A Level Geography Revision Guide

Revised Tested Exam

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Tectonics
Spatial variations in the tectonic hazard risk
Tectonic hazards become disasters
Management of tectonic hazards and disasters
Coastal landscapes and change
Different coastal landscapes and their processes
Coastal landforms and landscapes
Coastal risk
Coastal management
Globalisation
Causes and acceleration of globalisation
Impacts of globalisation
Challenges of globalisation
Regeneration
How and why places vary
The need for regeneration
How regeneration is managed
Assessing the success of regeneration
Water cycle and insecurity
Processes operating in the hydrological cycle
Changes in hydrological systems over time
Water insecurity
Carbon cycle and energy security
Carbon cycle and terrestrial health
Consequences of increasing demand for energy
Links to global climate system
Superpowers
Changing superpowers
Global impact of superpowers
Contested spheres of influence
Migration, identity and sovereignty
Impacts of globalisation on international migration
Evolution of nations states in a globalised world
Threats of national sovereignty in a more globalised world
 Tectonic processes and hazards
Spatial variations in tectonic hazard risk
The global distribution of tectonic hazards

Key concepts:

 Destructive/convergent occur where two plates are moving together, where a dense oceanic plate
collides with a less dense continental plate. The former is thrust under the latter forming a
subduction zone. Mountain building and volcanic eruptions are the outcomes
 Divergent/constructive the moving apart of plates causes rifts filled with new crustal material from
volcanic eruptions
 Conservative/transform two plates slide past each other the friction triggers earthquakes
 Collision 2 continental plates collide and push up mountains

Earthquakes – The global distribution of earthquakes is not random. Earthquake zones occur along
PBs. Particualrly destructive and conservative ones. Intra plate eartqhaukes occasionally occur in the
middle of plates. Have a look at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8QNigxTN384

Volcanoes –There are approx. 500 active volcanoes in the world. A significant number occur around
the ring of fire. There are also hotspot volcanoes – found in the middle of tectonic plates and though
to be fed the mantle. They occur when the mantle is v thin and hot e.g. Hawaii.
Tsunamis – caused by submarine shock waves generated by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Most
commonly experienced along the coastlines of the Pacific Ocean. A gently sloping continental shelf
can allow tsunamis to build to greater heights causing devastation.

Theoretical frameworks

Key concept:

Plate tectonics theory sees the earth’s crust of consisting of a number of mobile yet rigid plates:
thin crust underlying ocean basins, thick crust underlying continents.

Low density continental crust allows it to float on a much higher density mantle below. Heat
from the core rises to form convection currents which in turn moves the plates.

Over a long period of time as the plates move relative to each other they cause:

 Continents to drift apart

 Ocean basins to change
 Formation of mountain chains and mid ocean ridges
  Earthquakes volcanoes and tsunamis

The following are important elements in the theory of plate tectonics:

 The earth has a thin broken crust wrapped around a thick liquid mantle
 Convection within the mantle causes plates to move
 4 different types of PB
 New crust formed by sea floor spread
 Crust destroyed and remoulded at subduction zones
 Slab pull is the force created by convection currents that moves plates and drags them into
subduction zones
 Palaeomagnetism provides evidence of plate movements

Subduction zones are areas where plates move together. Oceanic crust descends under thicker
continental crust. Fold Mountain occurs at the edges of overriding plates.

Palaeomagnetism Results from magma locking in the earth’s magnetic polarity as it moves.
Scientists use this to reconstruct plates past movements.

Q2: How do tectonic plates move and what are the outcomes of these movements.

The type and magnitude of an event

The type of tectonic event is determined mainly be the type of PB. A destructive PB is most
productive of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. A conservative PB only produces earthquakes.
Science has not yet discovered what causes the magnitude of a tectonic event. The Benioff zone is
thought to be important this is the boundary between the subducted oceanic plate and the
overriding continental plate. It is a sloping plane and stresses are built up as the cold oceanic plate
sinks into the hot mantle. We don’t know however why some earthquakes are of greater magnitude.

Q3: Is event magnitude more important than event location? Give your reasons

Physical processes behind tectonic hazards

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are caused by sudden shifts in the earth’s crust usually along a pre-existing fault. The
movement is from a gradual build-up of tectonic pressure and then its sudden release. The sudden
movement creates seismic waves of 3 kinds: P (Fast) S (Slow) L (surface)

The hypocentre of an earthquake or focus is the point where the pressure is released. The epicentre
is the point on the earth’s surface directly above the hypocentre. The overall severity of the
earthquake is determined by the amplitude and frequency of the waves. S 7 L waves are more
destructive than P waves. They cause ground shaking and 3 secondary hazards:

 Liquefaction where seismic waves cause the ground to lose its load bearing capacity causing
buildings to sink and possibly collapse
 Landslides
 Tsunamis
Q4: What are seismic waves? What is the difference between the epicentre and the hypocentre/

Tsunamis

Potentially the most lethal secondary effect. Out at sea they go unnoticed but as they approach
coastlines they gain in height (remember and increasing number of people want to live near the
coast).

The impact of a tsunami depends on: duration, distance wave travels, depth and gradient of the
offshore zone, degree of coastal protection from coral reefs or mangroves, timing of the event, early
warning systems, population density.

Volcanoes

The primary hazards of a volcano are:

 Pyroclastic flows
 Tephra (ash fall)
 Lava flows For each one explain what
 Volcanic gas they are and the impacts of
them
Secondary hazards are:

 Lahars
 Jokulhaups

Key point: Volcanoes have killed far fewer people than earthquakes or tsunamis in recent times

Revision activity: In you notes make sure you have located recent examples of the three tectonic
hazards including dates and info on the scale of the human impact.

Q5: Which of the primary hazards of volcanic eruptions is potentially the most lethal

Tectonic hazards become natural disasters

Vulnerability, risk, resilience and disaster

Vulnerability relates to the ability of a Risk: This relates to the probability of a hazards
community to cope with a hazards event. leading to loss of life. Risk is linked to:
Developed countries are less vulnerable as
 Perception of the community
they have good governance, access to tech
 Unpredictability of hazards
and relevant resources and effective EWS.
 Lack of alternatives
This reduces the likelihood of a hazard
 Benefits of living in the area outweigh hazard
becoming a disaster.
risks
Key point: Tectonic events themselves are NOT hazards. They become hazards only when they
impact on people and their livelihoods.

The hazard risk formula involves the components that influence the amount of risk a community is
taking with a particular hazard:

Risk = hazard x exposure x vulnerability

Manageability

The pressure and release model (PAR) adopts a slightly different approach to the assessment of the
risk of a hazard becoming a disaster. See below

Root causes create vulnerability and the dynamic pressures create unsafe conditions, combine these
with a natural tectonic event and you can potentially have a massive disaster.
Revision activity: In your notes apply the PAR to a tectonic event you have studied

Another key concept that will help determine if a hazard becomes a disaster is resilience. This is the
ability of a community to resist, absorb and recover from the impacts of a hazard.

Q6: What is the difference between a hazard and a disaster?

Q7: What is the difference between vulnerability and resilience?

Impacts

The economic and social impacts of hazards vary: over time, space and from minor nuisances to
major disasters.

It is estimated that 1% of the world’s population is likely to suffer the impacts of a volcanic
eruption whereas it is 5% for an earthquake.

The economic impacts of a tectonic hazard are influenced by:

 Level of economic development (GDP per capita)
 Population
 Resilience
 Urbanisation
 Insurance
Q8: Explain why the global impacts of earthquakes are greater than those from volcanoes
Tectonic hazard profiles

Magnitude and intensity are important aspects of tectonic hazards. Observations and
measurements are converted to mathematical scales:
Hazard Scale Overview
Richter scale earthquakes 1-9 Measurement of the height of the waves. This is
an absolute scale – wherever an earthquake will
be recorded it will be measured on the Richter
scale
Mercali scale earthquakes i-xii Measures the impacts of an earthquake. It is a
relative scale because people experience
different amounts of shaking in different places.
Moment earthquake 0-9 Measures energy released. Magnitude is based
magnitude on seismic movement caused by a slip in the
scale (MMS) fault, the area affected and the earth rigidity
factor
Volcanic Volcanic 0-8 Relative measure which measures the
explositivity eruption explosiveness of an eruption. Calculated by
index volume and height of ejecta and observations.
Like Richter scale it is logarithmic so one index is
10x more powerful than the previous

None of the scales is perfect e.g. they don’t take into account duration, vulnerabity or resilience.

Remember today we use the MMS as opposed to the Richter scale despite what the media say.

Hazard profiles

Which profile
represents a tsunami
and a minor volcanic
eruption?

The hazard profile is not the only factor that determines the impacts. For example economic
development will also influence vulnerability, risk and resilience.

The profile attempts to understand the physical characteristics of different types of hazard.

Revision activity: Note down and explain the 6 factors that influence the hazard profile. Make sure
you have notes detailing the impacts of one specific tectonic hazard in a LIC, HIC and NEE.

Tip: Any assessment of the risks posed by a tectonic hazard must identify the nature and
magnitude of the hazard, the number of people at risk, economic development and the society’s
ability to mitigate and respond to the hazard impacts.
Q9: What is the value of compiling hazard profiles

The importance of development and governance

Vulnerability and reliance are strongly connected to economic development. Economic development
gives communities access to resources, organisations and technology to deal with hazards. With
increased income people are more likely to live in safe locations and hazard proofed property.

There are also non-economic aspects of development which area also important

 Access to education – education makes people aware of hazards and what to do in the event
of a hazard
 Access to healthcare – better healthcare and health makes people more able to cope with
the health and food risks associated with hazards
 Housing - poorly built housing cannot withstand shockwaves from earthquakes
 Governance – the quality of governance can be critical

Governance

Governance is the way a country, community or city is run. Good governance is transparent, has
rule of law, equity, consensus and participation.

Poor governance in the form of corruption or weak political organisation is vulnerable to hazards in
2 ways:

1) Failure to invest in infrastructure that mitigate hazards such as warning systems or

earthquake proof buildings
2) By being ill prepared to deal with a hazard event

Synoptic link: National, and local governments are top players their efficiency and transparency (lack
of corruption) are vital

Good governance is not just political there are other stakeholders both public and private who have
a role in good governance.

Q10: Why is good governance so important in the context of tectonic hazards?

Geographical factors

These can increase vulnerability such as:

 Population density – higher the density more people at risk

 Urbanisation – cities are more at risk due to higher concentrations of people and business
 Isolation and inaccessibility is crucial in the aftermath and the ability of aid to reach an area
 Community spirit – a strong community spirit makes an area more able to show a collective
will to survive a hazard
Contrasting locations

The exam board require you to make a comparative study of a hazard event in 3 locations:
developed, emerging and developing country.

Revision activity

Important! Make sure that in your notes you have specific details about the same type of hazard in
the 3 contrasting locations. Make sure you know specific details about each one. This should show
the different physical factors that caused the hazards event and the significance of context (place) in
influencing the scale of the disaster. For each one you need to be able to explain why the hazard
event became a natural disaster and the reasons for the differing scale in the disasters between the
3 places.

The management of tectonic hazards and disasters

Few tectonic hazards develop into natural disasters! Tectonic hazards cannot be prevented!

Revision activity_ Make notes on the trends of hazard events since 1980

Number of tectonic disasters grouped by level of development (2004 – 2013):

Hazard Very high HDI High HDI Medium HDI Low HDI Total
Earthquakes 41 71 121 36 269
and tsunamis
Volcanic 5 12 30 10 57
eruptions

You can see in the table there are far fewer volcanic disasters – this reflects that earthquakes are a
more frequent occurrence. As you can see it is not the case that the lowest developed countries
suffer the most disasters. Medium countries suffer most disasters – could this be due to their
geographic location?
We should treat all hazard data with some caution as: there is no universally agreed definition of a
disaster, small events in remote locations are often not recorded, politicians may under report
disasters, and mega disasters such as the Asian tsunami can distort trends.

Revision task: Make sure you have in your notes details of one mega disaster

It needs to be understood that some parts of the world are at risk form more than one hazard.
Locations where they suffer multiple hazards are known as hazard hotspots. Also remember that
with tectonic hazards their impacts are aggravated by climate events which make liquefaction and
landslides more likely.

Country Total area exposed % Population exposed % Number of different

hazards exposed to
Taiwan 73 73 4
Costa Rica 36 42 4
Vanuatu 29 20 3
Philippines 22 36 5
Guatemala 21 40 5
Ecuador 14 24 5
Chile 13 54 4
Japan 11 15 4

Prediction and management

Prediction

Predicting tectonic hazards has the potential to reduce deaths and destruction. Research has made
us aware of the tell-tale signs of volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes are far more difficult to predict.
However, it is beginning to look like there might be early warning signs. The key to success is being
able to detect those areas in particular stress in the earth’s crust that trigger earthquakes.
Hazard management cycle

The hazard management cycle has a number of stages once the hazard has struck:

1. Emergency response
2. Initial recovery
3. Reconstruction including mitigation
4. Return to normality
5. What lessons can be learned
6. Improve preparedness

Mitigation: Action taken to reduce the long term risk to life and property from natural hazards.

Preparedness: Educating people about what to do in the event of a disaster as well as warning
systems and training and equipping rescue teams

Physical factors that affect response Human factors that affect response
 Accessibility of the region  Number of people involved
 Type of hazards – scale, impact,  Degree of preparedness
magnitude and frequency  Technological resources
 Topography of region e.g. mountainous  Scientific expertise
 Climate  Education and training
 Economic wealth
 Infrastructure
 Social and political framework

Parks disaster response model

This can help analyse the timeline between when a hazards strikes and when a place returns to
normal life.
Synoptic links:

 Key players in prediction of tectonic disasters are scientists.

 Actions are critical they need to be planned effectively by the key players

Remember that the shorter the timeline of response although can be affected by resilience and
economic development is often more determined by the magnitude of the hazard event.

Mitigation and adaptation strategies

There are 3 ways to militate against a tectonic hazard:

1. Modify the event

2. Modify the vulnerability and resilience
3. Modify the potential financial losses

This action should be informed by risk assessments and hazard predictions.

Modifying the hazards event

There is little that can be done under this heading, yet. The only actions currently available are:
 Strengthening coastal defences against tsunamis
 Diverting or chilling lava flows
 Stabilising slopes against the risk of landslides

Modifying vulnerability and resilience

 Improving prediction, forecasting and warning systems e.g. scientific research into
prediction methods, using technology to improve warning systems
 Improving community preparedness e.g. enforcing building codes aimed hazard proofing
structure particularly public buildings such as powerlines, hospitals and police stations. Have
a look at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZoHoPFHAtw
 Changing behaviours that reduce hazard risk e.g. moving people away from hazard prone
areas
Synoptic theme: key players in hazard management are planners and engineers think how
important they are in the above points

Modifying losses

Insurance can be used here but it is expensive. The insurance industry has to assess:
 Level of risk
 Probability of a hazard event happening
 Market value of property
 Cost of reconstruction
With earthquakes seismologists work with insurers to calculate risk and inform insurance premiums.
Computer simulations estimate the probability of damage. With volcanic eruptions there is greater
certainty in the assessment of risk.
Q11. Suggest why insurance for hazard damage is so expensive
Disaster aid is another way in which losses might be reduced. Particularly during the initial
emergency stage. This has 2 sources:
 Donations by governments to inter-governmental organisations such as the UN
 Private donations to NGOs such as the red cross

Disaster aid is often criticised, primarily as local distribution systems are inefficient and corrupt. Also
it doesn’t encourage self-help or a more bottom up approach which would be better in the long
term.

The sendai framework has set out 4 priorities in disaster management:

1. Understand the disaster risk
2. Ensure the strengthening of government to manage the hazard risk
3. Invest in improving resilience and preparedness
4. “build back better” in the recovery and reconstruction stage
It is also recognised today that:
 The millennium development goals gave insufficient focus to risk reduction and resilience
 The distribution of international disaster relief is too complex, fragmented and disorganised

Revision activity: Make notes on how people attempt to cope before, during and after a tectonic
hazard with examples.

Synoptic theme NGO are important players in reducing the burden of losses from hazards particularly
as developing countries cannot afford insurance costs.

Q12. Why is disaster aid often criticised

Skills reminder – are you familiar with:

 Analysis of world distribution maps

 Use of block diagrams to identify features on a PB
 Analysis of time distance maps to predict the spatial impact of tsunamis
 Use of correlation techniques to link magnitude and deaths and damage
 Statistical techniques to compare hazard profiles
 Using data to identify trends in hazard impacts over time
 Use of satellite imagery and GIS to identify hazard risk
Exam questions

1. Name the type of plate boundary along which the most powerful earthquakes occur. [1]
2. Explain why earthquakes are more destructive than volcanic eruptions [4]
3. Explain what might be done to improve the preparedness of a community for a hazards
event [6]
4. Assess the value of Parks disaster response curve [12]
5. Assess the factors effecting the response to tectonic hazards [12]
Summary
You should now have an understanding of:
 The global distribution and causes of volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and earthquakes
 The distinction between divergent, convergent and conservative PBs
 The distributions and associated hazards of different plate boundaries
 Intra plate earthquakes and hotspot volcanoes
 The key elements of the theory of plate tectonics
 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries
 Factors affecting earthquake magnitude and type of volcanic eruption
 Earthquake shockwaves and secondary hazards
 Volcanic emissions and secondary hazards
 Factors effecting tsunamis
 The difference between a hazard and a disaster
 Mega disasters and multiple hazard zones
 Disaster trends and differential impacts
 Predicting and forecasting tectonic hazards
 Hazard management cycle
 Parks response curve model
 Modifying tectonic events, vulnerability, resilience and losses
Landscape systems processes and change

Option B: Coastal landscapes and change

The coast is a very important component of the globe. Many of the world’s major cities are in coastal
locations so large numbers of people live and work here. The coast is acritical interface between
land and sea, subject to both terrestrial and marine processes and it experiences extreme events,
such as tropical cyclones, tsunamis and storm surges.

Different coastal landscapes and their processes

The coast and littoral zone

All coastlines show the same littoral sub zones but not coastlines have similar landscapes. The
littoral zone can be a dynamic one of rapid change.

Littoral zone: The wider coastal zone, which includes adjacent land areas, the shore, and the
shallow part of the sea the offshore. It compromises of 4 sub-zones: coast, backshore, foreshore
and nearshore.

Classifying coasts

Coasts may be classified in various ways:

 Geological characteristics (lithology and structure)
 The impacts of sea level change (rising or falling)
 The dominant coastal processes (erosion or deposition)

A common but simple coastal classification distinguishes between:

 Rocky or cliffed – where there is a clear distinction between land and sea, mainly because of
the height of the cliffs. Exposure to the erosive forces of the sea, rain and wind creates a
high energy coastline
 Coastal plains where the land slopes gently towards the sea and there is an almost
imperceptible transition from one to the other. These are often maintained in a state of
 dynamic equilibrium between the deposition of sediment by river stems entering the sea
and sediment from offshore sources and marine erosion. They are typically low energy
coastlines

Dynamic equilibrium: The balanced state of a system when inputs and outputs balance over time.
If one of the inputs changes then the system is upset, by a process of feedback the equilibrium
adjusts and the system is maintained.

Rocky coasts and coastal plains

Rocky coasts result from a geology that is resistant to forces of erosion of the sea and weather in
high energy environments. Coastal plains are found in areas of low relief and depend on the supply
of terrestrial sediment.

Exam tip: You need to name actual stretches of coastline (think about your coursework) that
exemplify both cliff and coastal plain types – this will improve your answers.

Q14: What is the significance of the difference between high energy and low energy coastlines?

Geological structure and the development of coastal landscapes

Start by having a look at the geology map of the UK it’s interactive and ace! Go on look at the map
and discover what rock is beneath your feet its fascinating stuff:
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/geologyOfBritain/viewer.html

Avoid this mistake: Don’t confuse geological structure and lithology, the former is about the
deposition of rocks, whilst the latter is about the composition of rocks, whether they are sandstone,
limestones etc.

Key concept:

Geological structure refers to the arrangement of rocks:

 Strata: Different layers of rock in location and how they relate to each other
 Deformation: the degree at which rock strata have been tilted or folded by tectonic activity
 Faulting: the presence of fractures along which rocks have moved

All 3 elements affect coastal landscapes and the development of coastal landforms

Concordant and discordant coastlines

 Concordant coastlines are formed when strata run parallel to the coast. The typical coastline
is smooth or dented often known as a Dalmatian coast
 Discordant: formed when different rock strata intersect the coast at an angle, so that
lithology varies along the coastline. Typically one of bays and headlands also known as the
Atlantic type
Cliff profiles

Cliff profiles are influenced by two different aspects of geology, the resistance of rock to erosion and
the dip or angle of rock strata in relation to the coastline.

In addition to the dip of strata, other geological features influence cliff profiles and rates of erosion:
 Faults: rocks are fractured and therefore weakened on either side of a fault
 Joints occur in most rocks in potential lines of weakness
 Fissures: small cracks in rock also represent weakness that erosion can exploit

Rates of coastal recession

Geological factors

The rate of coastal erosion and recession is a critical aspect of the coastal zone. The rate is
influenced by many factors but the most significant is lithology.
Different types of rock erode at different rates:
Rock type Example Erosion rate
Igneous Granite Basalt Very slow. Rocks are resistant to erosion as they are
Dolerite crystalline and have few joints
Metamorphic Slate, schist, Slow. Same as igneous but can be folded and fractured
marble making them more vulnerable to erosion
Sedimentary Sandstone, Moderate to fast. Younger rocks tend to be softer and
limestone, shale weaker. Rocks with bedding planes and fractures are more
vulnerable to erosion

Exam tip: The Jurassic Coast is an excellent example of the impact of geology on the coast landscape
Different rates of erosion of alternating strata in cliffs can produce complex cliff profiles. The
lithology of the strata and the degree of exposure to the erosive force of the sea are the major
factors influencing the rate of cliff retreat and the rate of coastal recession.

Permeability is another important factor. Permeable rocks e.g. limestone allow water to pass
through. Groundwater flow can weaken the rock by removing the cement that binds the sediment
this can lead to slumping.

Exam tip: Remember geological factors affecting coastal landscapes include lithology, folding,
faulting, jointing, dip and orientation of rock outcrops relative to the coastline.

Q15: What distinguished metamorphic rock from igneous and sedimentary ones?
Q16: How is the resistance of rocks to erosion affected by their geological structure?

Coastal vegetation

Vegetation is an important factor influencing the coastal landscape. Many coastlines are protected
from erosion by the stabilising influence of plants e.g. sand dunes, salt marshes and mangroves.

Many of the plants that grown in coastal zones are halophytes some are xerophytes. Halophytes can
tolerate salt water and xerophytes can tolerate dry conditions.

Sand dunes cause coastal growth through plant succession; this is the sequential development of
vegetation from bare soil to an area covered in vegetation. The succession starts with halophytes
growing in salty bare sand. Once established they trap more sand leading to the formation of
embryo dunes. Embryo dunes alter the environment and xerophytes begin to flourish. The
succession continues and the dunes become fixed and plant cover develops into heath or woodland.
A similar process of plant succession occurs on bare mud deposited in estuaries. Salt marshes
develop because of the sheltered conditions and the supply of mud and silt provided by a river.
Algae starts the succession followed by halophytic grasses, then sea thrift and ending with rush and
sedge.

Q17. Explain why wind is important in the formation of sand dunes?

Coastal landforms and landscapes

Marine erosion

Waves
Waves are caused by friction between wind and water. They directly influence three marine
processes – erosion, transportation and deposition.
Wave size and strength depends on:
 Wind strength
 Wind duration
 Water depth
 Fetch
Remember waves and tides are different, waves are localised whereas tides are caused by the
gravitational pull of the moon. Tidal range varies from place to place.

Q18: What is happening to particles within a wave?

Constructive waves are of low height and long length and have a strong swash and weak backwash.
The strong swash pushes sediment up the beach and deposits it as a ridge, the weak backwash
means the deposited material is not pulled back to sea.
Destructive waves are relatively high in height and short in length. They have a strong backwash
which erodes beach material and carries it away.
Beach morphology

This is the shape of the beach including width and slope and features such as berms, ridges and
runnels. It also includes the type of sediment forming the beach. It is strongly conditioned by the
nature of the prevailing waves. But waves can fluctuate over time and bring with them changes to
beach morphology
 Storm beaches the result of constructive waves during stormy weather
 Berms – small ridges built up by constructive waves during calm weather
 Cusps – the product of destructive waves eroding berms
 Offshore bars formed by persistent destructive waves

Q19. Identify the sources of beach material.

Erosion processes

Waves cause erosion. Erosion is not necessarily a continuous process it occurs mostly during storms
when:
 Waves approach the beach at right angles
 Tide is high
 Heavy rainfall has weakened the rock
 Debris at the foot of the cliff has been removed and no longer protects the base of the cliff

Q20. Why does most erosion take place during storms?

There are 4 types of marine erosion:

Hydraulic action – air trapped in joints and cracks is compressed by the waves
Abrasion – sediment carried by the waves has a wearing down effect
Attrition – The wearing down of sediment by the waves
Solution – carbonate rocks such as limestone are dissolved by rain water, sea spray and seawater

Erosional landforms

The diagram above shows the classic erosional landforms produced by marine erosion with well-
defined bedding planes and joints. These landforms are produced amongst more resistant rocks.
Softer rocks would be too weak to form these erosive landforms.
Perhaps the most crucial feature is the wave cut notch formed by the processes of hydraulic action
and abrasion. As the notch becomes deeper the rocks overhanging it become unstable and
eventually collapse. As this process repeats the cliff retreat inland.

Revision activity: Be sure you know a location where erosional landforms occur.

Q21: Explain the sequence of erosional landforms that starts with a cave and finished with a stack.

Marine transport and deposition

Sediment transportation

4 ways of transportation:
Traction – heavier sediment rolls along the sea floor
Saltation – sandy particles bounce along the sea floor
Suspension – Fine sediment such as sand is carried by the water
Solution – dissolved sediment is carried in the water as solution

Currents: Flows of seawater in a particular direction driven by wind, tides, and differences in
density, salinity and temperature

Most transport takes place along the coast as opposed to into and away from the shore. This is
known as longshore drift.

Exam tip: Remember that wave direction is determined by the direction of the wind. This means LSD
direction is determined by the prevailing wind.
Q22: Is longshore drift a current? Give your reasons
Depositional features

The main depositional features are:

 Bayhead beach: an accumulation of sand at the head of sheltered water between two
headlands
 Spit: a sand or shingle beach ridge extending beyond the curve in a coastline
 Recurved hooked spit: a spit built out into a bay or estuary, the end of which curves
landward into shallow water
 Bar: a sand or shingle beach extending across a coastal indentation with a lagoon behind
 Tombolo: a sand or shingle bar that attaches an offshore island to the mainland
 Cuspate foreland: a triangular area of shingle extending out from a shoreline, possibly
formed by LDS from opposing directions

Sediment cells

Recognising sediment cells and understanding how they work is fundamental to the management of
the coast, particularly at a time of climate and population change where there is much pressure on
the coast. Sediment cells are long stretches of coastline that operate as almost self-sustaining
physical systems. In each sediment cell there are inputs where sediment is generated e.g. eroding
cliffs, transfer zones (flows), which are where sediment is moved by LSD and currents, and sinks
(outputs), locations where the dominant process is deposition e.g. spits.

Revision activity: make notes about one of the sediment cells around the UK coast, preferably one
on a stretch of coast you know about first-hand

Sub-aerial processes

Weathering and mass movement are processes which affect most coastlines.
Weathering: The decomposition and disintegration of rocks in site by the combined processes of
the weather, plants and animals
Mass movement: A collective term for the processes responsible for the downslope movement of
weathered material under the influence of gravity

There are 3 main types of weathering:

 Mechanical – the breakdown of rock by a physical force
 Chemical – involving a chemical reaction and decomposition
  Biological – the actions of bacteria, plants and animals which speed up mechanical
weathering
Weathering is determined by the climate in that area – temperature and precipitation

Q23: What type of weathering prevails in hot, humid parts of the world?
Q24: Where in the world is mechanical weathering most effective? Why?

Mass Movement

Mass movement can be classified in different ways:

 Rock falls occur where rock on a cliff being undercut by the sea is weakened by weathering.
Falls can be sudden and spectacular
 Rotational slides are slow downslope movements of a mass of rock or debris over a curved
plane. They are particularly common where a permeable rock e.g. sandstone overlies and
unstable impermeable rock e.g. clay. Water passing through the permeable rock lubricates
the junction with the underlying impermeable rock, thus facilitating the sliding
 Landslides are sudden downslope surges occurring where weathered rock and soil become
saturated and lubricated by water
The distinctive coastal landforms created by mass movement include screes (the product of
mechanical weathering on an exposed rock face), rotational scars (the outcome of slumping) and
cliff terraces (the result of rotational sliding).

Q25: What is the difference between a) rock falls and rotational slides, b) screes and cliff terraces?

Coastal risks

Sea level change

Sea levels change on a day to day basis as a result of tides, changes in air pressure and winds. Sea
level changes are very short term. However, over long time scales, sea level changes are more
permanent and the outcome of complex factors. Part of the complexity is that a change in sea level
can bring about by a change either in land level (isostatic change) or in the volume of sea (eustatic
change).
Long term changes

A marine regression results from a eustatic fall in sea level (as during glacial periods when water
becomes locked up in ice or snow) and isostatic fall in sea level (when ice sheets melt and sea level
rises). Both movements expose the sea bed and produce an emergent coast.

Features of an emergent coastline

Emergent and submerging coastlines

A marine transgression results from a eustatsic rise in sea level (at the end of a glacial period) and an
isostatic rise in sea level (when land sinks under the weight of accumulated snow and ice). In both
cases, large areas of land are submerged beneath the sea, producing a submergent coast. The Ria
coastline is on of the best examples of such a coast.

This animation shows the formation of a Ria

http://www.jeron.je/anglia/learn/sec/geog/coastal/page02.htm

Q26: What are barrier islands and how are they formed?

Contemporary sea level change

Sea levels are rising globally and most scientists attribute this to global warming. The current rise is
about 2mm per year. This is due to:
1. Thermal expansion of the oceans as they are warmed by a changing climate
2. Ice sheet melt increasing the volume of water
In some locations coastlines are being lifted or dropped by earthquakes. E.g. 2004 Sumatran tsunami
caused coastline to drop by 1 metre in some areas whilst other areas rose by 2 metres!

Coastal recession

Rapid recession
Rapid coastal recession threatens people, property and livelihoods. Caused by:
 Long wave fetch and destructive waves
 Strong LSD
 Soft geology
 Cliffs with structural weakness vulnerable to weathering and mass movement
It can also be accelerated by humans:
 Dredging the offshore sea bed for sand and gravel
 Dams reducing the supply of sediment
 Construction of groynes
Coastal recession and erosion are not constant even in areas such as Holderness or California which
suffer rapid retreat. Changes in weather account for much of this variation in erosion.

Synoptic theme: The actions of players may alter the natural system of the coast, either deliberately
by reclaiming marshes or inadvertently by constructing groynes to prevent LSD.

Remember climate change is not to blame for erosion but instead is accelerating what is already
under way.

Q27: How is it that river dams constructed a long way from the coast can contribute to erosion?

Coastal flooding

Factors
Coastal flooding is another significant and increasing risk along low lying coasts. High risk areas
include plains, estuaries and deltas. The risk is increased by:
 Rising sea levels
 Human actions e.g. removal of coastal vegetation such as mangroves. Building of tourist
resorts and the general pressure from a growing coastal population. Asia’s 6 mega deltas are
home to more than 100,000,000 “at risk” people

Storm surges: are short term rises in sea level caused by low pressure and are a particular hazard in
low lying coastal areas

The North Sea is particularly

vulnerable to storm surge

Revision activity: Be sure to have examples of islands e.g. Maldives and delta areas e.g.
Bangladesh that are particularly exposed to coastal flooding
Climate change

It is important to remember that storm surges and low pressure systems have always been an issue.
The concern is the magnitude and intensity of these events will be intensified by global warming. It is
likely that coastal flooding will be more of a threat in the future.
Synoptic theme: The risks associated with global warming are resulting in uncertainty. This means
devising mitigation and adaptation strategies is very important and these actions involve a variety
of players.

Q28: What causes storm surges?

Coastal management

Risk and consequences for communities

The risks of coastal recession and flooding look set to continue into the future. The costs will fall into
three areas – can you SEE them
Social costs: relocation, health, stress, hardship
Economic costs: loss of property, loss of farmland and infrastructure damage
Environmental costs: Loss of habitats and ecosystems

The increasing global population is going to increase these risks. In many areas of the world rising
sea levels will be managed by building higher flood walls and stronger sea defences. There will be
locations where the situations unmanageable. Most at risks are islands such as the Maldives. Here
land will have to be abandoned this will create environmental refugees. The big question is where
these refugees will go?

Q29: Do you agree that the consequences of coastal change for communities is directly proportional
to the density of the population on the coastal zone?

Different approaches to managing coastal risks

Hard engineering
This involves using concrete, steel and stone to protect coastal communities:
 Sea walls made of reinforced concrete
 Rip rap huge boulders placed at the base of the sea wall
 Rock breakwaters built by huge boulders offshore
 Revetments stone, timber or concrete structures interlocking on sand dune faces or mud
banks
 Groynes
Only the sea wall is widely used in the context of coastal flooding. All others are to deal with erosion.
Hard engineering has advantages and disadvantages:
 It is obvious to people at risk that something is being done to protect them
 It can be a one off action that lasts for decades
 Construction and maintenance costs are high
 Hard engineering can fail
 Visually unattractive
 It can adversely affect coastal systems
 Defences in one location have an adverse affect on other areas of coast e.g. groynes affect
areas further along the coast in the direction of LSD.
Soft engineering
Soft engineering aims to work with natural processes to reduce the risks of erosion and flooding.
This gives it 2 key advantages over hard engineering it is less visually intrusive and less expensive
over the long term.

Examples of soft engineering include:

 Beach nourishment: topping up beaches with sediment transported from elsewhere
 Cliff stabilisation. Planting vegetation through a flexible membrane that holds soil and rock
in place.
 Dune stabilisation: Dunes are an effective form of coastal defence but alas are easily
degraded. They can be stabilised by planting marram grass and constructing dune fencing
Revision activity: Make a table which shows the economic and environmental advantages and
disadvantages of hard and soft engineering approaches. Then rank and justify the approaches in
terms of their sustainability.

Synoptic theme: Remember that human intervention or action in the coastal system is likely to have
impacts elsewhere. These impacts may be unforeseen and have indirect consequences e.g.
accelerating erosion at other parts of the coast.

Sustainable coastal management

The increasing threats of rising sea levels and increasing storm frequency call for a more
comprehensive approach to the management of the coast. This approach needs to be sustainable in
ensuring that the coast and all its inhabitants have a reasonably secure future. This requires making
use of a concept called integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)

Mnaging natural
resources to
ensure long term
productivity

Managing flood
monitoring coastal
and erosion risk
change and
where possible or
adapting to
relocating to safe
unexpected trends
areas

sustainable
coastal
management

Educating
Creating new
communities to
livlihoods before
understand why
ones are lost to
change is needed
the sea
and how to adapt

Adapting to rising
sea levels by
relocating ,
alternative
building methiods
and water supplies
Synoptic theme: Coping with increased storm events and rising sea levels calls for imaginative
mitigation and adaptation strategies to ensure the future of the present coast

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)

Key Concept

ICZM dates from the Rio earth summit in 1992. It has 3 key features:

1. That the entire coastal zone needs to be managed, not just the zone where breaking
waves are causing erosion or flooding
2. The importance of the coastal zone to peoples livelihoods and well being
3. The need to make management of the coast sustainable
So ICZM is a joined up holistic approach to coastal management which must:
 Plan for the long term
 Involve all stakeholders and ensure they have a say in policy decisions
 Follow an adaptive approach to unforeseen changes
 Try to work with natural processes not against them

ICZM works well in the concept of littoral cells (sediment cells), which are natural subdivisions of
the coastline containing sediment sources, transport paths and sinks. Each cell is isolated from
adjacent cells and can be manged as a holistic unit. The coast can be divided into littoral cells and
each managed as an integrated unit

The coastline of England and Wales has 11 cells

Each cell is managed by shoreline management plans
(SMP). The hard part of the ICZM is deciding what
action to take and it has 4 different options:

1. No active intervention – the coast is left to

erode or flood
2. Hold the line – build coastal defences that
ensure the coastline remains the same over
time
3. Managed realignment – allow the coastline to
change but in a controlled way sometimes
called managed retreat
4. Advance the line – build new defences on the
seaward side of exsisting defences and reclaim
the land.

Revision activity: Note stretch of coastline where the

different options are being applied
The choice of management options is generally not straightforward and depends on a number of
factors:

 The economic value of the coast

 The technical feasibility of different engineering solutions
 The environmental sensitivity
 The cultural and ecological value of the land being protected
 Pressure from local communities, developers and environmental groups

Any decisions also needs to be informed by the results of investigation such as a cost benefit analysis
(CBA) and environmental impact assessment (EIA).

It is clear that the ICZM rarely pleases everyone. There are embedded conflicts of interest. This
conflict will be made worse by the limited funds available to councils and government. This means
coastal managers have to decide which areas should be protected and which should be ignored.

In developed countries there are good frameworks for effective coastal management. The same
cannot be said for developing countries, despite the risks of coastal erosion and flooding and
growing coastal populations, many large cities with great economic wealth are concentrated in
coastal zones!

Revision activity: Make sure you have examples which show different coastal management
approaches. Make sure for your different examples you can explain who are the winners and losers
from the decisions made. Make sure you can put forward a balanced and well-reasoned discussion
in relation to your examples.

Synoptic theme: It is unfortunate that not all players in coastal environments share the same
viewpoints. What different players seek ranges from exploitation to conservation and this creates
conflicts. Players with more power will often determine the future of coastal areas.

Q30: What are sediment cells and why is it important that coastal management recognises the
existence of such cells?

Skills reminder: You will have skills questions on all your exams make sure you are familiar with
the following skills:

Interpreting GIS maps and satellite imagery

 Field sketching
 Field measurements in relation to beach characteristics and coastal vegetation
 Measurements of central tendency
 Students T test
 Index of diversity
 Cost benefit analysis
 Environmental impact assessment
Exam practice

1. Name one type of mass movement that occurs on sea cliffs [1]
2. Explain the origin of sand dunes [4]
3. Explain the causes and consequences of storm surges [6]
4. Assess the value of soft engineering approaches to the management of coastal erosion [12]
5. Explain the importance of coastal vegetation [6]
6. Explain how waves affect beach morphology [8]
7. Assess the risks and threats posed by the current rise in sea level [20]

Summary

You should now have an understanding of:

 The physical and human importance of the coast

 The physical variety of coastlines and the significance of geology
 The role of coastal vegetation
 The impacts of waves on the coast
 Coastal erosion and its landforms
 Coastal deposition and its landforms
 Sub-aerial processes at work on the coast
 Coastal risks and threats – sea levels changes, cliff recession, storm surges and flooding
 The human consequences of coastal recession and flooding
 Hard, soft and sustainable management of the coast
 ICZM
 Examples of sample stretches of coastline in the UK and developing world
Regeneration
This topic focuses on the economic and social changes affecting places, particularly within the UK
and the need for regeneration that arises from these changes. Regeneration is aimed at reviving the
flagging economies of these places and improving the QoL of local people. There are two key
concepts running through this topic:

Place is a part of geographical space with a distinctive character and identity felt by local inhabitants.
The sense of each and every place derives from a unique mix of external connections, natural and
human features of the landscape and the people who inhabit it.

Regeneration involves positively transforming the economy of a place that has displayed the
symptoms of decline, making it viable and sustainable. It frequently goes hand in glove with
rebranding and reimagining.

(Rebranding is changing people’s perception of a place and reimagining is changing the reputation of
a place)

Q1: What is regeneration and why is it such an important issue in the UK

How and why do places vary?

Places are shaped by internal and external connections (connection is any type of physical, social or
online linkage between places – places may keep or change characteristics as a result).

Internal connections: between people, employment, services and housing

External connections: such as government policies and globalisation

Place identity is strongly influenced by what people do for a living. The economic function will affect
what type of work on offer and that will in turn affect the type of employee. Compare for example
the labour needs of a coastal resort such as Lyme Regis with those of an industrial town such as
Yeovil.

Economies vary from place to place

Classifying economies and workers

A key factor in the creation and survival of places is their economy. This will affect important aspects
such as identity, income and lifestyles, as well as the socio-economic composition of the local
population.

There are 4 key employment sectors, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. The emergence of
the quaternary sector has been recent (1975). The UK has seen employment decline in primary and
secondary sectors linked to deindustrialisation and the global shift in manufacturing. The tertiary
sector now dominates employment in most places.
 Deindustrialisation: The process of economic and social change due to the industrial decline in
areas. A process widely displayed in the developed world with the shift of manufacturing to
emerging economies.

Q2: How has sectoral employment in the UK changed in the past 150 years?

The type of employment found in all sectors can be classifies in several different ways:
 Part time/full time
 Temporary/permanent
 Employed/self employed
The workers themselves can also be classified as:
 Employees with contracts permanent or fixed
 Agency staff and volunteers
 Self employed
 Skilled/semi-skilled/unskilled
Exam tip: Make sure you know all the employment sectors and types of worker and how the
sectoral balance of the UK has changed

Social impacts
The different types of worker and sector have a profound impact on people lives:
 Health: e.g. long working hours in manual jobs such as construction lead to an increased risk
of accidents and poor health
 Life expectancy: there is a whole range of work related factors here such as stress or
exposure to risk
 Education: children from poor working class families still tend to under achieve and are less
likely to go to university
 Lifestyles: higher wages means more disposable income will be spent on luxuries

Inequality: is the outcome of uneven distributions. In this topic we focus on the uneven economic and social
distributions that exist in communities and societies. For example unequal distribution of wealth or social
opportunities. Regeneration aims to tackle these inequalities but they are resistant to remedies.
Income inequalities

Inequalities in pay levels are linked to differences in types of employment, some types of work e.g.
professional are more highly paid than others e.g. manual. There are huge disparities in income and
cost of living both nationally and locally. This has always been the case but the trend is that these
inequalities are increasing.

Quality of life: The level of social and economic well being experienced by individuals and
communities, measured by various indicators such as life expectancy, educational achievement etc.
This is closely linked to salary. This related to the fact that many of the things that contribute to
quality of life are goods (e.g. housing and household equipment) and services (transport and leisure)
that have to pay for.

Factors affecting QoL and inequality

Factors and processes Possible measures

Economic inequality. Employment/unemployment rates and types
Employment opportunities Average incomes
work and income Purchasing power
Pound shop and loan shop surveys
Land use surveys
Social inequality. Segregation Age, gender, health, disability and educational data from the ONS
of people and marginalisation (census)
or exclusion of sub groups www.police.uk
Zoopla
Village community centre activities e.g. play groups or elderly
groups
Place check
Service inequality. Health Functional surveys of services (e.g. high/low order etc)
facilities, public transport, food Bus timetable survey
access Supermarket and shop location surveys
Environmental inequality ONS (census) – central heating provision
Pollution levels, derelict land Building quality surveys
and access to open space have Environmental quality surveys
impacts on people’s well being
Q3: Distinguish between social and service inequalities
Q4: What economic factor most affects quality of life justify your choice

Changing function and characteristic

Functional and demographic changes

Over time the functions of a place change and therefore their economies change also. Traditionally
urban places have been involved in one or more of four key functions: administrative, commercial,
industrial and services. Historically high order functions such as banks and council offices have been
located in larger settlements whilst low order functions such as post offices can be found in smaller
settlements.

However commercial functions are now changing rapidly because of the internet and broadband
speed. Retail functions have changed massively due to online shopping.
Whilst places change what they do so do their populations. Usually the function change influences
the population change. Typical demographic changes include:
 Trends increasing or decreasing populations
 Rates of change
 Increasing ethnicity
 Age and gender imbalances
 Socio-economic structure changing in response to processes such as deindustrialisation,
gentrification, deprivation and studentification

Gentrification: The movement of middle class people into rundown inner city areas, resulting in an
improvement in housing stock and image
Deprivation: A condition when a person’s wellbeing generally falls below what is regarded as a
reasonable minimum.
Studentification: Social and economic and environmental change brought about by a
concentration of students in areas close to universities.

Measuring change
Changes in places can be measured by:
 Land use conversions
 Employment changes
 Demographic changes
 Changes in deprivation
The last of these is very important and can be measured using the IMD (index multiple derivation).
You can find out how deprived where you live is at http://imd-by-
postcode.opendatacommunities.org/

Q5: Which employment trends would best show how a place has changed?

Places and their connection

For this part of your revision you need examples:
 NE England
 M4 corridor
 London
 Bristol
 Somerset

Revision activity: Create a mindmap using the heading below which realtes to specific changes in
these places. The changes should focus on:

 Regional and national connections

 International and global connections

Physical environment Heritage Buildings Spaces

Cultural change Local customs Socio-economic Population
groups
Politics Services Employment Ethnicity

Your mind map should address to what extent these connections have brought about change in
your places and how these changes have impacted upon people?
 Synoptic theme: Places in the UK and elsewhere in the world are increasingly being influenced by
two major players: TNCs and IGOs. This is part of globalisation

Your place investigation in the previous revision activities should be guided by 4 groups of questions:
 Those that establish the initial identities of your chosen place
 Those about how their economic and social characteristics have been shaped by regional
and national connections
 Those about how their economic and social characteristics have been shaped by
international and global connections
 Those about how economic and social change has influenced the identities of people living
in those places.

Revision activity: Now turn your mind map into a table

Place 1 e.g. Bristol Place 2 e.g. Somerset

Place identity
Regional and national
influences
International and global
influences
Peoples identities

Synoptic theme: Attitudes towards places change and can very polarised by those who view change
as bad as damages heritage and those who see it as good as it enriches people’s lives

Q6: To what extent have the connections of your two places changed?

The need for regeneration

Remember regeneration is an exercise in economic improvement. The hope is that improvement will
attract investment and create jobs. From this there will hopefully be spin off social benefits. There
are two particular challenges associated with regeneration:

Challenge 1: Persuading people that regeneration is needed

Challenge 2: Agreeing what would be the most appropriate and effective form of regeneration

Both challenges are made more difficult by the fact that people differ in so many ways, particularly
in their lived experience, their attachments to a place and their perceptions of place.

Inequalities and perceptions

Key concept:

Lived experience is the experience of living in a particular place. This can have a profound effect on
people perceptions, values and identity. The length of time someone lives in an area can influence their
place attachment and then how they will involve themselves in regeneration.
The economic and social inequalities that lie rooted in employment and different levels of income
effect people’s perception of a place. Place has a huge impact on us all.

Successful places

Places deemed as successful tend to be characterised by:

 High rates of employment
 High rates of in migration
 Low levels of deprivation
Such places can be self-sustaining as more people and investment are drawn to the opportunities
created. However there are negatives (known as externalities):
 Increased property prices
 Congestion
 Overburdened services such as health and education
The perception of residents in such places may differ:
 Younger people in high earning jobs will enjoy the fast pace of life and opportunities
 Unskilled people, lower earners and the long term unemployed will have more negative
views
 Retirees may view them as to busy and look to other perhaps less successful places with a
slower pace of life and improved access to healthcare

REMEMBER: Different people will have different views on what makes a successful place. London is a
successful place for some but not for others!

Revision activity: Make notes on our successful place which is the M4 corridor:
Where is it?
Key facts
What factors have made it successful?
What problems does it have?

Less successful places

Economic inequality and technological change breed less successful places. The example of a less
successful place we studied is Middlesbrough in North East England. Less successful places have:
 High levels of unemployment and deprivation
 Derelict buildings
 Graffiti
 Crime
Less successful places are perceived less favourably. The lived experience is often poor and people
do not have as many strong attachments to their place. Less successful places often get drawn into a
spiral of decline
Revision activity: Make notes on North East England as an example of a less successful place. This
should include facts which show it is less successful, the factors which caused it to be less successful.

In areas that are less successful we can often find sink estates these are housing estates
characterised by high levels of poverty, deprivation and crime, such as domestic violence, drugs and
gangs.

Priorities for regeneration

Economic and social inequalities create the need for regeneration. There are significant variations in
different places and this impacts the need for regeneration. Gate

Priorities for regeneration

Sink estates Have a high levels of economic and social deprivation and this can lead to
high levels of deprivation. In Redruth, Cornwall a small housing estate has
1/3 of residents claiming government benefits
Declining rural Have huge levels of out migration particularly amongst the young. As
settlements people move out they lose services and this can be a particular problem
for the elderly or disabled. Approx. 400 village shops close each year in
Britain
Commuter villages As commuters move into villages, house prices rise. This causes problems
for local residents who rent as they can be priced out. Also incomers
create congestion on the roads. Services in commuter villages also don’t
always benefit as commuters often use services in nearby towns and cities.
Q7: Suggest three priorities for regeneration

The lived experience of place and engagement

Levels of engagement
One aspect of the lived experience that affects place attachment is the level of engagement. This is
the degree in which a person participates in their local community and the degree in which they feel
they belong to a place. It can be indicated by:
 Number of people who vote in local elections
 Membership and participation in local societies
 Having a circle of local friends

Age and length of

redience in a place

Ethnicity non Levels of

white British may deprivation.
differ in their Private renters
views, this will be Levels of
influenced by and those on
enegagement
length of low incomes
residence in a impacts levels of
place enegagement

Gender staying at home with children

can influence engagement with a
place

The opposite of engagement is marginalisation. This is the social process of being made to feel
excluded from the rest of society which can lead to the development of an underclass. The factors
that can affect engagement can also affect the degree of marginalisation e.g. age, gender, and
ethnicity.

Q8: What makes people feel marginalised and excluded?

Lived experience and place attachment

Lived experience and place attachment vary from person to person.

Conflicts
Conflicts often occur within groups in a community, largely because they hold differing views about
the priorities for regeneration. These can be caused by:
 Lack of involvement in politics
 Ethnic tensions
 Social inequality
 Lack of economic opportunities
Synoptic theme: Players may vary in their differing approaches to urban regeneration and favour
contrasting approaches. These attitudes are influenced by degree of attachment.
Q9: What factors influence a person’s place attachment?
Evaluating the need for regeneration

It is quite possible for people living in the same place to have contrasting views about the need for
regeneration. In the places you have studied consider the degree to which this is evident?

Economic: types of
employment,
unemployment,
property values
Environmental:
dereliuct land, closed
Social: ethinicity,
up shop[s, pollution,
education, healthcare
lack of green space,
transport provision

The need for

regeneration

With regards the two places you have investigated. You should have:
 Used statistical evidence to determine the need for regeneration
 Used different methods to question the need for regeneration
 Identified the factors that influence the perceived need for regeneration

Key point: The most powerful factor is unemployment the environmental and social criteria are spin
offs from this

Revision activity: Research the proposed third runway at Heathrow and HS2 and make notes on
pros and cons of each one.

Exam tip: Make sure you have examples to support your answers. A Level exam questions require
examples

How is regeneration managed?

The role of national government

Investment in infrastructure
Infrastructure is the basic physical systems of a place. Economic infrastructure includes: roads;
energy distribution, water and sewage facilities and telecommunications. Social infrastructure
includes: schools, housing and hospitals.
In the UK the government plays a key role in regeneration through investment in national transport
infrastructure. The idea is that accessibility is key to successful regeneration. Not only is it likely that
investment will flow to places with improved infrastructure, good transport infrastructure is also
important for the sustainability of that investment. A current example is HS2 a high speed rail link
that will help regenerate parts of northern England.
Factors affecting regeneration policy

Quality of the
government

History of teh area Politics of the area

Regeneration
policy
External factors
urban or rural such as global
recessions

degree of pump Legacy of past

priming needed regeneration

Domestic policies
Government policy can also help stimulate regeneration in other ways:
 Relaxing planning laws on developing greenfield sites
 Providing incentives for house building
 Allowing fracking in the hope that it might play a part in the regeneration of rural areas

International policies
The government can also pursue policies at an international level that have an impact on
regeneration:
 Deregulating capital markets to encourage foreign and private investment in regeneration
schemes
 Immigration: There is tension here between the job generating focus of regeneration and
the availability of migrant workers – who can both create jobs for local people but also take
jobs from local people and supress wages
Key point: National governments invest in large infrastructure projects because of the perceived
benefits they may have for places

Synoptic theme: National governments are influential players in regeneration but they must
encourage and involve investors and developers to make sure regeneration is self-sustaining. They
have the power to override the views of some of the players involved.

Q10: How does the UK government play a key role in regeneration?

The role of local government

Local plans
The main task for local government is to create an environment sympathetic to the needs of
business which will then support regeneration. One of the most obvious ways is to have a local plan
that clearly designates areas for redevelopment, e.g. retail, science or industrial parks. This is
perhaps the most important decision local government has to make. What should be the lead
activity heading up regeneration? Retail? Tourism? Sport? Leisure and recreation?

Regeneration strategies

Regeneration strategy Example

Technology led regeneration to attract new Bristol temple quarter, Cambridge science park
investment and economic opportunity
Sport and culture led regeneration to attract Olympic park London
investment and create green spaces and leisure
facilities
Retail led regeneration Liverpool ONE, Cabot’s Circus
Heritage tourism Titanic quarter in Belfast
Themed events such as music festivals Notting Hill carnival, Harbour festival in Bristol,
Glastonbury
Improving building stock Bristol Harbourside
New settlements Milton Keynes
Sustainable communities BedZED
Infrastructure HS2, Heathrow 3rd runway

Revision activity: You need to have 3 examples from above in your notes; these should have detail
in terms of how the regeneration was managed and also potential impacts.

Local support
Local governments will hope to receive local support for their regeneration schemes, as for example
the local chamber of commerce or trade unions. However, everyone knows that such schemes will
not be acceptable to everyone. Some local groups will inevitably prefer preservation and things
staying the same whilst others will welcome change and this can create tension and conflict.

Synoptic theme: The success of regeneration schemes hinge on the actions of local authorities.
But their attitudes to regeneration may clash with other players and lead to conflict. Make sure
you have an example of this taking place.
Q11. Describe ways local governments can try to attract inward investment

Rebranding

A new look
The process or rebranding and re-imaging attempts to make areas look attractive to potential
investors, clients and local people. This involves changing the appearance of a place as well as
people perception of a place.

Rebranding deindustrialised places

Rebranding often focusses on the attractiveness of a place. This is possible even for places bearing
the scars of deindustrialisation either by comprehensive redevelopment and giving a place totally
new identity e.g. London Docklands or capitalising on a places industrial heritage e.g. Telford. An
added possibility is using the regenerated places for prestigious national and international events.

Rural rebranding strategies

The 21st century has seen a new rural economy develop, with rural areas becoming more like urban
areas with their activities. A wide range of tried and tested strategies have emerged to rebrand rural
areas:
 Capitalising on heritage or literary associations e.g. Bronte country in Yorkshire
 Farm diversification e.g. specialised agricultural products such as buffalo meat or converting
to other uses such as farm buildings becoming tourist accommodation or farmland
becoming campsites
 Outdoor sports
 Adventure tourism
 Telecottaging

Revision activity: Make sure you have notes on both urban and rural examples of rebranding.
Create mind maps which show the strategies used any evidence of success and problems.
Q12: What evidence do you have of rebranding in your place studies?

Key concept: Legacy refers to

Assessing the success of regeneration
the long term effects of
regeneration schemes. It can
Possible measures
The aim of regeneration is to create a legacy of increased employment and be positive or negative
Income and reduced poverty and deprivation.

Economic measures
The term regeneration indicates a long running process rather than a quick fix. Despite the political
pressures for speed.
Possible economic measures are:
 Employment, not just number of jobs but types of jobs
 Income – average earnings, business profits, number of households on benefits
 Poverty a declining incidence of the number of households on benefits
These and other measures may be used to assess the performance of regeneration in two different
ways:
1. To compare the same measures before and after regeneration
2. To compare the results of regeneration projects with similar projects elsewhere

Social progress
Social progress relates to how an individual and community improve their relative status in society.
It can be measured by:
 Reduction in inequalities between and within areas
 Reductions in deprivation (see IMD)
 Improvements in education and healthcare

Quality of the living environment

Regeneration targeted at the built environment attracts more people to live there. Hopefully, it will
have positive knock on effects on health. General improvements in aesthetics, security and safety
are often common components of regeneration programmes. The effect of these can be seen
through lowering pollution levels and reductions in the amount of derelict land.

One final and important point is to remember that not all regeneration projects are intended to be
quick fixes. For this reason, assessments of success or otherwise should not be attempted before the
regeneration has had time to bed down and reveal its strengths and weakness. This will take years.
Q13: Check that you understand the three main measures of regeneration success and provide
examples of each.
Key concept: stakeholder an individual or
Evaluation by urban stakeholders group with a particular interest in the
outcomes of a project
Stakeholders generally
In this section you need an example of urban regeneration. You must be specific to the actual place.
For this place you need to focus on the following:
 The contested nature of the regeneration proposal including stakeholders for and against
and their particular views
 The impact of national and local strategies in determining the nature of regeneration
 The evaluation of the regeneration by specific stakeholders

Making judgements about the success of regeneration in any place involves not just the actual
decision makers but also those of the stakeholders. In most situations the stakeholders fall into four
categories:
1. Providers could be landowners, investors or contractors
2. Users those who stand to gain or lose
3. Governance, local and national government
4. Influencers – action groups or political parties
Factors influencing the perception of success
The above min

Personal
attachements

Personal
media experiences
coverage of change

Perception
of success
Stance
towards Gender
change

Age Ethnicity

The above mind map shows that each particular stakeholder will have their own perception and
opinion on what makes success and failure. They will have their own interests and agendas. They will
have their own ideas for what makes a successful scheme. Each stakeholder will arrive at their own
verdict.

The table on the next page shows the factors that influence these views.
 Viewpoints Roles
National Reconciling different interests Planning permission
government Long term national goals take priority Pump priming to start large nationally
important developments
Local councils Tackling inequality in their area Small regeneration schemes
Make local planning decisions Soft management helping
Must consider the SEE needs regeneration e.g. alcohol free zones
Developers Profit above all else Funding of schemes
Local business Views will vary based upon how the Invest in schemes
regeneration will affect their customer Lobby councils
base
Local The silent majority may be Lobby councils
communities represented by a few willing to give up Vote for political parties
their time to be involved in a pressure Form pressure groups
group. Broadwater farm is an example
of many players working together

Different stakeholders have different levels of power and influence they are NOT all equal

Q14: Check you understand the difference between the four types of stakeholder.

Revision activity: Make notes on an urban regeneration scheme under these three headings:
Contested nature (conflicts between stakeholders
Impact of national and local policies
Evaluation by different stakeholders

Evaluation by rural stakeholders

Stakeholders in a rural regeneration project

As with the last section you also need an example of rural regeneration. Again you must be specific
to the actual place. For this place you need to focus on the following:
 The contested nature of the regeneration proposal including stakeholders for and against
and their particular views
 The impact of national and local strategies in determining the nature of regeneration
 The evaluation of the regeneration by specific stakeholders

Making judgements about the success of regeneration in any place involves not just the actual
decision makers but also those of the stakeholders. In most situations the stakeholders fall into four
categories:
5. Providers could be landowners, investors or contractors
6. Users those who stand to gain or lose
7. Governance, local and national government
8. Influencers – action groups or political parties
Factors influencing the perception of success
 Personal
attachements

Personal
media experiences
coverage of change

Perception
of success
Stance
towards Gender
change

Age Ethnicity

The above mind map shows that each particular stakeholder will have their own perception and
opinion on what makes success and failure. They will have their own interests and agendas. They will
have their own ideas for what makes a successful scheme. Each stakeholder will arrive at their own
verdict.

Viewpoints Roles
National Reconciling different interests Planning permission
government Long term national goals take priority Pump priming to start large nationally
important developments
Local councils Tackling inequality in their area Small regeneration schemes
Make local planning decisions Soft management helping
Must consider the SEE needs regeneration e.g. alcohol free zones
Developers Profit above all else Funding of schemes
Local business Views will vary based upon how the Invest in schemes
regeneration will affect their customer Lobby councils
base
Local The silent majority may be Lobby councils
communities represented by a few willing to give up Vote for political parties
their time to be involved in a pressure Form pressure groups
group. Broadwater farm is an example
of many players working together

Different stakeholders have different levels of power and influence they are NOT all equal

Revision activity: Make notes on an urban regeneration scheme under these three headings:
Contested nature (conflicts between stakeholders
Impact of national and local policies
Evaluation by different stakeholders
The Egan wheel can be used to help evaluate the success of regeneration. A regeneration project
can be scored on the various components of the Egan wheel. This will help determine if the project is
self-sustaining which is vital if regeneration is to be successful in the long term.

Q15: Check that you are able to provide examples of stakeholders and their views drawn from your
own place investigations.

Skill reminder – you should be familiar with the following skills

 Using GIS to investigate places

 Interpret oral accounts of lived experience
 Use of IMD
 Use social media to interpret people’s perceptions of the place in which they live
 Scatter graphs and spearman’s rank to test the strength of relationships
 Investigate newspaper resources to investigate contrasting views
 Use media images to show how a place has changed
 Use photographic and map evidence to show the before and after of a place
 Interrogate blogs to assess the success of regeneration
Exam practice

1. In which sector is retail [1]

2. Suggest one reason for the decline in the secondary sector in the UK [3]
3. Explain how economic restructuring had triggered social decline in places [4]
4. Explain the role of the UK government in the regeneration of places [6]
5. Assess the extent to which rebranding attempts to represent areas as being more attractive
6. Suggest how a national infrastructure project can benefit different parts of the UK [6]
7. Explain why different stakeholders have different views for judging the success of urban
regeneration [6]
8. Assess the extent to which the success of regeneration can lead to social progress and an
improvement in the living environment [20]

Summary
You should now have an understanding of:
 How economies can be classified and vary from place to place
 The way in which places change their functions and characteristics over time
 Past and present connections that shape the economic and social characteristics of a
place
 Economic and social inequalities that affect people’s perception of an area
 The significant variations in lived experience and places and the level of engagement
with them
 A range of ways to assess the need for regeneration
 UK government policy decisions which play a key role in regeneration
 Local government policies which aim to represent areas as being more attractive for
investment
 Rebranding attempts to represent places as being more attractive by changing people’s
perceptions of them
 How a range of measures is used to assess the success of regeneration: economic,
demographic, social and environmental
 The fact that urban stakeholders have different criteria for judging the success of
regeneration
 The fact that rural stakeholders have different criteria for judging the success of
regeneration
Globalisation

Globalisation is the process by which places and people become more connected with each other
than they used to be.

The causes and acceleration of globalisation

The acceleration of globalisation

Globalisation is the latest chapter in a long story of how people and states have become more
connected in 4 main ways:
Economic globalisation – through the growth of TNCs and ICT
Social globalisation – through international migration, global improvements in education and health
and social interconnectivity
Political globalisation – through the growth of trade blocs, free trade agreements and global
organisations
Cultural globalisation – through “successful” Western cultural traits dominating some areas,
glocalisation and hybridisation and the acceleration of circulation of ideas and information

TNCs – Business whose operations are spread across the world operating in many nations as both
makers and sellers of goods and services
Glocalisation – The changing of the design of products to meet local tastes or laws

Global connections, flows and interdependence

Modern globalisation differs from historic globalisation by:

 A lengthening of connections between people and places with products sourced from
further away than ever before
 A deepening of connections, with a sense of being connected to other people and places
now penetrating more deeply into almost every aspect of life
 Faster connections, with people able to talk to each other in real time, using new
technologies, or traveling quickly between continents using jet aircraft

Globalisation involves building up networks of places and their populations. The connections
between places represent different kinds of network flow. The flows are the movements of:
 Capital – at a global scale, major capital (money) flows are routed daily through the world’s
stock markets
 Commodities – valuable raw materials such as fossil fuels, food and minerals have always
been traded between nations
 Information – the internet has brought real time communication between distant places,
allowing goods and services to be bought at the click of a button
 Tourists – budget airlines have brought a pleasure periphery of distant places within easy
reach of rich tourists
 Migrants – the permanent movement of people still faces the greatest number of obstacles
due to border controls and immigration laws

Developments in transport and trade

We have seen massive improvements in transport which have facilitated a global growth in trade.
Some countries have maintained their competitive edge through continued transport innovation.

Transport Trade
Communications and Capitalist economies
transport technology always seeek to
have been improving maximise profits. ONe
for thousands of years. way to achieve this
Each new breakthrough involves conducting
has helped trade to research into transport
grow. Technilogical technology. The growth
improvements brings in trade further fosters
unexxpected ways in innovation in transport
which companies can technology
operate

Important innovations in transport have included:

 Steam power enabling the movement of goods and armies quickly along trade routes into
Africa and Asia
 Railways
 Jet aircraft making international travel quicker and cheaper
 Containerisation which is the backbone of trade with 200,000,000 individual container
movements taking place each year
These innovations have resulted in a shrinking world with distant places feeling closer and taking less
time to reach.
ICT and mobile phone use in the 21st century
Technology is used by different players in a vast array of ways that contribute to globalisation:
 Telephone and the telegraph are core technologies for communicating across distance
 Broadband and fibre optics allow enormous amounts of data to be transferred via undersea
cables across the ocean floor
 GIS and GPS: satellites continuously broadcast position and time data around the world
 The internet has connected people across the globe
Q1: How have developments in transport and trade contributed to a shrinking world?

The politics and economics of globalisation

The work of international organisations

Synoptic theme. 3 important intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) are major players in the
promotion of a global economy: World Bank, IMF and WTO. Other important players are TNCs and
national governments.
 IMF World Bank WTO
Role in Based in USA. Channels Lends money on a global Based in Switzerland the
globalisation loans from rich nations to scale and has HQ in USA. WTO advocates free trade
countries that apply for In 2015 $470 million was and the removal of tariffs.
help. In return the loaned to the Philippines It encourages countries to
recipients must agree to for a poverty reduction ban protectionist trade
run free market programme. The world policies
economies that are open bank also gives grants to
to outside investment. As developing countries to
a result TNCs can operate kick start economic
more easily. The USA and growth.
EU exert a lot of influence
over IMF policy
Evaluation IMF rules and regulations In total the world bank The WTO has failed to
can be controversial distributed $65 billion in stop the USA and EU from
especially the strict loans and grants in 2014. putting protectionist
financial conditions Like the IMF it also policies on their own
imposed on borrowing imposes strict neo-liberal producers. This is a
governments which may rules for countries particular problem when
be forced to cut back wanting to access these the USA and EU subsidise
spending on health and loans and grants. All their farmers. This means
education at a time of world bank presidents developing world famers
poor literacy rates and have been US citizens can’t compete as their
low life expectancy. countries have often
removed tariffs and
protectionism to access
world bank grants and
loans

Q2: How have IGOs contributed to globalisation?

The attitudes and actions of national governments

National governments are also players in globalisation and help promote the growth of the global
economy by:
 Promoting trade blocs which are voluntary agreements that encourage free trade between
member countries e.g. EU.
 Free market liberalisation for example lifting restrictions on the way companies and banks
operate
 Encouraging business start-ups and allowing TNCs to grow in size
 Privatisation allowing private companies to take over important national services such as
railways and energy
Exam tip: You need to know that the growth and spread of TNCs has been encouraged by national
governments

The spread of globalisation into new global regions

Special economic zones (SEZs). An industrial area often near a coastline where favourable conditions
are granted to TNC's e.g. Shenzhen
Foreign direct investment (FDI) a financial injection made by a business into another countries
economy either to build and invest or merge with a firm already located there
SEZs and FDI have played important roles in accelerating globalisation. This is well illustrated by the
case of China. Its open door policy has allowed urbanisation to fuel the growth of low wage
factories. These in turn have enabled China to become the “workshop of the world”. The worlds
largest TNCs were quick to establish plants or trade relationships with Chinese owned factories in
newly established SEZs. Today China is the world’s largest economy and this shows that free trade
can sometimes cure poverty.
Exam tip: Economic growth in China didn’t just happen it was carefully planned by the government

The effects of globalisation

Uneven globalisation
Globalisation has affected some places more than others. The unevenness is due to variations in the
policies and attitudes of governments – nota all governments favour globalisation – physical factors
such as the availability of resources and accessibility, and TNC assessments of where the best
business opportunities are.

Uneven levels of globalisation can be assessed using a variety of measures and indicators. The KOF
index uses data as diverse as involvement in the UN and number of TVs owned. The AT Kearney
ranks cities by their business activity, cultural experience and political engagement to determine
how well connected.

Most and least globalised places according to KOF index

TNCs and globalisation

TNCs want to build global business through:
 Offshoring or moving parts of their business to other countries to reduce costs
 Outsourcing contracting another company to produce the goods and services they need
rather than do it themselves
 Global production networks: setting up chains of connected suppliers that contribute to the
global assembly of a product
However some parts of the world have benefited far more from TNCs and FDI because not all places
are suitable places for the production of goods and services. In order to maximise profits many TNCs
have adapted their products to suit local tastes through a process of glocalisation. An example of this
would be McDonalds who sell a chicken big mac in India as beef is not eaten by people of the Hindu
faith.
Q3: List the ways that TNCs are important players in globalisation

A few of the very poorest nations remain very switched off from globalisation. This is due to a range
of political, physical and environmental reasons. A prime example would be North Korea or Sudan.
Q4: Why are some places switched off from globalisation?

Revision activities:
1. Give an example of a switched off and switched on place. You must explain why each
place is switched off or on to globalisation.
2. Make sure you understand why globalisation has accelerated in recent decades