Lab Manual:

Measurements and Instrumentation

Using the Measurements Part Kit for NI ELVIS III

Lab 1: Signals and Sensors

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2
Lab 1: Signals and Sensors

In this lab, you are going to dive into the first step of the signal chain, converting a real-
world phenomenon into processed data.

You are going to learn about sensors and the process of measuring physical signals of
many different types. Further, you are going to explore signal characteristics and the
measurement process. Specifically, you will explore the question, “what aspects of a
measurement am I interested in?”

Figure 1 Signal Chain

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the purpose of a sensor and the different types and characteristics
2. Discuss the characteristics of a signal and how they relate to the physical world
3. Analyze a spec sheet and choose an appropriate sensor based on a
measurement need

3
Required Tools and Technology

4
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
● Use the NI ELVIS III instruments as http://www.ni.com/en-
needed us/support/model.ni-elvis-
Note: The ELVIS III Cables and iii.html
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is  View Tutorials:
required for using the instruments. https://www.youtube.com/playl
ist?
list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSx
v0gwtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel
support:
http://www.ni.com/documentati
on/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5474
9/en

Hardware: Measurements Parts Kit Components used in this lab:

 Sharp 2Y0A21YK0F IR
Distance Sensor

Software: LabVIEW  Before downloading and

Version 18.0 or Later installing software, refer to
Toolkits and Modules: your professor or lab manager
● LabVIEW Real-Time Module for information on your lab’s
● NI ELVIS III Toolkit software licenses and
infrastructure
 Download & Install for NI
ELVIS III:
http://www.ni.com/academic/d
ownload
 View Tutorials:
http://www.ni.com/academic/st
udents/learn-labview/

5
6
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Check for understanding questions

 Data from circuit building
 Calculations of voltage and distance
 Observations of sensor characteristics

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

7
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-2 Video Screenshot. View the video here: https://youtu.be/E0txbvNt6Xw

Video Summary

 Sensors are physical devices that convert a real-world phenomenon into a

measurable signal
 Sensors may be analog or digital, depending on the type of signal they produce
 The three primary characteristics of a signal are level or state, shape or pattern,
and frequency or rate.
 Sensor characteristics include sensitivity, range, precision, accuracy, resolution,
offset, linearity, hysteresis, and response time.

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What Are Sensors?

Sensors are physical devices that convert a real-world phenomenon into a measurable
signal. Most commonly, they generate a voltage output, but they can also generate
current or they can change their electrical resistance.

Sensors are often packaged into a more advanced system where the output can be a
message from the sensor, instead of an analog electrical signal. You will focus on
sensors with simpler construction.

Many different physical properties can be utilized to generate the measurable output
signal. To name a few, these can include:

 Resistive sensors, changing electrical resistances in different conditions.

 Hall-effect sensors, voltage generation by a magnetic field applied to a current

carrier.

 Piezoelectric sensors, which convert pressure, acceleration, force, or strain into

an electrical charge. 

Sensors are often called transducers, meaning a device that converts energy from one
form to another.

How Are Sensors Used?

We use sensors in a huge number of applications, often as an unrecognized part of a

larger system.

Furthermore, sensors are important components of the data acquisition side of IoT
(Internet of Things), development.

Sensors are used in data acquisition, monitoring, and control systems in almost every
industry. From agriculture to manufacturing, sensors are included in systems to
measure conditions, confirm proper positioning of equipment, automate machine
movement, and measure produced products for defects.

What Are Signal Characteristics?

Depending on the measurement that you're interested in, different characteristics of the
measurement signal will be of interest.

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Signal characteristics include:

 Level
 State
 Shape
 Pattern
 Frequency
 Rate

You will learn more about these characteristics in subsequent sections of this lab.

10
 Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far. You
can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 Which of the following describes the output of a sensor?

A. A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable signal

B. A sensor converts an electrical signal into mechanical movement
C. A sensor is a transducer that converts one type of energy into mechanical
movement
D. A sensor converts mechanical movement into a physical phenomenon

1-2 Which of the following is a true statement regarding signal characteristics?

A. Signal level is the most important characteristic for all measurement sensors
B. All sensors output signals have the same characteristics
C. Different measurement scenarios are interested in different characteristics of a
signal

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1.2 Sensor Types

What is a Sensor?

A sensor is a device that converts physical phenomena into measurable electrical

signals—usually a voltage output—that can later be translated to useful data. 

Sensors may be either analog or digital, depending on the type of signal that they
produce. Analog signals directly represent the phenomena they measure, tracing those
phenomena through a range of values. Digital signals represent physical phenomena
through a discrete (usually binary) set of possible values. Most sensors are analog,
although digital sensors do exist (such as encoders, which measure displacement). 

Figure 1-2 Voltage Graphs Showing Analog and Digital Measurements

Another distinction that you can make is whether a sensor is active or passive. Passive
sensors are those that rely on an external power source to function. Passive sensors
reflect physical phenomena by producing some change in the current running through
them.  Active sensors generate current or voltage in response to the phenomena they
are meant to measure, and therefore do not need to be powered.

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When are Different Sensors Used?

Different sensors are used to measure different physical phenomena. It is important that
the right sensor be used in any situation to measure the factor in question. Some
physical phenomena and the sensors that measure them are:

Table 1-1 Phenomenon and Sensors

Phenomenon Appropriate Sensor

 Thermocouple
 Resistive Temperature Device (RTD)
Temperature
 Thermistor

 Strain Gauge
Strain, force  Load Cell

 Piezoelectric Transducer
Pressure
 Microphone
Sound
 Accelerometer
Vibration/Acceleration
 Potentiometer
Position/Displacement  Encoder

 Flowmeter
Fluid flow
 Photo sensor
Light

1-3 Which sensor would be appropriate to measure how heavy a manufactured part is?

13
A. Thermocouple
B. Load Cell
C. Hall-Effect Sensor
D. Flowmeter

14
1.3 Signal Types and Characteristics

What are the Characteristics of a Signal?

Whether analog or digital, signals can all be described and analyzed in terms of multiple
different features, or characteristics. Depending on our purpose for producing the signal,
you may be interested in measuring certain of these characteristics and unconcerned
with knowing the others.

The three primary characteristics of a signal are level/state, shape/pattern, and

frequency/rate.

Level/State

Level describes the steady-state magnitude of an analog signal at a particular point in

time.

The digital equivalent is state, which refers to the value of a signal at a certain point in
time (usually one of two binary values, either 1 or 0). 

Figure 1-3 Voltage Graphs Showing Level and State

Shape/Pattern

The signal characteristic shape is exactly what it sounds like: the profile, or form of the
graph, of the signal over a certain period of time. Some common shapes even have
special names, such as square, triangle, and sawtooth.

A digital signal may have an identifying pattern, a particular sequence of states over a
certain period of time.

15
 Figure 1-4 Voltage Graphs Showing Shape and Pattern

Frequency/Rate

Finally, the frequency of a signal is the number of times a recurring waveform repeats in
one second. Waveforms that recur in this nature are known as periodic.

For digital signals, the related concept is rate, which refers to the number of either
pulses or bytes of data sent each second. 

Figure 1-5 Voltage Graphs Showing Frequency and Rate

Note that frequency is easy to understand in regards to a simple sinusoidal wave, but
becomes daunting to conceptualize for signals with complex shapes and many possible
periods. Fourier analysis allows us to break any signal down into a sum of multiple
different sine and cosine waves and analyze it from there.

Read more on Fourier analysis here: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3342/en/. 

16
Measurement Scenarios and Characteristic Importance

The signal characteristics we are interested in depend on the situation in which we are
taking the measurement.

In analog signals, level reflects the intensity or magnitude of the physical phenomenon
being measured. When level is the characteristic being studied, the phenomenon is
usually such that the level does not change rapidly with respect to time. Light intensity,
temperature, and pressure are some examples of phenomena for which level is
important. 

A signal's shape is of interest mostly for signals that change quickly. The details of a
signal's shape--such as peak values and slope--help us to analyze physical
phenomena such as video signals, sound, and vibrations.

The significance of frequency depends on the phenomenon being measured, but it can
communicate such useful information as the pitch of a sound and the rapidity of an
earthquake tremor. 

In digital signals, state is a binary value defining the thing being measured as either high
or low, on or off. Therefore, it is relevant in situations for which we only care to know
whether or not some condition is true, such as monitoring whether a switch is closed.

Pattern, like shape, reflects some aspect of the nature of a physical phenomenon, and
is used to deal with values that change over time.

Finally, rate can provide insight as to the rapidity of the phenomenon being measured,
such as how quickly a piston is firing.

1-4 In a scenario where you need to monitor the combustion of an engine and are
interested in the repeatability of the cylinder stroke and the cylinder moving through the
correct points with correct timing, which signal characteristic would you be most
interested in?

A. The level of distance of the highest point in the cylinder stroke

B. The frequency of the cylinder strokes and how frequently they repeat
C. The pattern of the position of the cylinder through its stroke
D. The rate of the cylinder moving between the two extremes of motion

17
1.4 Sensor Characteristics

What are the Important Characteristics of a Sensor?

In addition to discussing the characteristics of a signal, we can also consider the

characteristics of a sensor. Sensor characteristics help us describe the different aspects
of how effectively the sensor detects and reflects phenomena. Many of these
characteristics are expressed nicely by output characteristic curves, graphs that plot
output signals against changes in input property. 

Sensitivity

Sensitivity is the ratio between the output signal and the physical phenomenon being
measured (the input). In other words, it is the slope of the sensor's graph.

Range

The range of a sensor is the minimum and maximum values of input property that it can
measure. The term dynamic range refers to the magnitude of the difference between
the minimum and maximum values. Keep in mind that the range of a sensor is often not
centered around zero.

Precision, accuracy, and resolution

Precision refers to how reproducible or consistent a sensor's measurements are. If we

measure the same phenomenon with the same sensor multiple times, any sensor will
show at least some variation in its output. If that variation is small, the sensor is precise;
if the outputs vary a great deal, the sensor is imprecise.

Accuracy refers to how correct or truthful the sensor's output is to the input values.
Specifically, it is the maximum difference between the actual value of the phenomenon
being measured and the measurement output by the sensor. 

Finally, resolution is the smallest measurable change of input property that a sensor can
detect and convey through a change in output signal. Both accuracy and resolution can
be given as absolute values or as percentages of the reading or range. 

It is important to understand the difference between precision, accuracy, and resolution.

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Offset and linearity

Offset, in general, describes a consistent difference between the actual and detected

values of the input characteristic. More specifically, it can be defined one of two ways.
First, offset can refer to a baseline value output when the input property value is actually
zero, which causes all the output values to be offset from what they should be. Second,
offset can mean the difference between the actual property value and the output value
due to a specific condition; for example, most sensors are calibrated to function at 25
ºC, so using a sensor in a warmer or colder environment may cause all of the output
values to be either too high or too low. 

Linearity describes how much a sensor's graph deviates from the ideal curve. We can
determine percentage non-linearity with the following equation:

Non-linearity (%) = 
Equation 1-1

where Din(max) is the maximum input deviation and INf.s. is the maximum (full-scale) input.

Keep in mind that linearity and offset are different; linearity deals with error in terms of
the shape and slope of the graph (sensitivity), whereas an offset error does not change
the shape of the sensor's graph from what is ideal, but merely translates it up or down. 

Hysteresis

Sometimes, sensors output different values for the same input depending on whether
they approach that input from a higher or lower value. This behavior can generate
problematic inconsistencies. Hysteresis is a measure of how much a sensor's outputs
differ when approaching an input value from different directions.

Response Time

A sensor's response time is the amount of time it takes to change to and settle on a new
output value after a change in input. 

Measurement Scenarios and Characteristic Importance

In terms of sensor characteristics, different physical phenomena present different

demands. Knowing what sensor characteristics are important for a given measurement
is essential when it comes to selecting the ideal sensor to take that measurement. For
instance, when measuring a system characterized by rapid changes, response time is
likely important; yet, for a static or slow-changing system, it is not.

19
Read more on sensor characteristics: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/14860/en/. 

1-5 For a measurement scenario where you’re interested in detecting very small
changes in position, with a high degree of repeatability, within a small range of possible
values, which of the following are not an immediate interest?

A. Range
B. Precision
C. Sensitivity
D. Response time

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1.5 Implement

Let's put all of this information to use and investigate the sensor characteristics of an IR
sensor. You will investigate the physical range of the sensor, the voltage output range,
the linearization of the sensor, and the resolution of the sensor.

You will begin with a pre-built program to run, and you will need to connect a simple
circuit to test it.

Sensor Specification

As is common practice, start with the spec sheet for the sensor. The spec sheet can be
accessed here: https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/IR_Distance_Sensor.pdf

Look at the specifications for the input and output ranges, and an approximation of the
output. Click the link above to download the sheet and find the Electro-optical
Characteristics. Starting from here, you will find some useful information about the
sensor.

Figure 1-6 Electro-optical Characteristics Chart and Operating Conditions Chart

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Figure 1-7 Output Voltage Graphs

22
Let's identify some specifications of the sensor:

 The supply voltage is recommended between 4.5 and 5.5 V.

 The physical range of the sensor is between 10 and 80cm.
 The output voltage is between approximately 0.4 V (at 80cm) and 2.3 V (at
10cm).
 The output voltage is somewhat linear with the inverse of the distance, between
80cm and approximately 7cm.

Given these specifications, we have some guidelines to work with, but we'll need to
linearize our output ourselves.

23
Circuit

Using the diagram in Figure 1-8, complete the circuit in order to apply a voltage to this
active IR sensor and begin measuring output.

Figure 1-8 IR Sensor Circuit

Measure

Now that the sensor is connected, open the IR Sensor LabVIEW Project that was
provided in the courseware zip file, configure the IP address of your NI ELVIS III, and
then open the Virtual Instrument (VI) called IR Sensor.vi. Run the VI to begin taking
measurements.

With no objects in front of the sensor, record the measured voltage in the table below.

Then, place an object with a flat surface 20cm in front of the sensor with the flat surface
toward the face of the sensor. Record the voltage measured in the table in the program
and in the table below.

Move the flat object to different distances in front of the sensor, according to the table
below, and complete both tables with measured voltages.

Distance and Voltage Measurements

24
1-6 Complete the distance and Voltage Measurements table below.

Table 1-2 Voltage and Distance Table

Distance object is placed Voltage measured (V)
(cm)
No Object
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

Calibrate

With the measurement table complete inside the program, click Calibrate to apply a line
of best fit. LabVIEW will calculate the parameters and begin using them.

These will be used for subsequent measurements, so your output will now display in
units of distance, instead of a voltage.

1-7 Consider your specification sheet. What factors could account for the differences of
the linearization of your sensor and another sensor? What factors could account for the
differences of the linearization between your sensor today and your sensor on another
day?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

25
1.6 Exercise – Part 1

Measurement Scenario

Complete a temperature measurement with the following specifications:

 [Range] Monitor a heating chamber that has an internal temperature of 20°C at

the beginning of the test procedure, and determine if the heating chamber ever
exceeds 40°C.
 [Sensitivity] Consider that for the detectability of temperature changes, a 1
degree change in temperature near the 40°C point should result in more than a
10mV change in voltage.
 [Linearity] Consider the linearity of the sensor. Linearity will be accounted for in
later activities.

Other Considerations:

 The measurement system should be able to detect changes in the air

temperature as quickly as possible. We won't specify a timing, because the heat
exchange properties of air come into effect. All else being equal, a faster
responding sensor will be better.
 The thermistor costs on the order of $1, whereas the RTD and thermocouple cost
on the order of $10.

Sensor Choices
In a real-world measurement scenario, any obtainable sensor that fit within the budget
could be a consideration. In this case, your choices will be limited to the 3 sensors you
have access to in the kit:

 A 100 Ω PT100 RTD: https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com\RTD.pdf

 A 10 KΩ Thermistor: https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/Thermistor.pdf
 A K-Type Thermocouple: https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/Thermocouple.pdf

Open the data sheets in the VI and analyze the specifications. You will investigate
which of these is most appropriate for the measurement scenario listed.

26
 For more information comparing temperature sensor types, you can read:
http://digital.ni.com/public.nsf/allkb/C50FA55B3B2F85D9862572D00083350E. 

Range
  
Thermistor
The Thermistor lists that the 10k version follows Resistor/Temperature Characteristic
table number 2904.

Figure 1-9 Electrical Specification and Ordering Codes Chart

This table defines a range from -55 to 155°C.

Thermocouple
The thermocouple datasheet lists a range from -73 to 482°C.

27
RTD
The RTD datasheet lists a range from -200 to 550°C.

Linearity

Thermistor
Thermistors are non-linear in their resistance response to temperature. As we progress
through the signal chain, we would need to account for this non-linearity.

Thermocouple
Thermocouples have close to linear responses of voltage at different temperatures. 

RTD
RTDs are close to linear in resistance response.

Sensitivity
  
Thermistor
Because thermistors are non-linear, to calculate the sensitivity of a thermistor, we'll
need to investigate a specific region of interest. Based on the measurement
specification, the sensitivity in the 40°C region will be of most interest.

On the spec sheet table 2904, a change from 40°C to 45°C changes the resistance from
(10 kΩ*0.5074) to (10 kΩ*0.41046), a change of 969.4Ω. If you linearize that change to
a 1 degree change, the resistance changes by 193.9, to 10 kΩ*0.4880.

For a 10 kΩ thermistor, a common voltage divider would put the thermistor in series with
a 10 kΩ resistor. A 1 degree change in temperature would result in a
5074/15074 voltage divider. With a 5 V supply, a 1 degree change of temperature would
change the voltage divider from (5 * 5074/15074 = 1.683 V) to (5 * 4880/14880 = 1.6398
V), which is a 43.2 mV/°C change.

28
Thermocouple
The thermocouple datasheet lists a voltage variation of 41.276 uV/°C, while being quite
linear.

RTD
The RTD datasheet lists resistance variation of 0.385 Ω/°C.

For a 100Ω RTD, a common voltage divider would put the RTD in series with a 100Ω
resistor. A 1 degree change in temperature would result in a 100.385/200.385 voltage
divider. With a 5V supply, a 1 degree change of temperature would change the voltage
divider from 2.5V to (5 * 100.385/200.385 = 2.5048V), which is a 4.8mV/°C change.

1-8 Which of the sensors have an appropriate range? What would you say about the 3
sensor types, when considering range?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-9 Which of the sensors have an appropriate sensitivity? What would you say about
the 3 sensor types, when considering sensitivity?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-10 Which sensors will be easier or harder to use, with respect to linearity? Will this
affect your final decision?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

29
1-11 Which sensor is the best fit for the measurement scenario described? Why?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

30
1.7 Exercise – Part 2

Measurement Scenario

In this scenario, you are going to investigate a strain measurement. For more
information on strain and strain gauges, you can read: http://www.ni.com/white-
paper/3642/en/.

Complete a measurement with the following specifications:

 [Area to Measure] A life-span test will be conducted to analyze part strain on a

manufactured part, when applying a force to a small metal rod. The force will be
applied for 1 second, then off for 1 second. This cycle will repeat for 24 hours.
The rod has a width of 1.5mm and a length of 24mm. However, the linear area
that the force is applied to is approximately 4mm.
 [Orientation to Measure] The strain will occur in only 1 linear direction. Any
twisting or shearing strain will be discounted.

Other Considerations:

 The strain measurement will occur in a relatively controlled environment, where

temperatures will be stable. For more information on the effect of temperature on
strain gauges, you can read: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3432/en/.

Sensor Choices

In a real-world measurement scenario, any obtainable sensor that fit within the budget
could be a consideration. In this case, we will limit our choices to a single catalog of
different shapes and sizes of strain gauges:

 Strain Gauges : https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/ckeditor/Strain_Gauges.pdf

Download the data sheet and analyze the specifications.

1-12 Which of the sensor choices is the most appropriate for the area and orientation
that needs to be measured? Which sensor would you choose?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

31
1-13 How does temperature affect a strain measurement? If you needed to account for
this, how could you?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

32
1.8 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-14 Summarize any observations from the lab that have not been addressed
elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-15 In your own words, describe what a sensor is and its purpose.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-16 Describe the characteristics of a signal and how they relate to the real-world
counterpart of the signal.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

33
 Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 A
1-2 C
1-3 B
1-4 C
1-5 D

34