INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - CHAPTER 1 – Lesson 1

What is Psychology?
- Comes from Aristotle’s word “psyche” plus the Greek word “logos”, meaning the study of the soul”.
- 19th Century, psychology became the “science of mental life”.
- 20th Century, it gave way to the “study of overt behavior” (overt – observable)
o If it can be observed, it can be verified.
- Psychology is now defined more broadly as the “scientific study of behavior and mental processes” (Feldman,
2008)
- Psychologists conducted research on animal subjects, thus, psychology became the “scientific study of behavior
and mental processes of man and other animals”.

Types of Behavior
1. Overt Behavior – are those which are observable by others.
2. Covert Behavior – are those that are known only to the person experiencing it.

Objectives of the Study of Psychology

1. To describe behavior – with the use of senses to see the external actions/movements.
2. To understand and explain behavior – interpret what you have seen.
3. To predict behavior – identify what may happen in the future because of the present situation.
4. To influence the behavior – involves change

Basic Assumptions about Human Behavior

1. Human beings are biological creatures.
2. Every person is different, yet much the same.
3. People can be understood fully only in the context of their culture, ethnic identity, and gender identity.
4. Human lives are a continuous process of change.
5. Behavior is motivated
6. Humans are social animals
7. People play an active part in creating their experiences
8. Behavior can be adaptive and maladaptive.

Careers in Psychology
48% - clinical or counseling psychologists in either private or public setting
28% - in academic settings
13% - in other kinds of job and career setting
6% - in industrial setting
4% - secondary school
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - CHAPTER 1 – Lesson 2
Perspectives in History – Historical Perspectives
1. Structuralism
- Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener
 - Focuses on the structure and basic elements of the mind. Believes that private conscious experience is
brought about by sensation, images, and feelings.

2. Functionalism
- William James, James Angell, John Dewey
- Focuses on the function, purpose and activities of the mind and how they worked together to aid man in
adapting environment
- Help us to adjust on the ever changing environment

3. Behaviorism
- John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike
- Focuses on the study of behavior, citing that it can be controlled and predicted.
- Cited the relationship between stimulus and response and the role of reward and punishment in modifying
together.

4. Gestalt
- Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler
- Focuses on the whole pattern or experiences as opposed to individual elements of behavior. Basic tenet is
“the whole is more than the same of all its parts”

5. Psychoanalytic
- Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler
- Studies the dynamics of the mind emphasizing the role of motivation, particularly the unconscious in the
determination of behavior. Assumes that human desire and impulses are control factors of behavior.
Perspectives in History – Modern Perspectives
6. Neuroscience
- Emphasizing the physical and biological basis of behavior considers how heredity may influence behavior
and behavioral neuroscience which examines how the brain and the nervous system affect behavior.

7. Behavioral
- Concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced. Suggests that observable behavior should be the
focus and that can be measured objectively. This is an extended version of the earlier perspective on
behaviorism.

8. Cognitive
- Focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. Psychologists who rely on this
perspective ask questions ranging from how our way of thinking about the world influences our behavior.

9. Humanistic
- Emphasis on the role of motivation on thought and behavior. Contends that people can control their behavior
and that they naturally try to reach their potential. Emphasizes “free will” and responsibilities.

10. Cross-cultural/Social Culture

- Look at human behavior across different cultures. Studies how ethnicity, gender, lifestyles, socioeconomic
status, and cultural influences our thinking and behavior.

11. Evolutionary
 - Focuses on the study of how evolution explains physiological processes. It takes the basic principles on
evolution, including natural selection and applies this to psychological phenomena. Suggests that mental
processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose-ad in survival and reproduction.

12. Psychodynamic
- Originally that of Freud’s Psychoanalytic. Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences to explain human behavior and to people suffering from mental illness. Proponents believed that
behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – CHAPTER 2 – LESSON 1
Why do Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods?
Theory – an explanation or model which fits many observations and makes valid predictions.
– The purpose of research is to determine which theory is incorrect.
Falsifiable – stated in such clear, precise terms that an observer can see what can count against it.
– To test theories to identify what is falsifiable or not.

Scientific Methods
1. Review of Literature
2. Formulate a Hypothesis
3. Design the Study
4. Collect Data
5. Draws Conclusions
6. Report the Findings

Methods used in the study of Psychology

Introspection Method - in this method, the individual studies himself, records his own feelings, and experiences and
later interprets them; to know who you are
Advantages:
✔ Private
✔ Only the person knows what he or she feels, thinks and actually behaves.

Disadvantage:
� Difficult to verify
� May be misinterpreted by the experiencing person; subjective

Others Know Others Don’t Know

You Know You Know

Other Know Others Don’t Know

You Don’t Know You Don’t Know

*Advance notice may affect your future interpretations

Observation Method - this is visual and auditory methods of examining, describing, and interpreting the reactions on
individuals and groups in a laboratory, classroom, or out of school situations

- Kinds of Observation
o Uncontrolled, Informal, or Naturalistic Observation - this method of observation does not follow a
particular scope of behavior to be observed. It is casual and the psychologist is free to observe any
activity that comes his way, without any formal reading of such behavior
o Controlled, Formal, or Clinical Observation - this method of observation follows certain rules in
gathering materials in order to draw the best conclusions. In this method, certain requirements or
specifications delimit the activity of the observer.
Advantages:
✔ Study behavior in the real-life situation
✔ In its natural environment
✔ Know the typical normal behavior
✔ Accurate and objective

Disadvantages:
� You would not know the motive behind the behavior

Life History Method / Case Study Method - involves extensive studies on individuals by tracing the development of a
particular form of behavior.
Advantages:
✔ Involves only one or few individuals
✔ In-depth information and detailed descriptions and insights
✔ Can lead to future studies

Disadvantages:
� Only true to the person
� Rely to recollections which can be inaccurate or incomplete
� Could not be generalized to the populations
� Maybe misinterpreted due to the researcher’s personal belief and self-fulfilling prophecy

Survey Method / Group Method - through written questionnaires or interviews, data are obtained from a large group
particularly that group which will constitute a representative sample. This is used in obtaining norm surveys or opinion
polls.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
� Who asks the question
✔ Quick and efficient way to collect data
� How questions are worded
✔ Large sample for comparison for responses

Experimental Method - this is used to study behavior which can be brought into the laboratory and studied under
controlled conditions to establish the cause and effect relationship.
Advantages:
✔ Efficient and accurate way to test hypothesis
 ✔ Carried out in controlled conditions - extraneous variables can be excluded

Disadvantages:
� Difficult to control variables
� Ethical considerations
Issues on Research
1. Minimizing the risk of harm
2. Obtaining informed consent
3. Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
4. Avoiding deceptive practices
5. Providing the right to withdraw

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY – CHAPTER 3 – LESSON 1

Heredity (“nature”) - refers to the genetic transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to their
children.
1. Physical - your appearance 2. Mental Traits - Intelligence, Abilities, and Talents
- The most apparent 3. Emotionality - reaction to a certain stimulus.
- Hereditary Predisposition ● Emotional Disposition - temperamental.
● Diabetes, High Blood Pressure, Cancer, and ● Mood - diffused emotional state that lasts for a
many more. period of time.
● Affected by some factors.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Parts of Neurons:
a. Cell Body or Soma - it contains the cell’s control Centre, or nucleus that houses genetic information, and other
components of the cell necessary for the cell’s preservation and nourishment.
b. Dendrites - small branches that extend out from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons.
c. Axon - a long thin fiber that carries information away from the cell body.
d. Axon Terminals or Terminal Buttons - tiny bulblike structures at the end of the axon, which contains
neurotransmitters that carry the neuron’s message into the synapse.

Kinds of Neurons:
✔ Afferent or Sensory neurons – neurons which carry information from the sense organs to the brain and the spinal
cord.
✔ Efferent or Motor neurons – neurons which relay information from the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles and
glands.
✔ Interneurons – neurons which transmit messages from one neuron to another.

THE BRAIN
1) HINDBRAIN
a) Medulla Oblongata - Regulates vital functions such as breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat, blood
pressure, and respiration.
b) Pons - Sleep and arousal
c) Cerebellum (Little brain) - Coordination of fine muscle movements and maintain equilibrium

2) MIDBRAIN
a) Reticular Formation - Consciousness, sleep, and attention

3) FOREBRAIN
a) Cerebrum - Thinking and processing of information from the environment
(1) Frontal lobe - Motor movement and cognitive activities such as planning, deciding, and pursuing goals.
(2) Parietal lobe - Touch sensation and perceiving spatial relationships
(3) Occipital lobe - Process visual information
(4) Temporal lobe - Process auditory information
b) Hypothalamus - Regulate many vital bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature and reproduction,
as well as emotional states, aggression, and response to stress; seat of emotion
c) Thalamus - Relay center for incoming sensory information
d) Corpus Callosum - Band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres; transfer area of the brain
e) Hippocampus - Formation and retrieving memories
f) Amygdala - Organizes motivational and emotional response patterns, particularly those linked to aggression and
fear.
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Make hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction.
● Plays a vital role in emotions.
● Controls how your hormones are released.
● Send those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts.

WHAT IS A GLAND AND HORMONE

 ● A gland is a group of cells that function to secrete hormones
● A hormone is a chemical substance that moves throughout the body to help regulate emotions and behaviors.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

PITUITARY GLAND - (the “Master Gland” because its hormones influence other glands)
b. Growth hormone (GH) - Stimulates growth, especially of bones
c. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids
d. Vasopressin - Promotes water retention by the kidneys; plays a vital role in the formation of memories
e. Oxytocin - Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and release of milk following childbirth
PINEAL GLAND - (associated with a well-developed light sensitive organ; called the “Third Eye”)
f. Melatonin - Helps regulate sleep-wake cycle
THYROID GLAND
g. Thyroxine - Regulates metabolic rate, growth, and maturation
PARATHYROID GLAND
h. Parathormone - Regulates calcium concentration in the blood
THYMUS
i. Thymosin - Production and maturation of white blood cells
ADRENAL GLANDS - (the “Emergency Glands”)
j. Epinephrine/adrenaline - Tends to arouse the body but associated with fear
k. Norepinephrine/noradrenaline - Tends to arouse the body but associated with anger
l. Corticoids - Regulate salt balance in the body; help body adjust to stress; secondary source of sex hormones
PANCREAS
m. Insulin - Decreases blood sugar
n. Glucose - Increases blood sugar
GONADS
o. Testes
i. TESTOSTERONE - Promotes sperm production, fosters male sexual differentiation during prenatal
development; stokes sexual maturation in pubertal males
p. Ovaries
i. ESTROGEN - Fosters female sexual maturation; helps regulate menstrual cycle
ii. PROGESTERONE - Regulates changes in the uterus to maintain pregnancy

SOME MAJOR NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Name Location Function

Acetylcholine (Ach) Brain, Spinal Cord, Peripheral Muscle movement and cognitive
Nervous System, Some organs of functioning
Parasympathetic Nervous system
Glutamate Brain, Spinal Cord Memory
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Brain, Spinal Cord Eating, Aggression, Sleeping
Dopamine (DA) Brain Muscle Disorders, Mental Disorders,
 Parkinson’s Disease
Serotonin Brain, Spinal Cord Sleeping, Eating, Mood, Pain, and
Depression
Endorphins Brain, Spinal Cord Pain suppression, Pleasurable
feelings, Appetites, and Placebo