Adaptive Loss-of-Field Protection Tailored

to the Generator Capability Curve

Matchyaraju Alla, Armando Guzmán, Dale Finney, and Normann Fischer

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Revised edition released March 2020

Originally presented at the

15th International Conference on Developments in Power System Protection, March 2020
 ADAPTIVE LOSS-OF-FIELD PROTECTION
TAILORED TO THE GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVE
Matchyaraju Alla1*, Armando Guzmán1, Dale Finney1, Normann Fischer1
1
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Pullman, Washington, USA
*[email protected]

Keywords: GENERATOR, CAPABILITY CURVE, FIELD, EXCITATION.

Abstract
Loss of field (LOF) occurs when the generator field winding provides insufficient excitation voltage for proper generator
operation, causing the generator to operate outside its desirable operating region. During an LOF condition, in cylindrical-rotor
(turbo) generators, the leakage flux flows perpendicular to the stator laminations, generating eddy currents that heat up the end
core of the stator. Fast disconnection of the generator during this condition minimizes the generator’s stress and maintains
power system stability. This paper presents implementation details of a generator protection scheme with characteristics
tailored to the generator capability curve (GCC) of the machine. The scheme provides improved generator protection and
simplifies the coordination of scheme elements with the generator underexcitation limiter (UEL) and the steady-state stability
limit (SSSL) of the generator.

1 Introduction
A complete or partial loss-of-field (LOF) condition can occur
because of an open or short circuit in the field circuit, an
excitation failure, an operation error, or such a power system
event as loss of auxiliary power supply services. Generator
loading and power system strength can impact the response of
the generator to LOF conditions. Potential generator damage
and/or loss of power system stability greatly depends on these
factors. Consequently, design and application of LOF
protection are one of the more challenging aspects of
generator protection.

1.1 Effect of an LOF on a Synchronous Generator

Reduction of the field current weakens the magnetic coupling
between the stator and rotor and can lead to a loss of
synchronism. If the generator loses synchronism, it will
overspeed and operate asynchronously. The pre-fault loading
is a determining factor in the final value of slip. Slip induces
damaging currents into the amortisseur (damper) windings of Fig. 1. The fringe flux (shown in red) between the stator-
the rotor and the body of the rotor. It can also induce high end-core region and the retaining ring increases when the
voltage into the field winding for an open field circuit, which rotor retaining ring comes out of saturation.
could result in insulation damage of the field winding. The
turbines that drive cylindrical-rotor generators are often very The fringe flux linking the stator core rotates at the generator
sensitive to overspeed and can be damaged quickly. While synchronous speed, but it is stationary with respect to the
slipping poles, the generator can absorb reactive power equal rotor. Therefore, the fringe flux causes circulation of eddy
to as much as twice its rated megavolt-amperes (MVA). This currents and losses in the stator-end-core laminations; there is
increase in power absorption can quickly overload the stator. neither circulation of eddy currents nor losses in the rotor
retaining rings.
Fig. 1 shows a cut-away view of a cylindrical-rotor generator.
When the field current decreases, the rotor retaining rings that The heat that the fringe flux generates can melt the stator-core
hold the field winding transition from a saturated state to an lamination within minutes. The heat that the stator-end-core
unsaturated state. As a result, the reluctances of the paths region can dissipate before being damaged determines the
between the core ends and the rotor decrease. This decrease reactive power that a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator
results in increased fringe, axial flux flowing between the can absorb. Hence, the stator end-core heating limit
stator-end-core regions and the rotor retaining rings [1]. (SECHL), not the stator current heating limit, determines the

1
reactive power lower limit of the generator capability curve 3. The generator type determines the GCC underexcited
(GCC) for cylindrical-rotor synchronous generators. Note that region limit (Segment ③ in Fig. 2): SECHL limits the
end-core heating, described previously, does not occur in
reactive power import of most cylindrical-rotor
salient-pole generators.
generators. The current rating (thermal limit) of the
stator winding limits the underexcited region of salient-
1.2 Effect of LOF on the Power System
pole generators. Salient-pole generators with direct-axis
During an LOF event, the generator draws significant reactive synchronous reactance, Xd, less than 1.0 pu only have
power to maintain the flux in the air gap between the
two limits (Segments ① and ② shown in Fig. 2).
generator stator and rotor. This reactive power consumption
can jeopardize power system stability. However, the SSSL is generally more restrictive than
the stator winding thermal limit of the generator and
Furthermore, a loss of synchronism can cause large pulsations therefore typically defines the generator underexcitation
in voltages and currents at the generator terminals and limit.
negatively impact system stability.

1.3 Adaptive Generator Protection Scheme

This paper (a shortened version of [2]) proposes an improved
generator protection scheme that consists of four protection
zones:
• Zone 1. A fast protection trip element with a straight-
line characteristic defined in the P-Q plane to detect
LOF conditions when the generator is consuming
significant reactive power.
• Zone 2. A delayed protection trip element with a
characteristic that can be tailored according to the
underexcitation limiter (UEL) characteristic.
Undervoltage conditions accelerate the operation of this
element.
• Zone 3. An alarm and trip element with a characteristic
defined in the P-Q plane based on the steady-state
stability limit (SSSL). This element is intended to trip
when the operating point enters Zone 3 and the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is operating in
manual mode or during undervoltage conditions.
• Zone 4. An alarm element with a characteristic defined
in the P-Q plane based on the GCC limits. This element
expands and contracts dynamically, using measurements
from the generator’s cooling system.
Fig. 2. GCCs for cylindrical-rotor and salient-pole-rotor
2 Generator Capability Curve generators.
The GCC defines the generator operating limits in the P-Q Synchronous generators can have multiple ratings depending
plane, as shown in Fig. 2. The following factors determine the on their coolant: ambient air or hydrogen. Generator
GCC: manufacturers specify the GCC based on coolant temperature
(ambient air) or pressure (hydrogen) typically above and
1. The current rating (thermal limit) of the field winding below the generator-rated temperature or pressure, as shown
imposes the limit on the generator reactive power export in Fig. 3. When the generator uses hydrogen, a greater coolant
capability (GCC overexcited region, Segment ① in pressure increases the operating range of the generator and
Fig. 2). vice versa.
2. The current rating (thermal limit) of the stator winding
imposes the limit on the generator active power output
at near unity power factor (Segment ② in Fig. 2).

2
 3.1 Zone 1 Trip Element
When an LOF condition occurs on a strong power system, the
system supplies the generator with reactive power. If the
generator is heavily loaded before the LOF condition, the
generator draws significant reactive power from the system.
This condition could impact generator stability as the
generator transitions from synchronous to asynchronous
operation. Zone 1 is defined in the P-Q plane as a straight
line, but it operates in the admittance plane. As shown in
Fig. 4, the operating point moves quickly into Zone 1 for
these loading conditions. Zone 1 is intended to operate
quickly for severe LOF events (e.g., open circuit in the field
winding).
The Zone 1 characteristic and delay can be set following the
traditional LOF element practice. The Zone 1 delay is
typically set short enough to prevent generator damage for an
LOF at full load, but long enough to avoid tripping it for
stable power swings [3] [4] [5].

3.2 Zone 2 Trip Element

The Zone 2 element operates for LOF events at light loads. It
also provides thermal protection during underexcited
operation. The UEL governs the underexcited operation of the
Fig. 3. GCC at nominal voltage of a 202 MVA, 15 kV, generator. There are a variety of UEL characteristics that have
0.9 pf, 3600 rpm, 60 Hz, hydrogen-cooled steam-turbine been modeled in [6]. In the P-Q plane, the UEL characteristic
generator for various hydrogen pressures. shifts proportionally to VTk, where VT is the terminal voltage
and k can be equal to 0, 1, or 2.
3 P-Q Plane-Based LOF Element For instance, the IEEE UEL1 characteristic is a circle that
changes according to VT2 (k = 2). The IEEE UEL2C
In this section, we describe a new LOF protection scheme characteristic is either a single straight line or a
based on the GCC defined in the P-Q plane. The scheme multisegmented characteristic; it can be configured to be
comprises three LOF protection zones and a GCC alarm zone, either independent of VT (k = 0), dependent on VT (k = 1), or
as shown in Fig. 4. dependent on VT2 (k = 2).
The Zone 2 element can be tailored according to the UEL
characteristic and includes a margin and a K-factor (k) setting
to coordinate with the UEL characteristic. Furthermore, the
Zone 2 element can adapt to changes in the generator cooling
capability if the UEL supports this adaptability.
Zone 2 delay is set short enough to prevent generator damage
for an LOF condition at low loads but long enough to avoid
tripping for stable power swings. A delay setting in the range
of 1 to 60 s is recommended. As with the impedance schemes,
the Zone 2 element can be set to have an accelerated trip
during field or terminal undervoltage conditions. A delay in
the range of 0.25 to 0.5 s may be used during undervoltage
conditions (VT < 0.8 pu as per [7]). Stable power swings or
UEL dynamic response can cause Zone 2 operation during
these conditions, so determination of an optimal delay setting
requires detailed power system studies [8].

3.3 Zone 3 SSSL Alarm and Trip Element

In weak power systems, the SSSL characteristic could
encroach into the GCC. For proper coordination, the Zone 3
element is based on the replica of the SSSL characteristic and
is set according to (1), where Xd and XS (the system
equivalent reactance) are settings. The Zone 3 characteristic is
Fig. 4. P-Q-based LOF function with four zones. defined as a circular segment in the P-Q plane bounded within

3
the 3rd and 4th quadrants. The characteristic is implemented does not trip the generator, so its delay can be set in the range
in this plane but operates in the admittance plane. Note that of 1–10 s to minimize the occurrence of spurious assertions.
some AVRs use (1) to implement the UEL characteristic.
Segment ③ of Zone 4 can be set between the UEL and
 *
j3• VT2   − j3• VT2  Zone 2 characteristics to issue an alarm before the operating
Z3
= Re   ( P + jQ ) −  •  − ( P + jQ )   (1)
pu
  XS   Xd

  point reaches Zone 2. Segment ③ dynamically coordinates
 
with the UEL and Zone 2 characteristics based on the
The Zone 3 characteristic always moves in synchronism with corresponding K-factor setting. A properly configured Zone 4
the SSSL characteristic, so it does not lose coordination with characteristic can also vary with the generator cooling
SSSL when VT changes. capability.
Zone 3 picks up and instantaneously alarms when the
operating point approaches or crosses the SSSL characteristic.
Because loss of steady-state stability may not occur when the
AVR and power system stabilizer are in service, the operator
can correct this alarm condition. Additionally, when Zone 3
picks up, it issues a trip command after a short delay if the
AVR operates in manual mode or VT < 0.8 pu.
Note that SSSL is meaningful when the AVR operates in
manual mode. If the AVR provides an indication that it is in
manual mode, this indication can be routed to the Zone 3
element to supervise tripping of the generator. Alternatively,
an actual loss of steady-state stability should be accompanied
by a significant undervoltage condition (VT < 0.8 pu) [7].
Therefore, Zone 3 includes a dedicated undervoltage
supervision element to accelerate tripping regardless of the
AVR operating mode. A pole slip can occur quickly, so the
delay should be set on the order of 0.25 s.
The traditional Zone 2 element of the impedance scheme in
[4] is often set to coordinate with the SSSL characteristic. In
the proposed scheme, Zone 3 is dedicated to coordinate with
the SSSL characteristic, and Zone 2 is dedicated to coordinate
with the UEL characteristic. Therefore, setting Zone 2
requires no compromise.

3.4 Zone 4 GCC Alarm Element Fig. 5. Adaptive GCC replica based on cooling capability.
The GCC alarm function uses the three segments identified as
①, ②, and ③ in Fig. 4 to implement a digital replica of the 3.5 Coordination of LOF Elements With the UEL
GCC. One of the algorithms in the scheme fits one curve for Characteristic During Terminal Voltage Variations
each segment of the GCC. Furthermore, the algorithm can The K-factor of Zone 2 and Segment ③ of Zone 4 allows for
model Segment ③ by using either piece-wise-linear or proper coordination with the UEL for VT changing
quadratic curve fitting to accommodate various GCCs with conditions.
either straight-line or circular characteristics. 3.5.1 UEL and LOF Characteristics for k = 0
P and Q coordinates define each segment. Many generators Fig. 6 shows one approach for coordination of Zone 2,
have GCCs that expand and contract according to the Zone 4, and UEL characteristics with k = 0. Let us consider a
generator cooling level. The algorithm is designed to shrink voltage-independent UEL (k = 0) with a two-straight-line
and expand the GCC replica based on an analog measurement characteristic set with a 10 percent margin with respect to
of the cooling capability or a binary input (if available), as Segment ③ of the GCC. According to the proposed scheme,
shown in Fig. 5. Zone 2 follows the UEL settings but, because it has a margin
In this case, we enter the coordinates of the minimum GCC setting of 10 percent, it is at Segment ③ of the GCC.
(identified with circular dots in Fig. 5) along with the
maximum GCC coordinates (identified with diamonds in Optionally, for alarming, Segment ③ of Zone 4 can be set
Fig. 5). with 5 percent margin with respect to the GCC. For k = 0, the
UEL, Zone 2, and Zone 4 characteristics are static in the P-Q
The Zone 4 element is intended to provide an alarm whenever plane, and the Zone 3 characteristic varies in proportion
the generator operates close to the GCC limits. This element to VT2.

4
 Set Zone 2 with respect to UEL so it has a margin of 5 to
10 percent to protect the generator when
1.0 pu < VT ≤ 1.05 pu. With this margin, Zone 2 provides
protection for end-core heating during overvoltage conditions,
but it decreases the generator operating capability at rated
voltage. This problem is typically more pronounced in
combustion gas turbines where the SECHL is extremely
restrictive, as shown in Fig. 2. If, however, Zone 2 is set to
match the GCC, it will not provide adequate protection for the
generator when 1.0 pu < VT ≤ 1.05 pu (see the highlighted
portion in Fig. 8).

Fig. 6. UEL and LOF characteristics for k = 0.

3.5.2 UEL and LOF Characteristics for k = 1
Fig. 7 shows the coordination of Zone 2 and UEL
characteristics for the k = 1 setting. The figure also shows the
UEL and Zone 2 characteristics for VT = 1 and 0.85 pu, and
the Zone 3 characteristic for VT = 0.85 pu. Note that for VT
changes, the Zone 2 characteristic moves in the same way as
the UEL characteristic.

Fig. 8. UEL characteristic for k = 2 and SECHL.

4 Summary
In summary, the key features of the proposed LOF protection
and monitoring scheme are as follows:
• All the zones are set in the P-Q plane, using the
generator GCC and data sheet.
• Zone 1 and Zone 3 operate in the admittance plane and
account for changes in VT.
• Zone 2 and Segment ③ of the Zone 4 characteristic
coordinate with the UEL characteristic by means of their
corresponding K-factor settings.
Fig. 7. UEL and LOF characteristics for k = 1.
• Zone 2 trip can be accelerated during severe LOF
When VT < 0.8 pu and the operating point is inside the Zone 3 conditions accompanied by undervoltage (VT < 0.8 pu).
characteristic, if the AVR fails to correct the low-voltage • Zone 3 issues an alarm when the operating point
condition, Zone 3 times out and issues a trip command to approaches or crosses the SSSL characteristic and issues
prevent the generator from slipping poles. With this approach, a trip during undervoltage conditions (VT < 0.8 pu).
schemes with k = 0 or k = 1 accelerate tripping during severe • Zone 3 can also trip with a short delay when the
undervoltage conditions (e.g., VT < 0.8 pu) via Zone 3. operating point approaches or crosses the SSSL
3.5.3 UEL and LOF Characteristics for k = 2 characteristic and the AVR operates in manual mode.
SECHL changes according to VT and Xd [9] [10], so the UEL • Zone 4 issues an alarm when the operating point is close
characteristic should be set above the SECHL at VT = 1.05 pu to the GCC limits, which can change according to the
for proper coordination when k = 2, as shown in Fig. 8. For cooling level.
k = 2, the margin between the UEL characteristic and the • Studies for determining proper delay settings of Zone 1
GCC should be no less than 15 to 20 percent at VT = 1.0 pu. and accelerated Zone 2 (when k = 2) and Zone 3 should
be performed in the admittance plane.

5
5 Conclusion [3] Sosa-Aguiluz, M., Guzmán, A., León, J.: “CFE
Generator Protection Guidelines for Setting 40 and 64G
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developed decades ago. At that time, excitation systems and proceedings of the 41st Annual Western Protective
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[4] Tremaine, R. L., Blackburn, J. L.: “Loss-of-Field
operating speed for most LOF events and were secure for
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[7] NERC Reliability Standard PRC-026-1, Relay
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Performance During Stable Power Swings.
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6 References
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[2] Alla, M., Guzmán, A., Finney, D., et. al.: “Capability
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proceedings of the 45th Annual Western Protective All rights reserved.
Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2018. 20200311 • TP6949