ATOMIC PHYSICS

TOPICS TOPICS
• Atomic spectra of gases
• The X-ray spectrum of
• Early models of the atom
atoms
• Bohr’s model of the
• X-rays and the
hydrogen atom
numbering of the
• The quantum model of
elements
the hydrogen atom
• Lasers and laser light
• The wave functions for
hydrogen
• Physical interpretation of
the quantum numbers
Text Book
PHYSICS for Scientists and
Engineers with Modern Text Book
Physics (6th ed) PHYSICS, 5TH Edition Vol 2
By Serway & Jewett Halliday, Resnick, Krane
MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11 1
 ATOMIC SPECTRA OF GASES
Emission spectra: All objects emit thermal radiation
characterized by a continuous distribution of
wavelength (continuous spectrum).
When a gas at low pressure is subjected to an
electric discharge it emits radiations of discrete
wavelengths (line spectrum).

No two elements have the same line spectrum. This

principle is used in identifying the element by
analyzing its line spectrum. H
Hg
Absorption spectra: An absorption spectrum is obtained
by passing white light from a continuous source through
a gas or a dilute solution of the element being analyzed.
The absorption spectrum consists of a series of dark
lines superimposed on the continuous spectrum of the
light source.
SOLAR SPECTRUM
FRAUNHOFER LINES

The wavelengths of the Balmer series lines in the

hydrogen spectrum are given by the equation

1  1 1  n = 3, 4, 5, . . . VISIBLE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

= R H  2 − 2  BALMER SERIES LINES
λ  2 n  Hα(656.3 nm) Hβ(656.3 nm)
Hγ(656.3 nm) Hδ(656.3 nm)
Rydberg constant RH= 1.097 x 107/m
The wavelengths of the other series lines in the
hydrogen spectrum are given by the equation
Lyman
Series 1  1  n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
= R H 1 − 2 
λ  n 
Paschen
Series 1  1 1  n = 4, 5, 6, . . .
= R H  2 − 2 
λ  3 n 
Brackett
Series 1  1 1  n = 5, 6, 7, . . .
= R H  2 − 2 
λ  4 n 
Although no theoretical basis existed for these
equations, they are in agreement with the
experimental results.
EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM
EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM
EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM
[1] (a) What value of n is associated with the 94.96-
nm spectral line in the Lyman series of Hydrogen ?
(b) Could this wavelength be associated with the
Paschen or Balmer series ?
SOLUTION:
(a)Lyman Series
1  1 
= R H 1 − 2 
λ  n 
1  1 
= 1 .097 x10 7
1 − 2 
94.96 x10 −9  n 

n=5
(b) Paschen Series
1  1 1  1 1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  = 1.097 x10  − 2 
7
λ  3 n  λ  9 n 
The shortest wavelength for this series corresponds to n = ∞
for ionization. For n = ∞, gives λ = 820 nm. This is larger than
94.96 nm, so this wave length cannot be associated with the
Paschen series

Balmer Series
1  1 1  1 1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  = 1.097 x10  − 2 
7
λ  2 n  λ  4 n 
with n = ∞ for ionization, λ min = 365 nm. Once again the
shorter given wavelength cannot be associated with the
Balmer series
 BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

In his semi classical model of the

–e
H-atom Bohr postulated that- r me
F
[1] The electron moves in circular v
+e
orbits around the proton under the r
influence of the electric force of
attraction as shown in the figure
[2] Only certain electron orbits are stable (stationary
states). When in one of the stationary state, the atom
does not radiate energy. Hence the total energy of the
atom remains constant in a stationary state.
[3] When the atom makes a transition
from higher energy state (Ei) to lower
energy state (Ef) [ie, the electron
makes a transition from a stable orbit
–e
of larger radius to that of smaller r me
F
radius], radiation is emitted. The +e v
frequency (f) of this radiation r

(photon) is given by
Ei – Ef = h f .
The frequency f of the photon
emitted is independent of the
frequency of electron’s orbital motion.
[4] The angular momentum of the –e
me
r
electron in any stable orbit is F
v
+e
quantized r
mev r = n h
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
me = mass of the electron h
h=
v = speed of the electron in the 2π
orbit
r = radius of the electron’s orbit
Electric potential energy of the H-
atom is 2 –e
k ee me
U= − r
r F
ke= Coulomb constant +e v
r
The total energy of the H-atom is
me v 2 k ee2
E=K +U= −
2 r
Apply Newton’s 2ND law to the electron, the electric
force exerted on the electron must be equal to the
product of mass and its centripetal acceleration (a=v2/r)
2 2
k ee me v me v 2 k ee2
=F = ∴ K = =
r2 r 2 2r
The total energy of the H-atom is 9ao
k ee2 k ee2
∴ E=K +U= −
2r r 4ao
2 –e
k ee ao
E = − +e
2r
From Newton’s 2ND law equation and orbit quantization
equation
2 2 2 2 2
2 nh k ee nh
v = = rn = n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2 2
mer m er mek e e 2

Thus the electron orbit radii are quantized rn= n2 ao

h2
Bohr radius ao = 2
= 52.9 pm
mek e e
Energy quantization

Substitute rn= n2 ao in the total energy equation

k ee2 k ee2  1 
En = − = −  2  n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2r 2 ao  n 

13.606 eV
En = − 2
, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
n

E1= –13.606 eV

E1
En = − 2
n
Ionization energy = minimum energy required to ionize
the atom in its ground state
= 13.6 eV for H-atom
From the equation Ei – Ef = h f
Frequency of the photon emitted during transition of the
atom from state i to state f is

Ei − E f k ee  1
2
1 
f = =  2 − 2 
h 2 a oh  n f ni 
Use c = f λ
1 f k ee2  1 1 
= =  2 − 2 
λ c 2 a oh c  nf ni 

1  1 1  k ee2
= R H  2 − 2  RH =
λ  nf ni  2 aoh c

RH = 1.097 x 107 /m
Extension of Bohr’s theory to other one-electron
atoms - Nuclear charge = + Z e
ao
radius
( )
rn = n 2

k ee2  Z2 
Energy En = −  2  n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2 ao  n 
Limitations of Bohr’s theory:
When spectroscopic techniques improved, it was
found that many of the lines in the H-spectrum
were not single lines but closely spaced groups of
lines. The lines appear split when the H-vapour
was kept in magnetic field.
Bohr’s correspondence principle:
Quantum physics agrees with classical physics
when the difference between quantized levels
becomes vanishingly small.
PROBLEMS
[1] Spectral lines from the star ξ-Puppis: Some
mysterious lines in 1896 in the emission spectrum
of the star ξ-Puppis fit the empirical equation
 
 
1  1 1 
= RH  2
− 2 
λ   nf   ni  
 2   
   2 

Show that these lines can be explained by the

Bohr’s theory as originating from He+.
SOLUTION: The ion He+ has z=2, Thus allowed energy levels
are given by
kee 2  Z2  ke e 2  4 
En = −  2  n = 1, 2, 3, . . . En = −  2 
2 ao  n  2 ao  n 
Ei − E f ke e 2  4 4 
f = = − 2
h 2 ao h  n f
2
ni 

ke e  1 2
1 
f = −

2 ao h n f 2 2
( 2 
ni 2 ) ( )

2 
1 f ke e  1 1 
= = −
λ c 2 ao ch  n f 2 2
( ni 2 
2 
) ( )
2

ke e
whereRH =
2 ao h c
[2] (A) The electron in a H-atom makes a transition from the
n=2 energy level to the ground level (n=1). Find the
wavelength and the frequency of the emitted photon.
(B) In interstellar space highly excited hydrogen atoms
called Rydberg atoms have been observed. Find the
wavelength to which radioastronomers must tune to detect
signals from electrons dropping from n=273 level to n=272.
(C) What is the radius of the electron orbit for a Rydberg
atom for which n=273 ?
(D) How fast is the electron moving in a Rydberg atom for
which n=273?
(E) What is the the wavelength of the radiation from the
Rydberg atom in part (B) if treated classically ?
SOLUTION(A) 1  1 1 
= R H  2 − 2 
λ  nf ni 

1  1 1  3RH
= RH  2 − 2  =
λ 1 2 
  4
4
λ=
3 RH
−7
λ = 1.215 x10 m = 121.5nm (ultraviolet )
c 15
Frequency f = = 2.47 x10 Hz
λ
SOLUTION(B) 1  1 1 
= R H  2 − 2 
λ  nf ni 

1  1 1 
= RH  − 
λ  272 2 2732 
 

λ = 0.992m

SOLUTION(C)
h2
rn= n2 ao= 2732 (0.0529nm) ao = 2
= 52.9 pm
mek e e
r273=3.94µm
 2
SOLUTION(D) 2
v =
ke e ke e 2
v=
me r me r

(8.99 x109 )(1.60 x10 −19 ) 2 v = 8.01x103 m / s

v=
(9.11x10 −31 )(3.94 x10 −6 )
SOLUTION(E)
1 v
f = =
T 2πr
We have speed v and radius r from (C) and (D)
1 v
f = = = 3.24 x108 Hz
T 2πr
c
λ= = 0.926m
f
[3] According to classical physics, a charge e
moving with an acceleration a radiates at a rate
dE 1 e 2a 2
= −
dt 6πεo c 3
(a) Show that an electron in a classical hydrogen
atom spirals into the nucleus at a rate

dr e4
= −
dt 12π2ε o2r 2m2ec 3

(b) Find the time interval over which the electron

will reach r = 0, starting from ro = 2.00 x 10–10 m
SOL:A The total energy is given by

ke e 2 1 e2
E=− where ke = E=−
2r 4πε 0 8πε o r
dE e 2 dr 1 e2a 2
= 2
=−
dt 8πε o r dt 6πε o c 3
dr 1 ea 2 2
 8πε o r 2
 dr 8r 2 a 2
=−   =−
dt 6πε o c 3  e 2
 dt 6c 3

The centripetal acceleration a is given by

ke e 2 me v 2
sin ce 2 = F =
r r
dr 8r 2 a 2 dr e4
=− Therefore = −
dt 6c 3 dt 12π 2ε o2 r 2 me2 c 3
 4
SOL:B dr e
= − 2 2 2 2 3
dt 12π ε or mec

0 T

∫ 12π ε r m c dr = e ∫ dt
2 2 2 2 3 4
− o e
2.00 x10 −10 0

−10
2 2 2 3 3 2.00 x10
12π ε m c r o e
4
=T
e 3 0
[4] A hydrogen atom is in the first excited state (n = 2).
Using the Bohr theory of the atom, calculate
(a) the radius of the orbit
(b) the linear momentum of the electron
(c) the angular momentum of the electron
(d) the kinetic energy of the electron
(e) the potential energy of the system and
(f) the total energy of the system.
[5] A photon is emitted as a hydrogen atom undergoes
a transition from the n = 6 state to the n = 2 state.
Calculate
(a) the energy
(b) the wavelength
(c) the frequency of the emitted photon.
Solution b:
Solution a:

Solution c:
[6] (a) Construct an energy-level diagram for the He+ ion
(Z = 2). (b) What is the ionization energy for He+ ?

Solution a: The energy levels of a hydrogen-like ion whose

charge number is Z are given by

Thus for Helium (Z = 2), the energy

levels are
(b) What is the ionization energy for He+ ?

Solution b: For He+ , Z = 2 , so we see that the ionization

energy (the energy required to take the electron from the n =
1 to the n = ∞ state) is
THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
The potential energy function for the H-atom is
2
k ee ke = 8.99 x 109 N.m2/C2
U(r) = − is Coulomb constant
r
r = radial distance of electron from proton [H-nucleus]
(at r = 0)
The time-independent
schrodinger equation in h 2
 ∂ 2
ψ ∂ 2
ψ ∂ 2
ψ
−  2 + 2 + 2  = E ψ
3-dimensional space is 2m ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
Since U has sperical symmetry, it is easier to solve the
z
schrodinger equation in spherical polar r P
coordinates (r, θ, φ): θ
r
2 2 2
where r = x + y + zr y
θ is the angle between z-axis and r φ
x 36
φ is the angle between the x-axis and the projection of
r
onto r the xy-plane. It is possible to separate the
variables r, θ, φ as follows:
ψ(r, θ, φ) = R(r) f(θ) g(φ)
By solving the three separate ordinary differential
equations for R(r), f(θ), g(φ), with conditions that the
normalized ψ and its first derivative are continuous and
finite everywhere, one gets three different quantum
numbers for each allowed state of the H-atom. The
z
quantum numbers are integers and r P
θ
r
correspond to the three independent y
degrees of freedom. φ
x
The radial function R(r) of ψ is associated with the principal
quantum number n. From this theory the energies of the
allowed states for the H-atom are
 k ee 2  1 13 . 606 eV
En = −  
= − 2 , n = 1, 2 , 3 , . . .
 2 ao  n n 2

which is in agreement with Bohr theory.

The polar function f(θ) is associated with the orbital

quantum number l.
The azimuthal function g(φ) is associated with the orbital
magnetic quantum number ml.
The application of boundary conditions on the three parts of
ψ leads to important relationships among the three quantum
numbers:
[1] n can range from 1 to ∞.
[2] l can range from 0 to n–1 ; [n allowed values].
[3] ml can range from –l to +l ; [(2l+1) allowed values].
All states having the same principal quantum are said
to form a shell. All states having the same values of
n and l are said to form a subshell:

n=1 ⇒ K shell l=0 ⇒ s subshell

n=2 ⇒ L shell l=1 ⇒ p subshell
n=3 ⇒ M shell l=2 ⇒ d subshell
n=4 ⇒ N shell l=3 ⇒ f subshell
n=5 ⇒ O shell l=4 ⇒ g subshell
n=6 ⇒ P shell l=5 ⇒ h subshell
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN
The potential energy for H-atom depends only on the
radial distance r between nucleus and electron. ∴ some
of the allowed states for the H-atom can be represented
by wave functions that depend only on r (spherically
symmetric function). The simplest wave function for H-
atom is the 1s-state (ground state) wave function (n =
1, l = 0):

1 − r
ao
ψ1s (r) = e ao = Bohr radius.
π a3o

2r ψ1s|2
|ψ is the probability
2  1  −
ao
ψ1 s =  3  e density for H-atom in 1s-state.
 π ao 
The radial probability density P(r) is the probability
per unit radial length of finding the electron in a
spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr.

P(r) dr is the probability of finding

the electron in this shell.
ψ|2 dv = |ψ
P(r) dr = |ψ ψ|2 4π
πr2 dr
∴ πr2 |ψ
P(r) = 4π ψ |2
Radial probability density for H-atom in its ground
state:
2r
 4r2
 −
ao
P1s (r) =  3  e
 ao 
Plot of the probability of finding the electron as a
function of distance from the nucleus for H-atom in the
1s (ground) state. P1s(r) is maximum when r = ao (Bohr
radius).
Cross-section of the spherical electronic charge
distribution of H-atom in 1s-state
rMOST PROBABLE
= ao
rAVERAGE
= 3ao/2
The next simplest wave function for the H-atom is the
2s-state wave function (n = 2, l = 0):
3
1  1   2
r  − r
ao
ψ 2 s (r ) =    2 −  e
4 2 π  ao   ao 

ψ2s is spherically
symmetric (depends
only on r).
rMOST PROBABLE = 5ao E2 = E1/4 = –3.401 eV
(1ST excited state).
[1] - SJ-Example-42.3: For a H-atom, determine the number
of allowed states corresponding to the principal quantum
number n = 2, and calculate the energies of these states.
Solution:
When n= 2, l can have the values 0 and 1.
If l=0, ml can only be 0.
If l=1, ml can be -1, 0, or +1.
Hence, we have a 2s state with quantum numbers
n= 2, l=0, ml =0
and three 2p states for which the quantum numbers are
n= 2, l=1, m =-1 All these states have the same principal
l
quantum number, n=2, they also have the
n= 2, l=1, ml =0
same energy, En =(-13.66eV) Z2 /n2
n= 2, l=1, ml =+1
E2 =-(13.66eV)/22=-3.401eV
[2] SJ-Example-42.4.Calculate the most probable value of
r (= distance from nucleus) for an electron in the ground
state of the H-atom. Also calculate the average value r
for the electron in the ground state.
Solution:
The most probable distance is the value of r that makes the
radial probability P(r) a maximum. The slope here is zero, so
the most probable value of r is obtained by setting dP/dr= 0
and solving for r.
2r 2r
 4r2
 −
ao dP1s (r ) d  4 r
2
 −
P1s (r) =  3  e =  3  e ao
=0
 ao  dr dr  ao 
 2r
dP1s (r ) d  4 r 2
 −
ao
=  3  e =0
dr dr  ao 
−2 r a
2 d (e
−2r ao d (r )
2 o)
e +r =0
dr dr
−2r ao −2r ao
2re + r ( − 2 ao ) e
2
=0
−2 r a o
2re [1− r ao ] = 0
r
The expression is satisfied if 1− = 0
ao
r = ao
The most probabale value of r is the Bohr radius
 ∞
The expectation value is given by x ≡ ∫ −∞
ψ ∗ x ψ dx
The average value of r is the expectation value of r
∞
r ≡ ∫
0
ψ ∗ r ψ dx
∞  2 ∞ −
2r 
 4r ao 
*
HereP(r ) = Ψ Ψ rav = r = ∫ rP ( r ) dr = ∫ r  3 e  dr
0 
ao
0
 
2r
 4 3 ∞ −
ao
=  3  ∫ r e dr
 ao  0
2r
 4  3
∞ −  4  3  3
ao
rav =  3  ∫ r e dr =  3   4
 = a o
 ao 0  ao  2 / a o  2
3
rav = ao
2
[3] SJ-Example-42.5 Probabilities for the electron in H-atom:
Calculate the probability that the electron in the ground state
of H-atom will be found outside the Bohr radius.
Solution:
The probability is found by integrating the radial probability
density for this state, P1s(r), from the Bohr radius a0 to ∞ .

2r
 4r2
 −
ao
P1s (r ) =  3  e
 ao 
 2r
 4r2
 −
ao
P1s (r) =  3  e
 ao 

We can put the integral in dimensionless form by changing

variables from r to z = 2r/a0. Noting that z=2 when r=a0,
and that dr=(a0/2)dz, we get

This is about 0.677, or 67.7%.

[5] SJ-Problem-42.16: A general expression for the
energy levels of one-electron atoms and ions is
µ ke2 q12 q22
En = −
2 h 2n2
where ke is the the Coulomb constant, q1 and q2 are
the charges of the electron and the nucleus, and µ
m1m2
is the reduced mass, given by µ =
m1 + m2
The wavelength for n = 3 to n = 2 Transition of the
hydrogen atom is 656.3 nm (visible red light). What
are the wavelengths for this same transition in (a)
positronium, which consists of an electron and a
positron, and (b) singly ionized helium ?
Solution:
The reduced mass of positronium is less than hydrogen,
so the photon energy will be less for positronium than
for hydrogen. This means that the wavelength of the
emitted photon will be longer than 656.3 nm.

On the other hand, helium has about the same reduced

mass but more charge than hydrogen, so its transition
energy will be larger, corresponding to a wavelength
shorter than 656.3 nm.
All the factors in the given equation are constant for this
problem except for the reduced mass and the nuclear charge.
Therefore, the wavelength corresponding to the energy
difference for the transition can be found simply from the
ratio of mass and charge variables.
so the energy of each level is one half as large as in
hydrogen, which we could call “protonium”. The photon
energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength , so for
positronium,

so the transition energy is 22 = 4 times larger than hydrogen.

[6] SJ-Problem-42.17: An electron of momentum p is at
a distance r from a stationary proton. The electron has
a kinetic energy p2
K =
2m e
k ee2
The atom has a potential energyU = − and total
r
energy E = K + U. If the electron is bound to the proton
to form a H-atom, its average position is at the proton,
but the uncertainty in its position is approximately equal
to the radius r of its orbit. The electron’s average
vector momentum is zero, but its averaged squared
momentum is equal to the squared uncertainty in its
momentum, as given by the uncertainty principle.
An electron of momentum p is at a distance r from a
stationary proton. Treating the atom as
one-dimensional system,
(a) estimate the uncertainty in the electron’s momentum
in terms of r.
(b) Estimate the electron’s kinetic, potential, and total
energies in terms of r.
(c) The actual value of r is the one that minimizes the
total energy, resulting in a stable atom. Find that
value of r and the resulting total energy. Compare
your answer with the predictions of the Bohr theory.
[5] SJ-Problem-42.21: For a spherically symmetric
state of a H-atom the schrodinger equation in
spherical coordinates is
h2  ∂ 2ψ 2 ∂ψ  ke e 2
−  2 +  − ψ = Eψ
2me  ∂r r ∂r  r
Show that the 1s wave function for an electron in
H-atom
1 − r
ao
ψ1s (r) = e
π a3o

satisfies the schrodinger equation.

Solution: 1 − r
ao
ψ 1s ( r ) =
3
e
π a o

dψ −1 − r 1
ao
= e = − ψ
dr π a o5 ao

By Substituting the above values

h 2  ∂ 2ψ 2 ∂ψ  ke e 2
wehave −  2 +  − ψ = Eψ
2me  ∂r r ∂r  r

This is true , so the schrodinger equation is satisfied

 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM
NUMBERS

[1]The orbital quantum number l

According to quantum mechanics, an atom in a
state whose principal quantum number n can take
on the following discrete values of the magnitude of
the orbital angular momentum:

L = l(l + 1) h l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1
[2] The orbital magnetic quantum number ml
The energy U of the electron with a magnetic moment
r r r r
µ in a magnetic field B is U = -µ • B. According to
quantum mechanics, there are discrete directions allowed for
r
the magnetic moment vector µ with respect to magnetic field
r
vector B.
r  e r 
Since µ = −   L
 2 me 
r
one finds that the direction of L is quantized. This means
r
that LZ (the projection of L along the z-axis [direction
r
of B ] can have only discrete values. The orbital magnetic
quantum number ml specifies the allowed values of the z-

component of the orbital angular momentum. LZ = ml Ћ

 r
The quantization of the possible orientations of L with
r
respect to an external magnetic field B is called space
quantization. Following vector model
r describes the
space quantization for l = 2. L LIES ON THE
SURFACE OF A CONE
AND PRECESSES ABOUT
r
THE DIRECTION OF B

THE ALLOWED VALUES OF LZ LZ ml

cos θ = r =
θ is quantized θ ≠ 0 L l(l + 1)
 The Zeeman effect:
splitting of energy levels and hence spectral lines
in magnetic field

NO MAG-FIELD MAG-FIELD PRESENT

ml=+1
n=2, l=1 ml=0
ml=–1
ENERGY
h(fo+∆f)
hfo
hfo h(fo–∆f)

n=1, l=0 ml=0

fo (fo–∆f) fo (fo+∆f)

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM WITH

WITHOUT MAG-FIELD
MAG-FIELD PRESENT
[3]The spin magnetic quantum number ms
The quantum numbers n, l, ml are generated by applying
boundary conditions to solutions of the schrodinger equation.
The electron spin does not come from the schrodinger
equation. The experimental evidence showed the necessity
of the spin magnetic quantum number ms which describes
the electron to have some intrinsic angular momentum. This
originates from the relativistic properties of the electron.
There can be only two
directions for the spin angular
r
momentum vector S, spin-up and
spin-down as shown in the figure:
Spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, like mass and
charge. The spin angular momentum magnitude S for the
electron is expressed in terms of a single quantum number
(spin quantum number), s = ½ :
3
S= s (s + 1) h = h
r 2
S is quantized in space as
described in the figure:
It can have two orientations
relative to a z-axis, specified by
the spin magnetic quantum
number ms = ±½. The z-
r
component of S is :
SZ = msЋ = ±Ћ/2 64
The value ms = +½ is for spin-up case and ms = –½
is for spin-down case. r
The spin magnetic moment µSPIN of ther electron is
related to its spin angular momentum S
r  e r
µSPIN = −   S
 me 
eh
Z-component of the µSPIN,Z =±
spin magnetic moment: 2 me

Bohr magneton
eh −24
µB = = 9.27 x 10 J / T
2 me
SJ-Example-42.6 Calculate the magnitude of the
orbital angular momentum of an electron in a p-
state of hydrogen.
Solution:
with l = 1 for a p state
L = l(l + 1) h

= 1(1 + 1) h = 2 h
−34
= 1.49 x10 J .s
SJ-Example-42.7
Consider the H-atom
r in the l = 3 state. Calculate the
magnitude of L, the allowed
r values of LZ, and the
corresponding angles θ that | L | makes with the z-axis.
For an arbitrary value of l, how many values of ml
are allowed.
Solution:
with l = 3 L = l(l + 1) h = 3(3 + 1) h = 2 3 h
The allowed values of LZ is given by
LZ = ml Ћ
-3 Ћ, -2 Ћ ,- Ћ, 0, 1 Ћ, 2 Ћ ,3 Ћ
LZ ml ml
cosθ = r = =
L l(l +1) 2 3
SJ-Example-42.8For a H-atom, determine the quantum
numbers associated with the possible states that
correspond to the principal quantum number n = 2.
n l ml ms subshell shell No of states
in subshell
--------------------------------------------------------------------
2 0 0 ½
2 0 0 -½ 2s L 2
2 1 1 ½
2 1 1 -½
2 1 0 ½ 2p L 6
2 1 0 -½
2 1 -1 ½
2 1 -1 -½
SJ-Problem-42.27 How many sets of quantum
numbers are possible are possible for an electron for
which (a) n=1, (b) n=2, (c) n=3, (d) n=4, and (e) n=5 ?
Check your results to show that they agree with the
general rule that the number of sets of quantum
numbers for a shell is equal to 2n2.
SJ-Problem-42.31 The ρ-meson has a charge of –e, a
spin quantum number of 1, and a mass 1507 times that
of the electron. Imagine that the electrons in an atom
were replaced by ρ-mesons. List the possible sets of
quantum numbers for ρ-mesons in the 3d-subshell.
Solution:
THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS
 History

X-unknown => X - radiation or

X – rays
When a beam of fast moving
electron strikes on solid target
an invisible and high
penetrating radiation is
produced. These radiations are 1895 : Wihelm Conrad
called X – rays. Roentgen discovery of X-
1913: Coolide Rays while experimenting
with discharge tubes
"Bremsstrahlung" means "braking radiation" and is
retained from the original German to describe the
radiation which is emitted when electrons are
decelerated or "braked" when they are fired at a
metal target..
 X-ray spectrum
Characteristic X − rays
• The X rays have wide range
of wavelengths (their I
Kα
wavelength ranging from 0.01 Kβ Continuous X − rays
Bremsstrahlung
nm to 10 nm) with the Braking
intensity distributed over the
entire range.
• Based on their
characteristics & their origin,
V = 50kV
X-ray spectra may be V = 40kV
classified as V = 30kV
V = 20kV
a) Continuous X-ray spectrum λmin λmin λmin λ
b) CharacteristicX-ray spectrum λmin λ λ max λ max
max
 Continuous X-ray spectrum
• A few fast moving electrons
penetrate deeply into the interior
part of the atom in the target
material.
• They experience the strong
attractive force due to the nucleus.
• In this process the electrons not only
get deflected from their original
paths, but they are slowed down i.e.
the electrons are decelerated, which
gives rise to loss of energy. The loss
of energy during retardation is x-ray
of continuously varying wavelength.
• Spectrum is called continuous x-ray
spectrum.
 Characteristic X-ray spectrum
• In an X-ray tube, an electron emitted
from cathode strikes the target with
tremendous velocity. It may penetrate
well inside the atoms of the target and
knockout some of the electrons from
inner shell.
• Immediately the transition of electron
from outer shell n2 to inner shell n1
takes place and the energy ( En2-En1)
difference appears as X-ray photon of
frequency E − En1
ν = n2
h
• A K series of lines results from the
transition of electron from the higher
shell to K shell.
Ex: L→ K transition⇒ Kα, M → K transition ⇒ Kβ
M → L transition ⇒ Lα N → L transition ⇒ Lβ
 n= ∞ E==0
• Similarly L – series n=5→O EO
consists of Lα, Lβ lines n=4→N EN
when electrons jumps n=3→M EM
from M, N shell to L
shell. n=2→L EL
• The K, L, M, N… L γ Lβ L α
Kβ Kα
series constitute the X-
n = 1→ K EK
rays spectrum which is
the characteristic of
particular material.
I

λmin λ Kβ λ Kα λ Lγ λ Lβ λ Lα

Shell to shell transitions Energy level diagram

Summary of continuous and characteristic X-rays
To examine the motions of electrons that lie deep within
multi-electron atoms, one needs to consider the x-ray
spectrum of atoms, shown in the figure below:

The x-rays are emitted by atoms in

a target when the atoms are
TARGET: MOLYBDENUM
bombarded with high energy X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE:
∆V = 35 kV
electrons. The x-ray spectrum has λMIN = 35.5 pm

two parts: continuous spectrum

and characteristic spectrum.
Sharply defined cutoff wavelength
(λMIN) is a prominent feature of
the continuous x-ray
spectrum. 81
Consider an electron accelerated through a potential
difference of ∆V (x-ray tube voltage) , hitting a target atom.
The electron’s initial kinetic energy is K = e ∆V. The electron
loses its kinetic energy by an amount ∆K = hf, which
appears in the form of x-ray photon energy (Bremsstrahlung).
∆K can have any value from 0 to K. Thus the emitted x-
rays can have any value for the wavelength above λMIN in
the continuous x-ray spectrum. Thus
hc
e ∆V = hfMAX =
λ MIN
hc
λMIN =
e ∆V
λMIN depends only on ∆V
The peaks in the x-ray spectrum have wavelengths
characteristic of the target element in the x-ray tube and
hence they form the characteristic x-ray spectrum.
When a high energy (K = e ∆V, ∆V = x-ray tube voltage)
electron strikes a target atom and knocks out one of its
electrons from the inner shells with energy Em (| Em | ≤ K,
m = integer), the vacancy in the inner shell is filled up
by an electron from the outer shell (energy = En, n =
integer).
The characteristic x-ray photon emitted has the energy:

hc
hf = = En − Em
λ
 X-RAY ENERGY

LEVEL DIAGRAM

FOR MOLYBDENUM

EKαα= 17.4 keV

λKαα= 71 pm

A Kα x-ray results due to the transition of the electron

from L-shell to K-shell. A Kβ x-ray results due to the
transition of the electron from M-shell to K-shell. When
the vacancy arises in the L-shell, an L-series (Lα, Lβ, Lγγ) of
x-rays results. Similarly, the origin of M-series of x-rays
can be explained.
HRK-Sample Problem 48-1: Calculate the cutoff
wavelength for the continuous spectrum of x-rays
emitted when 35-keV electrons fall on a
molybdenum target.
Solution:
hc
λMIN =
e ∆V

λMIN = 3.55 x10 −11 m

= 35.5 pm
HRK-Exercise 48.1: Show that the short-wavelength
cutoff in the continuous x-ray spectrum is given by
1240 pm
λMIN = where ∆V is the applied potential
∆V difference in kilovolts.
Solution: The highest energy x-ray photon will have an
energy equal to the bombarding electrons,
hc
λ MIN =
e ∆V

1240 pm
=
∆V
HRK-Exercise 48.9: X-rays are produced in an x-ray
tube by a target potential of 50.0 keV. If an electron
makes three collisions in the target before coming to
rest and loses one-half of its remaining kinetic energy
on each of the first two collisions, determine the
wavelengths of the resulting photons. Neglect the
recoil of the heavy target atoms.
Solution

Eo = 50 KeV (incident electron)

50 KeV c
E1Photon = =h
2 λ1
− 34 8
hc 6.625 x10 x3 x10
⇒ λ1 = = 3 −19
−12
= 49.68 x10 m
E1Photon 25 x10 x 1.6 x10
 Energy of electron before the sec ond collision = 25 KeV
25 KeV c
E2 Photon = =h
2 λ2
hc 6.625 x10 −34 x3 x108
⇒ λ2 = = 3 −19
= 99. 375 x10 −12
m
E2 Photon 12.5 x10 x 1.6 x10

Energy of electron before the third collision = 12.5KeV

c
E3 Photon = 12.5Kev = h
λ3
hc 6.625 x10 −34 x3x108
⇒ λ3 = = 3 −19
= 99.375 x10 −12
m
E3 Photon 12.5 x10 x 1.6 x10
HRK-Exercise 48.12: The binding energies of K-shell
and L-shell electrons in copper are 8.979 keV and
0.951 keV, respectively. If a Kα x-ray from copper is
incident on a sodium chloride crystal and gives a first-
order Bragg reflection at 15.9° when reflected from the
alternating planes of the sodium atoms, what is the
spacing between these planes ?
Solution:

BE2 = 0.951 keV L(n = 2 )

Kα

BE1 = 8.979 keV K(n = 1)

 BE 2 = 0.951 keV L(n = 2 )
Kα

BE1 = 8.979 keV K(n = 1)

hc
E2 − E1 = hν Kα =
λ Kα
−34 8
hc 6.625 x10 x3x10
⇒ λ Kα = = 3 −19
E2 − E1 (8.979 − 0.951) x10 x1.6 x10
λKα = 0.154 nm

2d sin θ = nλ , for first order , n = 1

λ 0.154 ×10 −9 m
∴ d= = o
= 282 pm.
2 sin θ 2 × sin(15.9 )
HRK-Exercise 48.5: Electrons bombard a molybdenum
target, producing both continuous and characteristic x-
rays. If the accelerating potential applied to the x-ray
tube is 50.0 kV, what values of (a) λMIN (b) λKβ (c) λKαα
result ? The energies of the K-shell, L-shell and M-shell
in the molybdenum atom are –20.0 keV, –2.6 keV and -0.4
keV, respectively.

1240 pm 1240 pm
λMIN = = = 24.8 pm
∆V 50
 hc
E2 − E1 = hν Kα =
λ Kα
−34 8
hc 6.625 x10 x3x10
⇒ λ Kα = =
E2 − E1 (20 − 2.6) x103 x1.6 x10 −19
λKα = 71.39 pm

hc
E2 − E1 = hν Kβ =
λ Kβ
hc 6.625 x10 −34 x3x108
⇒ λ Kβ = =
E2 − E1 (20 − 0.4) x103 x1.6 x10 −19
λKβ = 63.37 pm
X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS
Moseley’s observation on the characteristic Kα x-rays shows
a relation between the frequency (f) of the Kα x-rays and
the atomic number (Z) of the target element in the x-ray
tube:
MOSELEY PLOT OF
f = C (Z − 1) THE Kα X-RAYS

C is a constant.

Based on this observation,

the elements are arranged
according to their atomic
numbers in the periodic table
Bohr theory and the Moseley plot: Bohr’s formula
for the frequency of radiation corresponding to a
transition in a one-electron atom between any two
atomic levels differing in energy by ∆E is

∆E mZ e 2 4
 1 1 
f = =  2 − 2 
h 8 ε o2h3  nf ni 
In a many-electron atom, for a Kα transition, the
effective nuclear charge felt by an L-electron can be
thought of as equal to +(Z–b)e instead of +Ze, where
b is the screening constant due to the screening effect
of the of the only K-electron.
∴ Frequency of the Kα x-ray is
MOSELEY PLOT OF
THE Kα X-RAYS

m (Z − b ) e 4  1
2
1 
f = 2 3
 2 − 2 
8 ε oh  1 2 

1
 3 m e4  2
and f =   (Z − b )
2 3 
 32 ε oh 
or f = C (Z − 1) sin ce b ≈ 1
HRK-Sample problem 48-2: Calculate the value of
the constant C in the Moseley’s relation for x-ray
frequency and compare it with the measured slope of
the straight line in Moseley plot.
SOLUTION:
1
 3m e 4 2 3m e 2

c =  
2 3 
c=
 32 ε o h  32 ε o h 3 / 2

c = 4.95 x107 Hz1/ 2

From graph
7 1 / 2
c = 4 . 96 x 10 Hz
HRK-Sample Problem 48-3: A cobalt target is bombarded
with electrons, and the wavelengths of its characteristic x-
ray spectrum are measured. A second, fainter characteristic
spectrum is also found, due to an impurity in the target.
The wavelengths of the Kα lines are 178.9 pm (cobalt) and
143.5 pm (impurity). What is the impurity ?
c
f = C (Z − 1) f =
λ
c c
= C (Z co − 1) and = C (Z X − 1)
λco λX
λCo z X − 1 178.9 pm z X − 1
∴ = =
λX zCo − 1 143.5 pm 27 − 1

Z X = 30.0 ( Zinc )
 Lasers
• Importance( Introduction & Applications,)
• Induced absorption
• Spontaneous and stimulated emission
• Einstein’s coefficient.
• Population inversion
• Meta-stable state
• Requisites of laser system
• Ruby construction and working
• He-Ne laser construction and working
 BASICS OF
LASERS AND LASER LIGHT
L ight
A mplification by
S timulated
E mission of
R adiation

Laser-Professionals.com
 Albert Einstein
German-born American
physicist
Birth: March 14, 1879
Death: April 18, 1955
Place of Birth: Ulm, Germany
Known for: Proposing the
theory of relativity, a physical
theory of gravity, space, and
time, Explaining the
photoelectric effect and
Brownian motion.
Albert Einstein first
proposed
stimulated emission, the
underlying process for laser
action, in 1917. Translating
the idea of stimulated
emission into a working
model, however, required
more than four decades.
 Charles Townes
American physicist Charles Townes won
the 1964 Nobel Prize in physics. He made
fundamental contributions in quantum
theory and significantly improved radar
technology.
In December 1953 Townes and his students
constructed a device producing
microwaves in a beam.
They dubbed the process “microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation,” which led to the more commonly
used term maser.
The maser quickly found many applications
for its ability to send strong microwaves in
any direction.
In 1958 Townes developed the concepts for
the visible-light maser, or laser (derived
from “light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation”), which delivers
infrared or visible light instead of
microwaves.
 Theodore Maiman

Theodore Maiman, born in 1927,

American physicist. Theodore
Harold Maiman was born in Los
Angeles and educated at the
University of Colorado and
Stanford University.
He was the first to successfully
produce a pulse of coherent
light from a laser,
accomplishing this in May 1960,
using ruby as the laser medium.
The first continuously operating
laser was achieved a few
months later.
Due to his work on the laser, he
was twice nominated for a
Nobel Prize and was given
membership in both the
National Academies of Science
and Engineering
 LASERS
The laser perhaps is the most important
optical device past fifty years.
The laser is essentially an optical
amplifier. The word Laser is acronym that
stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
 CHARACTERISTIC OF THE LASER LIGHT

1. Monochromaticity
The light emitted by a laser is almost pure in color,
almost of a single wavelength or frequency.
2. Coherence
3. Directionality

The astonishing degree of directionality of a laser

light is due to the geometrical design of the laser
cavity and to the monochromaticity and coherent
nature of light generated in the cavity.
4. LIGHT INTENSITY
The intensity of laser light is highly intense. For
example intensity of light from a 1mW Helium-Neon
laser is hundreds of times more intense than the light
starting from an equal area on the surface of sun.
5. FOCUSIBILITY
Focusing light to a tiny , diffraction limited spot is a
challenge. Due to the incoherence and non point source
,it is difficult to focus the ordinary light to tiny spot. But
as laser emits intense, coherent light that appears to
come from distant point source, it can be focused to a
diffraction limited spot.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LASER LIGHT

1.MONOCHROMATICITY
2.COHERENCE
3.DIRECTIONALITY
4. LIGHT INTENSITY
5. FOCUSIBILITY
 Basic concepts for a laser

• Absorption

• Spontaneous Emission

• Stimulated Emission

• Population inversion
 Induced/ stimulated absorption
An atom can absorb energy of
photon goes to higher energy
level
The rate of absorption depends on
(1) No. of atoms (density of atoms
) of lower energy state, N1
(2) No. of photons ( energy
density) in incident beam ρ(ν)
∴ Rate of absorption,
 dN1 
  = B12 N1 ρ (υ )
 dt  abs
B12 → Einstein’s coefficient
(probability associated with) of
induced absorption
 Spontaneous Emission
• An excited atom transmitted to a
lower energy state without the aid
of any external agency by
emission of a photon
• The rate of spontaneous emission
depends on density of atoms at
higher energy state, N2
• ∴Rate of spontaneous emission

 dN 2 
  = A 21 N 2
 dt  S pont

• A21→ Einstein’s coefficient

(probability associated with ) of
spontaneous emission
 Stimulated Emission
• When a photon of right frequency
interact with an excited atom and
it forces to emit another photon of
the same frequency in the same
direction as well as in same
phase.
• The rate of stimulated emission
depends on
(i) No. of atoms in the higher
energy state N2
(ii) energy density state / photon ,
ρ(ν)
The rate of stimulated emission
 dN 2  = B21 N2 ρ(ν)
 
 dt  S t

B21→ Einstein’s coefficient

(probability associated with) of
stimulated emission
 Spontaneous and Stimulated emission
1. Emission take place 1. Emission take place
without external with external agency
agency. namely photon of right
frequency
2. Independent on 2. Dependent on incident
incident light light intensity.
intensity
3. Transition take 3. Transition take place
place b/n two states b/n three states
4. Ordinary light 4. Laser radiation is
radiation is emitted emitted
POPULATION OF ENERGY LEVEL – BOLTZMANN FACTOR
E
Boltzmann relation
E4 N4  Ei 
 E  Ni = N0 exp − 
Ni = N0 exp − i   kT 
E3 N3  kT 
 E1 
N1 = N0 exp − 
N2  kT 
E2
 E2 
N1 N2 = N0 exp − 
E1  kT 
N2  (E2 − E1 )
N0
= exp  −  ...(1)
N1  kT 
N

 (E2 − E1 ) ∴ N2 < N1
Q E2 > E1, exp  − < 1
 kT 
Hence at thermal equilibrium, the population of higher
energy state is always lesser than any of its lower
states.
Helium – Neon Laser
It is an example of gas Laser. And uses electric
discharge to produce population inversion.
 λ = 632.8nm
θBHe−
−Ne Laser

LASER

−Ne Laser
He−
W is the Brewster window θB is the Brewster angle
M1 is a 100% reflecting mirror M2 is 99% reflecting mirror
 Helium Neon laser
Power supply
Quartz tube Electrode Laser
beam

10:1 Helium – Neon

Mixture
Brewster
windows
Fully Silvered Partially Silvered
It is four energy levels of

Mirror gas laser
Mirror

It is quite stable , emits continuous laser beam
Construction:

10 parts of He + 1 part of Ne gas contained in a quartz
tube at pressure of 0.01mm Hg.

For getting plane polarized light, both ends of the tube
sealed by Brewster windows

High D C voltage source used to electric discharge
 Power supply
Quartz tube Electrode Laser
beam

10:1 Helium – Neon

Mixture
Fully
Silvered Brewster Partially Silvered Mirror
Mirror windows
• One side of the tube is fully reflective mirror and other side is
partially reflective mirror
Working:
• Discharge DC voltage applied across the electrode, produce
fast moving electrons.
• When electron collide with helium atom, it excited to meta-
stable 2s state.
• This process can be symbolically represented as
e1+ He → e2 + He* Excited
Before and after state
These excited the atoms can collision
return to the ground state by
transferring their energy to Ne atoms through collision.
 Metastable state
E2 3391nm
E5
E 4 632.8nm
E1 E3 1152.3nm
E2

Metastable state
E1
Neon atoms
Return to ground
State by collision with wall.

E0 Helium E0 Neon
HRK-Sample problem 48-7: A three level laser emits light of
wavelength 550 nm. (a) What is the ratio of population of the
upper level (E2) to that of the lower level (E1) in laser
transition, at 300 K? (b) At what temperature the ratio of the
population of E2 to that of E1 becomes half?

a.
hc 6.625 x10 −34 x3x108
N2  (E 2 − E1 ) E2 − E1 = hγ = =
= exp− 550 x10 −9
N1  kT  λ
= 3.616 x10 −19 J
N2
= exp[− 86.923] 3.616 x10 −19 J
N1 = = 2.26eV
−19
1.6 x10
N2 K=1.38 x 10-23 /1.6 x 10-19
= 1.77 x10 −38 = 8.625 x 10-5eV/K
N1

KT = 0.026eV
 b)
N2 1
=
N1 2

 (E2 − E1 )  1 
exp −  = 
 kT   2 

 (E 2 − E1 )
 kT  = ln(2)

E 2 − E1
T = = 37800K
k ln( 2)
HRK-Exercise 48.28: A ruby laser emits light at wavelength
694.4nm. If a laser pulse is emitted for 12ps and the energy
release per pulse is 150mJ
a) What is the length of the pulse and
b) How many photons are there in each pulse?

( a ) Length of the pulse = ct

= 3 x108 x12 x10 −12 = 3.6 x10 −3 m

c
(b) Energy of per pulse , E = nhν = nh
λ
Eλ 17
∴ n= = 5.25 x 10
hc
HRK-Exercise 48.29. Assume that lasers are available whose
wavelengths can be precisely "tuned" to anywhere in the
visible range - that is, in the range 400 nm < λ < 700 nm. If
every television channel occupies a bandwidth of 10MHz,how
many channelscan be accommodated within this wavelength
range?
Solution:
The lower frequency is
f1=c/ λ1 =4.29 x 1014 Hz
The higher frequency is
f2=c/ λ2 =7.50 x 1014 Hz
The number of signals that can be sent in this range is
(f2-f1)/10 = 3.21 x 107
That's quite a number of television channels.
HRK-Exercise 48.30. A He-Ne laser emits light of wavelength
of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How many
photons are emitted each minute by this laser when
operating?
E = Power , P = nhf
P Pλ
no. of photons n= =
hf hc
2.3x10 −3 x 632.8nm
n= −34 8
per sec ond
6.626 x10 x 3x10
n = 7.325 x1015 per sec ond

n = 7.325 x1015 per sec ond

n = 7.325 x1015 x 60 / min

n = 4.4 x1017 / min

HRK-Exercise 48.33: A atom has two energy levels with a transition
wavelength of 582 nm. At 300 K, 4 x 1020 atoms are there in the lower
state. (a) How many occupy the upper state under conditions of
thermal equilibrium? (b) Suppose, instead, that 7.0 x 1020 atoms are
pumped into upper state, with 4.0 x 1020 remaining in the lower
state. How much energy could be released in a single laser pulse?

a) b)
∆E = nhγ
N2  (E 2 − E1 )
= exp−
N1  kT 
hc ∆E = 7 x10 20 x 2.13x1.6 x10 −19 J
E2 − E1 = hγ = = 2.13eV
λ
Also, kT = 0.026eV ∆E = 240 J
 (E 2 − E1 )
N 2 = N1 exp−
 kT 
N 2 = 4 x10 20 x exp[− 81.92]
−16 That's effectively
N 2 ≈ 6.6 x10 N2 ≈ 0 none.