Module 2: Social Psychology

What you will learn

What social psychology entails
The history of social psychology and the key figures
behind it
The theories of social psychology
Social psychology’s strengths and limitations
How it can be applied in the real world

2.1 Introduction
Interacting with others is part of life.

This can lead to positive and negative interactions, which may

impact how a person feels about another or even how they will
act themselves. Social psychology is the branch of this
science that deals with these relationships and this module
will focus on how it works and what it entails.

Starting with a detailed definition of social psychology, the

module will provide a history of the practice, as well as
acknowledging some of the key figures that have made it what
it is today. It will conclude by discussing the main theories
of social psychology and its strengths and limitations, before
outlining how it is applied in the field.
2.2 What is Social Psychology?
Understanding how human beings interact with
one another is one of the most fascinating
aspects of life – particularly in scientific
research.

Social psychology provides the scientific explanation for how

humans think, act and feel in relation to society.
It covers these three sentiments in terms of how specific
behaviors are influenced by society, regardless of whether the
individual is in the presence of another individual or group
of people. These influences may also be imagined or implied,
based on the study of social psychology.

The dominant focus of social psychology is on the attitudes of

people. Studies under this form of psychology are usually
focused and detailed in their scope, rather than generalized.
It looks mainly at social roles – or norms – conformity,
objective management and the influence of nurture over nature.
Attitudes, more specifically, are related to all types of
situations, which result in the development of conformity,
interpersonal attraction, social perception, and even
prejudice.

There are several assumptions made when applying social

psychology. These include the assumption that all the
behaviors of an individual happen within a social context,
even if there is no one present. This means that the thought
of potential or approaching social interactions can shape the
behaviors of an individual before the interaction itself takes
place. The second assumption is that social interactions are
the most dominant influence of an individual’s behavior,
including their thought processes and emotional state. The
actual application of social psychology in the field will be
looked at later in the module.

Social psychologists, or those who practice this branch of

psychology, use the science to explain certain human
behaviors. These often include how social interaction alters
or impacts that mental state of specific social situations.

Fact

A study released in 2016 by the

Hebrew University of Jerusalem showed that participants from
both Israel and France were 25-40% likely to guess the correct
name of a random person.

This shows that people rely on patterns to identify their

interactions with the world (a common finding within social
psychology) and that people really do look like their names.
Source: Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2016

2.3 How Does Social Psychology

Differ from Other Disciplines?
Because of the aspects of social
understanding as it pertains to human beings
that comes with the study of social
psychology, it is often confused with other,
similar disciplines.

These similar disciplines include sociology, anthropology, and

personality psychology.

Sociology
Sociology is perhaps the discipline most frequently confused
with social psychology because they both deal mainly with
human behavior and their social interactions. However, how
they understand these interactions and the resulting behaviors
are quite different. To start, as noted above, social
psychology is a focused study that looks at specific
interactions and related behaviors. Sociology, on the other
hand, uses more broad techniques, meaning it tries to capture
wider audiences, rather than looking to understand one
specific, smaller group. It is interested in the institutions
and cultures that make up a society. In other words, sociology
is interested in society altogether, whereas social psychology
aims to understand how one individual fits within a given
society.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of human culture, past and present.
It looks at the historical components of human evolution in
the social context. Anthropology differs from social
psychology because it is interested in understanding the
traditions and systems of belief that existed within society.
Social psychology is more interested in the thought processes,
feelings, and interactions between an individual and the
society they live in, which is quite dissimilar from the
anthropological view.
Personality psychology
Lastly, we look at personality psychology. This branch of
psychology examines the individual traits, characteristics,
and thoughts of a person; which sounds like social psychology,
but in fact, is not. While social psychology focuses on
actions, thoughts, and feelings, these are examined in terms
of how social environments and groups of people influence a
singular being’s behaviors within each social context.

2.4 The History of Social

Psychology
The study of social psychology began long
before it was officially documented.

Aristotle and Plato were the first to postulate about how

humans interacted with the world around them. The former
believed that humans needed to be social creatures as a means
of surviving together, whereas the latter believed the state –
or society – had control over each individual, and that this
control promoted a level of social responsibility. Despite
these beliefs and postulations, neither the contributions of
Aristotle nor Plato are rarely thought of as the birth of
social psychology.

Early days
The first textbook on the topic of social psychology was
published in 1908, by William McDougall. The text,
appropriately named “An Introduction to Social Psychology”
dealt with topics such as morality, character, religion, and
emotion.
However, the earliest documented experiments within this field
took place before the 1900s, as scientists began to document
and measure human behavior, including how these individuals
thought and felt.

Around 1935, the study of social norms became the focus of

many social psychologists. Social norms, being behavioral
rules that are accepted within a given society, have been used
to understand how individuals fit in within their social
environments, as well as how behaviors are changed when these
norms are challenged.

While social psychology was slowly making its way to a more

mainstream study, it was not until the end of the Second World
War, that it really began to gain some ground. Following the
end of the Holocaust, researchers wanted to gain an
understanding of how it was possible for Hitler to reach such
a level of success that he could orchestrate the many known
acts against mankind that have been documented throughout this
time.

Key 20th-century contributions

Aside from the studies related to the Holocaust and Hitler’s
influence during the war, and the development of social norms
as a formal area of study, the twentieth century led to the
introduction of other important contributions to the field of
social psychology. These include the cognitive processes of
human beings and more specifically social cognition.

The development of understanding cognitive processes was born

out of the increasing interest in the study of attitudes. This
has helped to develop a better understanding of what triggers
certain attitudes in various social situations.

Naturally, the desire to understand the social consciousness

of an individual became a more focused discipline for social
psychology researchers. This need to understand social
consciousness is what has led to more recent discoveries
within the discipline.

Recent history
At the turn of the century, the focus of social psychology
began to turn more towards the influence of society on the
health and happiness of an individual. Researchers began to
look at the role of culture and evolution and the effect they
had on behaviors and attitudes in the realm of societal
interactions.

Another major contribution to social psychology within the

twenty-first century is the development of the field of social
neuroscience. This practice looks at the biological processes
that impact behaviors within the social context, using an
interdisciplinary approach.

The most recent contributions to social psychology have been

in relation to societies that have experienced and moved away
from situations related to genocide. These contributions
include, most notably, the creation of anti-violence
programmes that are intended to help in the reconstruction
processes following such an event.

Fact

Most of the social psychology

research has consisted of lab experiments on social behavior,
but this approach has been criticized in recent years as being
too artificial and unrealistic.
Source: britannica.com

2.5 Key Founders

The history of social psychology would not
be possible without its founding figures.

Ranging from philosophers to psychologists, the contributions

of these individuals have helped to shape, not only the
discipline but a better understanding of how humans are
influenced by their society. While there are many noteworthy
founding fathers of the discipline, those noted within this
section have provided some of the most significant
contributions to the field of social psychology.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

The first founding father is Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770-1831). In relation to social psychology, he is best
known for introducing the concept that the development of the
social mind was directly linked to society. Although a
philosopher and not a social psychologist, this understanding
has been noted as the foundation for later research in the
development of the social psychology field.

The Allport Brothers

The only sibling duo on the list, Floyd Henry (1890-1979) and
Gordon (1897-1967) Allport have both contributed to social
psychology.
Floyd Henry is thought of as the father of experimental social
psychology.
He is recognized heavily for helping to legitimize the field
of social psychology within the broader topic of behavioral
sciences. He is also credited with developing the concept of
social facilitation – the observation that people behave
differently when they are alone versus when they are in the
presence of others.

Trait theory, on the other hand, was developed by Gordon. It

is for this reason that he is often referred to as the trait
psychologist.

Kurt Lewin
Not to be confused with Floyd Henry Allport’s designation,
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) is known as the founder of social
psychology. His research, particularly in the 1920-30s,
focused on leadership and group dynamics, in terms of
organizational behavior. A study conducted by Review of
General Psychology (2002) ranked him as the 18th most cited
psychologist of the previous century.

Muzafer Sherif
Muzafer Sherif (1906-1988) is best known for his work within
the field of conformity. His research in this area took place
in 1936. However, he is also a notable contributor to the
areas of social judgment theory and realistic conflict theory.
He is also recognized as one of the founders of modern social
psychology.

Solomon Asch
Polish social psychologist, Solomon Asch (1907-1996) also
contributed to the field of conformity. He is best known for
conducting lab studies related to conformity, but also
impression formation and prestige suggestion. In the same 2002
study noted previously, Asch was ranked the 41st most cited
psychologist.
Leon Festinger
Leon Festinger (1919-1989) studied under Lewin in the late
1930s. Between the time he graduated in 1941 and the 1960s,
Festinger became an influencer in the field of social
psychology. He is best known for developing the concept of
cognitive dissonance – the notion that refers to the
development of tensions that arise when two psychologically
inconsistent ideologies are presented at the same time, and
the processes that force an individual to reduce their focus
of one.

Henri Tajfel
When it comes to social psychology, one of the most
recognizable theories is that of social identity theory. While
this theory will be described in the following section, it was
Henri Tajfel (1919-1982) who coined the term and concept in
1971. This theory has had a significant impact on social
psychology and is one of the reasons why Tajfel is thought of
as an important contributor to this branch of psychology.

Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura (1925- ) is believed to be one of the most
influential psychologists in the history of psychology. This
is especially significant, as he is one of few living
psychologists that have contributed to the early development
of the field of social psychology. His focus of study has
surrounded the areas of social cognition and social learning.

Philip Zimbardo
In almost any introductory course on psychology, Philip
Zimbardo (1933- ) is mentioned. Known for his 1973 prison
study, Zimbardo easily – and arguably frighteningly –
demonstrated conformity in action. This study will be explored
further in Module 8; however, it is important to recognize him
as a significant contributor to the field of social
psychology.
Bernard Weiner
Finally, Bernard Weiner (1935- ) is the founder of attribution
theory. In 1986, Weiner developed this concept, which will be
discussed further in the following section on social
psychological theories. It is for this contribution that
Weiner is thought to be a key founder of social psychology.

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2.6 Social Psychological Theories

There are many theories that are used to
test and develop social psychology.

Each theory looks at various aspects of human behavior and is

used to explain the many intricacies of everyday social life.
Below is an explanation of some of these theories.

Attribution theory
Attribution theory is one of the best-known theories of social
psychology. It is used to explain how an individual
rationalizes the behaviors of others. It uses two types of
attributes to describe these behaviors – internal and
external.

Internal attributes are those that are intrinsic within a

person. These include one’s personality, abilities, or
efforts. External attributes are those that arise due to
outside factors; often triggered by various situations. Common
external attributes are the weather, other people, money, or
pressure.

Within Attribution theory, there is also something known as

Fundamental Attribution Error. This considers the potential
for a margin of error when conducting research. The
Fundamental Attribution Error occurs when either the influence
of a situation is over- or underestimated.

Drive theory
Not just applied to social psychology, Drive theory seeks to
understand what motivates specific behaviors within an
individual when in the presence of a group of people. It
posits that when surrounded by others, the individual will
expert a typical response that is dependent on the context of
a given situation. In other words, Drive theory is about
meeting one’s needs when in a social situation and is also
used as a means of learning social norms.

An example of Drive theory:

An individual is at a new-to-them restaurant and needs to use
the restroom. They find it at the back of the restaurant. The
next time they are in a new-to-them restaurant, they
automatically search for the restroom at the back of the
establishment, even if it is not found there. The first
experience establishes a starting point for future ones.
Drive theory was introduced to social psychology in 1965 by
Robert Zajonc. He used this theory to explain Social
Facilitation – an aspect of social psychology introduced by
the Allport brothers.

Motivation crowding theory

This theory is linked with Attribution theory. It suggests
that extrinsic attributes undermine the internal motivations
of an individual.

‘Crowd’ in this case does not refer to a group of people, but

rather the act of blocking out certain responses.

For example:
Placing an incentive – particularly that of a financial one –
for action will motivate an individual to perform until the
incentive is removed. Shopping at a store that offers loyalty
rewards will draw in a customer base more consistently, but if
the reward programme is discontinued, those same customers may
not be as willing to shop there since the incentive has been
removed.

Positioning theory
Positioning theory looks at conversation. It seeks to
understand how an individual contributes to a group discussion
and the motivations behind it. It is usually about a
situational recall or revisiting old memories.

An example of Positioning theory is a school reunion:

The group is discussing time or event that had occurred while
they attended the school. Each person is adding to the memory,
sharing their own personal take. At the end of the
conversation, the individuals disperse. The recollection of
these contributions, create new versions of the same time or
event based on how they perceive the information that made up
the conversation.

Schemata theory
Although cognitive processes make up the content of module
three, the Schemata theory is equally important in social
psychology. It looks at the various “schemas” or
representations which lead to a bias in one’s memory or how
they perceive certain situations. It suggests that experiences
are organized within the brain and that this becomes the
guideline for future encounters of a similar circumstance. It
is about providing a mental framework – or context – for
remembering, and learning from, an experience.

For example:
A professor reads a random paragraph and asks their students
to recall the information found within that same paragraph.
Without any context, it is difficult for the students to
recite the information from the paragraph. However, when the
professor announces the context of the paragraph before they
begin to read, it enables the students to understand the topic
of the information, allowing them to better recall the
information read aloud.

Self-perception theory
There is a common understanding that when an individual tells
a lie long enough, they will begin to believe the words they
are saying. The self-perception theory explains this by noting
that one’s own behaviors help to shape, or understand, a
feeling about a situation or action. In other words, the
individual sees themselves in the same way they would someone
else and uses that information to decide what is right or
wrong, or whether or not they like what has been observed.

When extrinsic self-perceptions are too heavily observed, or

perceived, it leads to something known as the
overjustification effect.

Self-verification theory
Humans are no stranger to the need to be accepted. The self-
verification theory explains an individual’s need to be
understood by those they interact with. It posits that how
they perceive themselves is how they want others to see them,
as well. This need to have these perceptions acknowledged – or
verified – is directly linked to one’s need to be accepted.

A good example of Self-verification theory is that of a

comedian:
They see themselves as funny and therefore seek to make others
laugh to confirm this assumption about themselves. If the
audience does not laugh, this alters the comedian’s assumption
that they are funny. If the audience laughs, then it validates
the comedian’s assumption.

Social Comparison theory

The Social Comparison theory focuses on how an individual
relates to another person by making comparisons. The theory
suggests that people learn about themselves, what they are
capable of and how they fit in, by looking at others as a
means of building up their self-esteem. In other words, Social
Comparison theory is about how an individual perceives theory
value, or worth, in relation to another person or persons.

An example of this theory is that of a newly graduated student

entering the workforce:
All their colleagues have the same educational background, but
varying levels of practical experience. The recent grad has
less experience, but the most recent education, and compares
themselves to their colleagues as a means of building their
self-confidence, or to make themselves feel like they fit in –
even if that is not a matter of criteria for doing so.

Social Exchange theory

The next theory to be discussed is the Social Exchange theory.
This explores the rationalization by an individual in terms of
the benefits they will gain from another in exchange for the
effort they put into the relationship or interaction. In other
words, it uses a cost-benefit formula to identify whether the
relationship is worthwhile to the individual doing the
calculation.

For example:
If an individual believes they are putting more effort into
the interaction than they are gaining from it, they may look
for ways to remove themselves from the situation. This is
especially true if other, more desirable options are made
available. However, if the individual feels they are giving as
much as they are receiving, then they are less likely to be
tempted by other options or look for ways out, more generally.

Social Identity theory

Social Identity theory is, perhaps, another one of the best-
known theories in social psychology. It looks at how people
categorize others in comparison to themselves. This means an
individual will observe themselves, or the group they identify
with (the in-group) and use those observations to understand a
different group (the out-group). If the two groups are
dissimilar, the individual will focus on what sets them apart.
This often leads to negative perceptions, which can lead to
prejudices and stereotypes. However, it is important to note,
that negative representations of the out-group are not always
the outcome. This is especially true if the individual
perceives the out-group as superior to the in-group, or at the
same level, but with varying characteristics.

An example of a negative representation:

Would be an in-group that identifies as upper class, observing
and making comparisons to an out-group that is of a lower
class. The in-group would see themselves as more successful,
or better off, than those involved in the out-group.
A positive representation would take place between members of
different sports teams. Although a football player and a rugby
player may play different sports, they are able to identify as
being similar in their own right, even though they do not play
the same game. One sport is not superior to the other, and
both require physical exercise and teamwork to be successful.

Social Penetration theory

Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor put forth Social Penetration
theory in 1973 as a means of understanding the close
relationships between two people. It suggests that
relationships begin out of a superficial motive, but grow to
become more intimate over time. This is especially true when
observing the romantic relationship between two individuals.
At first, they may be attracted to each other’s physical
appearance, but over time that will be less of an importance
than their ability to communicate and grow together.

Socioemotional Selectivity theory

When an individual begins to age, one will often observe that
their priorities change, from that of the tangible to a more
emotional appeal. This is explained through the socioemotional
selectivity theory, which shows the correlation between
perception of time left to live and the individual’s goals in
life.
This theory is easily observed throughout the life stages of
an individual.
When a person is younger, they are focused on making money,
buying a house and maybe even travel or purchasing an
expensive car. When they get older and are nearing an age
where they are likely to die, they begin to focus more on
spending time with family and enjoying experiences, rather
than possessing things which they know they cannot take with
them.

System Justification theory

System justification theory is used to understand the
behaviors of an individual that are used to defend an
institutional system of belief, be it political, legal, or
social. The individual would use what they know of the system
to justify the need for it to remain the same, rather than
identifying areas that have become outdated or are not
correct. This usually manifests out of an unconscious act,
rather than one that is well thought-out, or based from fact.

An example of this is:

The push for better recycling practices. If the status quo is
to throw everything out on one bin – which requires little if
any effort – the push against is motivated by the increased
amount of effort required to make the switch. Rather than
recognizing the benefits of recycling, the individual will
focus solely on the ease of the current system, thus
attempting to justify it.

Terror Management theory

No one likes to think about death, but everyone agrees that it
will happen eventually. Terror management theory explains that
the fear an individual may face in relation to the inevitable
motivates certain human behaviors, such as their worldviews. A
belief in an afterlife, regardless of what that entails, is
one of the most common manifestations of terror management
theory. By believing that there is a peaceful place that
exists once an individual has passed, makes it easier to
accept rather than believing there is nothing.

The triangular theory of Love

The final theory to be discussed, triangular theory of love,
focuses on the relationship between three different factors –
intimacy, commitment, and passion. The theory shows how an
individual classifies relationships using these categories and
the degree to which they apply. There are eight
categorizations stemming from these three factors, which are
used to show the types of relationships.

For example
Love, at first sight, is an example of a relationship based
solely on passion, whereas a marriage is usually built on
commitment and intimacy.

Activity 1: Testing the Schemata theory

Estimated time: 15 minutes

Gather a group of people – it could be friends, family members

or any other group – and tell them you will be reading them a
paragraph. Make sure they know they must recall the
information they hear once you have finished reading. Read the
paragraph and ask the group to recite the information you have
just read. You will likely notice that they have trouble doing
so.

Now, try the same activity again, but this time, before you
read the paragraph, tell them where it has come from. Read the
same paragraph and have them recite the information. After the
introduction of the paragraph topic, they should be able to
understand, and therefore remember, the information you have
just read. This activity works best with something involving
instructions, such as a recipe or something from an
instructional manual. Spend a few minutes discussing this with
the group after you have completed the activity.
2.7 Strengths and Limitations of
Social Psychology
Social psychology offers many positive
contributions to both the realm of
understanding human behavior, and
psychology, more specifically.

However, it equally places some debate over how valid its

findings are. This is not unusual in the scientific world;
therefore, both these strengths and limitations will be looked
at in further detail below.

Strengths
Understanding how human beings, as individuals, interact
within the social world has been one of the most positive
aspects of social psychology. But these findings are not the
only positive aspects of the discipline.
For starters, it is scientific, meaning it uses specific
processes in order to obtain results. It places an assumption
about a specific aspect of human behavior, tests it, and then
compares and retests as a means of putting forth the most
accurate data.

Furthermore, the theories that were outlined in the previous

section have been tested and retested continuously, which
further supports the experiments that have been conducted in
this field. This also speaks to the narrowed focus of social
psychological research, since each of these theories aims to a
different aspect of human social behavior.

Limitations
Like with anything, social psychology is not without its
limitations. One of the biggest challenges to the discipline
is that it tends to disregard biology. It focuses on the
actions, or behaviors, themselves, but does not consider how
differences in genetics or human makeup may play a factor in
the results. Similarly, it also tends to place less of an
emphasis on the differences that may arise from one individual
to another. Not everyone is the same in many aspects of
everyday life, and by underestimating the impact these
differences can have on an individual is not always valued
when it comes to works of social psychology.

Additionally, social psychology is viewed as taking nothing

more than a snapshot of social interaction. This can equally
be viewed as being superficial, particularly when combined
with the disregard for biology and individuality. However,
this could be said for many other types of research, so should
not be grounds for invalidating the contributions of this
discipline.

Social psychology applied

Social psychology is most frequently used in the areas of
understanding social influence, cognition, behavior, and
development. It does so by engaging with various elements that
lead to the observance of each.

For example:
Social influence relies on the presence of conformity and
obedience, while social behavior focuses more on
discrimination and relationships. But this is only part of how
social psychology is applied outside of textbook learning. To
gather the information found within those pages, experiments
need to take place.
All scientific disciplines rely on experimentation and
research as the means of discovering new findings and learning
more about the topic at hand. When it comes to social
psychology, these experiments take place mainly in the form of
the lab and/or field trials, questionnaires, or through simple
observance. The use of any of these methodologies helps social
psychologists better understand their discipline, which helps
the wider public understand how and why they behave the way
they do. Without these forms of experimentation, it would be
impossible to understand many of the human behaviors that have
been identified over the past hundred years or more.

Activity 2: Weighing the Options

Estimated time: 10 minutes

Imagine you are a social psychologist interested in

understanding the social behaviors and influences behind
shopaholics. You come up with a few assumptions about the
behavior, but need to test them to make sure they are not just
your opinions. While you would like to be able to use multiple
methodologies, you are only budgeted to conduct one.

Of the four methodologies noted in the above section,

which do you think is the most beneficial for this
research and why?
What aspects of the remaining three made you less
certain of their benefit?
Do you think there is one that would not be beneficial
at all? If so why?

Assignment
Social Psychology

Time: 30+ minutes

Hopefully, you took in as much of the information in this

module as possible. To find out how well you have done,
complete the following worksheet.

Download the worksheet below and complete.

Download Worksheet (PDF)

Module Summary
Social psychology is an important branch of psychology as it
helps to identify the motives behind the thoughts, actions,
and feelings of human beings in the social context.

Often mistaken for sociology or many of the other forms of

social research, it uses numerous theories to explore basic
human behaviors and attitudes, particularly when compared with
others.

This module provided a definition of the discipline, as well

as a history of how it has developed since the early 1900s and
the prominent figures that have contributed to it.

It then explained many of the theories employed by social

psychology, while offering an example of each one. The
conclusion of the chapter focused on the practice’s strengths
and limitations, before looking at how it is applied in the
real world.

Upon completion of this module, you should have a better

understanding of social psychology, be able to identify the
differences between it and its like-disciplines and explain
how each of the theories noted is used. The activities and
quizzes will have provided you with the opportunity to test
your knowledge along the way while helping you to develop your
understanding of the material presented and your ability to
apply this information.

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