedure of identifying software
engineering requirements and developing software specifications in
terms of a software system's object model, which comprises of interacting
objects.
2. The primary tasks in object-oriented analysis (OOA) are :
a. Identifying objects
b. Organizing the objects by creating object model diagram.
c. Defining the internals of the objects, or object attributes.
d. Defining the behavior of the objects, i.e., object actions.
e. Describing how the objects interact.
3. The common models used in OOA are use cases and object models.
Object-Oriented Design :
1. Object-Oriented Design (OOD) involves implementation of the
conceptual model produced during object-oriented analysis.
2. In OOD, concepts in the analysis model, which are technology
independent, are mapped onto implementing classes, constraints are
identified and interfaces are designed, resulting in a model for the solution
domain, i.e., a detailed description of how the system is to be built on
concrete technologies.
3. The implementation details include :
Object Oriented System Design 3–3 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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a. Restructuring the class data (if necessary),
b. Implementation of methods, i.e., internal data structures and algorithms,
c. Implementation of control, and
d. Implementation of associations.

Que 3.2. Write short note on object design.

Answer
1. After the hierarchy of subsystems has been developed, the objects in
the system are identified and their details are designed.
2. Here, the designer details out the strategy chosen during the system
design.
3. The emphasis shifts from application domain concepts toward computer
concepts.
4. The objects identified during analysis are etched out for implementation
with an aim to minimize execution time, memory consumption, and
overall cost.
5. Object design includes the following phases :
a. Object identification
b. Object representation, i.e., construction of design models
c. Classification of operations
d. Algorithm design
e. Design of relationships
f. Implementation of control for external interactions
g. Package classes and associations into modules

Que 3.3. How can we design an algorithm ? Explain

Answer
1. The operations in the objects are defined using algorithms.
2. An algorithm is a stepwise procedure that solves the problem laid
down in an operation. Algorithms focus on how it is to be done.
3. There may be more than one algorithm corresponding to a given
operation.
4. Once the alternative algorithms are identified, the optimal algorithm
is selected for the given problem domain.
5. The metrics for choosing the optimal algorithm are :
a. Computational Complexity : Complexity determines the efficiency
of an algorithm in terms of computation time and memory requirements.
Object Oriented Analysis 3–4 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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b. Flexibility : Flexibility determines whether the chosen algorithm can
be implemented suitably, without loss of appropriateness in various
environments.
c. Understandability : This determines whether the chosen algorithm
is easy to understand and implement.

Que 3.4. What are object oriented model ? Explain.

Answer
Refer Q. 1.13, Page 1-12L, Unit-1.

Que 3.5. What are the three models in OMT ? How is the object
oriented analysis and design attached with OMT ? Explain with an
example. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
Following are the three models in OMT :
1. Object model :
a. Object model enco mpasses the principle s of abstraction,
encapsulation, modularity, hierarchy, typing, concurrency and
persistence.
b. Object model emphasizes on the object and class.
c. Main concepts related with object model are classes and their
association with attributes.
d. Predefined relationships in object model are aggregation and
generalization (multiple inheritance).
2. Dynamic model :
a. Dynamic model involves states, events and state diagram (transition
diagram) on the model.
b. Main concepts related with dynamic model are states, transition
between states and events to trigger the transitions.
c. Predefined relationships in object model are aggregation
(concurrency) and generalization.
3. Functional model :
a. Functional Model focuses on the how data is flowing, where data is
stored and different processes.
b. Main concepts involved in functional model are data, data flow,
data store, process and actors.
c. Functional model describes the whole processes and actions with
the help of data flow diagram (DFD).
Object Oriented System Design 3–5 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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OOAD attachment with OMT :
1. Object Modeling Technique (OMT) combines the three views of modeling
systems.
2. The object model represents the static, structural, “data” aspects of a
system.
3. The dynamic model represents the temporal, behavioral, “control” aspects
of a system.
4. The functional model represents the transformational, “function” aspects
of a system.
5. A typical object oriented software procedure incorporates all three
aspects : It uses data structures (object model), it sequences operations
in time (dynamic model), and it transforms values (functional model).
Each model contains references to entities in other models.
6. For example, operations are attached to objects in the object model but
more fully expanded in the functional model.

Que 3.6. Describe the relation of functional model, object model

and dynamic models. What is relationship and difference between
OOA (Object oriented analysis) and OOD (Object oriented design) ?
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
1. The functional model shows what “has to be done” by a system. The
leaf process are the operation on objects.
2. The object model shows the “doers” the objects. Each process is
implemented by a method on some object.
3. The dynamic model shows the sequences in which the operations are
performed. Each sequence is implemented as a sequence, loop or
alteration of statements within some method.
4. The processes in the functional model correspond to operations in the
object model.
5. Actors are explicit objects in the object models. Data flows to or from
actors represent operations on or by the objects.
6. Because actors are self-motivated objects, the functional model is not
sufficient to indicate when they act. The dynamic model for an actor
object specifies when it acts.
Relationship between OOA and OOD :
1. When object orientation is used in analysis as well as design, the
boundary between OOA and OOD is blurred. This is particularly true
in methods that combine analysis and design.
Object Oriented Analysis 3–6 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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2. One reason for this blurring is the similarity of basic constructs (i.e.,
objects and classes) that are used in OOA and OOD.

Real-World Problem Analysis

Problem
Domain
Representation Design

Solution Domain
Representation

Fig. 3.6.1. Relationship between OOA and OOD.

Difference between OOA and OOD :

1. The fundamental difference between OOA and OOD is that OOA
models the problem domain, leading to an understanding and
specification of the problem, while the OOD models the solution to the
problem.
2. That is, analysis deals with the problem domain, while design deals
with the solution domain.

Que 3.7. What do you mean by the optimization of design ? Discuss

the design optimization with suitable example using diagrams.
AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
Optimization of design :
1. Design optimization is an engineering design methodology using a
mathematical formulation of a design problem to support selection of
the optimal design among many alternatives.
2. Design optimization involves the following stages :
a. Variables : Describe the design alternatives.
b. Objective : Elected functional combination of variables (to be maximized
or minimized).
c. Constraints : Combination of variables expressed as equalities or
inequalities that must be satisfied for any acceptable design alternative.
d. Feasibility : Values for set of variables that satisfies all constraints and
minimizes/maximizes objective.
Object Oriented System Design 3–7 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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For example : Consider the design of a company’s employee skills
database. Fig. 3.7.1 shows a portion of the analysis class model. The
operation companyfindskill() returns a set of persons in the company
with a given skill. For example, an application might need all the
employees who speak Japanese.

Employs Hasskill
Company Person Skill
1 * * *
Fig. 3.7.1.

Que 3.8. Describe implementation of control in object oriented

design.

Answer
1. The object designer may incorporate refinements in the strategy of
the state-chart model. In system design, a basic strategy for realizing
the dynamic model is made. During object design, this strategy is aptly
embellished for appropriate implementation.
2. The approaches for implementation of the dynamic model are :
a. Represent state as a location within a program :
i. This is the traditional procedure-driven approach whereby
the location of control defines the program state.
ii. A finite state machine can be implemented as a program.
iii. A transition forms an input statement, the main control path
forms the sequence of instructions, the branches form the
conditions, and the backward paths form the loops or
iterations.
b. State machine engine :
i. This approach directly represents a state machine through a
state machine engine class.
ii. This class executes the state machine through a set of
transitions and actions provided by the application.
c. Control as concurrent tasks :
i. In this approach, an object is implemented as a task in the
programming language or the operating system.
ii. Here, an event is implemented as an inter-task call.
iii. It preserves inherent concurrency of real objects.

Que 3.9. What do you mean by object representation ?

Answer
1. Once the classes are identified, they need to be represented using
object modeling techniques.
2. This stage essentially involves constructing UML diagrams.
3. There are two types of design models that need to be produced :
Object Oriented Analysis 3–8 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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a. Static Models : To describe the static structure of a system using class
diagrams and object diagrams.
b. Dynamic Models : To describe the dynamic structure of a system and
show the interaction between classes using interaction diagrams and
state-chart diagrams.

Que 3.10. Describe physical packaging with example.

AKTU 2010-11, Marks 2.5

Answer
Physical packaging :
1. A component is a physical and replaceable part of the system that
conforms and provides the realization of a set of interfaces.
2. It represents the physical packaging of elements like classes and
interfaces.
3. A package is an organized group of elements. A package may contain
structural things like classes, components, and other packages in it.
4. For example, a package is represented by a tabbed folder.
5. A package is generally drawn with only its name. However, it may have
additional details about the contents of the package.

Customer
+ Personal_details
+ Account_details
+ Loan_details

Que 3.11. What are the different aspects of packaging ?

Answer
The different aspects of packaging are :
1. Hiding internal information from outside view :
a. It allows a class to be viewed as a "black box" and permits class
implementation to be changed without requiring any clients of the
class to modify code.
2. Coherence of elements :
a. An element, such as a class, an operation, or a module, is coherent
if it is organized on a consistent plan and all its parts are intrinsically
related so that they serve a common goal.
3. Construction of physical modules : The following guidelines help
while constructing physical modules :
Object Oriented System Design 3–9 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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a. Classes in a module should represent similar things or components
in the same composite object.
b. Closely connected classes should be in the same module.
c. Unconnected or weakly connected classes should be placed in
separate modules.
d. Modules should have good cohesion, i.e., high cooperation among
its components.
e. A module should have low coupling with other modules, i.e.,
interaction or interdependence between modules should be
minimum.

Que 3.12. What do you mean by documentation? What are the

various considerations in documentation designing? Explain.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
Documentation :
1. Documentation is a software development process that records the
procedure of making the software.
2. The design decisions need to be documented for any non-trivial software
system for transmitting the design to others.
3. Though a secondary product, a good documentation is indispensable,
particularly in the following areas :
a. In designing software that is being developed by a number of
developers.
b. In iterative software development strategies.
c. In developing subsequent versions of a software project.
d. For evaluating a software.
e. For finding conditions and areas of testing.
f. For maintenance of the software.
Various Consideration of documentation designing :
1. It is a roadmap :
a. It allows standardization, and it helps to identify the stages that can
be improved.
b. Process documentation also facilitates the training of new
employees.
2. It is everyone’s task :
a. The members of an area or project are responsible for documenting
their processes.
b. Every employee knows their own functioning, their strength, and
their weakness, so they are the ones better indicates to document
their processes.
Object Oriented Analysis 3–10 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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3. Make them public :
a. The documentation of the processes must be available to all team
and company members.
b. Restricting access to documentation creates the false illusion that
it’s only relevant to a particular group.
4. Flexible documentation :
a. Companies change, update, improve, so their processes are also
subject to constant changes. To improve the effectiveness of the
process, incorpo rate the necessary adjustments to the
documentation of the process.
b. Document the date of the last update.
c. Save a backup copy of the files that document the process.
d. Review the documents at least once a year.

Que 3.13. What do you mean by multiple inheritances ? Explain it

with an example. Can you implement multiple inheritances in Java ?
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
Multiple inheritance :
1. Multiple inheritance is a feature of object-oriented computer
programming languages in which an object or class can inherit
characteristics and features from more than one parent object or parent
class.
2. When one class extends more than one classes then this is called multiple
inheritance.
For example : Class C extends class A and B then this type of inheritance
is known as multiple inheritance.

A B

Fig. 3.13.1.

Multiple inheritance in Java :

1. Java does not allow multiple inheritance, and we cannot extend more
than one other class.
2. Java doesn’t allow multiple inheritance to avoid the ambiguity caused by
it.
Object Oriented System Design 3–11 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Que 3.14. Describe documenting design considerations. How do

we perform adjustment of inheritance ? AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
Documentation design considerations : Refer Q. 3.12, Page 3-9L, Unit-3.
Following kinds of adjustments can be used to increase the chance
of inheritance :
1. Some operations may have fewer arguments than others. The missing
arguments can be added but ignored. For example, a draw operation on
a monochromatic display does not need a color parameter, but the
parameter can be accepted and ignored for consistency with color
displays.
2. Similar attributes in different classes may have different names. Give
the attributes the same name and move them to the common ancestor
class. Then operations that access the attributes will match better.
3. Some operations may have fewer arguments because they are special
cases of more general arguments. Implement the special operations by
calling the general operation with appropriate parameter values.
4. Opportunities to use inheritance are not always recognized during the
analysis phase of development, so it is worthwhile to reexamine the
object model looking for commonality between classes.

PART-2
Structured Analysis and Structured Design(SA/SD), Jackson
Structured Development(JSD), Mapping Object Oriented
Concepts Using Non-Object Oriented Language, Translating
Classes Into Data Structures, Passing Arguments to Method,
Implementing Inheritance, Association Encapsulation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.15. Describe the structured analysis and structured design

approach with an example. AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

OR
Write short notes on : SA/SD. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Object Oriented Analysis 3–12 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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OR
Explain structured analysis and structured design (SA/SD) with
example. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Structured analysis and structure design :
1. Structured Analysis and Structured Design (SA/SD) is diagrammatic
notation which is design to help people understand the system.
2. The basic goal of SA/SD is to improve quality and reduce the risk of
system failure.
3. It establishes concrete management specification and documentation.
4. It focuses on solidity, pliability and maintainability of system.
5. The approach of SA/SD is based on the Data Flow Diagram.
6. It is easy to understand SA/SD but it focuses on well defined system
boundary whereas JSD approach is too complex and does not have any
graphical representation.
7. SA/SD is combined known as SAD and it mainly focuses on following
three points :
a. System
b. Process
c. Technology
8. SA/SD involves two phases :
a. Analysis Phase : It uses Data Flow Diagram, Data Dictionary,
State Transition diagram and ER diagram.
b. Design Phase : It uses Structure Chart and Pseudo Code.
9. For example :
i. During structured design, data flow diagram processes are grouped
into tasks and allocated to operating system processes and CPUs.
ii. Data flow diagram processes are converted into programming
language functions, and a structure chart is created showing the
procedure call tree.

Que 3.16. Compare the OMT methodology with SA/SD

methodology. Explain with suitable example.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Object Oriented System Design 3–13 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Answer

S. No. OMT methodology SA/SD methodology

1. It manages a system around It manages system around real
procedures. world objects.
2. Focus more on functional Focus more on object model and
model and le ss on object less on functional model.
model.
3. Do minance o rde r is Do minance o rde r is o bje ct,
functio nal, dynamic and dynamic and functional.
object.
4. It is a historical approach. It is advanced approach.
5. Reusability of components Reusability of components across
across projects is less. projects is more.
6. Not easily modifiable and Easily modifiable and extensible.
extensible.
7. Used when functions are Used when data is more important
more important than data. than functions.

Que 3.17. Write short note on Jackson Structured Development.

AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

OR
Write short note on JSD. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
1. Jackson System Development (JSD) is a method of system development
that covers the software life cycle either directly or by providing a
framework into which more specialized techniques can fit.
2. JSD can start from the stage in a project when there is only a general
statement of requirements.
3. Following are the phases of JSD :
a. Modeling phase : In the modeling phase, the designer creates a
collection of entity structure diagrams and identifies the entities in
the system, the actions they perform, the attributes of the actions
and time ordering of the actions in the life of the entities.
Object Oriented Analysis 3–14 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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b. Specification phase : This phase focuses on actually what is to be
done. Major goal is to map progress in the real world on progress in
the system that models it.
c. Implementation phase :
i. In the implementation phase JSD determines how to obtain
the required functionality.
ii. Implementation way of the system is based on transformation
of specification into efficient set of processes.

Que 3.18. How do you map the object-oriented concepts using

non-object oriented languages ? Explain with an example.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05
OR
How object-oriented concept can be implemented using non-object-
oriented language? Explain with an example.
AKTU 2011-12, Marks 05

Answer
Implementing an object-oriented concept in a non-object oriented language
requires the following steps :
1. Translate classes into data structures :
i. Each class is implemented as a single contiguous block of attributes.
Each attribute contains variable. Now an object has state and identity
and is subject to side effects.
ii. A variable that identifies an object must therefore be implemented
as a sharable reference.
2. Pass arguments to methods :
i. Every method has at least one argument. In a non-object-oriented
language, the argument must be made explicit.
ii. Methods can contain additional objects as arguments. In passing an
object as an argument to a method, a reference to the object must
be passed if the value of the object can be updated within the
method.
3. Allocate storage for objects :
i. Objects can be allocated statically, dynamically or on a stack.
ii. Most temporary and intermediate objects are implemented as stack-
based variables.
iii. Dynamically allocated objects are used when there number is not
known at compile time.
iv. A general object can be implemented as a data structure allocated
on request at run time from a heap.
Object Oriented System Design 3–15 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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4. Implement inheritance in data structures : Following ways are
use to implement data structures for inheritance in a non-object-oriented
language :
i. Avoid it.
ii. Flatten the class hierarchy.
iii. Break out separate objects.
5. Implement method resolution : Method resolution is one of the
main features of an object-oriented language that is lacking in a non-
object-oriented language. Method resolution can be implemented in
following ways :
i. Avoid it.
ii. Resolve methods at compile time.
iii. Resolve methods at run time.
6. Implement associations : Implementing associations in a non-object-
oriented language can be done by :
i. Mapping them into pointers.
ii. Implementing them directly as association container objects.
7. Deal with concurrency :
i. Most languages do not explicitly support concurrency.
ii. Concurrency is usually needed only when more than one external
event occurs, and the behaviour of the program depends on their
timing.
8. Encapsulate internal details of classes :
i. Object-oriented languages provide constructs to encapsulate
implementation.
ii. Some of this encapsulation is lost when object-oriented concept is
translated into a non-object-oriented language, but we can still
take advantage of the encapsulation facilities provided by the
language.
Que 3.19. Write short note on translating object oriented design

into an implementation. AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
i. It is easy to implement an object-oriented design with an object-oriented
language since language constructs are similar to design constructs.
ii. The following steps are required to implement an object oriented design
in an object-oriented language :
Object Oriented Analysis 3–16 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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1. Class definitions :
i. The first step in implementing an object-oriented design is to declare
object classes. Each attribute and operation in an object diagram
must be declared as part of its corresponding class.
ii. Assign data types to attributes. Declare attributes and operations
as either public or private.
2. Creating objects :
i. Object-oriented languages create new objects in following two ways :
a. Class operation applied to a class object creates a new object of
the class.
b. Using special operations that create new objects.
ii. When a new object is created, the language allocates storage for its
attribute values and assigns it a unique object ID.
3. Calling operations :
i. In most object-oriented languages, each operation has at least one
implicit argument, the target object, indicated with a special syntax.
ii. Operations may or may not have additional arguments.
4. Using Inheritance :
i. To implement inheritance object-oriented languages use different
mechanisms.
ii. There are three independent dimensions for classifying inheritance
mechanisms :
a. Static or dynamic
b. Implicit or explicit
c. Per object or per group.
iii. Many of the popular languages are static, implicit and per group.
5. Implementing associations :
i. There are two approaches to implement associations : buried
pointers and distinct association objects.
ii. If the language does not explicitly support association objects then
buried pointers are easy to implement.
iii. An association can also be implemented as a distinct container
object.

Que 3.20. Describe passing arguments to method with example.

AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
1. There are different ways in which parameter data can be passed into
and out of methods and functions.
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2. Let us assume that a function B() is called from another function A(). In
this case A is called the “caller function” and B is called the “called
function or callee function”.
3. The arguments which A sends to B are called actual arguments and the
parameters of B are called formal arguments.
4. Following are the types of parameters :
a. Formal parameter : A variable and its type as they appear in the
prototype of the function or method.
Syntax : function_name(datatype variable_name) :
b. Actual parameter : The variable or expression corresponding to a
formal parameter that appears in the function or method call in the
calling environment.
Syntax : func_name(variable name(s));

Que 3.21. Describe implementation of inheritance with example.

AKTU 2012-13, Marks 05

Answer
1. Inheritance is the sharing of attributes and operations among classes
based on a hierarchical relationship.
2. Object-oriented languages provide strong support for implementation
of inheritance.
3. Inheritance has become synonymous with code reuse within the object-
oriented programming community.
4. After modeling a system, the developer looks at the resulting classes
and tries to group similar classes together and reuse common code.
5. Often code is available from past work (such as a class library) which the
developer can reuse and modify to get the precise desired behavior.

PART-3
Object Oriented Programming, Reusability, Extensibility,
Robustness, Programming in the Large, Procedural v/s OOP,
Object Oriented Language Feature, Abstraction and Encapsulation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Object Oriented Analysis 3–18 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Que 3.22. Describe the various features of object-oriented
languages. Also compare any two object-oriented languages.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
Features of object-oriented language are :
1. Encapsulation :
i. Encapsulation means that data are encapsulated inside an inviolable
shell along with the methods required to use it.
ii. The only way to reach the data is through these particular methods
(see Fig. 3.22.1).
iii. It is the mechanism that binds together code and the data it
manipulates.
iv. This concept is also used to hide the internal representation, or
state, of an object from the outside.
Object 1 Object 2

Message C

Method 2
Method 1

Data Data

Method 1
Method 5
Method 3
Method 6
Message B
Message A
Fig. 3.22.1. Message passing between objects with encapsulation,
activating methods that can use or modify the data
within their object.

2. Polymorphism :
i. Polymorphism means having many forms.
ii. Polymorphism is the ability of a message to be displayed in more
than one form.
iii. It plays an important role in allowing objects having different
internal structure to share the same external interface.
3. Inheritance :
i. Inheritance is the ability to create classes that share the attributes
and methods of existing classes, but with more specific features.
ii. Inheritance is mainly used for code reusability.
Object Oriented System Design 3–19 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Difference :
S. No. C++ Java

1. C++ is a platform dependent Java is platform-independent

language. language.
2. C++ is a compiled language. Java is a compiled as well as an
interpreted language.
3. C++ code is not portable. Java, translates the code into
byte code. This byte code is
portable and can be executed on
any platform.
4. Memory management in C++ is In Java the memory
manual. management is automatic.

Que 3.23. Explain each of the following with in reference to object

oriented programming style with an example :
i. Reusability
ii. Robustness
iii. Extensibility
iv. Abstraction AKTU 2011-12, Marks 10
OR
Write short notes on the following reusability and robustness.
AKTU 2010-11, Marks 05

Answer
i. Reusability :
1. Reusability is a segment of source code that can be used again to add
new functionalities with slight or no modification.
2. Reusable software reduces design, coding and testing cost. Also, reducing
the amount of code simplifier understanding. In object-oriented
languages the possibility of code reuse is greatly enhanced.
3. There are two kind of reuse :
i. Sharing of newly-written code within a project.
ii. Reuse of previously-written code on new project.
4. Rules for reusability : Following rules must be kept in mind :
i. Keep methods coherent.
ii. Keep methods small.
iii. Keep method consistent.
Object Oriented Analysis 3–20 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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iv. There should be separate policy and implementation.
v. Provide uniform average.
vi. Broaden the method as much as possible.
vii. Avoid global information.
viii. Avoid modes.
ii. Robustness :
1. A method is robust if it does not fail even if it receives improper
parameters.
2. Robustness against internal bugs may be traded off against efficiency.
3. Robustness against user errors should never be sacrificed.
4. Rules for robustness :
a. Protect against errors : Software should protect itself against
incorrect user input. Incorrect user input should never cause a
crash.
b. Optimize after the program runs : Don’t optimize a program
until you get it working.
c. Validate arguments : External operations, those available to users
of the class, must rigorously check their arguments to prevent
failure. Don’t include arguments that cannot be validated.
d. Avoid predefined limits : When possible use dynamic memory
allocation to create data structures that do not have predefined
limits.
e. Instrument the program for debugging and performance
monitoring : You should instrument your code for debugging,
statistics, and performance. The level of debugging that you must
build into your code depends on the programming environment
presented by the language.
iii. Extensibility :
1. Extensibility is a software engineering and systems design principle
that provides for future growth.
2. Extensibility is a measure of the ability to extend a system and the level
of effort required to implement the extension.
3. Extensions can be through the addition of new functionality or through
modification of existing functionality.
4. The principle provides for enhancements without impairing existing
system functions.
For example : Object-oriented application frameworks which achieve
extensibility typically by using inheritance and dynamic binding.
iv. Abstraction :
1. Abstraction is the selective examination of certain aspects of a problem.
2. The goal of abstraction is to isolate those aspects that are important for
some purpose and suppress those aspects that are unimportant.
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3. Abstraction must always be for some purpose, because the purpose
determines what is and is not important.
4. Many different abstractions of the same thing are possible, depending
on the purpose for which they are made.
Que 3.24. Compare Abstraction and Encapsulation.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

Answer

S. No. Abstraction Encapsulation

1. Abstraction is the process or Encapsulation is the process or
me thod o f gaining the method to contain the information.
information.
2. In abstraction, problems are In encapsulation, problems are
so lved at the de sign o r solved at the implementation level.
interface level.
3. Abstraction is the method of Encapsulation is a method to hide
hiding the unwante d the data in a single entity or unit
information. along with a method to protect
information from outside.
4. We can implement Encapsulation is implemented using
abstraction using abstract by access modifier i.e. private,
class and interfaces. protected and public.
5. The o bjects that he lp to Objects that result in encapsulation
pe rform abstractio n are need not be abstracted.
encapsulated.


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4 C++ Basics & Functions

CONTENTS
Part-1 : C++ Basics, Overview, ............................. 4–2L to 4–10L
Program Structure, Namespace,
Identifiers, Variables,
Constants, Enum, Operators,
Typecasting, Control Structures

Part-2 : C++ Function, Simple Function, .......... 4–10L to 4–21L

Call and Return by Reference,
Inline Function Macro vs Inline
Functions, Overloading of
Functions, Default Arguments,
Friend Functions, Virtual Function
C++ Basics & Functions 4–2 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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PART-1
C++ Basics, Overview, Program Structure, Namespace, Identifiers,
Variables, Constants, Enum, Operators, Typecasting,
Control Structures.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Write short note on C++ and its applications.

Answer
1. C++ is an object-oriented programming language developed by Bjarne
Stroustrup.
2. C++ is a cross-platform language that can be used to create high-
performance applications.
2. C++ is a versatile language for handling very large programs.
3. It is suitable for variety of programming task including development of
editors, compilers, and different complex real-life application systems.
Applications of C++ :
1. Since C++ allows us to create hierarchy-related objects, we can build
special object oriented libraries which can be used later by many
programmers.
2. While C++ is able to map the real-world problem properly, the C part of
C++ gives the language the ability to get close to the machine-level
details.
3. C++ programs are easily maintainable and expandable. When a new
feature needs to be implemented, it is very easy to add to the existing
structure of an object.

Que 4.2. Explain the structure of C++ program.

Answer
1. Fig. 4.2.1 shows the structure of C++ program that contain four sections.
2. The class declarations are placed in a header file and the definitions of
member functions go into another file.
3. This approach enables the programmer to separate the abstract
specification of the interface (class definition) from the implementation
details (member functions definition).
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4. The main program that uses the class is placed in a third file which
“includes” the previous two files as well as any other files required.

Include files
Class declaration
Member functions definitions
Main function program

Fig. 4.2.1. Structure of a C++ program.

Que 4.3. Describe briefly the term namespace, identifiers,

variables constants, enum.

Answer
A. Namespace :
1. Namespace defines a scope for the identifiers that are used in a program.
2. For using the identifiers defined in the namespace scope we must include
the using directive :
using namespace std;
3. Here, std is the namespace where standard class libraries are defined.
4. This directive will bring all the identifiers defined in std to the current
global scope.
B. Identifiers :
1. Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes,
etc., which are created by the programmer.
2. They are the fundamental requirement of any language.
3. Each language has its own rules for naming these identifiers. Following
are the rules for C++ :
a. Only alphabetic characters, digits and underscores are permitted.
b. The name cannot start with a digit.
c. Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
d. A declared keyword cannot be used as a variable name.
C. Constants :
1. Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution
of a program.
2. They include integers, characters, floating point numbers and strings.
3. Literal constant do not have memory locations.
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4. Examples :
123 // decimal integer
12.34 // floating point integer
037 // octal integer
0X2 // hexadecimal integer
“C++” // string constant
‘A’ // character constant
L ‘ab’ // wide-character constant
D. Enumerated :
1. An enum specifier defines the set of all names that will be permissible
values of the type. These permissible values are called members.
2. The enum type days_of_week has seven members : Sun, Mon, Tue, and
so on, up to Sat.
3. Enumerated means that all the values are listed.
4. This is unlike the specification of an int, for example, which is given in
terms of a range of possible values.
5. In an enum you must give a specific name to every possible value.
E. Variables :
1. A variable is a symbolic name that can be given a variety of values.
2. Variables are stored in particular places in the computer’s memory.
3. When a variable is given a value, that value is actually placed in the
memory space occupied by the variable.
4. Most popular languages use the same general variable types, such as
integers, floating-point numbers, and characters.

Que 4.4. Write a C++ program to calculate the value of sin (x) and
cos (x).

Answer
#include<iostream>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std;
//calculate value of sin
void cal_sin(float n) {
float acc = 0.0001, denominator, sinx, sinval;
n = n * (3.142 / 180.0); //convert in radian
float temp = n;
sinx = n;
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sinval = sin(n);
int i = 1;
do {
denominator = 2 * i * (2 * i + 1);
temp = -temp * n * n / denominator;
sinx = sinx + temp;
i = i + 1;
} while (acc <= fabs(sinval - sinx));
cout<<sinx;
}
//calculate value of cos
void cal_cos(float n) {
float acc = 0.0001, temp, denominator, cosx, cosval;
n = n * (3.142 / 180.0); //convert in radiam
temp = 1;
cosx = temp;
cosval = cos(n);
int i = 1;
do {
denominator = 2 * i * (2 * i - 1);
temp = -temp * n * n / denominator;
cosx = cosx + temp;
i = i + 1;
} while (acc <= fabs(cosval - cosx));
cout<< cosx;
}
int main() {
float n = 30;
cout<<“value of Sin is : ”; cal_sin(n);
cout<<“\n”;
n=60;
cout<<“value of Cos is : ”;
cal_cos(n);
return 0;
}

Que 4.5. What are the different types of operators used in C++ ?
C++ Basics & Functions 4–6 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Answer
1. Memory Management Operators :
a. C++ defines two unary operators new and delete that perform the task
of allocating and freeing the memory in a easier way.
b. Since these operators manipulate memory on the free store, they are
also known as free store operators.
c. The new operator can be used to create objects of any type. It takes the
following general form :

pointer-variable = new data-type;

d. When a data object is no longer needed, it is destroyed using the delete

operator.
2. Manipulators :
a. Manipulators are operators that are used to format the data display.
b. The most commonly used manipulators are endl and setw.
c. The endl manipulator, when used in an output statement, causes a
linefeed to be inserted.
d. It has the same effect as using the newline character “\n”.
3. Type cast operator :
a. C++ permits explicit type conversion of variables or expressions using
the type cast operator.
b. The following two versions are equivalent :
(type-name) expression // C notation
type-name (expression) // C++ notation
c. A type-name behaves as if it is a function for converting values to a
designated type.
d. The function-call notation usually leads to simplest expressions.
e. However, it can be used only if the type is an identifier. For example,
p = int * (q);
is illegal. In such cases, we must use C type notation.
p = (int *) q;

Que 4.6. Explain typecasting in C++.

Answer
Typecasting :
1. Converting an expression of a given type into another type is known as
typecasting.
2. Following are the types of typecasting :
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a. Implicit conversion :
i. Implicit conversions do not require any operator.
ii. They are automatically performed when a value is copied to a compatible
type.
iii. For example :
short a = 2000;
int b;
b = a;
b. Explicit conversion :
i. Many conversions, especially those that imply a different interpretation
of the value, require an explicit conversion.
ii. For example :
short a = 2000;
int b;
b = (int) a; // C like cast notation
b = int (a); // functional notation
c. Dynamic cast :
i. dynamic_cast can be used only with pointers and references to objects.
ii. Its purpose is to ensure that the result of the type conversion is a valid
complete object of the requested class.
d. Static cast :
i. static_cast can perform conversions between pointers to related classes,
not only from the derived class to its base, but also from a base class to
its derived.
e. reinterpret_cast :
i. reinterpret_cast converts any pointer type to any other pointer type,
even of unrelated classes.
ii. The operation result is a simple binary copy of the value from one
pointer to the other.
f. const_cast : This type of casting manipulates the constness of an object,
either to be set or to be removed.
g. typeid :
i. typeid allows to check the type of an expression :
typeid (expression)
ii. This operator returns a reference to a constant object of type type_info
that is defined in the standard header file <typeinfo>.

Que 4.7. Describe various control statements used in C++.

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Answer
1. The if statement : The if statement is implemented in two forms :
a. Simple if statement
b. if...else statement
2. The switch statement :
a. This is a multiple-branching statement where, based on a condition, the
control is transferred to one of the many possible points.
b. This is implemented as follows :
switch (expression)
{
case1 :
{
action1;
}
case2 :
{
action2;
}
case3 :
{
action3;
}
default :
{
action4;
}
}
action5;
3. The do-while statement :
a. The do-while is an exit-controlled loop. Based on a condition, the control
is transferred back to a particular point in the program.
b. The syntax is as follows :
do
{
action;
}
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while (condition is true);
action2;
4. The while statement :
a. This is an entry-controlled loop structure.
b. The syntax is as follows :
while (condition is true)
{
action1;
}
action2;
5. The for statement :
a. The for is an entry-controlled loop and is used when an action is to be
repeated for a predetermined number of times.
b. The syntax is as follows :
for (initial value; test; increment)
{
action1;
}
action2;

Que 4.8. Write a program in C++ to count display the frequency

of vowels in a given sentence of at least 35 characters long.

Answer
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char line[35];
int vowels;
vowels = 0;
cout<< “Enter a line of string: ”;
cin.getline(line, 35);
for(int i = 0; line[i]!=‘\0’; ++i)
{
if(line[i]==‘a’ || line[i]==‘e’ || line[i]==‘i’ ||
line[i]==‘o’ || line[i]==‘u’ || line[i]==‘A’ ||
line[i]==‘E’ || line[i]==‘I’ || line[i]==‘O’ ||
line[i]==‘U’)
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{
++vowels;
}
}
cout<< “Vowels: ” <<vowels<<endl;
return 0;
}

Que 4.9. Differentiate between identifiers and keywords.

Answer

S. No. Identifiers Keywords

1. Identifiers are the names Keywords are the reserved words
defined by the programmer to whose meaning is known by the
the basic elements o f a compiler.
program.
2. It is used to identify the name It is used to specify the type of
of the variable. entity.
3. It can consist of letters, digits, It contains only letters.
and underscore.
4. It can use both lowercase and It uses only lowercase letters.
uppercase letters.
5. No special character can be It cannot contain any special
used except the underscore. character.
6. The starting le tter o f It can be started only with the
identifiers can be lowercase, lowercase letter.
uppercase or underscore.
7. It can be classified as internal It cannot be further classified.
and external identifiers.
8. Examples are test, result, Examples are 'for', 'if', 'else',
sum, power, etc. 'break', etc.

PART-2
C++ Function, Simple Function, Call and Return by Reference,
Inline Function Macro vs Inline Functions, Overloading of
Functions, Default Arguments, Friend Functions, Virtual Function.
Object Oriented System Design 4–11 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.10. Explain the prototype of main() function.

Answer
1. The main() returns a value of type int to the operating system.
2. C++ explicitly defines main() as matching one of the following
prototypes :
int main();
int main(int argc, char * argv[]);
3. The functions that have a return value should use the return statement
for termination.
4. Hence the main() function in C++ is defined as follows :
int main()
{
.......
.......
return 0;
}
5. Since the return type of functions is int by default, the keyword int in
the main() header is optional.
6. Most C++ compilers will generate an error or warning if there is no
return statement.

Que 4.11. Describe call by reference and return by reference with

example.

Answer
1. Call by reference :
a. Provision of the reference variables in C++ permits us to pass parameters
to the functions by reference.
b. When we pass arguments by reference, the ‘formal’ arguments in the
called function become aliases to the ‘actual’ arguments in the calling
function.
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c. This means that when the function is working with its own arguments,
it is actually working on the original data.
d. For example, consider the following function :
void swap(int &a, int &b) // a and b are reference variables
{
int t = a; // Dynamic initialization
a = b;
b = t;
}
Now, if m and n are two integer variables, then the function call
swap(m, n);
will exchange the values of m and n using their aliases (reference
variables) a and b.
2. Return by reference :
a. A function can also return a reference.
b. For example, consider the following function :
int & max(int &x, int &y)
{
if (x > y)
return x;
else
return y;
}
c. Since the return type of max() is int &, the function returns reference to
x or y (and not the values).
d. Then a function call such as max(a, b) will yield a reference to either a or
b depending on their values.
e. This means that this function call can appear on the left-hand side of an
assignment statement.
f. This means the statement
max(a, b) = – 1;
is legal and assigns – 1 to a if it is larger, otherwise –1 to b.

Que 4.12. Differentiate between call by value and call by reference.

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Answer

S. No. Call by value Call by reference

1. A copy of the value is passed into An address of value is passed into
the function. the function.
2. Changes made inside the Change s made inside the
function are limited to the function validate outside of the
function only. The values of the function also. The values of the
actual parameters do not change actual parameters do change by
by changing the formal changing the formal parameters.
parameters.
3. Actual and formal arguments Actual and formal arguments are
are created at the different created at the same memory
memory location. location.

Que 4.13. Explain inline function.

Answer
1. Inline function is a function that is expanded in line when it is called.
2. When the inline function is called whole code of the inline function gets
inserted or substituted at the point of inline function call.
3. This substitution is performed by the C++ compiler at compile time.
Inline function may increase efficiency if it is small.
4. The syntax for defining the function inline is :
inline return-type function-name(parameters)
{
// function code
}

Que 4.14. Write a program in C++ to calculate the sum of the

digits of a given positive integer number. For example, if the given
number is 12345 then the program should display : 15.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int val, num, sum = 0;
C++ Basics & Functions 4–14 L (CS/IT-Sem-5)
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cout << “Enter the number : ”;
cin >> val;
num = val;
while (num != 0)
{
sum = sum + num % 10;
num = num / 10;
}
cout << “The sum of the digits of ”
<< val << “ is “ << sum;
}

Que 4.15. Write a program to perform addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division using inline function.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class operation
{
int a, b, add, sub, mul;
float div;
public :
void get();
void sum();
void difference();
void product();
void division();
};
inline void operation :: get()
{
cout << “Enter first value:”;
cin >> a;
cout << “Enter second value:”;
cin >> b;
}
inline void operation :: sum()
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{
add = a + b;
cout << “Addition of two numbers : ” << a + b << “\n”;
}
inline void operation :: difference()
{
sub = a – b;
cout << “Difference of two numbers :” << a – b << “\n”;
}
inline void operation :: product()
{
mul = a * b;
cout << “Product of two numbers: ” << a * b << “\n”;
}
inline void operation ::division()
{
div = a / b;
cout << “Division of two numbers: ”<< a / b << “\n” ;
}
int main()
{
cout << “Program using inline function\n”;
operation s;
s.get();
s.sum();
s.difference();
s.product();
s.division();
return 0;
}

Que 4.16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inline

function ?

Answer
A. Advantages :
1. Function call overhead doesn't occur.
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2. It also saves the overhead of push/pop variables on the stack when
function is called.
3. It also saves overhead of a return call from a function.
4. When you inline a function, you may enable compiler to perform context
specific optimization on the body of function. Such optimizations are not
possible for normal function calls. Other optimizations can be obtained
by considering the flows of calling context and the called context.
5. Inline function may be useful (if it is small) for embedded systems because
inline can yield less code than the function call preamble and return.
B. Disadvantages :
1. The added variables from the inlined function consume additional
registers.
2. If you use too many inline functions then the size of the binary executable
file will be large, because of the duplication of same code.
3. Too much inlining can also reduce your instruction cache hit rate, thus
reducing the speed of instruction fetch from that of cache memory to
that of primary memory.
4. Inline function may increase compile time overhead if someone changes
the code inside the inline function then all the calling location has to be
recompiled because compiler would require to replace all the code once
again to reflect the changes, otherwise it will continue with old
functionality.
5. Inline functions may not be useful for many embedded systems. Because
in embedded systems code size is more important than speed.

Que 4.17. Differentiate between inline and macro function.

Answer

S. No. Inline Macro

1. An inline function is defined by Whereas the macros are defined
the inline keyword. by the are define keyword.
2. Through inline function, the Whereas macro can’t access the
class’s data members can be class’s data members.
accessed.
3. In the case of inline function, Whereas in the case of macros,
the pro gram can be easily the program can’t be easily
debugged. debugged.
4. In the case o f inline , the Whereas in the case of macro,
arguments are evaluated only the arguments are evaluated
once. every time whenever macro is
used in the program.
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5. In C++, inline may be defined Whereas the macro is all the time
either inside the class or outside defined at the beginning of the
the class. program.
6. In C++, inside the class, the While the macro is specifically
short length functions are defined.
automatically made the inline
functions.
7. Inline is not as widely used as While the macro is widely used.
macros.
8. Inline is not used in competitive While the macro is very much
programming. used in co mpetitive
programming.
9. Inline function is terminated by While the macro is no t
the curly brace at the end. terminated by any symbol, it is
terminated by a new line.

Que 4.18. What do you mean by overloading of a function ?

Answer
1. C++ allows you to specify more than one definition for a function name
or an operator in the same scope, which is called function overloading.
2. An overloaded declaration is a declaration that is declared with the same
name as a previously declared declaration in the same scope, except that
both declarations have different arguments and different definition
(implementation).
3. When you call an overloaded function or operator, the compiler
determines the most appropriate definition to use, by comparing the
argument types you have used to call the function or operator with the
parameter types specified in the definitions.
4. The process of selecting the most appropriate overloaded function or
operator is called overload resolution.

Que 4.19. Write a program of function overloading when the

number of arguments are different.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Cal {
public:
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static int add(int a,int b){
return a + b;
}
static int add(int a, int b, int c)
{
return a + b + c;
}
};
int main(void) {
Cal C; // class object declaration.
cout << C.add(10, 20) << endl;
cout << C.add(12, 20, 23);
return 0;
}

Que 4.20. Write a program to print the length of a rectangle using

friends function.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Box
{
private:
int length;
public:
Box(): length(0) { }
friend int printLength(Box); //friend function
};
int printLength(Box b)
{
b.length += 10;
return b.length;
}
int main()
{
Box b;
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cout<<“Length of box:”<< printLength(b)<<endl;
return 0;
}

Que 4.21. Write a program in C++ to display the longest word in a

given sentence.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
//function to find longest word
int word_length(string str) {
int len = str.length();
int temp = 0;
int newlen = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < len; i++) {
if (str[i] != ‘ ’)
newlen++;
else {
temp = max(temp, newlen);
newlen = 0;
}
}
return max(temp, newlen);
}
int main() {
string str = “Quantum Series is the best for clearing exam”;
cout << “maximum length of a word is : ” << word_length(str);
return 0;
}

Que 4.22. Explain default argument.

Answer
A default argument is a value provided in a function declaration that is
automatically assigned by the compiler if the caller of the function doesn't
provide a value for the argument with a default value.
#include<iostream>
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using namespace std;
// A function with default arguments, it can be called with
// 2 arguments or 3 arguments or 4 arguments.
int sum(int x, int y, int z=0, int w=0)
{
return (x + y + z + w);
}

Que 4.23. Explain friend function with example.

Answer
1. If a function is defined as a friend function in C++, then the protected
and private data of a class can be accessed using the function.
2. By using the keyword friend compiler knows the given function is a
friend function.
3. For accessing the data, the declaration of a friend function should be
done inside the body of a class starting with the keyword friend.
4. For example,
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Box
{
private:
int length;
public:
Box(): length(0) { }
friend int printLength(Box); //friend function
};

Que 4.24. What are the characteristics of friend function ?

Answer
Characteristics of friend function are :
1. The function is not in the scope of the class to which it has been declared
as a friend.
2. It cannot be called using the object as it is not in the scope of that class.
3. It can be invoked like a normal function without using the object.
4. It cannot access the member names directly and has to use an object
name and dot membership operator with the member name.
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5. It can be declared either in the private or the public part.

Que 4.25. Describe virtual function.

Answer
1. A virtual function is a member function which is declared within a base
class and is redefined (Overridden) by a derived class.
2. When you refer to a derived class object using a pointer or a reference
to the base class, you can call a virtual function for that object and
execute the derived class’s version of the function.
3. Virtual functions ensure that the correct function is called for an object,
regardless of the type of reference (or pointer) used for function call.
4. They are mainly used to achieve Runtime polymorphism
5. Functions are declared with a virtual keyword in base class.
6. The resolving of function call is done at Run-time.

Que 4.26. What are the rules used for a virtual function ?

Answer
1. Virtual functions cannot be static and also cannot be a friend function of
another class.
2. Virtual functions should be accessed using pointer or reference of base
class type to achieve run time polymorphism.
3. The prototype of virtual functions should be same in base as well as
derived class.
4. They are always defined in base class and overridden in derived class. It
is not mandatory for derived class to override (or re-define the virtual
function), in that case base class version of function is used.
5. A class may have virtual destructor but it cannot have a virtual
constructor.


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5 Object and Classes

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Objects and Classes, ................................... 5–2L to 5–6L
Basics of Object and Class
in C++, Private and
Public Members, Static
Data and Function Members

Part-2 : Constructors and their ............................ 5–6L to 5–10L

Types, Destructors, Operators
Overloading, Type Conversion

Part-3 : Inheritance : Concept of ........................ 5–10L to 5–15L

Inheritance, Types of
Inheritance : Single,
Multiple, Multilevel,
Hierarchical, Hybrid,
Protected Members,
Overriding, Virtual Base Class

Part-4 : Polymorphism, Pointers in .................... 5–15L to 5–19L

C++, Pointers and Objects,
this Pointer, Virtual and Pure
Virtual Function, Implementing
Polymorphism
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PART-1
Objects and Classes, Basics of Object and Class in C++, Private
and Public Members, Static Data and Function Members.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Write short note on object and classes.

Answer
A. Object :
1. An Object is an instance of a Class. When a class is defined, no memory
is allocated but when it is instantiated (i.e. an object is created) memory
is allocated.
2. When a class is defined, only the specification for the object is defined;
no memory or storage is allocated. To use the data and access functions
defined in the class, you need to create objects.
B. Classes :
1. A class is a way to bind the data and its associated functions together. It
allows the data (and functions) to be hidden, if necessary, from external
use.
2. When defining a class, we are creating a new abstract data type that can
be treated like any other built-in data type.
3. The class declaration describes the type and scope of its members.
4. The class function definitions describe how the class functions are
implemented.
5. The general form of a class declaration is :

class class_name
{
private :
variable declarations;
function declarations;
public :
variable declarations;
function declarations;
};
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6. The class declaration is similar to a struct declaration. The keyword
class specifies that what follows is an abstract data of type class_name.
7. The body of a class is enclosed within braces and terminated by a
semicolon.
8. The class body contains the declaration of variables and functions. These
functions and variables are collectively called class members.
9. The class members that have been declared as private can be accessed
only from within the class.
10. While the public members can be accessed from outside the class also.
11. The variables declared inside the class are known as data members and
the functions are known as member functions.

Que 5.2. Design a class using C++ to create a singly linked list.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
struct node
{
int data;
node *next;
};
class list
{
private:
node *head, *tail;
public:
list()
{
head = NULL;
tail = NULL;
}
void createnode(int value)
{
node *temp = new node;
temp->data = value;
temp->next = NULL;
if(head == NULL)
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{
head = temp;
tail = temp;
temp = NULL;
}
else
{
tail -> next = temp;
tail = temp;
}
}
};
int main()
{
list obj;
obj.createnode(25);
obj.createnode(50);
obj.createnode(90);
obj.createnode(40);
cout<<“\n--------------------------------------------------\n”;
cout<<“---------------Displaying All nodes---------------”;
cout<<“\n--------------------------------------------------\n”;
system(“pause”);
return 0;
}

Que 5.3. Explain private member function.

Answer
1. A private member function can only be called by another function that
is a member of its class.
2. Even an object cannot invoke a private function using the dot operator.
3. Consider a class as defined below :
class sample
{
in m;
void read(void); // private member function
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public :
void update(void);
void write(void);
};
4. If s1 is an object of sample, then
s1.read(); // won’t work; objects cannot access
// private members
is illegal.
5. However, the function read() can be called by the function update() to
update the value of m.
void sample : : update(void)
{
read(); // simple call; no object used
}

Que 5.4. Differentiate between public and private member

function.

Answer

S. No. Public Private

1. All the class members declared The class members declared as
under public will be available to private can be accessed only by
everyone. the functions inside the class.
2. The data members and member Only the member functions or the
functions declared public can be friend functions are allowed to
accessed by other classes too. access the private data members
of a class.
3. The public members of a class The y are no t allo we d to be
can be accessed from anywhere accessed directly by any object or
in the program using the direct function outside the class.
member access operator (.) with
the object of that class.

Que 5.5. Explain static data and static function member.

Answer
Static data :
1. Static data is data that does not change after being recorded. It is a fixed
data set.
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2. Experts contrast static data with dynamic data, where dynamic data
may change after it is recorded, and has to be continually updated.
Member function :
1. A member function of a class is a function that has its definition or its
prototype within the class definition like any other variable.
2. It operates on any object of the class of which it is a member, and has
access to all the members of a class for that object.
3. Member functions can be defined within the class definition or separately
using scope resolution operator.
4. Defining a member function within the class definition declares the
function inline, even if you do not use the inline specifier.

PART-2
Constructors and their Types, Destructors, Operators
Overloading, Type Conversion.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.6. Define constructor. How constructor is different from

normal member function.

Answer
Constructor :
1. A constructor is a member function of a class which initializes objects of
a class.
2. In C++, Constructor is automatically called when object (instance of
class) create. It is special member function of the class.
A constructor is different from normal functions in following ways :
1. Constructor has same name as the class itself.
2. Constructors don't have return type.
3. A constructor is automatically called when an object is created.
4. If we do not specify a constructor, C++ compiler generates a default
constructor for us (expects no parameters and has an empty body).

Que 5.7. What are the types of constructor ?

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Answer
Different types of constructor are :
1. Default constructors :
a. Default constructor is the constructor which doesn’t take any
argument. It has no parameters.
b. Even if we do not define any constructor explicitly, the compiler
will automatically provide a default constructor implicitly.
2. Parameterized constructors :
a. It is possible to pass arguments to constructors. Typically, these
arguments help initialize an object when it is created.
b. To create a parameterized constructor, simply add parameters to it
the way you would to any other function.
c. When you define the constructor’s body, use the parameters to
initialize the object.
3. Copy constructor :
a. A copy constructor is a member function which initializes an object
using another object of the same class.
b. Whenever we define one or more non-default constructors (with
parameters) for a class, a default constructor (without parameters)
should also be explicitly defined as the compiler will not provide a
default constructor in this case.
c. However, it is not necessary but it’s considered to be the best practice
to always define a default constructor.

Que 5.8. Define destructor with its properties.

Answer
Destructor :
1. Destructor is a member function which destructs or deletes an object.
2. Following is the Syntax of destructor :
~constructor-name();
Properties of Destructor :
1. Destructor function is automatically invoked when the objects are
destroyed.
2. It cannot be declared static or const.
3. The destructor does not have arguments.
4. It has no return type not even void.
5. An object of a class with a Destructor cannot become a member of the
union.
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6. A destructor should be declared in the public section of the class.
7. The programmer cannot access the address of destructor.

Que 5.9. When we call a destructor ? How it is different from

normal member function. Can there be more than one destructor in
a class ?

Answer
We call a destructor when :
1. A destructor function is called automatically when the object goes out of
scope :
a. The function ends
b. The program ends
c. A block containing local variables ends
d. A delete operator is called
2. Destructors are different from a normal member function :
a. Destructors have same name as the class preceded by a tilde (~).
b. Destructors don’t take any argument and don't return anything.
No, there can only one destructor in a class with classname preceded by ~, no
parameters and no return type.

Que 5.10. Describe operator overloading.

Answer
1. Operator overloading is a compile-time polymorphism in which the
operator is overloaded to provide the special meaning to the user-defined
data type.
2. Operator overloading is used to overload or redefines most of the
operators available in C++.
3. It is used to perform the operation on the user-defined data type.
4. For example, C++ provides the ability to add the variables of the user-
defined data type that is applied to the built-in data types.
5. The advantage of Operators overloading is to perform different
operations on the same operand.
6. Syntax of Operator Overloading
return_type class_name : : operator op(argument_list)
{
// body of the function.
}
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Que 5.11. What are the rules of operator overloading ?

Answer
Rules for Operator Overloading :
1. Existing operators can only be overloaded, but the new operators cannot
be overloaded.
2. The overloaded operator contains at least one operand of the user-
defined data type.
3. We cannot use friend function to overload certain operators. However,
the member function can be used to overload those operators.
4. When unary operators are overloaded through a member function take
no explicit arguments, but, if they are overloaded by a friend function,
takes one argument.
5. When binary operators are overloaded through a member function
takes one explicit argument, and if they are overloaded through a friend
function takes two explicit arguments.

Que 5.12. Explain type conversion with its type.

Answer
A type cast is basically a conversion from one type to another. There are two
types of type conversion :
1. Implicit Type Conversion (automatic type conversion) :
a. Done by the compiler on its own, without any external trigger from
the user.
b. Generally takes place when in an expression more than one data
type is present. In such condition type conversion (type promotion)
takes place to avoid lose of data.
c. All the data types of the variables are upgraded to the data type of
the variable with largest data type.
d. It is possible for implicit conversions to lose information, signs can
be lost (when signed is implicitly converted to unsigned), and
overflow can occur (when long is implicitly converted to float).
2. Explicit Type Conversion :
a. This process is also called type casting and it is user-defined. Here
the user can typecast the result to make it of a particular data type.
b. In C++, it can be done by two ways :
i. Converting by assignment :
a. This is done by explicitly defining the required type in
front of the expression in parenthesis. This can be also
considered as forceful casting.
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b. Following is the syntax :
(type) expression
where type indicates the data type to which the final result
is converted.
ii. Conversion using Cast operator :
Inheritance : concept of inheritance, types of inheritance: single,
multiple, multilevel, hierarchical , hybrid, protected
members, overriding, virtual base class
a. A cast operator is a unary operator which forces one data
type to be converted into another data type.
b. C++ supports four types of casting :
i. Static Cast
ii. Dynamic Cast
iii. Const Cast
iv. Reinterpret Cast

PART-3
Inheritance : Concept of Inheritance , Types of Inheritance : Single,
Multiple, Multilevel, Hierarchical , Hybrid, Protected
Members, Overriding, Virtual Base Class.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.13. Define inheritance. What are the modes of inheritance ?

Answer
Inheritance :
1. The capability of a class to derive properties and characteristics from
another class is called Inheritance.
2. Inheritance is one of the most important features of Object Oriented
Programming.
3. The class that inherits properties from another class is called Sub class
or Derived class.
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4. The class whose properties are inherited by sub class is called Base Class
or Super class.
Modes of inheritance :
1. Public mode :
a. If we derive a sub class from a public base class.
b. Then the public member of the base class will become public in the
derived class and protected members of the base class will become
protected in derived class.
2. Protected mode :
a. If we derive a sub class from a Protected base class.
b. Then both public member and protected members of the base class
will become protected in derived class.
3. Private mode :
a. If we derive a sub class from a Private base class.
b. Then both public member and protected members of the base class
will become Private in derived class.

Que 5.14. What are the types of inheritance ? Explain.

Answer
Different types of inheritance :
1. Single inheritance :
a. In single inheritance, a class is allowed to inherit from only one
class. i.e., one sub class is inherited by one base class only.
b. Following is the syntax :
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class
{
//body of subclass
};
2. Multiple inheritance :
a. Multiple inheritance is a feature of C++ where a class can inherit
from more than one classes. i.e one sub class is inherited from
more than one base classes.
b. Following is the syntax :
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class1, access_mode
base_class2, ....
{
//body of subclass
};
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3. Multilevel inheritance : In this type of inheritance, a derived class is
created from another derived class.
4. Hierarchical inheritance : In this type of inheritance, more than one
sub class is inherited from a single base class, i.e., more than one derived
class is created from a single base class.
5. Hybrid (Virtual) inheritance :
a. Hybrid inheritance is implemented by combining more than one
type of inheritance.
b. For example : Combining Hierarchical inheritance and Multiple
Inheritance.

Que 5.15. What are protected member ? What is difference between

public and protected access modifier.

Answer
1. Protected access modifier is similar to private access modifier in the
sense that it can’t be accessed outside of it's class unless with the help of
friend class, the difference is that the class members declared as Protected
can be accessed by any subclass (derived class) of that class as well.
S. No. Public Protected
1. All the class me mbers Protected access modifier is
declared under public will be similar to that of private access
available to everyone. modifiers.
2. The data me mbers and The class member declared as
member functions declared Pro te cted are inaccessible
public can be accessed by outside the class but they can be
other classes too. accessed by any subclass (derived
class) of that class.

Que 5.16. Explain function overriding.

Answer
1. If derived class defines same function as defined in its base class, it is
known as function overriding in C++.
2. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism.
3. It enables you to provide specific implementation of the function which
is already provided by its base class.
4. For example, we are overriding the eat() function.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
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class Animal {
public:
void eat(){
cout << "Eating...";
}
};
class Dog: public Animal
{
public:
void eat()
{
cout << "Eating bread...";
}
};
int main(void) {
Dog d = Dog();
d.eat();
return 0;
}

Que 5.17. Write a program in C++ to read in two matrices from the
keyboard and compute their sum.

Answer
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int row, col, m1[10][10], m2[10][10], sum[10][10];
cout << “Enter the number of rows(should be >1 and <10): ”;
cin >> row;
cout << “Enter the number of column(should be >1 and <10): ”;
cin >> col;
cout << “Enter the elements of first 1st matrix: ”;
for (int i = 0; i < row; i++ ) {
for (int j = 0; j < col; j++ ) {
cin >> m1[i][j];
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}
}
cout << “Enter the elements of first 1st matrix: ”;
for (int i = 0; i <row; i++ ) {
for (int j = 0; j < col; j++ ) {
cin >> m2[i][j];
}
}
cout << “Output: ”;
for (int i = 0; i < row; i++ ) {
for (int j = 0; j < col; j++ ) {
sum[i][j] = m1[i][j] + m2[i][j];
cout << sum[i][j] << “ ”;
}
}
return 0;
}

Que 5.18. What is virtual base class ?

Answer
1. Virtual base classes are used in virtual inheritance in a way of preventing
multiple “instances” of a given class appearing in an inheritance hierarchy
when using multiple inheritances.
2. Following is the Syntax for Virtual Base Classes :
Syntax 1:
class B : virtual public A
{
};
Syntax 2 :
class C : public virtual A
{
};
3. For example,
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class A {
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public:
void show()
{
cout << “Hello from A \n”;
}
};
class B : public A {
};
class C : public A {
};
class D : public B, public C {
};
int main()
{
D object;
object.show();
}

PART-4
Polymorphism, Pointers in C++, Pointers and Objects,
this Pointer, Virtual and Pure Virtual Function, Implementing
Polymorphism.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.19. Explain the term polymorphism with its types.

Answer
Polymorphism : Refer Q. 1.3, Page 1-3L, Unit-1.
Different types of polymorphism :
1. Compile time polymorphism : This type of polymorphism is achieved
by function overloading or operator overloading.
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a. Function overloading :
i. When there are multiple functions with same name but
different parameters then these functions are said to be
overloaded.
ii. Functions can be overloaded by change in number of arguments
or/and change in type of arguments.
b. Operator overloading : C++ also provides option to overload
operators. For example, we can make the operator ('+') for string
class to concatenate two strings.
2. Runtime polymorphism : This type of polymorphism is achieved by
function overriding :
a. Function overriding :
i. It occurs when a derived class has a definition for one of the
member functions of the base class.
ii. That base function is said to be overridden.

Que 5.20. Write a program to swap to numbers using pointers.

Answer
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
clrscr();
int *a,*b,*temp;
cout << “Enter value of a and b :”;
cin >> *a >> *b;
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
cout << “nAfter swaping na =”<< *a << “nb =”<< *b;
getch();
}

Que 5.21. What is a pointer ? How to use a pointer.

Answer
Pointer :
1. Pointers are symbolic representation of addresses.
2. They enable programs to simulate call-by-reference as well as to create
and manipulate dynamic data structures.
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3. Its general declaration in C++ has the format :
datatype *var_name;
int *ptr; //ptr can point to an address
Use a pointer :
1. Define a pointer variable
2. Assigning the address of a variable to a pointer using unary operator (&)
which returns the address of that variable.
3. Accessing the value stored in the address using unary operator (*)
which returns the value of the variable located at the address specified
by its operand.

Que 5.22. Describe briefly about the term object.

Answer
1. Objects are the basic run-time entities in an object-oriented system.
2. In the object-oriented programming paradigm object can be a combination
of variables, functions, and data structures.
3. They may represent a person, a place, a bank account, a table of data or
any item that the program has to handle.
4. Programming problem is analyzed in terms of objects and the nature of
communication between them.
5. Program objects should be chosen such that they match closely with the
real-world objects.
6. Objects can interact without having to know details of each other’s data
or code.

Que 5.23. Explain ‘this pointer’ with the help of example.

Answer
1. In C++ programming, this is a keyword that refers to the current instance
of the class.
2. There can be three main usage of this keyword in C++ :
a. It can be used to pass current object as a parameter to another
method.
b. It can be used to refer current class instance variable.
c. It can be used to declare indexers.
3. For example,
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee {
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public:
int id; //data member (also instance variable)
string name; //data member(also instance variable)
float salary;
Employee(int id, string name, float salary)
{
this->id = id;
this->name = name;
this->salary = salary;
}
void display()
{
cout << id << “ ” << name << “ ” << salary << endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Employee e1 = Employee(101, “Sonu”, 890000); //creating an object
of Employee
Employee e2 = Employee(102, "Nakul", 59000); //creating an object
of Employee
e1.display();
e2.display();
return 0;
}

Que 5.24. Differentiate between virtual and pure virtual function.

Answer

S. No Virtual function Pure virtual function

1. A virtual function is a member A pure virtual function is a
function of base class which can member function of base class
be redefined by derived class. whose only declaration is
provided in base class and should
be defined in de rive d class
otherwise derived class also
becomes abstract.
2. Classes having virtual functions Base class containing pure virtual
are not abstract. function becomes abstract.
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3. Syntax : Syntax :
virtual<func_type> virtual<func_type><func_name>()
<func_name>() = 0;
{
// code
}
4. Definition is given in base class. No definition is given in base
class.
5. Base class having virtual Base class having pure virtual
function can be instantiated i.e., function becomes abstract i.e. it
its object can be made. cannot be instantiated.
6. If derived class does not redefine If derived class does not redefine
virtual function of base class, virtual function of base class,
then it do es not affect then no compilation error but
compilation. derived class also be co me s
abstract just like the base class.
7. All derived class may or may not All derived class must redefine
redefine virtual function of base pure virtual function of base class
class. otherwise derived class also
becomes abstract just like base
class.

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