What’s a Vector?

A vector is a mathematical object possessing, and fully described by, a magnitude and a
direction. It’s possible to talk about vectors simply in terms of numbers, but it’s often a lot
easier to represent them graphically as arrows. The vector’s magnitude is equal to the length of
the arrow, and its direction corresponds to where the arrow is pointing. Physicists commonly
refer to the point of a vector as its tip and the base as its tail.

There are a number of ways to label vectors. You may have seen vectors labeled A or A. This
site will follow the convention you’ll find on Physics: vectors are written in boldface and vector
magnitudes in plain script. For example, vector A has magnitude A.

Vectors vs Scalars

In contrast to a vector quantity, a scalar quantity does not have a direction; it is fully described
by just a magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities include the number of words in this sentence
and the mass of the Hubble Space Telescope. Vector quantities you’ll likely come across quite
frequently in physics include displacement, s; velocity, v; acceleration, a; force, F; momentum,
p; electric field, E; and magnetic field, B.

When in doubt, ask yourself if a certain quantity comes with a direction. If it does, it’s a vector.
If it doesn’t, it’s a scalar.

Example

Which of the following sentences deal with vector quantities?

  I. “I used to drive a 10-ton truck.”
 II. “You’ll find a gas station if you follow this road 20 miles due north.”
III. “The 10-volt battery is the one on your left.”
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) II and III
(E) I, II, and III

“I used to drive a 10-ton truck” deals with mass, which is a scalar quantity. When we know that a
truck weighs 10 tons, we don’t need to ask, “in what direction?” “You’ll find a gas station if you
follow this road 20 miles due north” deals with the vector quantity of displacement. When asking
directions to a gas station, you don’t simply want to know how far it is from where you are, but
also in what direction you need to go. “The 10-volt battery is the one on your left” is slightly
tricky: volts are a scalar quantity—you don’t ask in what direction the battery’s volts are going.
However, you might be deceived by the mention of “on your left.” However, “on your left” is a
reference to the battery, not to the volts. The magnitude “10 volts” doesn’t have a direction, so
that quantity is a scalar. The answer is B.

Vector Addition
There are bound to be several questions on Physics test that involve vector addition, particularly
in mechanics. The test doesn’t demand a very sophisticated understanding of vector addition, but
it’s important that you grasp the principle. That is, you won’t be asked to make complicated
calculations, but you will be expected to know what happens when you add two vectors together.

The easiest way to learn how vector addition works is to look at it graphically. There are two
equivalent ways to add vectors graphically: the tip-to-tail (head to tail) method and the
parallelogram method. Both will get you to the same result, but one or the other is more
convenient depending on the circumstances.

Head to Tail Method

We can add any two vectors, A and B, by placing the tail of B so that it meets the tip of A. The
sum, A + B, is the vector from the tail of A to the tip of B.

Note that you’ll get the same vector if you place the tip of B against the tail of A. In other words,
A + B and B + A are equivalent.

Parallelogram Method

To add A and B using the parallelogram method, place the tail of B so that it meets the tail of A.
Take these two vectors to be the first two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and draw in the
remaining two sides. The vector sum, A + B, extends from the tails of A and B across the
diagonal to the opposite corner of the parallelogram. If the vectors are perpendicular and unequal
in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a rectangle. If the vectors are perpendicular and equal in
magnitude, the parallelogram will be a square.
Adding Vector Magnitudes

Of course, knowing what the sum of two vectors looks like is often not enough. Sometimes
you’ll need to know the magnitude of the resultant vector. This, of course, depends not only on
the magnitude of the two vectors you’re adding, but also on the angle between the two vectors.

Adding Perpendicular Vectors

Suppose vector A has a magnitude of 8, and vector B is perpendicular to A with a magnitude of

6. What is the magnitude of A + B? Since vectors A and B are perpendicular, the triangle formed
by A, B, and A + B is a right triangle. We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate the
magnitude of A + B, which is

Adding Parallel Vectors

If the vectors you want to add are in the same direction, they can be added using simple
arithmetic. For example, if you get in your car and drive eight miles east, stop for a break, and
then drive six miles east, you will be 8 + 6 = 14 miles east of your origin. If you drive eight miles
east and then six miles west, you will end up 8 – 6 = 2 miles east of your origin.
Adding Vectors at Other Angles

When A and B are neither perpendicular nor parallel, it is more difficult to calculate the
magnitude of A + B because we can no longer use the Pythagorean Theorem. It is possible to
calculate this sum using trigonometry, but subject test Physics will never ask you to do this. For
the most part, subject test Physics will want you to show graphically what the sum will look like,
following the tip-to-tail or parallelogram methods. On the rare occasions that you need to
calculate the sum of vectors that are not perpendicular, you will be able to use the component
method of vector addition, explained later in this chapter.

Example

Vector A has a magnitude of 9 and points due north, vector B has a magnitude of 3 and points
due north, and vector C has a magnitude of 5 and points due west. What is the magnitude of the
resultant vector, A + B + C?

First, add the two parallel vectors, A and B. Because they are parallel, this is a simple matter of
straightforward addition: 9 + 3 = 12. So the vector A + B has a magnitude of 12 and points due
north. Next, add A + B to C. These two vectors are perpendicular, so apply the Pythagorean
Theorem:

The sum of the three vectors has a magnitude of 13. Though a little more time-consuming,
adding three vectors is just as simple as adding two.

Vector Subtraction
You probably know that subtraction is the same thing as adding a negative: 8 – 5 is the same
thing as 8 + (–5). The easiest way to think about vector subtraction is in terms of adding a
negative vector. What’s a negative vector? It’s the same vector as its positive counterpart, only
pointing in the opposite direction.

A – B, then, is the same thing as A + (–B). For instance, let’s take the two vectors A and B:
To subtract B from A, take a vector of the same magnitude as B, but pointing in the opposite
direction, and add that vector to A, using either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram
method.

Multiplication by a Scalar
Multiplication is like repeated addition. Multiplying 4 by 3 means adding four three times:3 × 4
= 4 + 4 + 4 = 12. The multiplication of a vector times a scalar works in the same way.
Multiplying the vector A by the positive scalar c is equivalent to adding together c copies of the
vector A. Thus 3A = A + A + A . Multiplying a vector by a scalar will get you a vector with the
same direction, but different magnitude, as the original.

The result of multiplying A by c is a vector in the same direction as A, with a magnitude of c ×

A. If c is negative, then the direction of A is reversed by scalar multiplication.

Vector Components
As we have seen, vector addition and scalar multiplication can produce new vectors out of old
ones. For instance, we produce the vector A + B by adding the two vectors A and B. Of course,
there is nothing that makes A + B at all distinct as a vector from A or B: all three have
magnitudes and directions. And just as A + B can be construed as the sum of two other vectors,
so can A and B. In problems involving vector addition, it’s often convenient to break a vector
down into two components, that is, two vectors whose sum is the vector in question.

Basis Vectors

We often graph vectors in an xy-coordinate system, where we can talk about vectors in purely
numerical terms. For instance, the vector (3,4) is the vector whose tail is at the origin and whose
tip is at the point (3,4) on the coordinate plane. From this coordinate, you can use the
Pythagorean Theorem to calculate that the vector’s magnitude is 5 and trigonometry to calculate
that its direction is about 53.1º above the x-axis.

Two vectors of particular note are (1,0), the vector of magnitude 1 that points along the x-axis,
and (0,1), the vector of magnitude 1 that points along the y-axis. These are called the basis
vectors and are written with the special hat notation: and respectively.

The basis vectors are important because you can express any vector in terms of the sum of
multiples of the two basis vectors. For instance, the vector (3,4) that we discussed above—call it
A—can be expressed as the vector sum .

The vector3 is called the “x-component” of A and the 4 is called the “y-component” of A. In
this site, we will use subscripts to denote vector components. For example, the x-component of A
is Ax and the y-component of vector A is Ay .
The direction of a vector can be expressed in terms of the angle θ by which it is rotated
counterclockwise from the x-axis.

Vector Decomposition

The process of finding a vector’s components is known as “resolving,” “decomposing,” or

“breaking down” a vector. Let’s take the example, illustrated above, of a vector, A, with a
magnitude of A and a direction θ above the x-axis. Because Ax ,Ay and A form a right triangle,
we can use trigonometry to solve this problem. Applying the trigonometric definitions of cosine
and sine,

we find:

Vector Addition Using Components

Vector decomposition is particularly useful when you’re called upon to add two vectors that are
neither parallel nor perpendicular. In such a case, you will want to resolve one vector into
components that run parallel and perpendicular to the other vector.

Example
Two ropes are tied to a box on a frictionless surface. One rope pulls due east with a force of
2.0N. The second rope pulls with a force of 4.0N at an angle 30º west of north, as shown in the
diagram. What is the total force acting on the box?

To solve this problem, we need to resolve the force on the second rope into its northward and
westward components.

Because the force is directed 30° west of north, its northward component is

and its westward component is

Since the eastward component is also 2.0N, the eastward and westward components cancel one
another out. The resultant force is directed due north, with a force of approximately 3.4N.

approximately 3.4N. You can justify this answer by using the parallelogram method. If you fill
out the half-completed parallelogram formed by the two vectors in the diagram above, you will
find that the opposite corner of the parallelogram is directly above the corner made by the tails of
those two vectors.
 Vector Components
As we have seen, vector addition and scalar multiplication can produce new vectors out of old
ones. For instance, we produce the vector A + B by adding the two vectors A and B. Of course,
there is nothing that makes A + B at all distinct as a vector from A or B: all three have
magnitudes and directions. And just as A + B can be construed as the sum of two other vectors,
so can A and B. In problems involving vector addition, it’s often convenient to break a vector
down into two components, that is, two vectors whose sum is the vector in question.

Basis Vectors

We often graph vectors in an xy-coordinate system, where we can talk about vectors in purely
numerical terms. For instance, the vector (3,4) is the vector whose tail is at the origin and whose
tip is at the point (3,4) on the coordinate plane. From this coordinate, you can use the
Pythagorean Theorem to calculate that the vector’s magnitude is 5 and trigonometry to calculate
that its direction is about 53.1º above the x-axis.

Two vectors of particular note are (1,0), the vector of magnitude 1 that points along the x-axis,
and (0,1), the vector of magnitude 1 that points along the y-axis. These are called the basis
vectors and are written with the special hat notation: and respectively.

The basis vectors are important because you can express any vector in terms of the sum of
multiples of the two basis vectors. For instance, the vector (3,4) that we discussed above—call it
A—can be expressed as the vector sum .
The vector3 is called the “x-component” of A and the 4 is called the “y-component” of A. In
this site, we will use subscripts to denote vector components. For example, the x-component of A
is Ax and the y-component of vector A is Ay .

The direction of a vector can be expressed in terms of the angle θ by which it is rotated
counterclockwise from the x-axis.

Vector Decomposition

The process of finding a vector’s components is known as “resolving,” “decomposing,” or

“breaking down” a vector. Let’s take the example, illustrated above, of a vector, A, with a
magnitude of A and a direction θ above the x-axis. Because Ax ,Ay and A form a right triangle,
we can use trigonometry to solve this problem. Applying the trigonometric definitions of cosine
and sine,

we find:
Vector Addition Using Components

Vector decomposition is particularly useful when you’re called upon to add two vectors that are
neither parallel nor perpendicular. In such a case, you will want to resolve one vector into
components that run parallel and perpendicular to the other vector.

Example

Two ropes are tied to a box on a frictionless surface. One rope pulls due east with a force of
2.0N. The second rope pulls with a force of 4.0N at an angle 30º west of north, as shown in the
diagram. What is the total force acting on the box?

To solve this problem, we need to resolve the force on the second rope into its northward and
westward components.

Because the force is directed 30° west of north, its northward component is

and its westward component is

Since the eastward component is also 2.0N, the eastward and westward components cancel one
another out. The resultant force is directed due north, with a force of approximately 3.4N.

approximately 3.4N. You can justify this answer by using the parallelogram method. If you fill
out the half-completed parallelogram formed by the two vectors in the diagram above, you will
find that the opposite corner of the parallelogram is directly above the corner made by the tails of
those two vectors.

Key Formulas
Dot Product

A.B = AB cos θ

Cross Product

A×B=ABsinθ & ñ

Magnitude

Direction

X-,Y-components
Vector addition

Practice Questions

1. Which of the following vectors best represents the vector A + B?

(A).

(B).

(C).

(D).

(E)

2. Vector A has a magnitude of 5 in the leftward direction and B has a magnitude of 2 in the
rightward direction. What is the value of 2A – B?

(A) 12 in the leftward direction

(B) 10 in the leftward direction

(C) 8 in the leftward direction

(D) 8 in the rightward direction

(E) 12 in the rightward direction

3. When the tail of vector A is set at the origin of the xy-axis, the tip of A reaches (3,6). When
the tail of vector B is set at the origin of the xy-axis, the tip of B reaches (–1,5). If the tail of
vector A – B were set at the origin of the xy-axis, what point would its tip touch?

(A) (2,11)

(B) (2,1)

(C) (–2,7)

(D) (4,1)

(E) (4,11)

4. A and B are vectors, and θ is the angle between them. What can you do to maximize A· B?
I. Maximize the magnitude of A
II. Maximize the magnitude of B
III. Set θ to 90°

(A) None of the above

(B) I only

(C) III only

(D) I and II only

(E) I, II, and III

5. Which of the following statements is NOT true about A × B ?

(A) It is a vector that points into the page

(B) It has a magnitude that is less than or equal to 12

(C) It has no component in the plane of the page

(D) The angle it makes with B is less than the angle it makes with A

(E) It is the same as –B × A

Explanations
1.A

By adding A to B using the tip-to-tail method, we can see that (A) is the correct answer.

2.A

The vector 2A has a magnitude of 10 in the leftward direction. Subtracting B, a vector of

magnitude 2 in the rightward direction, is the same as adding a vector of magnitude 2 in the
leftward direction. The resultant vector, then, has a magnitude of 10 + 2 =12 in the leftward
direction.

3.D

To subtract one vector from another, we can subtract each component individually. Subtracting
the x-components of the two vectors, we get 3 –( –1) = 4, and subtracting the y-components of
the two vectors, we get 6 – 5 = 1. The resultant vector therefore has an x-component of 4 and a y-
component of 1, so that if its tail is at the origin of the xy-axis, its tip would be at (4,1).

4.D

The dot product of A and B is given by the formula A · B = AB cos θ. This increases as either A
or B increases. However, cos θ θ = 0 when θ = 90°, so this is not a way to maximize the dot
product. Rather, to maximize A · B one should set θ to 0º so cos θ = 1.

5.D

Let’s take a look at each answer choice in turn. Using the right-hand rule, we find that A × B is
indeed a vector that points into the page. We know that the magnitude of A × B is AB sin θ ,
where θ is the angle between the two vectors. Since AB = 12, and since sin θ≤1 , we know that A
× B cannot possibly be greater than 12. As a cross product vector, is perpendicular to both A and
B. This means that it has no component in the plane of the page. It also means that both A and B
are at right angles with the cross product vector, so neither angle is greater than or less than the
other. Last, B × A is a vector of the same magnitude as A × B , but it points in the opposite
direction. By negating B × A , we get a vector that is identical to A × B .