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CHEME- CHEMISTRY LECTURE

NEW Commission on Higher Education (CHED) COURSE OUTLINE/ SYLLABUS:

1. Energy
a. Electrochemical Energy
b. Nuclear Chemistry and Nuclear Energy
c. Fuels

2. The Chemistry of Engineering Materials

a. Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure
b. Metals
c. Polymers
d. Engineered Nanomaterials

3. The Chemistry of Environments

a. The Chemistry of Atmosphere
b. The Chemistry of Water
c. Soil Chemistry

4. Chemical Safety

5. Special Topics Specific to field expertise

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS LABORATORY

NEW Commission on Higher Education (CHED) COURSE OUTLINE:

EXPERIMENTS
1. Calorimetry
2. Heat of combustion
3. Metals and some Aspects of Corrosion
4. Mechanical Properties of Materials
5. Water: Process of Purification
6. Determination of the Dissolved Oxygen Content of Water
7. Cigarette Smoking and Air Pollution

ACTIVITIES
1. Nuclear Reactions, Binding Energy and Rate of Decay
2. Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells
3. Community Immersion: Care for the Environment

TEXTBOOK:
Masterton, W.L., et. al. Principles and Reactions: Chemistry for Engineering Students, Philippine ed. 2016

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MIDTERMS
ENERGY
is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object.
Hence, The Ability to do work
Heat- is a particular form of energy that is transferred from a body at high temperature to a body of cold temperature

HISTORY
Late 17th century: Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product
of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved.
1807: Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense.
1829: Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "Kinetic energy".
1853: William Rankine coined the term "Potential energy" .
1845: James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.
19th century: Law of Conservation of Energy was also first postulated.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) Formalized Thermodynamics and Entropy
Jozef Stefan postulated laws of radiant energy

Types of energy Description

Mechanical the sum of macroscopic translational and rotational kinetic and potential energies.
Electric potential energy due to or stored in electric fields
Magnetic potential energy due to or stored in magnetic fields
Gravitational potential energy due to or stored in gravitational fields
Chemical potential energy due to chemical bonds
Ionization potential energy that binds an electron to its atom or molecule
Nuclear potential energy that binds nucleons to form the atomic nucleus (and nuclear reactions)
Chromodynamic potential energy that binds quarks to form hadrons
Elastic potential energy due to the deformation of a material (or its container) exhibiting a restorative force
Kinetic Energy of mass at motion
Mechanical
kinetic and potential energy in an elastic material due to a propagated deformational wave
wave
kinetic and potential energy in a fluid due to a sound propagated wave (a particular form of
Sound wave
mechanical wave)
Solar/ Radiant potential energy stored in the fields of propagated by electromagnetic radiation, including light
Potential Energy stored at object's rest mass and by conformation or with respect to height.
kinetic energy of the microscopic motion of particles, a form of disordered equivalent of mechanical
Thermal
energy

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OVERALL ENERGY EQUATIONS:

1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

-states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one
form to another.
- by definition, Examples: Exercising, Jogging, Appliances, Rest to moving Automobiles, Photosynthesis, Power plants,
Smart phones.
System- is that part of the universe on which attention is focused.
Work done TO the system: +W Work done BY the system: -W
Heat applied TO the System: +Q SYSTEM Heat applied BY the System: -Q

Fluid- any matter that flows. Usually gas & liquid.

1. CLOSED SYSTEM: U= Q+W
For Non-flow Systems, Hydraulics, Piston & Cylinders, FLUID SYSTEM CONDITIONS:
Stamps, Guns/ Artilleries, enclosed gases.
Isothermal- constant temperature
2. OPEN SYSTEM: Q+W=ΔKE + ΔPE + ΔH Q= -W, W= n.R.T . = P.V.
ΔH= ΔU + ΔPV= ΔU+ ngasRΔT
For Steady flow Systems, pipes, turbines, nozzles,
W= n.R.T . = P.V.
compressors, pumps

* MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE: Isochoric- constant volume

-Fluid Mechanics Pumping systems W=0 , ΔH= n.Cp.
- Simplified Bernoulli Equation:
W' =( ΔP/ρ) + ΔKE + ΔPE + ƩF Isobaric- constant Pressure
TURBINES: η= Wactual/W'
PUMPS: η= W'/Wactual Q= ΔH= n.Cp. , ΔU= n.Cv.

η- work efficency Adiabatic- a system with no heat transfer at all

δ-1 (1-δ)/δ
W'- Theoretical Pump work Q= 0, T.V , T.P , P.Vδ
ΔP/ρ- Fluid Head δ- Adiabatic Constant which is >1
ρ- liquid density usually water
ƩF- Summation of Friction losses (pipe skin friction, etc) Ideal Gas Law: PV=n.R.T
Real Gas Law: PV=Z.n.R.T
ΔPE = = =

ΔKE = = m.v2/(2.gc)= m.(v2-v1)2/(2.gc) Variables:

PE- Potential Energy, KE- Kinetic Energy, H- Enthalpy, U-
ΔH = = n.Cp. = n.Cp. (T2-T1)
Internal Energy , W- Work, P-Pressure, T- temperature, V-
volume, v- velocity, h-height, m-mass, n- amount of a
ΔU = = n.Cv. = n.Cv. (T2-T1) substance in mole, Cv- Specific Volume, Cp- Specific heat,
R- gas constant.

W= =P = P (V2-V1)

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Turbines- Devices that convert Mechanical Energy to Nozzles/ Compressors/ Diffusers- A nozzle is a device
produce Work and Electrical energy designed to control the direction or characteristics of a
Turbines only work more efficiently when the inlet stream fluid flow as it exits an enclosed chamber or
properties are of Superheated Steam where the inlet pipe. These devices are applied on hoses, aerosol
Temperature and Pressure, T1 and P1 are greater than the spray cans and paint compressors. Usually the inlet
outlet temperature and pressure cross sectional area is larger than the outlet area
permitting faster velocity and pressure as the fluid
tugs out. The inlet and outlet are fluids of either
Saturated Saturated liquid or gas.
SHS, Superheated steam Steam (+)W

TURBINES
T1,P1 T2,P2
(-)W Nozzles
P1,v1 P2,v2

T1>T2
P1>P2 P2> P1, v2>v1

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated
system, will always increase over time.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics is concerned with the limiting behavior of systems as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. The Third Law ALSO states, “The entropy of a perfect structure (i.e. crystal) is zero
when the temperature of the crystal is equal to absolute zero.

Energy Efficiency, η

ηWind> ηGeotherm> ηhydro> ηNuclear> ηSolar> ηBiomass>ηNatural gas> ηOil> ηCoal

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Conversion Units: Energy SI Unit: Joule, J

PRESSURE: (Force/Area) CGS: Ergs
1 atmosphere, atm= 101,325 Pascals/pa Conversion Units: Gravitational Constants,Gc
= 1.01,325 Bars 1 J= 1 N.m = 1 kgm2/ s2 gc = 1 kg·m/N·s 2 = 32.2 lbm·ft/lbf·s 2
= 14.7 lbf/ in2 = 107 Ergs (g cm2/s2)
= 760 1 BTU= 1,055 J
1 pa= 1Newton/meter2= 1N/m2 = 10.409 L.atm
1bar=100,000 Pa = 252 cal
= 778 ft-lbf
1 cal= 4.184 J
1kcal= 4.184 kJ
1 ft-lbf= 1.356 J
1 ft lbf/lbm= 2.9890 J/kg
POWER: 1WATT(W)= 1J/S
1 hp= 746 W

CLOSE SYSTEM SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Two tanks are connected by a valve. One tank contains 2 kg of CO2 at 77°C and 0.7 bar. The other tank has 8 kg of the
same gas at 27°C and 1.2 bar. The valve is opened and gases are allowed to mix while receiving energy by heat transfer
from the surroundings. The final equilibrium temperature is 42°C. Using ideal gas model, determine a) the final
equilibrium pressure b) the heat transfer for the process. CV for CO2 is 0.745 KJ/(kg.K)

OPEN SYSTEM SAMPLE PROBLEM: FLUID MECHANICS (PUMPS)

Water with a density of 1,000 kg/m3 from an open reservoir flows before the pump at 1.5 m/s. The water is pumped at a
rate of 30 m/s to a 20 meter elevated tank with a pressure reading of 1.02 Bars. assuming zero Friction losses, Calculate
the actual work if the pump's efficiency is just 69%. Calculate the theoretical and actual power in hp for a mass of 100 kg
and a time of 1 second of Water.

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

The Electrochemical energy is defined as “the energy which converts electrical energy to chemical energy and vice
versa.” The electrochemical energy is related to fuel cells, photo electrochemical, and energy storage systems such as
batteries, super capacitors or ultra-capacitors.
Commercial Cells:
Wide range of applications from commercial voltaic cells from medical (pacemakers) to automotive industries.

Fuel cells:
A device which converts chemical energy obtained from fuel to electrical energy. In fuel cells, the energy conversion
takes place by the chemical reaction. Based on the electrolyte used in fuel cells these are classified as proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and solid oxide fuel cell. The efficiency of fuel cell is around 40–60%. They are voltaic cells
in which usually hydrogen is oxidized at the anode, Oxygen is reduced in the cathode. Platinum catalyst is used for
reactions to be carried out at 40oC.

Photo electrochemical:
Photo electrochemical is a process of artificial photo synthesis or electrolysis which converts chemical energy into
electrical energy.

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Batteries:
Battery is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy by the chemical reactions in the device.
Batteries play a vital role for auto mobiles and electronic devices such as mobile phones, watches, and remote devices.
There are two types of batteries such as primary cells and secondary cells.

Super capacitors:
Super capacitor is a device which stores energy more than batteries (10 to 100 times more than batteries). The charge
movement is also very fast in this device. These are used for electric cars, elevators, loco motives, trains and cranes.

Lead Storage Battery:

When a lead storage battery is supplying current, the lead in the anode grids is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which precipitate
as PbSO4. At the cathode, lead dioxide is reduced to Pb2+ ions which also precipitate as PbSO 4. Deposits of lead sulfate
slowly build up on the plates, partially covering and replacing the lead and lead dioxide.

Nickel- Based Batteries:

Nickel-cadmium/ Nicad batteries have an anode of solid cadmium and a cathode of solid nickeloxy hydroxide ,NiO(OH).
Aqueous Potassium hydroxide is often used as an electrolyte. The battery produces 1.3 V. Nicad Batteries are a popular
choice for emergency medical equipment and power tools.

Nicad batteries are being replaced nickel-metal hydride, NiMH Battery. this is because of of the toxicity of cadmium,
being more environmental friendly, higher energy content per unit mass (watt-hour/ kg) and the difficulty of Nicad
Batteries Disposal. NiMH Battery is used in hybrid electric cars and buses.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

GEROA- Gain of Electrons Reduction Oxidizing Agent

LEORA- Loss of Electrons Oxidation Reducing Agent
Oxidation- occurs when a specie loses electrons and increases its oxidation no. oxidation half reaction. in this half-
reaction, electrons are at the product side
Reduction- occurs when a specie gains electrons and decreases its oxidation no. oxidation half reaction. in this half-
reaction, electrons are at the Reactant side
Reducing Agent- ion/ molecule that donates electrons
Oxidizing Agent- ion/molecule that accepts electrons

VOLTAIC/GALVANIC CELLS:
Zn-Cu2+ Cell

Oxidation occurs at the anode and Reduction occurs at the cathode. The electrons produced at the anode must be
transferred indirectly to the cathode, where they are consumed through an external circuit.

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How it works?
1. At the Zinc anode (- pole), electrons are produced by the oxidation half reaction: Zn (s)-->>Zn2+ (aq) +2e-
2. Electrons generated at the anode move to the Copper cathode (+ pole) thru a wire to voltmeter giving a reduction
reaction: Cu2+(aq) +2e-->> Cu (s)
3. To maintain balance or electrical neutrality, Cations (+charged ions) move toward move to Copper Cathode. Anions (-
charged ions) move toward Zinc Anode.

Simplifying it into this notation: |- Phase Boundary

2+ 2+
Zn|Zn || Cu |Cu ||- Salt Bridge

Anode reaction is OXIDATION Cathode reaction is REDUCTION

Zn atoms are oxidized to Zn2+ Cu2+ ions are Reduced to Cu atoms
Zn (s)-->>Zn2+ (aq) +2e- Cu2+(aq) +2e-->> Cu (s)

Balancing HALF CELL REACTION:

ANODE: Zn (s)-->>Zn2+ (aq) +2e-
CATHODE: Cu2+(aq) +2e-->> Cu (s)

REACTION: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -->> Zn2+ (aq)+ Cu (s)

EXAMPLE: OTHER SALT BRIDGE CELLS:

Zn|Co3+ Pt Cell :

Zn|Zn2+ || Co3+,Co2+ |Pt.

Balancing HALF CELL REACTION:
ANODE: Zn(s)-->>Zn2+ (aq) +2e-
CATHODE: 2 (Co (aq) +e--->> Co2+ (aq))
3+

REACTION: Zn(s) + 2Co3+(aq) -->> Zn2+ (aq)+ 2Co (s) + Co2+(s)

EQUATIONS: Legend:
Standard Voltage , Eo= Eored+ Eoox E- Cell Voltage
Free Energy: ΔGo = -n.F.Eo Eo- Standard voltage of Cell reaction
o
E ,ΔG,K Eo= -ΔGo = R.T.ln(K) = 0.0257 V. ln(K) at 25oC ΔGo- Standard Free energy
n.F n.F n F- Faraday constant,
F= 9.648x104J/mol.V (j-joule, V-volt)
Nernst Equation E= Eo - R.T.ln(Q) = Eo- 0.0257 V.ln(Q) at 25oC T- Temperature
n.F n n- no. of electrons canceled out
Spontaneous Reaction: Eo>0, K>1, ΔGo<0 K- constant
pH= -log(H+) Q- Reaction Quotient

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Quantity Unit Defining Relation Conversion Factors

Charge Coulomb (C) 1 C= 1A.s= 1 J/V 1mol e-= 9.468x104 C
Current Ampere (A) 1 A= 1C/s
Potential Volt (V) 1V= 1J/C
Power Watt (W) 1 W= 1J/s
Energy Joule (J) 1 J= 1 V. C 1kWh= 3.600x106 J

Standard Voltages:
Cell Voltage depends on the nature of Redox Reaction and the concentrations of the species involved
Standard Cell Voltage (Eo)- all ions and molecules in solution are at a concentration of 1M and all gases are at a pressure
of 1 atm. Eo= Eored + Eoox, Eored (+) means Spontaneous reaction otherwise, non spontaneous.

Effect of Concentration on Voltage

Voltage is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactants and inversely proportional to the concentration of
the products. Thus, Voltage will increase if the concentration of a reactant is increased, or the products are decreased
making it more spontaneous or vice versa.

Nernst Equation- Proposed by Walther Nernst in 1888

Q>1, Product Concentrations are higher than reactants, ln (Q) is +, E< E o
Q<1, Product Concentrations are lower than reactants, ln(Q)is -, E> Eo
Q= 1,Standard Conditions, ln(Q)=0, E= Eo

Sample Problems:
1. Consider the voltaic cell 3Ag(s) + NO3-(aq) +4H+(aq)-->3Ag +(aq)+ NO(g)+2H2O
where n= 3moles, E◦red= 0.964 V, E◦ox= -0.799V
Solve: a. ΔGo
b. K

2. Consider a voltaic cell in which the following reaction occurs:

O2(g, 0.98 atm) + 4H+(aq, pH=1.24) + 4Br- (aq, 0.15 M) -->> 2H2O + 2Br2 (l)
where E◦red= 0.039 V, E◦ox= 0.126V, n= 4 electrons
Calculate: a.) E for the cell at 25oC
b.) When the voltaic cell is at 35oC, E is measured to be at 0.039 V. What is Eo at 35oC?

3. Consider a voltaic cell at 25oC in which the following reaction occurs: Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq)-->> Zn2+ (aq) + H2(g)
It is found that the voltage is +0.560V when (Zn2+)= 0.85M and PH2=0.988 atm. Where E◦red= 0V, E◦ox= 0.762V and n= 2
moles. What is the pH in the H2-H Half Cell?

4. Chromium metal can be electroplated from an aqueous solution of potassium dichromate. The reduction half-
reaction is: Cr2O72- (aq)+ 14 H+ (aq) + 12e- --->> 2Cr(s)+ 7H2O. A current of 6.00 A and a voltage of 4.5 V are used for
electroplating
a. How many grams of Chromium can be plated if the current is run for 48 minutes?
b. How long will it take to completely convert 215 mL of 1.25 M K 2Cr2O7 to elemental Chromium
c. How many kilowatt-hours of electrical charge are required to plate 1.00 g of Chromium?

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NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emits radiation which ca cause fogging of Photographic plates.
Subsequently it was shown that this radiation can ionize air, is emitted from the element as well as its salt, and is not
affected by temperature or the source of uranium. The spontaneous emission of radiation by an element is called
radioactivity.

- Concerned with the spontaneous emulsion of radiation by a radioactive element.

Isotopes- Atoms of the same atomic no. but different atomic masses.
Nuclide- Atoms of Specific Isotope
example: 11 12 14
6C 6C 6C

Nuclear Change Vs. Chemical Change

a. Nuclear Change
- A Nuclear Change is a Change in which the Nucleons (combination of protons and neutrons) change. For instance, if the
number of the neutrons or protons in the nucleus changes, that is nuclear change.
- A Nuclear Change turns often one element into another element
- A Nuclear Change is a Change occurs within the atom.
b. Chemical Change
- A Chemical Change is a Change in which atoms join together, split apart or rearrange.
- A Chemical Change involves breaking or forming bonds between atoms

Why do we have to study Nuclear Chemistry? (Applications)

Nuclear Power- We can Harness the energy stored in the powerful bonds between protons and neutrons to electrical
energy.
Nuclear Weapons- We can Harness the energy stored in the powerful bonds between protons and neutrons to destroy a
civilization in a second.
Archeology- Radioactive Carbon Dating.
Nuclear Medicine- xray, laser operations, chemotherapy
Cosmochemistry - The study of the Universe's Chemical Composition
Food- gamma rays are used in insecticides, pesticides such trichina in pork meat and inhibits growth of other crops
Smoke detectors
Medical Applications:
- For Brain Scan Positron Emission Topography - Lung Tumors, abscesses scans
- Circulatory Disorders - Pancreas Scan
- Eye tumor Detection - Brain, Liver, Kidneys, Bone Marrow Imaging
- Anemia - Lung imaging , - Heart disorder

A review of atomic structure

- Three subatomic particles, the proton and the neutron
- The protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus. The electrons are located outside the nucleus in the lectron
probability cloud.
- Protons and neutrons are not involved in ordinary.
-The atomic number of an element is the number of protons
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-The atomic number (Z) of an element is shown in the lower left-hand corner of the element symbol. The mass number
(A) appears in the upper left-hand corner.
- Identical Nuclides are atoms with the same number of protons and neutrons, otherwise those atoms are non-identical
Nuclide

(mass number) A
ELEMENT SYMBOL
(Atomic Number)Z

MODES of DECAY

MODES EMISSION Change in Change in EXAMPLES PENETRATING

A Z POWER
α- decay -4 -2 -----> + 0.03 mm
β-decay or 0 +1 -----> + 2 mm
ϒ-decay or photons 0 0 10 cm
Positron 0 -1 -----> +
electron none 0 -1 + ---->

1. Alpha Particle Emission- α particles are emitted or stream of Helium nuclei which can be stopped by paper but cells,
clothes and even skin.
- Consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4nucleus.
- which is given off. α particles have the highest ionizing power the ability to ionize other molecules or ions.
example, U-238 upon exposure with α particles

2. Beta Particle Emission- β particles are emitted- stream of high speed electrons by an unstable nucleus
which can be stopped by Aluminum or other sheet of metals but can penetrate skin. Symbol: or
- These Particles are lighter and has lower ionizing power than α particles. When inhaled and ingested these
particles are less destructive than alpha particles.
3. Gamma Radiation
- ϒ rays consists of high energy electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelengths. No change on mass
number and atomic number. omitted on writing nuclear reaction. Can be artificially prepared in laboratory.
- Accompanies other radioactive emissions
- most dangerous type of radiation, Symbol:
- Results from an energy release from the change of nucleus in an excited state to a more stable state
Can be decomposed by positron.
4. Positron Emission- particle that has the same mass as electron but an opposite sign
5. K- Electron Capture- electron captured by the nucleus of an electron from the electron cloud surrounding
the nucleus.

Patterns of Nuclear Stability

1. Neutron to proton ratio

- The more protons packed in a nucleus the more neutrons are needed to bind the nucleus together
- Nuclei of Low atomic numbers have approximately equal number of protons and neutrons
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-Nuclei of Higher atomic numbers have exceeded the amount of neutrons than protons
- Hence, the number of the neutrons necessary to create a stable nucleus increases rapidly than the number of
protons. Thus, the neutron-to-proton ratio of stable nuclei increases with the increasing atomic number.

-Neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p+)- determines if an element is stable. As atomic number increases , the ratio also increase,
the belt of stability shifts to higher numbers of neutrons. With very heavy isotopes such , the stable neutron to
proton ration is about (206-82)/82 or 1.51.
- A nuclei with 83 protons are unstable. Hence, no element beyond bismuth has a stable isotope. All isotopes of
elements are radioactive.
- Nuclei with EVEN number of Protons and neutrons appear to be particularly stable: 2,8,20,28,50,82 and 126, are magic
numbers suggested by Maria Mayer who won the Nobel prize 1963 in Physics.

2. Radioactive Series
- A series of successive emission.
- A series of nuclear reactions that begins with unstable nucleus and terminates with stable one.

Example:
238 234 4 234 0
206
37U 90 Th + 2 He 91 Po + -1 e to a stable element Pb

3. Nuclear Transmutations
- Nucleus can change identity
- Struck by neutron or another nucleus.
14 4 17 1
7N + 2He 8O + 1H

EQUATIONS: where:
Rates of Radioactive Decay: ln (Nt/ No)= -kt k= constant
Half life: t1/2= (ln2)/K Nt= remaining amount after time, t
Activity: A= k.N; N=mass in grams x 6.022x1023 atoms/g No= Initial Amount
Age of Organic Material: ln (At/ Ao)= -kt N= no. of radioactive nuclei present
Conversions: in atoms
1Ci= 3.700x1010 atoms/s, 1mol= 6.022x1023 atoms t1/2= half life
Mass- Energy Relations: ΔE = 9x1010 kJ/g x Δm Ao= original activity for C-14 dating
Δm= mass products - mass reactants 15.3 atoms/min
A= Measured activity at any time t
ΔE= Binding energy

Examples:
1. After 126 days have elapsed 1/64 of a radioisotope sample remains.
a. What is the half-life of the radioisotope?
b. What is the activity in curies of a 1.00 g of the sample?
c. What is the mass in grams of a sample of Ra-226 that has an activity of 1.00 x109 atoms/ min?
d. How much of a 0.1g sample of Rn-226 remains after the passage of 3200 years? Half- life of radon is 1.6x103 years.
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2. A tiny piece of paper taken from the dead sea scrolls, believed to date back to the first century A.D. was found to have
an activity per gram of Carbon of 12.1 atoms/min. Taking Ao as 15.3 atoms/ min, estimate the age of the scrolls.

3. For the Radioactive decay of radium, ---> + , Calculate ΔE in KJ when 10.2 g of radium decays.

4. Silicon-28 (Si-28) has a half life of 2.5 hours.

a. What is the Decay Constant?
b. How long does it take to decay 45% of it?
c. How long does it take to decay to 45%?

NUCLEAR ENERGY

The energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity.
There are over 400 power reactors in the world (about 100 of these are in the USA).
There are two fundamental nuclear processes considered for energy production: fission and fusion.

Fission is the energetic splitting of large atoms such as Uranium or Plutonium into two smaller atoms,
called fission products. To split an atom, you have to hit it with a neutron. This nuclear reaction was the
first of the two to be discovered. All commercial nuclear power plants in operation use this reaction to
generate heat which they turn into electricity.

Fusion is the combining of two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to produce heavier atoms and
energy. These reactions can release more energy than fission without producing as many radioactive
byproducts. Fusion reactions occur in the sun, generally using Hydrogen as fuel and producing Helium as
waste (fun fact: Helium was discovered in the sun and named after the Greek Sun God, Helios). This
reaction has not been commercially developed yet and is a serious research interest worldwide, due to its
promise of nearly limitless, low-pollution, and non-proliferative energy.

Currently the generation of electricity in ALL nuclear reactors is done by nuclear fission reactions. For
the moment, nuclear fusion is not valid to generate electric power. Once developed, if nuclear fusion is
really practicable, it will provide great advantages over nuclear fission:
-Virtually inexhaustible sources of fuel.
-No accidents in the reactor due to the chain reactions that occur in fissions.
-The waste generated will be much less radioactive.

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Nuclear power plant Types:

1. Pressurized Water Reactor Plant

Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission and there is a chain reaction.
1. The heat generated in the reactor is carried away by the coolant (water or heavy water) circulated
through the core.
2. The purpose of the pressure equalizer is to maintain a constant pressure of 14 MN/m2. This enables
water to carry more heat from the reactor.
3.The purpose of the coolant pump is to pump coolant water under pressure into the reactor core.

2. Boiling water Reactor Plant

1. The steam generator is a heat exchanger where the heat from the coolant is transferred on to the
water that circulates through the steam generator. As the water passes through the steam generator it
gets converted into steam.

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2. The steam produced in the steam generator is sent to the turbine. The turbine blades rotate.
3. The turbine shaft is coupled to a generator and electricity is produced.
4. After the steam performing the work on the turbine blades by expansion, it comes out of the turbine
as wet steam. This is converted back into water by circulating.

Working principle :
1. A nuclear power plant works in a similar way as a thermal power plant. The difference between the two
is in the fuel they use to heat the water in the boiler(steam generator) where Nuclear power Plants Use
Uranium U-235 while the other is coal.
2.Inside a nuclear power station, energy is released by nuclear fission in the core of the reactor.
3. 1 kg of Uranium U235 can produce as much energy as the burning of 4500 tonnes of high grade variety
of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.

NUCLEAR POWER
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Lesser to negative CO2 emissions Humanitarian and Environmental Safety
Factor is low
Less fuel more energy di ffi cul ty i n the management
of nucl ear waste
Cheaper Electric bills than Hydroelectric Nucl ear pl ants have a li mi ted li fe
Power
Production of Energy is Continuous Nucl ear power pl ants are objecti ves of
terrori st organi zati ons.
Cost of Energy is only 20% of Uranium Fuel Inaccessible to countries with no Uranium
Resources
Lesser Air Pollution than Coal power plants Maintenance cost of the plant is high.
(without any Nuclear Power Plant Leakage)
Space required is less when compared with
other power plants.
Space required is less when compared with
other power plants.
A nuclear power plant uses much less fuel
than a fossil-fuel plant.
1 metric tonne of uranium fuel = 3 million
metric tonnes of coal = 12 million
barrels of oil.

FUELS
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat
energy or to be used for work.

Types Of Fuels:

Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most
notably by the process of combustion and DISTILLATION.
NATURAL FORM PROCESSED FORM
SOLID FUEL Wood, peat, lignite Coke, charcoal
LIQUID Crude Petroleum diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, coal
tar, naphtha, ethanol
GAS FUEL Natural Gas hydrogen, propane, methane, coal
gas, water gas, blast
furnace gas, coke oven gas, CNG
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Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass.

Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and
provide heating, usually released through combustion.

Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical
energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their container.

Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary conditions.

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed
from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the
absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.

Distillation Products

Sample Problem: Heat of combustion, reaction, formation etc...

Benzene, C6H6 is used to manufacture plastics, is a carcinogen that causes leukemia/ bone marrow cancer. The equation
is given by:
C6H6 + 7.5 O2 ---> 6CO2 + 3H2O (l) ΔHo = -3267.4 kJ, ΔHo oxygen= 0
a. Calculate the heat of formation of benzene
b. Calculate the heat of reaction.

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2. The Chemistry of Engineering Materials

a. Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure
b. Metals
c. Polymers
d. Engineered Nanomaterials

Basic Concepts of Crystal Structures:

Lattice: An infinite periodic array of points in a space that can be one, two or three
dimensonal. The arrangement of points defines the lattice symmetry.

Motif or Basis: A group of one or more atoms, located in a particular way with respect to each
other and associated with each point

Crystal Structure: A combination of Basis and Lattice. When an atom or identical group of
atoms is attached to every lattice point, we obtain a crystal structure.

+ =
two types of Crystals:

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1. Poly crystal- In this type of crystal periodicity is not maintained throughout the body, A
disarranged conformation.
2. Single crystal- In this type of crystal periodicity is maintained throughout the body.

Unit cell:- Atoms or group of atoms forming a building block of the smallest acceptable size of
the whole volume of a crystal is defined as a unit cell .

By stacking identical unit cells, the

entire lattice can be constructed.

- Lattice points are located at the

corner of the unit

cell and in some cases, at either faces

or the centre of the unit cell.

THREE TYPES OF CUBIC CELLS

SIMPLE CUBIC (SC)
BODY- CENTERED CUBIC (BCC)
FACE- CENTERED CUBIC (FCC)

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METALS:
Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern. The electrons from the
outer shells of the metal atoms are delocalised, and are free to move through the whole
structure. This sharing of delocalised electrons results in strong metallic bonding.

Properties of metals

The structure and bonding of

metals explains their properties:

 they are electrical conductors because their delocalised electrons carry electrical charge
through the metal
 they are good conductors of thermal energy because their delocalised electrons transfer
energy
 they have high melting points and boiling points, because the metallic bonding in the giant
structure of a metal is very strong - large amounts of energy are needed to overcome the
metallic bonds in melting and boiling

Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, where at least one element is a metal. Many
alloys are mixtures of two or more metals.

Comparing properties of alloys and pure metals

Many pure metals are too soft for many uses. They can be made harder by adding another
element to the pure metal, so forming an alloy. This explains why an alloy often has more uses
than the pure elements it is made from.

Pure iron, for example, is very soft. Adding a small amount of tungsten to iron makes tool steel,
which is harder than pure iron. Steels are examples of alloys. There are many types of steel.

Steel (Melting Uses

Elements Properties
Point)
Ship Hulls, Garden Gates,
Mild steel Carbon Easy to bend and pull into
Girders, General Structural
(1600°C) and iron wires
Steel, etc.

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Steel (Melting Uses

Elements Properties
Point)
Tool steel Tungsten Hard, can be heated to high axes, hammers, picks, etc.
(1413°C) and iron temperatures
Food Kitchen & catering,
Stainless steel
Chromium Storage facilities (oil, fuels),
(1400-1450 Hard, does not rust easily
and iron Automotive Industries, Heavy
°C)
industries, Medical

Alloy hardness

In the solid state, a pure metal has a giant metallic structure. The atoms are arranged in layers.
When a force is applied, the layers may slide over each other. The greater the force needed, the
harder and stronger the metal.

In a pure metal, the force needed to make the layers slide over each other is small. This
explains why many pure metals are soft.

In an alloy, there are atoms of different sizes. The smaller or bigger atoms distort the layers of
atoms in the pure metal. This means that a greater force is required for the layers to slide over
each other. The alloy is harder and stronger than the pure metal.

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Table: Standard Potentials for Selected Reduction Half-Reactions at 25°C

Half-Reaction E° (V)

Li+(aq) + e− ⇌⇌ Li(s) –3.040

Be2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Be(s) –1.99

Al3+(aq) + 3e− ⇌⇌ Al(s) –1.676

Zn2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Zn(s) –0.7618

Ag2S(s) + 2e− ⇌⇌ 2Ag(s) + S2−(aq) –0.71

Fe2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Fe(s) –0.44

Cr3+(aq) + e− ⇌⇌ Cr2+(aq) –0.424

Cd2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Cd(s) –0.4030

PbSO4(s) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Pb(s) + SO42−(aq) –0.356

Ni2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Ni(s) –0.257

2SO42−(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ S2O62−(aq) + 2H2O(l) –0.25

Sn2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Sn(s) −0.14

2H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ H2(g) 0.00

Sn4+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Sn2+(aq) 0.154

Cu2+(aq) + e− ⇌⇌ Cu+(aq) 0.159

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Table: Standard Potentials for Selected Reduction Half-Reactions at 25°C

Half-Reaction E° (V)

AgCl(s) + e− ⇌⇌ Ag(s) + Cl−(aq) 0.2223

Cu2+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Cu(s) 0.3419

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− ⇌⇌ 4OH−(aq) 0.401

H2SO3(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− ⇌⇌ S(s) + 3H2O(l) 0.45

I2(s) + 2e− ⇌⇌ 2I−(aq) 0.5355

MnO42−(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e− ⇌⇌ MnO2(s) + 4OH−(aq) 0.60

O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ H2O2(aq) 0.695

H2SeO3(aq) + 4H+ + 4e− ⇌⇌ Se(s) + 3H2O(l) 0.74

Fe3+(aq) + e− ⇌⇌ Fe2+(aq) 0.771

Ag+(aq) + e− ⇌⇌ Ag(s) 0.7996

NO3−(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ HNO2(aq) + H2O(l) 0.94

Br2(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ 2Br−(aq) 1.087

MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) 1.23

O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− ⇌⇌ 2H2O(l) 1.229

Cr2O72−(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e− ⇌⇌ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) 1.36

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Table: Standard Potentials for Selected Reduction Half-Reactions at 25°C

Half-Reaction E° (V)

Cl2(g) + 2e− ⇌⇌ 2Cl−(aq) 1.396

Ce4+(aq)+e−⇌Ce3+(aq)(53)(53)Ce4+(aq)+e−⇌Ce3+(aq) 1.44

PbO2(s) + HSO4−(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) 1.690

H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e− ⇌⇌ 2H2O(l) 1.763

F2(g) + 2e−⇌⇌ 2F−(aq) 2.87

Engr. JoeMasaoay