8/1/2021

P18ME42 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Dr. Rupesh S
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PESCE, Mandya

SYLLABUS
UNIT-V
Testing of I.C. Engines: Testing of two-stroke and four strokes SI
and CI engines. Performance Factors, Basic testing factors and
basic measurements for engine performance. Indicated Power,
Friction Power: William’s line method, Morse Test, and
Motoring test. Brake Power: principle of Dynamometer,
mechanical, Hydraulic and eddy current dynamometers. Fuel
consumption: volumetric type. Air consumption: Air Box
Method to determine air consumption. Heat balance sheet and
related numerical problems.

Self study component: Combustion in I C engines, delay period

and factors affecting delay period. Diesel knock and methods of
controlling diesel knock.
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 2

1
 8/1/2021

• Heat engine is a machine that converts heat energy to

mechanical energy.
• Chemical energy stored in the fuel is converted to heat
energy through combustion.
• Heat engines may be classified into
1. Internal Combustion Engines.
2. External Combustion Engines.
Internal Combustion Engines (I C. Engines)
• Combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within
the cylinder of the engine.
• Heat of combustion from the fuel is transferred directly to
the working fluid
• Eg: Petrol engine, diesel engine, open cycle gas turbines….

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 3

External Combustion Engines (E. C. Engines)

• Combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder
• And the heat of combustion is transferred indirectly to the
working fluid
Eg: Steam engines, closed cycle gas turbines

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 4

2
 8/1/2021

Spark plug or Fuel injector

Exhaust valve Intake valve

Connecting rod

Crank
Crank shaft

5
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics

Spark plug or Fuel injector

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 6

3
 8/1/2021

• Stroke length

• Bore

• Clearance volume

• Displacement volume/Swept volume/Stroke volume

• Compression ratio

• Piston speed

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 7

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 8

4
 8/1/2021

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
• Mean effective pressure
• Indicated power
• Brake power
• Friction power
• Specific fuel consumption
• Brake thermal efficiency
• Indicated thermal efficiency
• Mechanical Efficiency
• Volumetric efficiency
• Relative efficiency
• Air-fuel ratio
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 9

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

• It is defined as the average or mean pressure acting on the

piston during expansion stroke which will produce same
work output as done by varying pressure during a cycle.
• Mean effective pressure Pm

Net work done per cycle  Pm x A(piston area)x l (stroke length)

Wnet
Mean effective pressure, Pm 
Vs

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 10

5
 8/1/2021

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

From indicator diagram

A
Mean effective pressure, Pm  xs
l

A  Area of indicator diagram m 2

l  Length of indicator diagram m 2

N / m2
s  Spring constant in
m

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 11

INDICATED POWER
• It is defined as the rate of work done on the piston by
combustion of inside the cylinder.
• It is evaluated from an indicated diagram obtained from the
engine.
• It is the gross power produced by the engine.
IP = Indicated mean effective pressure x swept volume rate
Pmi A Lnk
IP =
60
n = Number of working strokes per sec, A= cross-sectional area of cylinder  m 2 
n = N for 2stroke engines L = Stroke length, (m)
N
n = for 4 stroke engines
2 k= number of cylinders

p mi = Indicated mean effective pressure, (kN/m 2 )

12
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics

6
 8/1/2021

BRAKE POWER
• It is the net power available at the engine shaft or crank shaft
for external use.
• It is measured by the brake or dynamometer
2NT
BP 
60

Torque in Nm N  speed of the engine in rpm

T = FxR, the torque is the product of force F and effective radius R

F=Brake load in N

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 13

F=Brake load in N

Ddrum +d rope
R=
2

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 14

7
 8/1/2021

BRAKE POWER

Pmb A Lnk
BP =
60

Pmb = brake mean effective pressure

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 15

FRICTION POWER
• It is the part of the indicated power which is used to
overcome the frictional effects within the engine.

• The friction power also includes power required to operate

the fuel pump, lubrication pump, valves, etc.

• It is given as the difference between the indicated power and

brake power.

FP = IP - BP

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 16

8
 8/1/2021

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)

• It is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate of fuel
consumed per unit power output.
• Specific fuel consumption based on BP is known as Brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

mf
BSFC 
BP

• Specific fuel consumption based on IP is known as Indicated

specific fuel consumption (ISFC)

mf
ISFC 
IP
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 17

EFFICIENCIES
• Indicated thermal efficiency

• Brake thermal efficiency

• Mechanical Efficiency

• Volumetric efficiency

• Relative efficiency

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 18

9
 8/1/2021

INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY

• The indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
indicated power to the rate of heat supplied by the fuel.

IP
ith 
m f xCV

m f  mass flow rate of fuel consumed by the engine

CV  calorific value of the fuel

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 19

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

• The indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
brake power to the rate of heat supplied by the fuel.

BP
bth 
m f xCV

m f  mass flow rate of fuel consumed by the engine

CV  calorific value of the fuel

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 20

10
 8/1/2021

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
• It is the ratio of the brake power and indicated power.

BP
mech 
IP

• Mechanical efficiency can also expressed as,

bth
• mech 
ith

Pmb
mech 
Pmi

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 21

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

• The volumetric efficiency can also be defined as the ratio of the

volume of the charge drawn in to the cylinder during suction
stroke to the swept volume of the cylinder.

Vactual
vol 
Vs

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 22

11
 8/1/2021

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY
• It is the ratio of actual thermal efficiency to air standard
efficiency of the engine.
• It is also referred as efficiency ratio.

Brake thermal efficicncy

Relative 
Air standard efficiency

• Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to

95% with air standard efficiency.

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 23

AIR-FUEL RATIO
• It is the ratio between the mass of the air and mass of the
fuel supplied to the engine.
mass flow rate of air
A/F 
mass flow rate of fuel
ma
A/F 
mf
• Theoretically correct (stoichiometric) air-fuel ratio is 15.

• But the combustion of air–fuel mixture can take place in A/F

ratio ranges from 12 to 19 for petrol engines and 20 to 60 in
Diesel engines.

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 24

12
 8/1/2021

PERFORMANCE TESTS
Measurement of performance parameters
• Fuel consumption
• Air consumption
• Engine speed
• Indicated power
• Brake Power
• Friction Power
• Heat carried away by cooling water
• Heat carried away by exhaust gas

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 25

FUEL CONSUMPTION
• A calibrated burette is attached to the main fuel tank to
measure the flow rate of fuel consumed as shown
• When fuel rate is to be measured, the valve is closed so that
fuel is consumed only from the burette.
• The time for a known value of fuel consumption can be
measured and fuel consumption rate can be calculated.
• The time, t is noted for a known volume of fuel-consumption.

Vf xfuel
mf 
t

Vf xfuel
mf  x 3600  kg / hr 
t

26
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics

13
 8/1/2021

AIR CONSUMPTION
• Air box method or Orifice chamber method
• It consists of air-tight chamber fitted with an orifice of known
co-efficient of discharge.
• The orifice is located away from the suction connection to the
engine.
• Due to the suction of engine, there is a pressure depression in the
air box or chamber which causes the flow through the orifice.
• For obtaining a steady flow, the volume of chamber should be
sufficiently large compared with the swept volume of the cylinder,
generally 500 to 600 times the swept volume.
• It is assumed that the intermittent suction of the engine will not
effect the air pressure in the air box as volume of the box is
sufficiently large, and pressure in the box remains same.
• A water manometer is used to measure the pressure difference
causing the flow through the orifice

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 27

The volume flow rate of air passing through the orifice, in m3/s,
Vf  Cd Area of orifice x velocity of air

Va  Cd A o 2gh a

h a  head in meters of air

w gh w  a gh a

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 28

14
 8/1/2021

w gh w  a gh a

w h w
ha 
a

h w  manometer head in meters of water

Va  Cd A o 2gh a

d o2 d o  diameter of the orifice in m 2

Ao 
4
The mass-flow rate of air through the orifice

m a  a Va

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 29

INDICATED POWER
1. Using Indicator diagram
2. Morse Test
Using Indicator diagram
• Indicated power is usually determined with the help of a actual
Pv diagram taken with the help of an indicator
• If the indicator diagram is available, the indicated power may
be computed by measuring the area of diagram.

a  Area of indicator diagram m 2

From indicator diagram
l  Length of indicator diagram m 2
a
Mean effective pressure, Pm  xs N / m2
l s  Spring constant in
m
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 30

15
 8/1/2021

Pmi A Lnk
IP = (kW)
60

p mi = Indicated mean effective pressure, (kN/m 2 )

A= cross-sectional area of cylinder  m 2 

L = Stroke length, (m)

n = Number of working strokes per sec,

n = N for 2stroke engines
N
n= for 4 stroke engines
2

k= number of cylinders

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 31

MORSE TEST
• Only for multicylinder petrol and diesel engines.
• The engine is run at the required speed and the BP measured.
• One cylinder is cut out, by shorting the plug if it is an S.I engine, or
by disconnecting an injector if a C.I. engine.
• The speed of the engine falls because of the loss of power with one
cylinder cut out.
• The speed is restored to its initial by reducing the loud and brake
power is measured.
• The procedure is repeated and brake power is measured by cutting
out each cylinder turn by turn.
• Consider 4 cylinder engine in which BP is the brake power with all
cylinders fired.
• Let B1, B2, B3 and B4 are the brake powers obtained by cutting out
cylinders 1,2,3 and 4 respectively.
32
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics

16
 8/1/2021

IP =BP + FP BP = IP- FP
For 4 cylinder engine
BP =  IP1 +IP2 +IP3  IP4  -  FP1 +FP2 +FP3 +FP4  1

Brake power with cylinder '1' cut out

BP1 =  IP2 +IP3  IP4  -  FP1 +FP2 +FP3 +FP4  2

Brake power with cylinder ' 2' cut out

BP2 =  IP1 +IP3  IP4  -  FP1 +FP2 +FP3 +FP4 

3

Brake power with cylinder '3' cut out

BP3 =  IP1 +IP2  IP4  -  FP1 +FP2 +FP3 +FP4  4

Brake power with cylinder ' 4' cut out

BP4 =  IP1 +IP2  IP3  -  FP1 +FP2 +FP3 +FP4 

5

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 33

(1)  (2) BP - BP1 =IP1 (6)

(1)  (3) BP - BP2 =IP2 (7)

(1)  (4) BP - BP3 =IP3 (8)

(1)  (5) BP - BP4 =IP4 (9)

(6)  (7)  (8)  (9)

IP = IP1 +IP2 +IP3  IP4

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 34

17
 8/1/2021

BRAKE POWER
Rope Brake Dynamometer
• Dynamometers

2NT
BP 
60

N  D b  d  (W  s)
BP 
60

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 35

• Prony Brake Dynamometer

2NT
BP 
60
2NWL
BP 
60
Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 36

18
 8/1/2021

FRICTION POWER
• The frictional power of an engine can be determined by the
following methods
1. Willan's line method {used for C.I. engines only)
2. Morse test
3. Motoring test
4. Difference between I,P. and RP.

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 37

WILLAN'S LINE METHOD

• Fuel rate extrapolation method

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 38

19
 8/1/2021

• At a constant engine speed the load is reduced in increments

and the corresponding B.P. and fuel consumption readings are
taken.
• A graph is drawn with fuel consumption in Y axis and BP in x
axis.
• The graph drawn in called the Willan's line
• Assuming linear relationship between fuel consumption and
B.P., the graph is extrapolated back to cut the B P axis at the
point L.
• The reading OL is taken as the power loss due to friction or
friction power of the engine at that speed.

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 39

MORSE TEST
BP = IP- FP

IP = IP1 +IP2 +IP3  IP4

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 40

20
 8/1/2021

MOTORING TEST
• In this test the engine is first run allowed to run at a given
speed and load conditions for sometime by its own power so
that oil, water and engine component temperatures reach
stable conditions.
• The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by a
dynamometer, usually of electrical type.
• The fuel supply is then cut off and by suitable electric switching
devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor to
drive or 'motor' the engine at the same speed at which it was
previously running.
• F.P. of the engine can be obtained by measuring the power
supplied to the motor.

Dr. Rupesh S Applied Thermodynamics 41

21