Diversity in the Living World

The Living World

INTRODUCTION
Biology is the science of life forms and living Gray Matter Alert!!!
processes. The living world comprises an amazing
diversity of living organisms. Early man could Ernst Mayr (1904–2004)
easily perceive the difference between inanimate Born on 5 July 1904, in Kempten,
matter and living organisms. Early man deified Germany, Ernst Mayr, the Harvard
some of the inanimate matter (wind, sea, fire University evolutionary biologist
etc.) and some among the animals and plants. A who has been called ‘The Darwin
common feature of all such forms of inanimate of the 20th century’, was one of
and animate objects was the sense of awe or the greatest scientists of all time.
fear that they evoked. The description of living He almost single-handedly
organisms including human beings began much made the origin of species
later in human history. Societies which indulged diversity, a central question of
in anthropocentric view of biology could register currently accepted definition of
limited progress in biological knowledge. a biological species. Mayr was
Systematic and monumental description of awarded the three prizes widely
life forms brought in, out of necessity detailed regarded as the triple crown of
systems of identification, nomenclature, and biology: the Balzan Prize in 1983,
classification. All present-day living organisms the International Prize for Biology
are related to each other and to all organisms that in 1994, and the Crafoord Prize in
ever lived on this earth, was a revelation which 1999. Mayr died at the age of 100
humbled man and led to cultural movements for in the year 2004.
conservation of biodiversity.

What is living? y Cellular organisation

Life is a unique, complex organisation of y Consciousness
molecules expressing itself through chemical One can add a few more features
reactions (metabolism) reproduction. like metabolism, ability to self-
Hence, ‘the object by itself exhibiting the growth, replicate, self-organize, interact
reproduction, consciousness, and other life and emergence to this list.
processes, etc. and show independent existence
in nature is designated as living being’. Growth
y Increase in mass and increase
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING BEINGS in number of cells are twin
Diversity in the Living World

All the living beings share certain unique and characters of growth. Growth
basic characteristics which set them apart from refers to irreversible increase in
non-living objects. Some of these characteristics mass or overall size of a tissue, an
are listed below: organism, or its parts.
y Growth y Growth occurs when anabolism
y Reproduction or synthetic processes exceeds
y Metabolism catabolism.

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y Degrowth or negative growth will occur y Reproduction is of two types, asexual

when catabolism exceeds anabolism. It and sexual. Asexual reproduction is
will decrease the mass of body. always uniparental multiplication that
y In plants, this growth by cell division occurs through binary fission, multiple
occurs continuously throughout their fission, spore formation, fragmentation,
life span while in animal growth is seen and vegetative multiplication.
only up to a certain age. y Fungi multiply by asexual spores, yeast
y Unicellular organisms also grow by cell and Hydra show budding, Planaria
division. In unicelled organisms like exhibits true regeneration. Fungi,
Amoeba, reproduction is synonymous filamentous algae, protonema of mosses
with growth, i.e., increase in number of easily multiplies by fragmentation.
cells. y When we notice single-celled organisms
y In majority of higher plants and animals’ like bacteria, unicellular alga, and
growth and reproduction are mutually Amoeba, we are not clear about the
exclusive events. usage of these two terms growth and
y Non-living objects also grow if we take reproduction, i.e., increase in number
increase in body mass as a criterion of of cells, so reproduction is synonymous
growth. But in these objects extrinsic with growth.
growth is present i.e., increase in y No non-living object is capable of
the mass of body from outside e.g. reproducing or replicating by itself.
mountains, boulders, and sand mounds. Further, there are some organisms
y Growth, therefore, cannot be taken as which do not reproduce at all, e.g.,
a defining property of living organisms. worker bees, mules, infertile human
couple etc.
y Hence reproduction cannot be an all-
inclusive defining property.
Definition
Metabolism
Living Being: The object by itself
y Metabolism is the sum of all chemical
exhibiting growth, reproduction,
reactions occurring in an organism
consciousness, and other life processes
due to specific interactions amongst
etc. and show independent existence
different types of molecules within the
in nature is designated as living being.
interior of cells.
y Metabolism involves exchange of matter
Diversity in the Living World

and energy between an organism and

Reproduction its environment and transformation of
y Reproduction is the formation of new matter and energy within organism.
individuals of similar kind. It is, however, y Despite vast differences occurring in
required for survival of the population structure and functioning of cells in
as it compensates for the loss of life different organisms, metabolic reactions
due to death. are unusually similar.

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y No non-living object exhibits y Response of an organisms true
metabolism. such external stimuli is known as
y Metabolic reactions can be consciousness.
demonstrated outside the body in cell y A question may arise whether a man
free systems. lying in coma on the life support system
y An isolated metabolic reaction(s) in a is living or non-living? The answer
test-tube is neither living nor non-living. lies in the quantitative presence of
Hence, while metabolism is a defining consciousness in the living being in that
feature of all living organisms without particular state. In fact, the person in
exception, isolated metabolic reactions coma has lost the requisite quantity of
in-vitro are not living things but surely consciousness to exhibit the features of
living reactions. living being, but still exhibits life. If the
y So, metabolism is considered as defining requisite consciousness is restored, the
feature of organism. person may again start to be as living
being or die otherwise.
y Human being is the only organism
Rack your Brain who is aware of himself, i.e., self-
consciousness.
Why can we not consider in vitro y Consciousness, therefore, becomes the
metabolic reactions as living things ? defining property of living organisms.
y All living phenomena are due to
underlying interactions. Properties
Cellular Organization of tissues are not present in the
y Cell is made up of different biomolecules constituent cells but arise because of
having specific organization and interactions among the constituent
performing different metabolic reactions cells. Similarly, properties of cellular
this peculiar organization is known as organelles are not present in the
cellular organization. molecular constituent of the organelle
y Body of all living organisms consists of but arise because of interactions among
cells and their products. the molecular components comprising
y Hence, cellular organization of the body the organelle. These interactions result
is the defining feature of life forms. in emergent properties at a higher level
of organisation. This phenomenon is
Consciousness true in the hierarchy of organizational
Diversity in the Living World

y The most obvious and technically complexity at all levels.

complicated feature of all living y Therefore, we can say that living
organisms is the ability to sense their organisms are self-replicating, evolving,
surroundings or environment and and self-regulating interactive systems
respond to these environmental stimuli capable of responding to external stimuli.
which could be physical, chemical, or y Biology is the story of life on earth.
biological. Biology is the story of evolution of

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living organisms on earth. All living

organisms — present, past, and future, Definition
are linked to one another by the sharing
of the common genetic material, but to Biodiversity: Different types of animal,
varying degrees. plant and micro-organisms present on
earth are considered as biodiversity of
Question: earth.
Coma patient is-
(a)  Living (b)  Non-living
(c)  Suspended life CLASSIFICATION
(d)  cannot be explained. A clear understanding of this huge variety
Sol. (c) of organism can be studied by dividing
them into small groups or sub-groups.
Coma patient is living because is These group comprises a category.
supported by life support-system, only This method of placing organisms
few functions are visible like functioning into groups (category) on the basis of
of the heart and respiration. But other similarities and dissimilarities called
major functions are not performed, classification.
hence, is example of suspended life.
Note: Cellular death starts first and Need for Classification.
after half an hour brain is dead in a y There are millions of plants and animals
dying person. Cellular death continues varying greatly in their form, structure
for 48 hours. Last organ to die is skin. and complexity.
y It is impossible to study all of them
BIODIVERSITY individually. To make the study of
y Different types of animal, plant and organisms possible and easier, scientists
micro-organisms are present on earth have divided organisms into different
considered as biodiversity of earth. ranks or categories on the basis of
y From a current estimation, similarities and differences.
approximately 1.7 million species have y Classification is just like systematically
been scientifically named and classified. arranged library where we can easily
These include nearly 1.2 million animals find out the required book, in the same
and over 0.5 million species of plants. way, if the organisms are arranged
y Amongst animals, insects form the according to a system, it makes their
Diversity in the Living World

largest group. It is estimated that study easy.

majority of species diversity is confined y Some important needs are-
to tropical rain forests and huge diversity ⚪ It is essential to understand the
exist in under water reef formations in inter-relationship among different
tropical oceans. groups of organisms.

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 Chapter
⚪ It serves as a base for the ⚪ In this classification, the plants
development of other biological belonging to the same group shows
sciences like biogeography. many similarities, while in artificial
⚪ Various applied biology fields also classification, the plants belonging
depend upon exact identification to the same group shows only, 1 or 2
and classification. similar characters. They have many
dissimilarities.
Major Categories of Classification ⚪ One of the best natural classification
Artificial classification. was given by Bentham and Hooker in
In this type of classification plants are the book “Genera plantarum”.
classified on the basis of one or two
morphological characters. i.e. overall
morphology is not considered. for e.g. Definition
⚪ Classified plants as tree shrub and
herb Natural classification: Classification
⚪ Classification proposed by Linnaeus of plants on the basis of complete
is sexual system of classification. morphology, anatomy, cytology,
Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on embryology and other characters
the basis of only two floral characters. except phylogeny.
⚪ Stamens
⚪ Carpel
On the basis of stamens and carpel,
Linnaeus classified plant kingdom into Rack your Brain
24 classes.
Out of these 23 classes of flowering Why is Linnaeus’s classification termed
plants and one class of non-flowering as artificial system of classification?
plants (Cryptogamian).
y Natural classification.
⚪ In this type, plants are classified ⚪ In this system, plants are classified
on the basis of their complete on the basis of numbers of
morphology, anatomy, cytology, similarities and dissimilarities. This
embryology and other characters classification is easily carried out by
except phylogeny. using computers and it is based on
⚪ Natural classification is believed to all observable characteristics.
Diversity in the Living World

be the best classification, because ⚪ In this classification number

it represents the natural similarities and codes are assigned to all
and dissimilarities of plants i.e., the characters and the data are
it represents the interrelationship prepared and then processed. Those
among plants. organisms which have maximum

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Kingdom -Plantae

Cryptogamia Phanerogamia (seed plants)

Dicotyledons Gymnospermae Monocotyledons

3 7
Polypetalae Gamopetalae Monochlamydeae

3 3 8

similarities are placed in same y The fundamental elements of taxonomy

group. In this way each character is are as follows:
given equal importance and at the ⚪ Characterization and identification:
same time hundreds of characters This includes determination of the
can be considered. similarities of an organism with an
y Phylogenetic Classification. already known organism, based
⚪ This classification is based on all upon specific characters.
the characters of organism including ⚪ Nomenclature: It is the determination
their evolutionary relationship. of correct name of an organism
⚪ Evolutionary relationship of the according to established universal
organisms is known as phylogeny. rules.
⚪ A.W. Eichler, Hutchinson, Takhtajan, ⚪ Classification: It is grouping of
Ostwald Tippo gave phylogenetic organisms into convenient categories
classification. on the basis of easily observable
characters.
TAXONOMY The classical taxonomy is based on
The branch of science dealing with the observable morphological characters;
study of principles and procedures of however, the modern taxonomy
Diversity in the Living World

classification is called taxonomy. The deals with several characters for the
Greek term ‘taxonomy’ was coined by classification of organisms like
A.P. de Candolle. ⚪ External and internal structure along
Linnaeus is considered as ‘Father of with the structure of cell.
Taxonomy’. ⚪ Development process.
⚪ Ecological information of organisms.

6.
 Chapter
y Basis of modern taxonomic studies: In
Definition the initial years of taxonomy only the
morphological characters were consid-
Taxonomy: The branch of Biology that ered. Due to advancement in technology
deals with naming, identifying, and scientists started using structure of cells,
classifying an organism. developmental process of the organisms,
ecological information of organisms, evo-
lutionary relationship among organisms
for classifying the organisms. So, now this
Rack your Brain
is the base of modern taxonomic studies.

What are the basic processes in

taxonomy?

y Types of Taxonomy
⚪ Cytotaxonomy: The use of cytological
characters of plants in classification
is called cytotaxonomy.
⚪ Characters used in cytotaxonomy are
Chromosome number, Chromosome
morphology, chromosome size, total
length of chromatin, arm’s ratio,
primary and secondary constrictions,
Chromosome behaviour at meiosis.
⚪ Karyotaxonomy: Based on characters
of nucleus and chromosomes.
Pattern of chromosomal band (dark
Rack your Brain
bands and light bands) is most
specific character.
⚪ Chemotaxonomy: The uses of What was the sole criterion for
chemical characters of plants in classification during the initial period
classification or in solving taxonomic of taxonomy? 
problems is called chemotaxonomy
Diversity in the Living World

or chemical taxonomy. It is based on

the chemical constituents of plants. Definition
The basic chemical compounds used
in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, Systematics: The branch of Biology that
carotenoids, tannins, polysaccharide, deals with the study of evolutionary
nucleic acids, fatty acids, amino acids, relationships among organisms and
aromatic compounds etc. this aids taxonomy.

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SYSTEMATICS y Basic unit of classification is population

y The word ‘systematics’ is derived from or sub-species for the new systematics.
Latin word ‘systema’ which means
systematic arrangement of organisms. The main uses of systematics are given
y It was first used by Carolus Linnaeus. below:
According to him, “systematics is the ⚪ It helps in providing knowledge of
discipline of biology which deals with great diversity of animals and plants.
the kind and diversity of all organisms It provides information regarding
and the existing relationships amongst evolution that took place among
them.” plants and animals by knowing their
y New systematics or Biosystematics distinction, relationship, habits and
or Neo Systematics is based upon habitat. It thus, gives a vivid picture
all characters i.e., morphological, of entire organic diversity.
cytological, ecological, biochemical, ⚪ It helps in the identification of fossils
genetical etc. which gives useful information about
y The term ‘new systematics’ was coined the phylogeny of organisms.
by Julian Huxley.

Differences between Classical Taxonomy and Modern Taxonomy

Classical Taxonomy Modern Taxonomy

It deals with morphospecies

(species that are classified It deals with biological
1. 1.
on the basis of morphological species.
characteristics)

It has a population or
2. It has a typological concept. 2.
biosystematics concept.

Species are considered to be Species are considered to be

3. 3.
Diversity in the Living World

static. dynamic.

It does not study evolution It studies primitiveness,

4. and inter-relationships among 4. advancement, and inter-
species. relationships among species.

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 Chapter
Differences between Classical Taxonomy and Systematics

S.No. Taxonomy Systematics

Systematics deals with the study of

Taxonomy includes following
diversity of living being, it includes:
processes.
(i) Characterization
(i) Characterization
1. (ii) Identification
(ii) Identification
(iii) Nomenclature
(iii) Nomenclature
(iv) Classification
(iv) Classification
(v) Affinity

2. Unit of taxonomy is species Unit of systematics is population

3. This term given by A.P. De Candolle This term is given by Linnaeus

Alpha (a), Beta (b) and Omega (w) New systematics is given by Julian
4.
taxonomy given by Turill. Huxley (1940)

Note- Newly discovered organisms can be identified through systematics.

⚪ Generic name
Rack your Brain ⚪ Specific name,
⚪ Third name is sub-species for
What are the disciplines where animals, or third name is of variety
systematics has significant role other for plants.
than the field of biology? When members of any species have
large variations then trinomial system is
used. On the basis of dissimilarities, the
NOMENCLATURE
species is classified into sub species.
y Polynomial system.
e.g., Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
⚪ According to this system name of
(Cauliflower)
any plant consists of many words.
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
⚪ For e.g., Caryophyllum → Caryophyllum
Diversity in the Living World

Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-

sexatilis folis gramineus umbellatis
Khol)
corumbis.
y Trinomial system.
Binomial System.
⚪ Proposed by Huxley and Strickland.
⚪ Binomial system was first proposed
According to this system name of
by Gaspard Bauhin in his book- Pinax
any plant or species is composed of
Theatri Botanic.
three names.

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Chapter

⚪ Linnaeus is the founder of binomial ⚪ ICBN was accepted in 1961.

nomenclature system. ⚪ 12th International congress,
⚪ Linnaeus proposed scientific name Leningrad (Russia), revised ICBN in
of 5900 species of plants in his book 1975. After revision it was republished
Species Plantarum. It was published in 1978.
on 1st May 1753. ⚪ ICZN = International Code of
⚪ Linnaeus proposed scientific name Zoological Nomenclature
of 4326 species of animals in his ⚪ ICNB = International Code of
book Systema Naturae. (10th edition) Nomenclature for Bacteria
was published on 1st August 1758. ⚪ ICVN = International Code of Viral
So, initiation of binomial system for Nomenclature
animals is believed to be started on ⚪ ICNCP = International Code of
1st August 1758. Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

Definition Rack your Brain

Binomial Nomenclature: The process What does the third name of an animal
of giving two names to an organism represent, according to trinomial
as per the set rules of the binomial nomenclature?
nomenclature.

Rack your Brain

Rules of Nomenclature
y Principle of priority.
Name the Indian organization that
⚪ The nomenclature is done by principle
exercise control in the exploration of
of priority. If two names are proposed
our plant wealth.
for any plant after 1753 the valid name
is the name proposed first.
⚪ If two names are proposed for any y Main rules of ICBN
animal after the 1758, the valid name ⚪ According to binomial system, the
is the name proposed earlier, just name of any species consists of two
after 1 August 1758 on priority basis. epithets:
⚪ It is the most important rule of
Diversity in the Living World

binomial nomenclature. (i) Generic epithet (ii) Specific epithet

y International Code of Botanical e.g., Solanum- e.g., tuberosum

Nomenclature (ICBN). (Potato)

⚪ Collection of rules regarding Generic epithet Specific epithet

e.g., Mangifera indica (Mango)
scientific nomenclature of plants
is known as International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). Generic epithet Specific epithet

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 Chapter
⚪ First letter of generic name must name should be written after the
be in capital letter and first letter bracket. e.g., Tsuga Canadensis
of specific epithet must be in small (Linn.) Salisbury
letter. e.g., Mangifera indica. ⚪ Linnaeus named this plant as Pinus
⚪ If specific epithet is based on canadensis.
the name of sonic person, its first ⚪ Scientific names should be derived
letter should be capital letter. e.g., from Latin or Greek language
Chaetomium Subramaniella. because they are dead languages.
⚪ Length of generic name or specific Note- Fossils are known by their
epithet should not be less than 3 scientific names only.
letters and not more than 12 letters,
e.g., Mangifera indica.
⚪ Exception: Riccia pathankotensis Rack your Brain
(specific epithet with more than 12
letters). Organisms of which category are
⚪ In plant nomenclature (ICBN) known by their technical names only?
tautonyms are not valid i.e., generic
name and specific epithet should not
be same in plants. e.g., Mangifera. Parenthesis.
But tautonyms are valid in animal y The name/s of the describing person
nomenclature (ICZN-International or scientist is abbreviated along with
Code of Zoological Nomenclature) the scientific name (complete generic
e.g., Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus name) of the organism with date at
rattus (Rat) least once in the article.
⚪ When scientific name written with y If any species undergoes taxonomic
free hand or typed, then generic revision, then parentheses help in giving
name and specific epithet should the credit to the original author as his
be separately underlined. But during name along with the new scientific
printing name should be Italized. name is abbreviated.
⚪ Name of scientist (who proposed y Full generic name instead of abbreviated
nomenclature) should be written in one, should be published in the article to
short after the specific epithet. e.g., avoid confusion with any other scientific
Mangifera Indica Linn. name. For example, Pisum sativum is
⚪ Name of scientist should be neither more suitable than P. sativum.
Diversity in the Living World

underlined nor written in italics but y For example: Pisum sativum Linn., the
written in roman letters (simple given name is of pea, given by Linnaeus.
alphabets).
⚪ If any scientist has proposed wrong TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY (Also known as
name, then his name should be Linnaean Hierarchy)
written in bracket and the name y Classification is not a single step
of the scientist who corrected the process. It involves hierarchy of steps

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in which each step represents a rank or glands etc. Dog, mammals, animals are
category. all taxa but of different categories.
y The category is a part of overall y Dog, mammals and animals represent
taxonomic arrangement. All categories categories like species, class and
together having ascending or descending kingdom, respectively.
arrangement make taxonomic hierarchy.
y Each category is also termed as a unit
of classification. It represents a rank Definition
and is commonly called as taxon.
y The taxon is group of similar organisms Taxon: It is a group of related organisms
that belong to a category. placed in any specific taxonomic
y Taxonomic hierarchy is a series of category.
different ranks placed in ascending or
descending order.
y Taxonomic categories:
⚪ Kingdom Definition
⚪ Division (for plants) or phylum (for
animals) Category: It is an abstract term that
⚪ Class is used to represent either a rank or a
⚪ Order level of organism’s group.
⚪ Family
⚪ Genus
⚪ Species Taxon
y Higher the category, higher is the y Each Biological category is referred to
number of organisms in it. Higher the as a unit of classification.
category, fewer will be the number of y Each category is also called as Rank and
common characters and greater is the is commonly termed as taxon (Pl. taxa).
difficulty of determining the relationship y The term Taxon was first introduced by
to other taxa at the same level. Hence, ICBN during 1956.
the problem of classification becomes y According to Mayr (1964) taxon is a
more complex. group of any rank that is sufficiently
y Taxonomic categories and hierarchy can distinguished of being assigned a
be illustrated by an example. Insects definite category.
represent a group of organisms sharing y In simple words, taxon refers to a group
Diversity in the Living World

common features like three pairs of of organisms with similarities.

jointed legs.
y It means insects are recognisable Clade or Monophyletic Taxon
concrete objects which can be classified, y A taxon that includes a common
and thus were given a rank or category. ancestral species and all the species
y Similarly, mammals represent animals descended from it is called a clade or a
with external ears, body hairs, mammary monophyletic taxon.

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Species (Term given by John Ray) ⚪ Some examples of species:
y It is lowest category of classification. It Pisum sativum – Pea
is a group of closely related individuals Mangifera indica – Mango
with similar morphological, anatomical, Solanum tuberosum – Potato
biochemical, and cytological characters. Solanum melongena – Brinjal
y It is the basic unit of classification that Panthera leo – Lion
has real existence. Panthera tigris – Tiger
y Individual of species interbreed and Homo sapiens –  H u m a n
produce fertile offsprings. being
Here, sativum, indica, tuberosum, leo,
Concept of Species sapiens represent the specific epithet,
y Biological concept of species was given while Pisum, Mangifera, Solanum,
by Ernst Mayr. Panthera and Homo represent genera.
y Species is the fundamental unit of
classification.
y A species is a group of organisms which Rack your Brain
are closely related (structurally and
functionally) sharing a common gene What does parenthesis mean in
pool and can interbreed freely in nature biological nomenclature?
and produce fertile offspring in a natural
environment.
y This concept of species is based upon
reproductive isolation and called Definition
biological concept.
Some important interspecific hybrids Species: It is a group of organisms
(exception of biological concept of that interbreed and produce fertile
species) offsprings. It is also the basic unit in
⚪ Sterile Hybrid (under natural taxonomic hierarchy that has real
conditions) existence.
 Mule = Between male donkey and
female horse (Mare)
 Hinny = Between male horse Genus (Term given by John Ray)
(Stallion) and female donkey y Genus is a group of related species.
⚪ Fertile Hybrid (under captive Species has more characters in
Diversity in the Living World

conditions) common in comparison to species of

 Tigon = Between male tiger and other genera.
female lion y e.g., Potato, (Solanum tuberosum), Makoi
 Liger = Between male lion and (S. nigrum) and Brinjal (S. melongena)
female tiger are three different species belonging to
same genus Solanum.

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y Lion, leopard and tiger with several y Genus Panthera and Felis (cat) are put
common features belong to the same together in family Felidae.
genus Panthera. Note- Lower taxonomic categories from
family to species are identified on a
Note: number of similar characters.

Genus consisting of
A plant family name ends with a
only one species as
a representative suffix -aeae and sub-family name ends
Monotypic species with -oideae.
e.g. Hyacinth
While an animal family name has a
macaw and Homo
suffix -idae and sub-family name end
sapiens
with -inae.

Genus consisting of
more than one Order (Given by Linnaeus)
species. Polytypic species y It is a group of related families which
E.g Panthera leo exhibit a few similar characters. The
P. tigris similar characters are less in number as
P. pardus compared to different genera included
in a family.
y For example, plant families like
Definition Convolvulaceae and Solanaceae are
included in order Polymoniales mainly
Monotypic Genus: Any genus that is based on floral characters.
represented by a single species. y Suffix ‘ales’ is generally used for order
of plants.
y In animals, order carnivora includes
families like Felidae (cat) and Canidae
Family (Term given by John Ray)
(dog).
y It is a group of related genera, with still
less number of similarities as compared
to genus and species. Families are
ORDER FAMILIES
characterised on the basis of both
vegetative and reproductive features of
Canidae (dog, wolf,
Diversity in the Living World

plants.
and fox), Felidae
y Suffix ‘aceae’ is generally used in plant
(cat, leopard,
families. Carnivora
tiger and lion),
y For example, four related genera Ursidae (bear) and
Solanum, Petunia, Datura and Atropa Hyaenidae (hyaena)
belong to the family Solanaceae.

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Kingdom
Solanaceae (potato y It is highest category in hierarchy with
and tomato), related Phyla or Divisions.
Convolvulaceae
y Kingdom Animalia includes all animals
(sweet potato and
belonging to different Phyla from
morning glory),
Polemoniales Porifera to Chordata. Kingdom Plantae
Polemoniaceae
(herbs, shrubs, and includes all plants of various Divisions,
small trees) and i.e., Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,
Hydrophyllaceae Gymnosperm & Angiosperm.
(water leaf) Note- In higher taxonomic categories
i.e., from order to kingdom, are identified
Lemuridae (lemurs), based on the aggregate characters.
Cebidae (new
world monkeys),
Primates
Pongidae (apes) Rack your Brain
and Hominidae
(humans). Who established the hierarchy of
categories for the first time?
Class (Used by Linnaeus)
y It is a group of related orders.
y For example, plant orders like Sapindales
Definition
(mango) and Polemoniales are included
in Class ‘Dicotyledonae’ and plant orders
Kingdom: It is the highest taxonomic
like Asparagales & Poales are included
category that includes phyla
in class-Monocotyledonae.
y In animals, order Primata (man, monkey)
and Carnivora (cat, dog) are included in Kingdom
class - Mammalia.
Phylum
Phylum/Division (Term given by Ernst
Haeckel) Class
y It is a group of related classes.
y The phylum Chordata of animals contains Order
not only the class Mammalia but also
Diversity in the Living World

Aves (birds), Reptilia (reptiles) Amphibia Family

(amphibians) and Osteichthyes (fishes).
y In case of plants, classes with few similar Genus
characters like dicots and monocots
constitute division ‘Angiospermae’. Species
y The category ‘Phylum’ is used in Animalia
while ‘Division’ is used in Plantae. Figure: Taxonomic categories showing
hierarchical arrangement in ascending order

15.
Chapter

y In descending order, these are kingdom,

Rack your Brain phylum or division, class, order, family,
genus and species.
Who are authorized to give scientific y All the members of taxonomic categories
name to an organism? possess some similar characters, which
are different from those of the others.
y The maximum similarity occurs in
OBLIGATE OR COMMON CATEGORIES species, which is also the lowest
(Seven in number) category in the hierarchy of categories.
y The taxonomic categories, which are y Similarity of characters decreases with
always used in hierarchial classification the increase in hierarchy. Similarity of
of organisms are called obligate or characters increase with decrease in
common categories. hierarchy.

Taxonomic Categories
Main/Obligate
Categories

7 in number

Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom

• increase in similarities among organisms

• Decrease in no. of organisms per taxon
• Decrease in similariti es among organisms

Division Phylum
• I ncrease in no. of organi sms per taxon

Class Class

Order Order
• Decrease inhierarchy
• I ncrease i n hi erarchy

Family Family

Genus Genus
Diversity in the Living World

Species Species

16.
 Chapter
INTERMEDIATE CATEGORIES
y Taxonomists have developed sub- Definition
categories in this hierarchy to facilitate
more scientific placement of various taxa. Sub-species or variety: It is distinct
y These sub-categories are sub-species subgroup within the species consisting
(or varieties), sub-genera, sub-families, of one or more populations and can
sub-orders, sub-classes and sub-phyla. interbreed.
y Intermediate categories are more in It is inferior in rank to species.
number than obligate categories.

Organisms with their Taxonomic Categories

Common Biological Phylum/

Genus Family Order Class
Name name Division
Homo
Man Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata
sapiens
Musca
Housefly Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda
domestica
Mangifera Anacardi­
Mango Mangifera Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae
indica aceae
Triticum Monocoty­
Wheat Triticum Poaceae Poales Angiospermae
aestivum ledonae

Note- Race: When there is morphological diversity in the members of species or sub-
species than an informal rank in the taxonomic hierarchy is used called Race. The members
of race can interbreed and produce fertile off springs.

TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Rack your Brain y Taxonomic studies of various species of
plants, animals and other organisms are
Can different members of a race useful in agriculture, forestry, industry
interbreed? and in general in knowing our bio-
resources and their diversity.
y These studies would require correct
Diversity in the Living World

classification and identification of

Gray Matter Alert!!!
organisms. Identification of organisms
requires intensive laboratory and field
Human Races: There are seven studies.
human races viz. Negroid, Caucasoid, y The collection of actual specimens of
Mongoloid, Australoid, Polynesian, plant and animal species is essential
Red Indian and Bushmen. and is the prime source of taxonomic

17.
Chapter

studies. These are also fundamental y Biologists have established certain

to studies and essential for training in procedures and techniques to store and
systematics. preserve the information as well as the
y It is used for classification of an specimens.
organism, and the information gathered y Some of these Taxonomic aids are:
is also stored along with the specimens. ⚪ Herbarium
In some cases, the specimen is ⚪ Botanical gardens
preserved for future studies. ⚪ Zoological parks
y Biologists have established certain ⚪ Museums
procedures and techniques to store and ⚪ Keys
preserve the information as well as the ⚪ Flora, manuals, monographs, and
specimens. catalogues.
y In some cases, the specimen is
preserved for future studies.

Taxonomical Aids

Aids with specimens Aids without specimens

1. Herbarium 1. Flora
2. Botanical gardens 2. Manuals
3. Museums 3. Monographs
4. Zoological parks 4. Catalogues
5. Key

Botanical Garden

Taxonomical
Diversity in the Living World

Aids

Zoological Park

18.
 Chapter
y Herbarium Explanation to prepare herbarium.
⚪ Etymology: Latin ‘herba’ – grass, Field visits and collection of
(a)
vegetation. specimens.
⚪ Word ‘Herbarium was initially ⚪ Field visits should be regular to obtain
used to refer a book on medicinal specimen of a plant species at every
plants. Joseph Pitton de Tournefort stage of its growth and reproduction.
(1656-1708) first applied the term ⚪ The entire plant is collected in case
‘Herbarium to “a collection of of a herbaceous species. Shoots
mounted, pressed plant specimens, having flowers, leaves and fruits are
systematically arranged, providing a collected for others.
record of botanical diversity and the ⚪ Tools required for collection:
world it inhabits.” ⚪ Clippers, diggers (khurpi), plastic
⚪ The store house of collected dead, and paper bags, small tags, field
dried, pressed, and preserved plant notebook, a map of the area.
specimens on herbarium sheets is
known as Herbarium.
⚪ These sheets are arranged in
the sequence of an accepted
classification system.
⚪ These specimens, along with their
description on herbarium sheets,
become a store house or repository
for future use. The herbarium sheet
contains a label on the right-hand Tools of plants collection
side at lower corner. (a) Cutters (b) Digger (khurpi)
⚪ Label provides information about (c) Vasculum (d) Plant press
date and place of collection, English, (e) Herbarium sheet
local and botanical names, family, (b) Transport of specimen and drying of
collector’s name etc. specimen.
⚪ Herbaria also serve as quick referral ⚪ Specimens are kept in vasculum
systems in taxonomical studies. specimen box which prevents witting
of specimens for transportation
The herbarium technique involves the purpose.
following steps:
Diversity in the Living World

⚪ Specimens are spaced out between

(a) Collection folds of old newspaper or blotting
(b) Drying sheets.
(c) Poisoning ⚪ These sheets are kept in plant press
(d)  Mounting and stitching and changed after 24 hours for quick
(e) Labelling and Deposition drying. The process in repeated for
(f) Storage many days.

19.
Chapter

(c) Mounting on herbarium sheets. (e) Labelling.

⚪ Sheets on general size of 30 × 45 ⚪ Labels (7 × 12 cm) are fixed over the
cm are selected and the specimen is right lower corner of the herbarium
stitched to these herbarium sheets. sheets.
⚪ The international size of the ⚪ The label includes the following:
herbarium sheet is 41 × 29 cm Scientific Name
 1 1  Common Name
 16  11 inches  .
 2 2  Locality and Habitat
⚪ The field data is entered on label on Description
the right-hand side lower corner of Collectors
the herbarium sheet. Date of collection
⚪ Size of label to be placed on Accession number
the herbarium sheet is commonly Notes
7 × I2 cm. (f) Storage.
(d) Poisoning (An important step in ⚪ Best conditions for storage include:
preparing herbarium). ⚪ Low temperature
⚪ The specimens are poisoned to ⚪ Low humidity
keep away the microbes. When the ⚪ Low light
specimens are partially dehydrated, ⚪ The sheets are sealed in plastic.
they are poisoned by using
chemicals like 0.1% of corrosive, y Significance of an herbarium.
sublimate (HgCl2), for preventing ⚪ To Confirm the identity of a plant
fungal infection. i.e., helpful in taxonomy.
⚪ The specimens so preserved ⚪ Documenting different specimen
are sprayed with repellents or concepts.
disinfectants such as DDT powder, ⚪ Providing locality data of local flora
copper sulphate solution at intervals for field trips.
of 4 to 6 months. ⚪ Checking plant characteristics
⚪ Para dichlorobenzene is an (genetic and seasonal) and variation
insecticide and prevent the dried (morphology)
specimens against action of insects. ⚪ Allowing documentation of flowering
⚪ Most common solution for and fruiting times and juvenile forms
preservation of specimen is formalin. of plants (taxonomy, systematics,
ecology, phenology)
Diversity in the Living World

It is a solution of formaldehyde in
water (FAA: 10 ml formalin, 5 ml ⚪ Documenting similar and different
glacial acetic acid, 50 ml of 95% habitats of plants i.e., helpful in
ethyl alcohol and 35 ml of water) is studying ecology.
used to store fleshy organs. ⚪ Locating wild varieties of different
⚪ Pesticides like naphthalene and species.
carbon disulphide are also used.

20.
 Chapter
⚪ Serving as a repository for voucher
specimens (ecology, environmental Definition
impact studies, etc.)
Note-The herbarium sheets are arranged Specimen: When a plant (whole or
according to the Bentham and Hooker any of its parts) and animal (whole
system of classification. or skeleton) selected to serve as a
y Archive reference point for taxonomic studies
⚪ The practice of making an herbarium then it is called a specimen.
is attributed to Luca Ghini (1490-
1556), who was an Italian physician
and a botanist. The collection of y Types of Specimen
mounted plant specimens was ⚪ Holotype: The single specimen is
called as a hortus siccus (dry garden) chosen by the original author at
or hortus hiemalis (winter garden). the time the species name and
⚪ Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) was 1st description were published.
to keep his specimens unbound in ⚪ Isotype: A duplicate specimen of the
the form of herbarium sheets. holotype.
⚪ Oldest extant herbarium made by ⚪ Syntype: Any two or more specimens
Gherardo Cibo (student of Luca listed in the original description of
Ghini) is dating established around a taxon when a holotype was not
(1532), Bologna, Italy. designated.
⚪ University of Florida Herbarium – ⚪ Isotype: A duplicate of a syntype.
oldest and most comprehensive. ⚪ Neotype: A specimen chosen by a
Half a million specimens 273,000 later researcher to serve in place of
vascular plants, 160,000 bryophytes a holotype when the initial collected
and lichens, 56,500 fungi and 15,300 specimens or holotype has been
wood samples. There are specimens destroyed.
from every continent except y Botanical Gardens
Antarctica. ⚪ These specialised gardens have
⚪ The Central National Herbarium, collections of diversity of living
Howrah, one of the oldest plants for reference.
established in 1795 by Dr. William ⚪ Plant species in these gardens are
Roxburgh. At present possesses 2 grown for identification purposes
million of sheets belonging to nearly and each plant is labelled indicating
Diversity in the Living World

350 families of higher plants. its botanical/scientific name and its

y Specimen family.
⚪ When a plant (whole or any of its ⚪ Botanical gardens are also used
parts) and animal (whole or skeleton) for ex-situ conservation of plant
selected to serve as a reference species.
point for taxonomic studies then it ⚪ Plant breeding experiments are also
is called a specimen. carried out at botanical gardens.

21.
Chapter

The Famous Botanical Gardens in India ⚪ Cinchona and Eucalyptus species

are cultivated and taken care of.
⚪ Situated in Nilgiri Hills at an altitude
Indian Botanical Garden, Shibpur, of 2,200 meters.
Kolkata. y Yellowstone National Park (New York)
NBRI – National Botanical Research ⚪ First National Park In the world
Institute is in Lucknow. ⚪ Established on March 01, 1872.
FRI – Research Institute is in Dehradun.
Lloyd Botanical Garden – Darjeeling. y Zoological Parks
⚪ Zoo or Zoological Gardens (parks)
are protected areas or enclosed
space where live wild animals
Definition are kept, under human care. This
enables us to learn their food habits
Botanical Garden: It is a type of and behaviour.
taxonomic aid and can be defined as a ⚪ Objectives are public exhibition
place of ex situ conservation of plants to understand wildlife, recreation,
that serves educational purpose and education, ex-situ conservation and
awakes interest in masses for plant breeding of rare fauna.
wealth. ⚪ National Zoological Park (Delhi) is
one of the finest Zoo of Asia.

y Important Zoological Parks of India are:

Other Important Botanical Gardens
⚪ Alipore Zoological gardens, Kolkata
y Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore
⚪ Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,
(Karnataka)
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
⚪ Layout in 1760.
⚪ Jawaharlal Nehru Biological park,
⚪ It has a central glass house (built in
Bokaro Steel City
1890) used for flower shows.
⚪ Jaipur Zoo, Jaipur
y Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose, Indian
⚪ Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological
Botanic Garden, Shibpur, Kolkata
Park, Chhatbir, Punjab
⚪ The Great Banyan (Ficus
⚪ Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa, India
benghalensis), largest tree in the
⚪ National Zoological Park, Delhi
world is the main attraction. It
⚪ Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden,
occupies 4 acres of land and is more
Diversity in the Living World

Junagadh, Gujarat
than 250 years old.
⚪ Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park, Pune,
⚪ Founded in 1787 by Colonel Robert
Maharashtra.
Kyd.
⚪ Kaziranga National Park and Manas
y Government Botanical Garden, Ooty
National Park (Having Highest Indian
(Tamil Nadu)
Rhino density)
⚪ It’s a pioneer in introducing
Note- Yellowstone National Park is the
vegetables, spices condiments and
first national park in the world.
aromatic plants in India.

22.
 Chapter
y Museums results in acceptance of only one
⚪ These have collections of preserved and rejection of the other.
plants and animals for study and ⚪ Each statement in the key is called
reference. a lead.
⚪ Specimens are preserved in jars or ⚪ Separate taxonomic keys are
containers in preservative solution. required for each taxonomic
⚪ Plant and animal specimens may category such as family, genus and
also be preserved as dry specimens. species for identification purposes.
⚪ Insects are preserved in insect boxes ⚪ Keys are generally analytical in
after collecting, killing and pinning. nature and are artificial taxonomical
⚪ Larger animals are usually stuffed aid.
and preserved.
⚪ These often have collections of
skeletons of animals too. Definition
y Some Important Museums:
Key: It is an artificial analytical
⚪ Natural History Museum, London
taxonomic aid used to assign
(England)
appropriate taxonomic category that is
⚪ National Museum of Natural History
based on contrasting traits.
(NMNH), Delhi

Rack your Brain Types of Key:

Indented Key (Yoked Key):
Which is the ideal taxonomic aid to The key contains a sequence of choices
study preserved algae? between two or more characteristics.
By careful selection of character at
each subdivision the exact name of the
organism can be arrived at.
y Keys
⚪ Key is another taxonomical aid
Bracketed Key:
used for identification of plants and
The key uses contrasting characters
animals based on the similarities
like the indented one, but they are not
and dissimilarities.
separated by intervening subdividing
⚪ The keys are based on the contrasting
Diversity in the Living World

characters. Instead, each character is

characters (dissimilarities) generally
given a number in brackets.
in a pair called couplet.
⚪ It represents the choice made
between two opposite options. This

23.
Chapter

Difference between Indented key and Bracketed key.

Indented key Bracketed Key

Example of an Indented Key on

Example of Bracketed Key on
Rhododendron
Rhododendron
1a. Flowers in shades of red
1a. Flowers in shades of red. …….. go to 2
2a. Flowers’s blood-red. Leaves
1b. Flowers in shades of rose-pink ….. go
oblong-ovate, leathery and
to 3
thick malty texture……. R.
2a. flowers blood-red leaves oblong-ovate,
sikkimense
leathery and thick matty texture……
2b. Flowers crimson red, leaves
R. sikkimense
broad, oval to elliptic oblong.
2b. Flowers crimson red, leaves broad, oval
Shiny green above……
to elliptic oblong. Shiny green above.
R. fulgens
... R. fulgens
1b. Flowers in shades of rose-pink
3a. Calyx 3-5 mm long. Leaf under surface
3a. Calyx 3-5 mm long. Leaf under
covered with tufts of brown hair……
surface covered with tufts of
R. wallichii
brown hair….. R wallichii
3b. Calyx obscure, 1-2 mm long, leaf under
3b. Calyx obscure, 1-2 mm long.
surface covered with continuous
Leaf under surface covered
indumentum… .. to 4
with continuous indumentum.

y Flora, Manuals, Monographs and in a particular area. Manuals are

Catalogues useful in providing information for
⚪ Flora: Contains the actual account identification of names of species
of habitat and distribution of plants found in an area.
of a given area. These provide the e.g., Manual of Cultivated Plants by
index to the plant species found L.H. Bailey
in a particular area with detail ⚪ Monographs: Contain information
description. on any one taxon.
Some important floras are given below: e.g., The Genus Pinus by N.T. Mirov.
⚪ Flora of British India by J.D. Hooker. ⚪ Catalogues: This includes the
Diversity in the Living World

⚪ Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari. alphabetical arrangements of

⚪ Manuals: The complete listing and species describing their features.
description of the plants growing

24.
 Chapter
Gray Matter Alert!!! Gray Matter Alert!!!

John Ray (1627–1705) Carolus Linnaeus

English naturalist described about Described 5900 species of plants in
18,600 plants in three volumes his book ‘Species Plantarum’ (1753)
‘Historia Generalis Plantarum’ and 4326 species of animals in
between 1686-1704. The naturalist ‘Systema Naturae’ (1758). The world
introduced the word ‘species’ in its systematics is derived from Latin word
present sense for the first time. ‘systema’ which means systematic
arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus
used ‘Systema Naturae’ as the title of
his book.

Diversity in the Living World

25.
Diversity in the Living World

Summary

26.
SOLVED EXERCISE

Q1 The characteristics of growth include.

(1) increase in mass (2) increase in number of individuals
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) ability to reproduce

A1 (1)

Q2 Plants grow throughout life by which method?

(1) Cell dedifferentiation (2) Cell differentiation
(3) Cell division (4) None of the above

A2 (3)

Q3 Growth in unicellular organisms can be observed by

(1) counting the mass of cultured cells
(2) analysing the amount of nutrients absorbed by living organism
(3) growth cannot be observed
(4) simply counting the number of cells under microscope during In vitro
culture

A3 (4)

Q4 In majority of higher animals and plants, reproduction and growth are-

(1) mutually exclusive events (2) synonymous events
(3) synonymous events during in vitro culture (4) None of the above

A4 (1)
Diversity in the Living World

27.
 Q5 In which of the following, metabolic reactions take place?
(1) In living organisms only (2) Both in living and non-living organisms
(3) In cell-free systems (4) Both (1) and (3)

A5 (4)

Q6 The binomial nomenclature system was given by-

(1) Carol Linnaeus (2) Carolus Linnaeus (3) Aristotle (4) Whittaker

A6 (2)

Q7 Hierarchy of biological organisation in living beings can be represented as

(1) Subcellular → Cellular Individual → Population
(2) Atomic → Molecular → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System →
Individual
(3) Organ system → Tissue → Cellular → Molecular → Atomic
(4) Individual → Molecular → Tissue → Organ system → Population

(2)
A7

Q8 Scientific names are printed in _______and are derived from _______

(1) Bold and English (2) Italics and Latin
(3) Italics and German (4) Italics and French

(2)
A8
Diversity in the Living World

28.
Q9 Match the following columns.
Column I Column II
(Botanical gardens/Institutes) (Places)
A.   Royal Botanical Garden, Kew 1.   Darjeeling
B.   National Botanical Research Institute 2.  Kolkata
C.   Indian Botanical Garden 3.  Lucknow
D.   Forest Research Institute 4.  Dehradun
E.   Lloyd’s Botanical Garden 5.  England
A B C D E
(1) 5 3 2 4 1
(2) 1 3 2 4 5
(3) 2 5 3 4 1
(4) 4 1 3 2 5

A9 (1)

Q10 Potato, tomato and brinjal will show similarities up to which of the lowest
taxon?
(1) Class (2) Order (3) Genus (4) Species

A10 (3)
These belong to same genera called ‘Solanum’.

Diversity in the Living World

29.