GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

Ideal Homes Township, Rajarajeshwari Nagar, Bengaluru – 560 098.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

LAB RECORD MASTER COPY

Academic Year : 2020 – 2021 (EVEN SEMESTER)

Programme (UG/PG) : UG
Year / Semester : III / VI
Course Code : 18EEL66
Course Title : CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY
Current Version / Date : 1.0 / 19.04.2021

Prepared By
Mrs. Ruma Sinha
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

VISION
Become a premier institution imparting quality education in engineering and
management to meet the changing needs of society

MISSION
M1. Create environment conducive for continuous learning through quality
teaching and learning processes supported by modern infrastructure

M2. Promote Research and Innovation through collaboration with industries

M3. Inculcate ethical values and environmental consciousness through holistic

education programs

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 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

VISION
To be a foremost education program in the field of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering to train the students to face global challenges and succeed in
their careers.

MISSION
M1: Strengthen learning environment that facilitates quality education in the
field of Electrical & Electronics Engineering.
M2: Enhance the Industry Institute interaction continuously to enable
students work on real time engineering problems.
M3: Improve the quality of value added programs to enhance the technical
and intellectual capabilities of students ensuring their success in competitive
examinations for higher studies, employment, and research.

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Program Educational Objectives [PEOs]

After few years of graduation, alumni will be:

PEO1: Engaged in the design of systems and applications in the field of

Electrical and Electronics Engineering and allied Engineering Industries.

PEO2: Applying the knowledge of Electrical and Electronics Engineering to

solve problems of societal relevance.

PEO3: Engaged in life-long learning through continued education, professional

practices and technical training and/or higher education and research.

PEO4: Exhibiting increasing levels of leadership and commitment to

professional ethics and social awareness in their professional careers.

Program Specific Outcome [PSOs]

At the end of Electrical and Electronics Engineering UG Degree Programme,

our graduates will be able to:

PSO1: Design DC machines, transformers and dynamic AC machines for given

specifications.
PSO2: Understand generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of
electric power.
PSO3: Design analog and digital electronic circuits and controller for
operation and maintenance of electrical systems.

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution
of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

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7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able
to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.

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Regulations Governing
THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENT
Each semester is considered as a unit and the candidate has to put in a minimum
attendance of 85% in each subject with a provision of condonation of 10% of the
attendance by the Vice-Chancellor on the specific recommendation of the Principal
of the college where the candidate is studying, showing some reasonable cause
such as medical grounds, participation in University level sports, cultural activities,
seminars, workshops and paper presentation, etc.
The basis for the calculation of the attendance shall be the period prescribed by
the University by its calendar of events. For the first semester students, the same is
reckoned from the date of admission to the course as per CET allotment.
The students shall be informed about their attendance position periodically by the
colleges so that the students shall be cautioned to make up the shortage.
A Candidate having shortage of attendance in one or more subjects shall have to
repeat the whole semester and such candidates shall not be permitted to take
admission to next higher semester. Such students shall take readmission to the
same semester in the subsequent academic year.

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT MARKS

There shall be a maximum of 40 Internal Assessment Marks in each practical
papers, the IA marks shall be based on the laboratory journals/reports and one
practical test.

Dept. of EEE Control Systems Lab Manual / 17EEL67

 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Details

Course Name : Control Systems Laboratory

Course Code : 17EEL67

Course prerequisite : Control Systems Theory [17EE61]

Course objectives
Upon completion of this course, students are expected to:
1. Study speed torque characteristics of AC, DC servomotor and Synchro pair.
2. Learn to simulate system in time domain and analyze the effect of addition of
poles, zeros, and loop gain and pole location on stability.
3. Understand frequency response characteristics of second order system to
determine frequency domain specification.
4. Gain practical Knowledge to design lag, lead, lag–lead compensating network and
PID controller.
5. Compare Bode plot, Nyquist plot and Root locus with reference to stability.

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Course outcome

Upon successful completion of this course, students should be able to:

Subject code: 17EEL67 Subject: CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY

Cognitive No. of
COs COURSE OUTCOMES
Level sessions

Simulate typical second order system and evaluate time

domain specifications, effect of addition of poles & zeros on
Apply
time response, effect of pole location & loop gain of a 9
CO1 negative feedback system on stability.

Design passive lead and lag compensator for a given

Evaluate 6
CO2 specifications and obtain the frequency responses.

Determine experimentally frequency response of a second

order system, lag-lead compensating network and evaluate Apply 6
CO3 the frequency response specifications.

Determine the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controllers on the

Apply 6
CO4 step response of a feedback control system.

Draw speed torque characteristics of two phase AC

Understand 6
CO5 servomotor, DC servomotor and Synchro pair characteristics.

Judge the stability of system by evaluating time response and

Evaluate 6
CO6 frequency response specifications.

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 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
SEMESTER – VI B.E ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (EEE)
CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY
Subject Code 18EEL66 IA Marks 40
Number of Practical Hours/Week 03 Exam Hours 03
Total Number of Practical Hours 42 Exam Marks 60
Credits - 02

SL No Experiments Page No

Experiment to draw the speed torque characteristics of (i) AC servo

1.
motor (ii) DC servo motor.

2. Experiment to draw synchro pair characteristics

Experiments 3 to 7 to be performed using components/equipment and

verify using suitable simulation package.

3. Experiment to determine frequency response of a second order system.

To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given
specifications, viz, the maximum phase lead and the frequency at which
4.
it occurs and to obtain the frequency response.
(a)To design a passive RC lag compensating network for the given
specifications, viz, the maximum phase lag and the frequency at which it
5.
occurs and to obtain the frequency response. (b) To determine
experimentally the transfer function of the lag compensating network

Experiment to draw the frequency response characteristics of the lag –

6.
lead compensator and determination of its transfer function.
network andadetermination
To simulate second order of its transfer
system function.
and study the effect of (a) P, (b) PI,
7.
(c) PD and (d) PID controller on the step response.

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 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Experiments 8 to 11 must be done using standard simulation package
(a) To simulate a typical second order system and determine step response
and evaluate time response specifications.
8.
(b) To evaluate the effect of additional poles and zeros on time response
of second order system.
(c) To evaluate the effect of pole location on stability.
(a) To simulate a D.C. Position control system and obtain its step response.
(b) To verify the effect of input waveform, loop gain and system type on steady
9.
state errors.
(c) To perform trade-off study for lead compensator.
(d) To design PI controller and study its effect on steady state error
(a) To examine the relationship between open-loop frequency response and
10. stability, open loop frequency and closed loop transient response
(b) To study the effect of open loop gain on transient response of closed
loop system using root locus
(a) To study the effect of open loop poles and zeros on root locus contour
11. (b) Comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and root locus with respect to stability

Experiment beyond syllabus

1. Using MATLAB, represent the given system in state space.
2. Using MATLAB, check the Controllability and Observability of a given
system.

Revised Bloom’s
L3 – Applying, L4 – Analysing, L5 – Evaluating, L2 –
Taxonomy level Understanding
Graduates Attribute (As per NBA)
Engineering Knowledge Problem Analysis Individual and Team work
Communication

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Conduct of Practical Examination
1. All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.
2. Breakup of marks and the instructions printed on the cover page of
answer script to be strictly adhered by the examiners.
3. Students can pick one experiment from the questions lot prepared by the
examiners.
4. Change of experiment is allowed only once and 20% Marks allotted to the
procedure part to be made zero.

VTU LAB Evaluation Process

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT EVALUATION (End of Semester)

SL.NO ACTIVITY MARKS
2017 SCHEME
(6th SEMESTER)

1 Write-Up 15
2 Conduction 70
3 Viva Voce 15
TOTAL 100

WEEK WISE VALUATION OF EACH EXPERIMENT

SL.NO ACTIVITY MARKS

2017 SCHEME
(6th SEMESTER)

1 Observation Book 10

2 Record 15

3 Viva 5

TOTAL 30
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FINAL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT CALCULATION

SL.NO ACTIVITY MARKS

2017 SCHEME (6th SEMESTER)

Average of Weekly
1 30
Entries
Internal Assessment
2 10
Reduced To
TOTAL 40

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Cycles of Experiments

Cycle - 1
1.a) Experiment to draw the speed torque characteristic of a two phase AC servomotor.
1.b) Experiment to draw the speed torque characteristic of a DC servomotor.
2.a) To design a RC lag compensating network for the given specifications., viz., the
maximum phase lag and the frequency at which it occurs, and to obtain its frequency
response.
2.b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lag compensating network.
3.a) To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given specifications., viz., the
maximum phase lead and the frequency at which it occurs, and to obtain its frequency
response.
3.b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lead compensating network.
4. Simulation of a typical second order system and determination of step response
and evaluation of time domain specifications.
5. a) Simulate a DC Position control system using MATLAB and obtain its step response.
5. b) To verify the effect of input waveform, loop gain and type of system on steady state
error.
6. To perform a trade-off study for lead compensation.

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Cycle 2
1. Experiment to draw and study of Synchro pair characteristics.
2. Experiment to draw the frequency response characteristic of a given lag-
lead compensating network.
3. To determine the frequency response of a second order system and evaluation of
frequency domain specifications experimentally.
4.a) To determine the effect of open loop poles and zeroes on root locus contour.
4.b) To estimate the effect of open loop gain on the transient response of closed
loop system by using Root locus
5. Comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and Root locus with respect to stability.
6. To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response of a

Experiment beyond Syllabus

Using MATLAB, represent the given system in state space.

Using MATLAB, check the Controllability of a given system.

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List of Experiments

Control Systems Laboratory [17EEL67]

SL No Experiments
Using MATLAB/SCILAB a) Simulation of a typical second order system and
determination of step response and evaluation of time- domain specifications, b)
1. Evaluation of the effect of additional poles and zeroes on time response of second
order system, c) Evaluation of effect of pole location on stability, d) Effect of loop
gain of a negative feedback system on stability
(a) To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given specifications,
viz., the maximum phase lead and the frequency at which it occurs and to obtain its
2. frequency response.
(b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lead compensating
network.
(a) To design RC lag compensating network for the given specifications., viz., the
maximum phase lag and the frequency at which it occurs, and to obtain its
3. frequency response.
(b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lag compensating
network.
Experiment to draw the frequency response characteristic of a given lag- lead
4.
compensating network.
To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response of a
5. feedback control system (using control engineering trainer/process control
simulator). Verify the same by simulation.
a) Experiment to draw the speed – torque characteristic of a two - phase A.C.
servomotor.
6.
b) Experiment to draw speed torque characteristic of a D.C. servomotor.

To determine experimentally the frequency response of a second -order system and

7.
evaluation of frequency domain specifications.
8. Using MATLAB/SCILAB a) Simulate a D. C. position control system and obtain

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its step response, b) To verify the effect of the input wave form, loop gain system
type on steady state errors, c) To perform a trade-off study for lead compensation,
d) To design a PI controller and study its effect on steady state error.
Using MATLAB/SCILAB a) To examine the relationships between open-loop
frequency response and stability , open loop frequency and closed loop transient
9.
response, b) To study the effect of addition closed loop poles and zeroes on the
closed loop transient response
Using MATLAB/SCILAB a) Effect of open loop and zeroes on root locus contour,
b) To estimate the effect of open loop gain on the transient response of closed loop
10.
system by using Root locus c) Comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and Root locus
with respect to Stability.
11. Experiment to draw to syncro pair characteristics.
12. Using MATLAB, represent the given system in state space.
13. Using MATLAB, check the Controllability and Observability of a given system.

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 INTRODUCTION
Control Engineering is of significant interest in most areas of industry - new and established.
Control System applications are assuming an increasingly important role in the developing
world, making it crucial for the students to be exposed to contemporary control system
equipment in a realistic manner, in order to connect theoretical material taught in lecture
courses with the realities of physical hardware and simulation through ‘higher-level’ technical
computing language. Control engineering is based on the foundations of feedback theory and
linear system analysis. Accordingly, control engineering is not limited to any engineering
discipline but is applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and
electrical engineering. A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired system response. The basis for analysis of a system is
the foundation provided by linear system, which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the
components of a system. A system is a collection of elements or components that are organized
for a common purpose and a control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages,
commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired
results.

Introduction to MATLAB:

The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB is a high-performance language for
technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming environment.
Furthermore, MATLAB is a modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated
data structures, contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented
programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g., C,
FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package has been
commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most universities
and industries worldwide. It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of
computations. It also has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results
immediately available. Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox.
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

There are toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization, and several other fields of applied science and engineering.
Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

EXPERIMENT: 01 (a)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TWO PHASE SERVO MOTOR

INTRODUCTION:
A servo motor is a rotary actuator that is designed for precise position control for closed loop
application. It consists of an electric motor, a feedback device, and a controller. They are able
to accommodate complex motion patterns and profiles better than any other type of motor.
Although they are small in size they have higher power capability and are extremely energy
efficient. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for continuous energy
conversion.

There are two types of servo motors, AC servos and DC servos. The main difference between
the two motors is their source of power. AC servo motors rely on an electric outlet, rather
than batteries like DC servo motors. While DC servo motor performance is dependent only
on voltage, AC servo motors are dependent on both frequency and voltage. Because of the
complexity of the power supply, AC servo motors can handle high surges, which is why they
are often used in industrial machinery.

AIM: To conduct a load test on AC servo motor and to obtain its speed torque
characteristic.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. AC servomotor module with loading arrangement,
2. Digital multimeter
3. Connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

Reference
Winding
+ +
2
3
- 0
DC AC servo
Eb Motor V
Motor
Control
A
Winding
- Control C
Voltage

THEORY:

AC servo motors are basically two-phase squirrel cage induction motors and are used for low
power applications. Nowadays, three phase squirrel cage induction motors have been
modified such that they can be used in high power servo systems.

The main difference between a standard split-phase

induction motor and AC motor is that the squirrel cage rotor
of a servo motor has made with thinner conducting bars, so
that the motor resistance is higher.

Why Choose an AC Servo Motor?

There are many advantages to choose an AC servo motors over DC servo motors.
1. Higher torque to weight ratio
2. More reliability
3. reduced radio frequency noise.
4. Due to the absence of a commutator, they require less maintenance and have a longer
life.
APPLICATIONS of AC Servomotors:
AC servo motors are used in a wide variety of applications where position control is
critical. They are frequently used in
i. robotics,

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
ii. semiconductor equipment,
iii. machine tools,
iv. aircrafts,
v. CNC equipment.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Ensure that the potentiometer and control voltage autotransformer are in min position
and load switch is in OFF position.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Control voltage switch is put on and the control voltage is adjusted to the rated value 220
V.
5. The load switch is put on and the readings are noted.

6. Loading is done by varying the potentiometer till the rated armature current of PMDC
machine is reached (250 mA)
7. Readings at different steps are noted down.
8. Adjust the potentiometer to its original position and switch off the load switch.
9. Bring autotransformer to zero position and switch off the supply.
10. Repeat the above procedure by setting the control voltage to 200V&175 V.
11. Measure the armature resistance of the PMDC machine using multimeter.

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

TABULAR COLUMN

Speed Torque
Vc (volts) Ia (Amp) Va (volts) P (watts)
(rpm) (Gm-cm)

0.05 4.1 1769 0.205 112.8

0.06 3.9 1762 0.234 129.27

220
0.07 3.8 1758 0.266 147.37

0.08 3.6 1736 0.288 161.96

0.05 3.8 1688 0.19 109.76

0.06 3.7 1675 0.222 129.01

200
0.07 3.6 1658 0.252 148.22

0.08 3.3 1642 0.264 156.51

0.05 3.5 1545 0.175 110.05

0.06 3.3 1508 0.198 127.64

175
0.07 3.1 1518 0.217 139.15

0.08 2.8 1457 0.224 115.07

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 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

CALCULATION:

P P 10 5 60
Power P VaIa and Torque T
2 N 9.81
With Vc = 220 V,
P P 10 5 60
i. P V a I a = 0.205 watt, T =112.8 gm-cm
2 N 9.81

Expected graph

N
(rpm)

Torque
(gm-cm)

INFERENCE:

For a two phase servomotor with variation of current, variation of speed, torque are
obtained for different level of control winding voltage. Speed torque characteristics of two phase
servomotor is drawn.

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

EXPERIMENT: 01 (b)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A DC SERVO MOTOR

INTRODUCTION:
Generally, the DC servo motor includes a DC source separately in the field of the armature
winding. The motor can be controlled either by managing the field current otherwise the armature
current. The armature control has some benefits compare with field control. Similarly, field control
has come benefits compare with armature control. The controlling of this motor can be done
based on the application used. This motor offers a quick and accurate response to begin or end
command signals because of the small armature inductive reactance. These motors are utilized in
several devices and numerically controlled equipment.

AIM: To conduct a load test on DC servo motor and to obtain its speed torque characteristic.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. DC servomotor module with loading arrangement,
2. Digital multimeter
3. Connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

+ Mechanical
A
Load

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 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

THEORY:

A DC servo motor consists of a small DC motor, feedback potentiometer, gearbox, motor drive
electronic circuit and electronic feedback control loop. The stator of the motor consists of a
cylindrical frame and the magnet is attached to the inner periphery of the frame. A brush is built
with an armature coil that supplies the current to the commutator. At the back of the shaft, a
detector is built into the rotor in order to detect the rotation speed. With this construction, it is
simple to design a controller using simple circuitry because the torque is proportional to the
amount of current flow through the armature. And also the instantaneous polarity of the control
voltage decides the direction of torque developed by the motor. DC servo motor provides very
accurate and also fast respond to start or stop command signals due to the low armature
inductive reactance. DC servo motors are used in similar equipment and computerized
numerically controlled machines.

Difference between DC and AC Servo Motors:

DC Servomotor AC Servomotor
It has more stability problems. It has less stability problems
It requires frequent maintenance due to the It requires less maintenance due to the
presence of commutator. absence of commutator.
The life of DC servo motor depends on the The life of AC servo motor depends on
life on brush life bearing life
These motors are used for high power These motors are used for low power
applications. applications.

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
APPLICATIONS of DC Servomotors:
i. Machine tools – metal cutting and metal forming
ii. Textile
iii. Printing
iv. Antenna positioning
v. Medical equipment

PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that the load is removed.

2. Switch on the power module.
3. By varying the potentiometer, set the armature voltage of the motor to the
rated value (24 V) and measure the same using multimeter.
4. Note down the no load current and no load speed.
5. Load the motor with the help of brake drum arrangement till the rated current of
0.5A is reached.
6. Note down the values of current, speed and load at each step.
7. Unload the motor gradually.
8. Repeat the above procedure for 60% and 40% of rated armature voltage.
9. Switch OFF supply to the module.
10. Measure the armature resistance of the DC servomotor using multimeter.
11. The torque is calculated at each step and a graph of torque Vs speed is plotted.

TABULAR COLUMN

Va (volts) Ia (Amp) Speed (rpm) Load Torque Power

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
F1 (gm) F2 (gm) (gm-cm) (Watt)
0.18 1370 45 30 29.595 0.0425
0.26 1336 90 50 78.92 0.1104
23.2
0.34 1324 120 50 138.11 0.1915
0.4 1312 150 60 177.57 0.244
0.16 822 50 35 29.59 0.0255
0.26 801 110 50 118.38 0.0993
13.92
0.33 787 125 50 147.97 0.1219
0.40 773 150 60 177.57 0.1437
0.2 535 75 50 49.33 0.0276
0.26 525 100 50 98.65 0.0542
9.28
0.33 504 130 60 138.11 0.0729
0.40 500 150 70 157.84 0.0826

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CALCULATION:
2 N
T= (F1 – F2) x r, r=radius of brake drum, P = T x x10-5
60

With Va = 23.2 V,

2 N
i. T= (F1 – F2) x r = 29.595 gm-cm, P T 10 5 = 0.0425 watt
60

EXPECTED GRAPH:

N
(rpm)

Torque

INFERENCE:

For a DC servomotor with variation of current, variation of speed and torque are obtained for
different level of control winding voltage. Speed torque characteristics of two phase servomotor
is drawn.

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 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

EXPERIMENT: 02
Synchro pair characteristics

INTRODUCTION:
The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft into an electric
signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error occurs in the system
because of the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter and the control transformer are the two main
parts of the synchro.
The synchro system is of two types. They are
1. Torque Transmission type Synchro.
2. Control Type Synchro.
1. Torque Transmission type Synchros:
This type of synchros has small output torque, and hence they are used for running the very light load like a
pointer. The control type Synchro is used for driving the large loads.
2. Control Type Synchros System:
The control type synchros is used for error detection in positional control systems. Their systems consist two
units. They are
(i) Synchro Transmitter
(ii) Synchro receiver

AIM: 1. Study of synchro transmitter

2. Study of synchro transmitter and receiver pair

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Synchro transmitter and receiver module
2. Connecting wires

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Study of synchro transmitter Connection

diagram:

DPM

Meter
input
Transmitter Receiver

0 S1 S1 0

S2 S2
90 90
270 270

S3 S3

180 180
R1 SW1 R2 R1 SW1 R2

THEORY:
A Synchro Transmitter Receiver Trainer is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an
angular position of a shaft into an electric signal. It is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its construction
is similar to that of a three phase alternator. The stator of the synchros is made of steel for reducing the
iron losses. The stator is slotted for housing the three phase windings. The axis of the stator winding is
kept 120º apart from each other and is Y connected as shown in fig(a).

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 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

Fig(a) Fig(b)

The rotor is a dumb bell construction and wound with a concentric coil. The system set up is made up of
synchro transmitter and synchro receiver on a single rigid base provided with suitable switches. The system
also contains a step down transformer for providing excitation to the rotors. Suitable test points for rotor (R1
and R2) and stator (S1, S2 and S3) as shown in fig(b). The circuit diagram of synchro transmitter and receiver
as shown in fig(c),

Fig(c)

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Advantages of synchro
The operating speed of synchro is very high, they have full 360 degree rotation without
electrical break and they are highly reliable.
Disadvantages of synchro
They have full range in order of 30 degrees linearity is not much better than modern
potentiometers.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect transmitter side S1 and S2 to the meter input terminals.

2. Switch on mains supply to the unit.
3. Vary the angular position from zero to 3600 and note down the voltage between
stator winding terminals.
4. Next connect S2 & S3, then S3 & S1 and note down the values.
5. Plot the graph for angular position of rotor voltages for all three phases.

TABULAR COLUMN:
SL# Stator terminal Voltage
Rotor position
VS1S2 VS2S3 VS3S1
(degrees)
(volts) (volts) (volts)
1. 0 38.3 70.1 31.5
2. 20 15.5 67 51
3. 40 8 55.3 65
4 60 31.1 38.3 70
5 80 50.1 16.3 67.2
6 100 63.7 7.3 56
7 120 69.5 29.5 39.5
8 140 67.2 50.8 16.4
9 160 56.2 63.9 7.2
10 180 38.2 69.9 30.4
11 200 16.1 67.0 50.5
12 220 7.9 55.7 64.2
13 240 23.8 38 70.2
14 260 31.2 15.9 67.3

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
15 280 65.1 18.0 56.4
16 300 70.3 31.4 38.3
17 320 67.2 51.1 15.5
18 340 56 64.1 8.6
19 360 39.7 69.8 31.2

Study of Synchro transmitter and receiver pair

Connection Diagram:

DPM

Met
er
inp
ut
Transmitter Receiver

0 S1 S1 0

S2 S2
90 90
270 270

S3 S3

180 180
R1 SW1 R2 R1 SW1 R2

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect mains supply cable
2. Connect S1, S2 & S3 terminals of transmitter to the S1, S2 and S3 terminals of receiver
respectively with patch cords.
3. Switch on SW1 and SW2 and also the main supply.
4. Move the pointer of rotor position of synchro transmitter and observe the
receiver’s rotor position.
5. Note down the transmitter’s angular position and receiver’s angular position and plot
a graph.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Angular position(degrees)
SL#
Synchro transmitter Synchro receiver
1 0 -2
2 20 17
3 40 36
4 60 56
5 80 78
6 100 98
7 120 120
8 140 139
9 160 159
10 180 179
11 200 198
12 220 218
13 240 238
14 260 258
15 280 275
16 300 299
17 320 319
18 340 340
19 360 360

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

VS3S1
VS2S3 VS1S2
R
M
S

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

0
Angular position in degree

Receiver’s
Angular
position

Transmitter’s Angular position

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ACTUAL GRAPH:

RESULT and DISCUSSION:

The properties of synchro are studied and graphs are plotted. Because of
transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coil.

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EXPERIMENT: 03
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the
steady state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals.
The steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as
the frequency response.
The order of the system is defined by the number of independent energy storage
elements in the system, and intuitively by the highest order of the linear differential
equation that describes the system. In a transfer function representation, the order is
the highest exponent in the transfer function. The order of the characteristic equation
can also be referred as the order of the system. For a second order system the order of
characteristic equation is 2.
AIM:
a. To determine the frequency response characteristics of a second order system to a
sinusoidal input and determine its frequency response specifications: resonant
peak M r , resonant frequency r and the bandwidth (BW or b ) using hardware
component.
b. Verify the result using simulation package

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Decade resistance box (1)
2. Decade inductance box (1)
3. Decade capacitance box (1)
4. Signal generator (1)
5. Oscilloscope. (1)

6. Software package MATLAB

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THEORY:

A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM SET UP: A series RLC circuit can be used to study the
frequency response of a second order system. The voltage response across the
capacitor to a step input in a series RLC circuit is analogous to step response of any
second order system. Therefore, while using a series RLC circuit to study the frequency
response characteristics, the voltage across the capacitor is to be used as the output
and the input to the circuit can be a step voltage or a square wave of suitable frequency
from a signal generator.

Vin Vout

Signal
Generator

The transfer function of the series RLC network with the capacitor voltage as output can
be obtained as,
1
V o
( s) LC
V i
( s)
s
2 R
s
1
L LC
It is similar to the standard form of closed loop transfer function of a second order system given
by:

C (s) 2 1
n , where ωn = natural frequency = and
R( s) s2 2 n
2
n LC

R C
ξ = damping ratio = .
2 L
With proper selection of L & C (in order to have suitable n) and by varying the value
of resistance R different damping ratios can be obtained.

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

If L=10 mH and C=0.1 F

1
n= =31622.8 radians / sec.
LC

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
The value of resistance R in order to have a particular damping ratio can now be
determined using
C
0.5R 0.5 R 3.162 10 3
L

The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and
bandwidth, cut off frequency, phase margin, gain margin, gain crossover frequency,
phase crossover frequency.
Resonant frequency - It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency
response has peak value for the first time.
Resonant peak - It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude. A system, with larger
resonant peak will exhibit a larger overshoot.
Bandwidth – In feedback control system, the range of frequencies over which, the

magnitude M is greater than or equal to M r is defined as bandwidth.

2
1
Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the magnitude is equal to times of its
2
maximum value is known as cut off frequency or corner frequency. In other words,
frequency at which the magnitude is 3 dB less than its maximum value is called the cut-
off frequency.

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

Bode Diagram
10
Mr
0

Magnitude (dB) 3dB

-10

-20 BW
-30
ωr ωc

-40
0

-45
Phase (deg)

-90

-135

-180
0 1 2
10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Frequency Response curve (for zeta=0.2)

PROCEDURE:
1) The RLC series circuit is connected as shown in the figure using decade boxes.
2) The input to the circuit is to be taken from a signal generator so that a variable
frequency sinusoidal input can be given and the output (voltage across the
capacitor) is to be observed in a CRO. These devices are properly connected.
3) Set L=10 mH and C= 0.1 F so that n=31662.8 radians / sec.
4) Now set R in order to have an under damped response with =0.2
5) Switch on the signal generator and give a sine wave input with a suitable
magnitude, say 1V.
6) Now slowly vary the frequency from a low value to a large value well beyond n

and observe the magnitude of the output in the CRO.

7) Repeat the step 6 again, but this time note down the output magnitude for
varying frequency so that response curve can be properly drawn.

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8) Draw the frequency response graph to a proper scale on the graph sheet and from the
graph determine the frequency response specifications resonant peak M p , resonant

frequency p and the band width (BW or b ).

9) Calculate the theoretical values using the expressions given in the previous section and
compare with the experimental results.
10) Repeat the experiments for two other values of damping ratios by changing the
value of resistance R.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Input magnitude Vi = 3 Volts.
Frequency Output Phase
Frequency in Gain
f magnitude Angle
(Radians/sec) (dB)
(Hz (V0max) (Degrees)
)
235 1476.55 3 0 0

287 4944.86 3 0 -2.727

1.6k 10555.75 3.2 0.5605 -6.8

1.9k 11938 3.3 0.8278 -6.666

2.3k 14451.32 3.5 1.3389 -12.2727

2.35k 14765.48 3.5 1.3389 -12.558

2.4k 15099.64 3.55 1.4621 -12.85

0.2 2.45k 15393.8 3.6 1.5836 -17.56

2.5k 15707.9 3.65 1.7034 -18.46

3k 18849.5 4 2.4982 -21.17

4k 25132.7 4.8 4.0823 -37.5

5.6k 35185.8 4.8 3.1269 -122.5

6.5k 40840.7 3 0 -136.5

8k 50265.48 1.7 -4.933 -152.72

8.5k 62831.85 1 -9.5424 -158.8

1 500 3141.59 3 0 -14.4

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
1k 6283.18 2.8 -0.5992 -21.6

3k 18849.55 2 -3.5218 -38.23

5k 31415.92 1.9 -3.9679 -83.076

7.5k 47213.88 0.9 -1.0451 -111.17

500 3141.59 2.7 -0.9151 -22.1

1k 6283.18 2.33 -2.121 -38.22

2 3k 18849.55 1.2 -8.145 -68.2

5k 31415.92 0.7 -12.64 -9.0

7.5k 47213.88 0.48 -15.917 -95.3

CALCULATION:
C
0.5R 0.5 R 3.162 10 3
L
For ξ = 0.2, R = 126.5 ohm

For ξ = 1, R = 632.5 ohm

For ξ = 1.2, R = 759 ohm

Program for simulation:

Procedure for simulation:

RESULT:
Performance Value from Value from
parameters experiment simulation
Resonant peak 4.0823 dB
Resonant frequency 25132.7 rad/sec
Band width 44000 dB

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INFERENCE:
A second order system is designed to operate for underdamped, critically damped and over-damped condition
with proper selection of resistance. Frequency response curve is plotted and frequency domain specifications
have been obtained.

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EXPERIMENT: 04

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF LEAD NETWORK

INTRODUCTION:
The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase lead
when a sinusoidal input is applied. In lead compensator the zero is dominating over the pole.
Lead Compensator improves the stability of a system by shifting the root locus towards the left of the
origin. Thus while a lag compensator improves the steady state response sacrificing the stability, lead
improves the stability of the system.
AIM: i) To design a lead network for a maximum phase angle of 40° choosing a suitable value of time
constant and obtain the frequency response.
ii) Verify the result using simulation package

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. CRO
2. Signal generator
3. decade resistance and capacitance box
4. MATLAB Software package

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Signal
Generator E1 E2

THEORY:

The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase lead

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when a sinusoidal input is applied.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative stability
improves and error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.

5. Response become faster.

6. Overall transient response of the system improves.
Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts
gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation
Steady state error is not improved.
Comparison between lead and lag compensators
Lead compensator Lag compensator
High pass Low pass
Approximates derivative plus proportional Approximates integral plus proportional
control control
Contributes phase lead Attenuation at high frequencies
Increases the gain crossover frequency Moves the gain-crossover frequency lower
Increases bandwidth Reduces bandwidth

DESIGN:

The transfer function of the lead network is given by

G(s) = E (s)
2 R 2
1R Cs 1 1 s ,
E (
1
s ) R R 1 2
1
R1R Cs 2
1 s

R R 1 2

where R1 C

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α=
R 2
(0<α<1)
R1 R 2

Therefore the sinusoidal transfer function of a lead network is given by

1 j
G(s) =
1 j
Since α<1, the steady state output has a leading phase angle with respect to a sinusoidal input. The
lower corner frequency ω1, the higher corner frequency ω2 and the frequency ωm at maximum phase
difference (Φm) between output and input are given by
1 1 1
ω1= , ω2 = , ωm= 1 2

This shows that ωm is the geometric mean of the two corner frequencies.

1 sin
m
The value of α for maximum phase lead Φm is given by α=
1 sin
m

0
Selecting maximum phase lead Φm = 40
0

We get α=
1 sin 40 0.2174
0
1 sin 40

Let the lower corner frequency, f1=1000 Hz , ω1=2 x π x f =6283rad/s,

1
Let C=0. 1μF then, R1C=0.159 msec. R1= =1590 Ω
1
C

R2 = R1
0.2174
1590
441.68 ,
1 1 0.2174
1
ω2= =28930 rad/s, f2 = 4604Hz.

m= 1 2
13482rad / s 2145 Hz

PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is connected after selecting suitable values of resistors and capacitor as per design
for the given maximum phase lead.
2. Give the input to the network from a signal generator having variable frequency sine wave.
Adjust the magnitude of the input to a suitable value and note down this value.

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3. The frequency of input is varied in steps from a value well below the lower corner frequency to
a well above higher corner frequency. At each step, the phase angle is measured using the phase
meter and the magnitude is noted using a CRO.
4. The gain in dB is calculated as 20 log (E2/E1) and tabulated.

TABULAR COLUMN:

SL # Frequency f Frequency ω Magnitude of Phase angle Gain in dB

(Hz ) (radians/sec) output E2 of E2 – Φ 20 log (E2/E1)
( volts) (degrees)

1. 30 188.5 1.1 0 -13.15

2. 40 251.32 1.1 0 -13.15

3. 100 628.31 1.1 7.2 -13.15

4. 200 1256.6 1.15 15 -12.76

5. 300 1884.9 1.2 21.17 -12.39

6. 400 2513.27 1.2 27.7 -12.39

7. 600 3769.9 1.3 36 -11.7

8. 1000 6283.18 1.4 38.25 -11.05

9. 2150 13508.8 2.1 40.25 -7.53

10. 3000 18849.55 2.4 37.5 -6.37

11. 4000 25132.7 3.1 28.8 -4.15

12. 5000 31415.9 3.2 25.7 -3.87

13. 6000 37699.11 3.4 24.2 -3.34

14. 7000 43982.3 3.4 19.5 -3.34

(Note: The phase angle should be noted down with a positive sign for lead network)

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

Bode Diagram
0

Magnitude (dB)
-5

-10

-15
60
Phase (deg)

30

0
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Program for simulation:

R1 = 1590;
R2 = 441.68;

C = 0.1e-6;

alpha = R2 / (R1 + R2)

tau = R1*C

num = [alpha*tau alpha];

den = [alpha*tau 1]

sys = tf(num,den)

bode(sys);
grid;

Transfer function from command window:

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Output of the program:

Procedure for simulation:

1. Open .m file and write the program.
2. Debug and run the program.
3. From the figure window note down the lower and upper corner frequency, maximum phase lead and
corresponding frequency.
4. From the command window check the transfer function of the system.

Figure: Output from MATLAB

RESULT:

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Parameter Designed Value Value from Experimental value
Simulation
Maximum phase lead 40° 40° 40.25°

Frequency at which 2145 Hz 2133 Hz. 2150 Hz

maximum phase lead
occurs
Lower corner 6283 rad/sec 6540 rad/sec 3800 rad/sec
frequency
Higher corner 28930 rad/sec 27500 rad/sec 31000 rad/sec
frequency

The expected magnitude and phase plots are obtained.

INFERENCE:
LEAD compensator has been designed to obtain a specific value of maximum phase lead. It is observed through
experiment that that output leads the input and the same phase lead has been obtained. Transfer function of
the system is determined experimentally.

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EXPERIMENT – 05

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF LAG NETWORK

INTRODUCTION:
Compensation is the modification of dynamic and/or static characteristics of the control system by
adding some subsystem with the original system. The cascade combination of original system together
with the subsystem is called compensated system. This subsystem which is added for improved static
and/or dynamic characteristics is called compensator. Modification of system dynamics (equations by
which system is described) is required in order to obtain performance specification, like in case of Lead
and Lag compensator which are often designed to satisfy phase and gain margins, these bode plot of
the system itself changes after the insertion of compensator, bode plot indirectly represents system
dynamics.
The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having the phase lag
when a sinusoidal input is applied.
Necessity of compensators
1. In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks.
2. To compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
3. A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
4. Compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system
AIM:
i) To design a lag network for a maximum phase angle of 54° choosing a suitable value of time constant and
obtain the frequency response.
ii) To determine the transfer function of the lag compensating network.
iii) Verify the result using simulation package.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. CRO
2. Signal generator
3. decade resistance and capacitance box
4. MATLAB simulation Package

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Signal
Generator
E1 E2

THEORY:
Effect of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Gain crossover frequency increases.
2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the settling
time become larger.
5. Improves the steady state performance in the expense of slower settling time.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation
Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system decreases.

DESIGN:

The transfer function of the lag network is given by

G(s)=
E (s)
2
1R Cs 2 1 s
where R2 C
E (s)
1 1 R1 R Cs 2
1 s

β= R R
1 2
(β>1)
R 2

Therefore the sinusoidal transfer function of a lag network is given by

1 j
G(s)=
1 j

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Since β>1, the steady state output has a lagging phase angle with respect to a sinusoidal input. The
lower corner frequency ω1, the higher corner frequency ω2 and the frequency ωm at maximum phase
difference (Φm) between output and input are given by
1 1
ω1= , ω2 = , ωm= 1 2

This shows that ωm is the geometric mean of the two corner frequencies.

1 sin
m
The value of β for maximum phase lag Φm is given by β=
1 sin
m

Selecting maximum phase lag Φm = -540,

We get β=
1 sin 54 10
0
1 sin 54

Let the lower corner frequency, ω1=1000 radians/sec, f1=159Hz

1
Let C=0.1 μF then, R2C = 0.1 msec.
1

R2 = 1k and
C
R1 = R2 (β-1) = 10x103(10-1) = 9 kΩ.
1
Higher corner frequency ω2= =10000rad/s, f2=1591Hz,

So ωm= 1 2
=3162 radians/sec, fm=503Hz.

Transfer function
1+𝑠𝜏 1+0.0001𝑠
= =
𝑎+𝑠𝜏𝛽 1+0.001𝑠

PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is connected after selecting suitable values of resistors and capacitor as per design
for the given maximum phase lag.
2. Give the input to the network from a signal generator having variable frequency sine wave.
Adjust the magnitude of the input to a suitable value and note down this value

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3. The frequency of input is varied in steps from a value well below the lower corner frequency to
a well above higher corner frequency. At each step, the phase angle is measured using the phase
meter and the magnitude is noted using a CRO.
4. The gain in dB is calculated as 20log (E2/E1) and tabulated.

TABULAR COLUMN:

SL # Frequency Frequency Magnitude of Phase angle Gain in dB

f ω output E2 of output – Φ 20 log (E2/E1)
(Hz ) (radians/sec) (volts) (degrees)

1 20 126.66 5 0 0

2 40 266.32 5 0 0

3 100 628.32 4.2 -21.6 -1.514

4 200 1256.6 3.1 -43.2 -4.152

5 300 1884.9 2.4 -52.94 -6.375

6 503 3106.44 1.6 -54 -9.897

7 1000 6283.185 0.9 -43.2 -14.894

8 1500 9424.77 0.8 -37.058 -15.917

9 2000 12566.37 0.6 -28.8 -18.416

10 3000 15707.96 0.6 -21.17 -18.416

11 3400 21362.83 0.6 -15.3 -18.416

(Note: The phase angle should be noted down with a negative sign for lag network)

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

Bode Diagram
0

-5

Magnitude (dB)
-10

-15

-20
0
Phase (deg)

-30

-60
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Determination of transfer functions of the lag network:

1. Calculate lower corner frequency (ω1) which is the frequency at which magnitude is 3 dB less
than the highest value.
2. Calculate higher corner frequency (ω2) which is the frequency at which magnitude is 3 dB more
than the lowest frequency.
3. Starting magnitude=0; so no need to calculate K.
1
1 s
2
4. Transfer function G(s)= K
1
1 s
1

CALCULATIONS:
From graph w1 = 930 rad/sec , w2 = 7100 rad/sec

K=1 as the starting magnitude = 0

1 1
1 s 1 s
2 7100 1 1.4 10 4 s
Transfer Function of the lag compensator = k =
1 1 1 1.07 10 3 s
1 s 1 s
1
930

1+0.00014𝑠
=
1+0.00107𝑠

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Program for simulation:

R1 = 9e3;
R2 = 1e3;

C = 0.1e-6;

num = [R2*C 1];

den = [( R1 + R2 ) * C 1]

sys = tf(num,den)

bode(sys);
grid;

Transfer function from command window:

Output of the program:

Procedure for simulation:

1. Open .m file and write the program.
2. Debug and run the program.
3. From the figure window note down the lower and upper corner frequency, maximum phase lag and
corresponding frequency.
4. From the command window check the transfer function of the system.

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Figure: Output from MATLAB

RESULT:

Parameter Designed Value Value from Experimental value

Simulation
Maximum phase lead 54° 54.9° 54°

Frequency at which 503 Hz 492 Hz 503 Hz

maximum phase lead
occurs
Lower corner frequency 1000 rad/sec 1010 rad/sec 930 rad/sec
Higher corner 10000 rad/sec 10000 rad/sec 7100 rad/sec
frequency

Transfer function
1 + 0.0001𝑠 1 + 0.0001𝑠 1 + 0.00014𝑠
1 + 0.001𝑠 1 + 0.001𝑠 1 + 0.00107𝑠

The expected magnitude and phase plots are obtained.

INFERENCE:
LAG compensator has been designed to obtain a specific value of maximum phase lag. Same phase lag has
been obtained experimentally and it is observed that output lags the input. Transfer function of the system is
determined experimentally.

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EXPERIMENT: 06

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF LAG-LEAD NETWORK

INTRODUCTION:
A lead–lag compensator is a component in a control system that improves an undesirable frequency
response in a feedback and control system. It is a fundamental building block in classical control theory.
Lead–lag compensators influence disciplines as varied as robotics, satellite control, automobile
diagnostics, LCD displays and laser frequency stabilization. They are an important building block in
analog control systems, and can also be used in digital control.

AIM: To design a lag-lead network for a maximum phase lag of 55° and a maximum phase lead of 55°
choosing a suitable value of time constant and obtain the frequency response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. CRO
2. Signal generator
3. decade resistance and capacitance box

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Signal
Generator
E1 E2

THEORY:
Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency region and

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phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the lag and the lead compensators.

Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.
3. Improves both steady state and transient response of the system is improved.

DESIGN:

G(s)=
E ( s)
2 RC s 1 R C s 1 1 1 2 2
1 s 1
1 s 2

E ( s)
1 R C s 1 R C s 1 R C 2s
1 1 2 2 1 1
1 s 1 s 2
1

where β>1 and 1 2

, 1 RC , 1 1 2 RC , RC R C RC
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1
2

Sinusoidal transmittance of lag-lead compensator is

1 j 1
1 j 2
G(s) =
2
1 j 1
1 j

1
The frequency at which G (jω) = 0 is given by 0
1 2

1 1
The pole located at s together with zero located at s constitutes the lag element
1 1

1
while the zero located at s 1 2
together with pole located at s constitute the
2 2

1 1 1
lead element. Corner frequencies are respectively: , , ,
1 1 2 2

1 sin
m 2
Let, Φm=250, =2.5, 2.5
1 sin 1
m

Let f1=50Hz, ω2=314.16 radians /second and f2=2.5 x 50 Hz = 125 Hz, ω2=785.4 radians /second
1
2
, 1
=1.273 x 10-3
1

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Let 1 =2.5 2 , 2 =5.093 x 10-4

2 =R2 C2 , Let R2=1k, C2=0.5 μF

Let R1=9k, 1 =R1C1, C1=0.14 μF

1
0
= 1241 rad/sec
1 2
Frequency at which phase difference is zero. F0 = 197 Hz.

R1 = 9 k R2 = 1 K
C1 = 0.14 µF C2 = 0.5 µF

EXPECTED GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. R1, R2, C1 and C2 are selected as per design requirement.
3. Switch on the power supply
4. Give input of suitable magnitude & frequency to the network from a signal generator having
variable frequency sine wave.
5. The frequency of input is varied in steps from a value well below the lower corner frequency
to well above higher frequency. At each step magnitude and phase angle is noted.
6. The magnitude in decibels is calculated and plotted against the frequency on a semi-log
sheet. The phase angle is plotted against the frequency.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Input voltage E1= 5 Volts
Sl No Frequency f =2 f Magnitude Phase angle Gain in dB
(Hz) (radians/sec) Of output Of E2- Φ 20log(E2/E1)
E2(volts) (degrees)
1. 1 23 144.5 3.5 -20 -3.09
.
2. 35 219.9 2.5 -25 -6.02

3. 2 90 565.48 1.8 -19 -8.873

.

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4. 3 130 816.8 1.4 -13 -11.05
.
5. 4 197 1237.78 1.3 0 -11.7
.
6. 5 250 1570.8 1.3 8.6 -11.7
.
7. 6 300 1885 1.4 15 -11

8. 7 400 2513.27 1.6 22 -9.89

9. 8 550 3455.75 2.0 27 -7.9

10. 9 700 4398 2.2 28 -7.1

11. 1 900 5654.8 2.5 26 -6.02

0
12. 1 1000 6283 2.8 24 -5.03
1
13. 1 1500 9424 3.4 22 -3.34
2
14. 1 2000 12566 3.6 19 -2.8
3
15. 1 3000 18849 4.4 18 -1.11
4
16. 1 4000 25132 4.4 13 -1.11
5
17. 1 5000 31415 4.5 12 -0.91
6
18. 1 6000 37699 4.5 8 -0.91
7

Program for simulation:

Transfer function from command window:

Output of the program:

Procedure for simulation:

1. Open .m file and write the program.
2. Debug and run the program.
3. From the figure window note down the lower and upper corner frequency, maximum phase lag, maximum
phase lead and corresponding frequencies.
4. From the command window check the transfer function of the system.

Figure: Output from MATLAB

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RESULT:

Parameter Designed Value Value from Experimental value

Simulation
Maximum phase lead 25⁰ 24.8⁰ 28⁰
Maximum phase lag -25⁰ -24.8⁰ -25⁰
Frequency at which 35 Hz
maximum phase lag
occurs
Frequency at which 700 Hz
maximum phase lead
occurs
Frequency at which 197 Hz 199 Hz 197 Hz
phase angle of G(jω)=0,
ω

Transfer function

The expected magnitude and phase plots are obtained.

RESULT:
Experimental Value Designed Value

Maximum phase lag -25° -25°

Maximum phase lead 28° 25°

Frequency at which phase angle of G(jω)=0, ω 1237.78 rad/sec, 197 Hz 197 Hz

INFERENCE:
LAG-LEAD compensator has been designed to obtain a specific value of maximum phase lag and phase lead.
It is observed that output lags the input for lower frequency range and becomes in phase with the input at a
particular frequency and then leads.

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EXPERIMENT: 07

Study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response
of a feedback Control System using simulation

INTRODUCTION:
PID controllers are commercially successfully and widely used as controllers in industries.
For example, in a typical paper mill 90% of the controllers used are PID controller. The PID
controller uses a proportional mode, an Integral mode and a Derivative mode. The first
letters of these modes make up the name PID controller. Depending upon the applications
one or more of these modes are used. For example, in a liquid control system, a zero steady
state error is required; thus a PI controller is used. Whereas in a temperature control system
where zero steady state error is not essential, a P controller can be used.

P Control. Output power is directly proportional to control error. The higher the proportion
coefficient, the less the output power at the same control error. Proportional control can be
recommended for fast-response systems with a large transmission coefficient.

PI Control. Output power equals to the sum of proportional and integration coefficients. The
higher the proportion coefficient, the less the output power at the same control error. The
higher the integration coefficient, the slower the accumulated integration coefficient. PI
control provides zero control error and is insensitive to interference of the measurement
channel. The PI control disadvantage is slow reaction to disturbances.

P-D Control - Output power equals to the sum of proportional and differential coefficients.
P-D control for lower order system apparently is not very useful as it cannot reduce the
steady state error to zero. But for higher order processes, it can be shown that the stability
of the closed loop system can be improved using P-D controller.

PID Control - Output power equals to the sum of three coefficients: proportional, integral
and differential. The higher the proportion coefficient, the less the output power at the same
control error. The higher the integration coefficient, the slower the accumulated integration
coefficient. The higher the differentiation coefficient, the greater the response of the
system to the disturbance. The PID controller is used in inertial systems with relatively low

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noise level of the measuring channel. The advantage of PID is fast warm up time, accurate
set point temperature control and fast reaction to disturbances. Manual tuning PID is
extremely complex, so it is recommended is to use the auto-tune function.

AIM: To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response of a feedback
control system using simulation.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Guidelines for selection of controller mode:

Proportional controller - It is simple regulating type; tuning is easy. But it normally introduces
steady state error. It is recommended for process transfer functions having a pole at origin,
or for transfer functions having a single dominating pole.

Integral Control: It does not exhibit steady state error, but is relatively slow responding. It is
particularly effective for: (i) very fast process, with high noise level (ii) process dominated by
dead time (iii) high order system with all time constants of the same magnitude.

Proportional plus Integral (P-I) Control: It does not cause offset associated with proportional
control. It also yields much faster response than integral action alone. It is widely used for
process industries for controlling variables like level, flow, pressure, etc., those do not have
large time constants.

Proportional plus Derivative (P-D) Control: It is effective for systems having large number of
time constants. It results in a more rapid response and less offset than is possible by pure
proportional control. But one must be careful while using derivative action in control of very
fast processes, or if the measurement is noisy (e.g. flow measurement).

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Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (P-I-D) Control: It finds universal application. But
proper tuning of the controller is difficult. It is particularly useful for controlling slow
variables, like pH, temperature, etc. in process industries.

Limitations of PID Controllers

The performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is

variable because PID controllers are linear
The derivative term Kd is susceptible to Noise disturbance. A small amount of
measurement or process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output.
The PID Parameters need to be tuned in order to obtain required optimal response.
Doesn’t handle non‐symmetric systems very well (e.g. A system which heats much
faster than it cools).

Applications of PID Controller

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm
used in industry and has been universally accepted in industrial control. This is due
to the fact that all design specifications of the system can be met through optimal
tuning of constants Kp, Ki & Kd for maximum performance.

In the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was implemented
as a mechanical device in steering system of Ships.

PID temperature controllers are applied in industrial ovens, plastics injection

machinery, hot stamping machines and packing industry.

Electronic analog PID control loops are often found within more complex electronic
systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of
a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer.

Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in programmable logic

controllers (PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital controller.

SIMULINK MODEL:

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PROCEDURE:
1. System transfer function is taken as

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1
G( s)
s 2 10s 19
2. Connect the system using SIMULINK as shown in Simulink model. The block step
input can be obtained from source, sum and gain block from math operations,
transfer function block from continuous and scope from sink.
3. To check all the output together mask can be used before the scope.
4. Set the simulation time for 10 sec and observe the waveform from the scope for
each case.
5. Maximum overshoot and steady state error can be obtained by visual
observation of the graph. Desired steady state output C ss = 1 as the input is unit
step input. Difference between actual output and desired output is taken as
steady state error.
Ctp C ss
6. Overshoot can be calculated as M p 100%
C ss

7. Tabulate the readings. Zoom in to obtain accurate result.

GRAPH:

Controller: P [Kp=10]
Without Controller

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Controller: PD [Kp+sKd = 500+10s]

Controller: P [Kp=500]

Ki 500
Ki 10 Controller: PID [Kp+ + sKd = 500 + + 100s]
Controller: PI [Kp+ = 500 + ] s s
s s

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TABULAR COLUMN:

Steady state Maximum

SL No System
error overshoot (%)

1. Basic sysem 0.95 0

Kp = 10 0.35 0
2. P
Kp = 500 0.037 50.57%

3. PI 0.03 48.45%

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4. PD 0.037 24.6%

5. PID 0 0

INFERENCE

For the system given without controller, steady state error is 0.95 but overshoot = 0
By adding proportional controller, error can be reduced, but with the increase of Kp
as the error reduces overshoot increases. Error can not be eliminated by proportional
controller.
By adding PD controller, error does not change but, overshoot reduces.
PI controller reduces steady state error, has very less effect on overshoot.
When PID controller is connected, the system steady state as well as transient
response are improved.

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EXPERIMENT - 8

SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM AND DETERMINATION OF STEP

RESPONSE

INTRODUCTION:
The time response of control system consists of two parts. Transient response and

steady state response. C (t ) C tr (t ) C ss (t ) . Most of the control systems use time as

its independent variable. Analysis of response means to see the variation of output with
respect to time. The output of the system takes some finite time to reach to its final
value. Every system has a tendency to oppose the oscillatory behavior of the system
which is called damping. The damping is measured by a factor called damping ratio of
the system. If the damping is very high then there will not be any oscillations in the
output. The output is purely exponential. Such system is called an over damped system.
If the damping is less compared to over damped case then the system is called a critically
damped system. If the damping is very less then, the system is called under damped
system. With no damping system is un-damped.
Denominator of the transfer function equated to zero is the characteristic equation and
the order of the characteristic equation is called the order of a system. So if the order
of the characteristic equation is 2 then the system is called as second order system.
There are a number of factors that make second order systems important. They are
simple and exhibit oscillations and overshoot. Higher order systems are based on
second order systems. In case of mechanical second order systems, energy is stored in
the form of inertia whereas in case of electrical systems, energy can be stored in a
capacitor or inductor.
AIM:

1. To simulate a typical second order system and determination of step response

and evaluation of time response specification: Peak time, rise time, Percentage
overshoot, settling time.
2. Evaluation of the effect of additional poles and zeroes on time response of

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second order system
3. Evaluation of effect of pole location on stability

THEORY:

Standard form of second order system is given by:

C (s) 2
n , where ωn = natural frequency and ξ = damping ratio.
R( s) s2 2 n
2
n

For,
1< ξ < ∞ Over-damped System
0<ξ<1 Under-damped system
ξ=1 critically damped system
ξ=0 undamped system

Figure: Variation of C(t) with the variation of damping ratio

Time Domain Specifications:

Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response
1 0.7
signal during its first cycle of oscillation. t d
n
Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time
response signal during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then
rise time is counted as the time required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of
its final value.

1 2
tr where tan - 1
2
n 1

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Peak time (tp) is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e. the

peak of first cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot. t p

2
n 1
Settling Time Ts is the time required for the response to remain within a certain
percent of its final value, typically 2% to 5%. Settling time with 2% tolerance
4
ts
n
Maximum overshoot (Mp) is the difference between the magnitude of the highest
peak of time response and magnitude of its steady state. Maximum overshoot is
expressed in term of percentage of steady-state value of the response.
Ctp C ss
Mp 100%
C ss

Theoretically, M p e 2
1

Steady-state error (ess ) is the difference between actual output and desired output
at the infinite range of time.

PROCEDURE:
1. In MATLAB m file type the program

PROGRAM:
% Determination of time response specifications of second order system

clc;
num=4; den=[1 1.2 4];
sys=tf(num, den);
step(sys)
2. Run the program, the time response curve will be obtained. Right click on the
figure characteristics settling time, peak response, Rise time. Bringing
the cursor at the point the values for rise time, peak time, overshoot and
settling time can be noted down.

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3. Compare the simulated result with theoretical calculations.

4. For addition of pole:

PROGRAM:
% Time response specifications of second order system with addition of pole

clc;
num = 4; den=[1 1.2 4];
den_P = conv([1 1], den)
sys=tf(num, den_P);
step(sys)

5. For addition of zero:

PROGRAM:
% Time response specifications of second order system with addition of zero
clc;
num = 4;
den=[1 1.2 4];
num_Z = conv([1 1], num)
sys=tf(num_Z, den);
step(sys)

6. For addition of pole at a different location:

PROGRAM:
% Time response specifications of second order system with changed pole
location
clc;
num=4; den=[1 1.2 4];
den_P1 = conv([1 2], den)
sys=tf(num, den_P1)

step(sys)
7. Each time tabulate the data from the figure by right click characteristics.

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Time Response characteristic:

Tabular Column:

Second Order System transfer function:

4
s 2 1.2s 4
Peak time Settling Time (sec) Rise Time (sec) % overshoot
(sec)
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

1.6466 1.61 6.6 5.62 0.983 0.662 40.8 37.1

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Effect of addition of poles and zeros, and variation of loop gain:

Peak Settling Rise Time

% Steady state
Transfer function time Time (sec)
overshoot error
(sec) (sec)
Second 4
order 1.57 5.62 0.673 36.8 0
system s 2 1.2s 4
Addition 4
of pole at 2.51 4.79 1.28 3.38 0
s=-1 s 2 1.2s 4 ( s 1)
Addition 4( s 1)
of zero at 0.942 6.55 0.216 111 0
s = -1 s 2 1.2s 4
Effect of
change of
pole 4
2.2 6.05 1.37 22.4 0.5
location s 2 1 .2 s 4 ( s 2 )
pole at
s = -2

CALCULATION:
Transfer function of the given system is
4
s 2 1.2s 4
C (s) 2
Comparing with standard second order system, n
R( s) s2 2 n
2
n
ξ = 0.3 and ωn = 2

1 2
tan - 1 = 1.266 rad

tr = 0.983 sec
2
n 1

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tp = 1.6466 sec
2
n 1
4
ts = 6.6 sec
n

Mp e 2 100 % = 40.8%
1

RESULT: For different ωn and ζ transfer function is calculated and time response
specifications are determined.
INFERENCE:
An additional zero in the left half of s plane makes the system faster and more
oscillatory. This can be seen from the simulations. As the zero moves along the
negative real axis toward the origin, the time to the first peak of the step response
decreases monotonically while the percent overshoot increases monotonically.
Also, it takes longer for the system to settle to the final value of the response.
The addition of left half pole tends to slow down the system response. As the pole
moves towards the origin in s plane, the rise time increases and the maximum
overshoot decreases.

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EXPERIMENT - 9

9 a) SIMULATE THE D.C.POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM USING MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
It is required to keep the position of the load constant. Such a system where output
position is kept constant is called as position control system. The output position is sensed
and feedback to the potentiometer used as an error detector. For any change in the output
position θL, the potentiometer generates an error signal proportional to the difference θr
and θL. The θr is the reference position corresponding to the ideal output position. The
error signal is given to the amplifier and the output of the amplifier is given to the armature
of a d.c. servo motor. The d.c. servomotor maintains the output shaft position constant.
The entire scheme is called d.c. position control system.

AIM : TO Simulate the D.C position control system using Matlab and to observe the step
response when the system is (a) under damped (b) critically damped / over damped

THEORY:
Applications:
i. Electromechanical Actuators
ii. Air Craft Control Systems
iii. Process controllers
iv. Robotics
A dc-motor position control system is shown in figure. The following parameters and
variables are defined: e-error voltage , er=the reference input, θL=the load position, KA-
the amplifier gain=200 , ea-the motor input voltage, eb-the back emf, ia- the motor current
, Tm- the motor torque , Jm-the motor inertia=0.03, Bm- the motor viscous-friction co-
efficient=10, JL- the load inertia=0.05 , Kt-motor torque constant=21, Kb-the back emf
constant=15.5V/rpm, Ke-the error-detector gain=E/2π, where E=2π,Ra-the motor
resistance=1.15, θe= θr-θL

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Fig (a) Block diagram for the given System

To simulate the above D.C position control system using Matlab

and obtain its step response:
Obtain the transfer functions of each block.
The Transfer functions of :
1. Amplifier = Eb(s)/E(s)=KA=10.
2. Dc motor (neglecting La)= m(s) / Eb(s) =(Kt / Ra ) / (s (Js+B))
where B=Bm+Kt Kb /Ra=293, J=Jm + JL=0.08
=18.26/(s(0.08s+293)
=18.26/(0.08s+293) * 1/s.
3. Flexible shaft = L(s) / m(s)=1(assumed as rigid shaft)
4.Error detector=E(s) =( r(s)- L(s) ) *Kp= e(s) *Kp ;
Where Kp =1.

Now represent the transfer functions of different blocks, using Simulink and
interconnect them as shown in the following figure.

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Figure: Simulink model of DC Position control system

The blocks used in the above fig. can be accessed from Simulink. The transfer function and
integrator blocks can be obtained from continuous part, summer and gain from math part,
step input from sources part and scopes from sinks part. Once the blocks are
interconnected, following procedure is adopted to simulate

PROCEDURE:

1) Click on step input block and set final value as 1 and other parameters to 0.
2) Click on amplifier gain and set gain to 200. Similarly set gains of flexible shaft and error
detector to 1 each.
3) Click on transfer function block and set numerator value as 18.62 and
4) denominator to [0.08 293].
5) Save the interconnected block diagram.
6) Click on simulation tool bar and go to simulation parameters and set start time to 0.0 and
stop time to 0.5sec.
7) Click on the start simulation button and observe the waveforms of error, speed and
output θL. The output θL corresponds to critically/over damped second order step
response.
8) Change the denominator value of transfer function to [0.08 20] and repeat step 6 after
setting stop time to 1 sec. The output θL in this case corresponds to under damped
second order step response.

GRAPH:

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18.62
With transfer function
0.08 s 293

Error with variation of time

Speed with variation of time

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Position with variation of time

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18.62
With transfer function , [reduced damping]
0.08 s 20

Error with variation of time

Speed with variation of time

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Position with variation of time

INFERENCE:

DC position control system is simulated using MATLAB Simulink and response of the system
with variation of damping is observed. With reduced damping oscillation increases.

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9 b) VERIFICATION OF THE EFFECT OF INPUT WAVEFORM, LOOP GAIN AND

SYSTEM TYPE ON STEADY STATE ERROR

INTRODUCTION:
Steady-state error is defined as the difference between the input (command) and the
output of a system in the limit as time goes to infinity (i.e. when the response has reached
steady state). The steady-state error will depend on the type of input (step, ramp, etc.) as
well as the system type (0, 1, 2 …). In addition to these, imperfections in the system
components, such as static friction, backlash, and amplifier drift, as well as aging or
deterioration, will also cause errors at steady state.
Steady-state error analysis is only useful for stable systems. The stability of the system must
be checked before performing a steady-state error analysis. Many of the techniques that
we present will give an answer even if the error does not reach a finite steady-state value.

AIM: To verify the effect of input waveform, loop gain and system type on steady state
error.

THEORY:
The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady state is
known as steady state error. It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error using
the final value theorem as follows.

e ss
Lim e t
t
Lim sE s
s 0

Where E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, e(t).

The type number of a feedback control system is defined as the number of poles at origin or
number of integrators present in the system.
Steady State error for various inputs and type systems are shown in the following table 11.1.

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Table 11.1: Steady state Error with standard inputs

Steady State Error
Input Error Type 0
Type 1 system Type 2 system
system
Position
1
Unit Step, u(t) 1 0 0
1 k p
1 k p

1 1
Unit ramp, t Velocity ∞ 0
k v k v

Acceleration
1
Unit parabolic, t2 1 ∞ ∞
k a
k a

Where, position error constant Kp Lim G s , velocity error constant

s 0

Kv Lim sG s and acceleration error constant K a Lim s 2 G s .

s 0 s 0
It can be observed that as the type number increases steady state error decreases. Constants
Kp, Kv and Ka are called the static error constants and the steady state error obtained is called
static error as this error does not give any dynamics of errors.

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SIMULATION MODEL:
With Ramp input

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With parabolic input

PROCEDURE:
1. System transfer function is taken as
( s 1)(s 2)
G( s) for type 0 system
( s 3)(s 5)
( s 1)(s 2)
G( s) for type 1 system
s( s 3)(s 5)
( s 1)(s 2)
G(s) for type 2 system
s 2 ( s 3)(s 5)
2. Connect the system using SIMULINK as shown in Simulink model. The block
ramp input can be obtained from source, sum and gain block from math
operations, transfer function and integrator block from continuous, mux from
commonly used block and scope from sink. A ramp input and integrator
together can produce parabolic input.

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3. Set the simulation time for 100 sec and check the steady state error for each
case.
4. Where the input and the output lines are diverging, the steady state error can
be taken as infinity. If they are becoming parallel then steady state error has a
constant value. If the lines are merging together then steady state error = 0.
5. Tabulate the readings. Zoom in to obtain accurate result.

WAVEFORM:
With step input With ramp input

Type 0 Type 0

Type 1 Type 1

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Type 2 Type 2
With parabolic input

Type 0 Type 1

Type 2

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Steady State Error

Input
Type 0 system Type 1 system Type 2 system

Step 0.882 0 0

Ramp infinite 7.5 0

Parabolic infinite infinite 8

INFERENCE:
Steady state error values are obtained for type 0, type 1 and type 2 system with step, ramp
and parabolic input. The result satisfies the theoretical values as shown in table 11.1.

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9 C) DESIGN OF LEAD COMPENSATOR USING MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
A lead compensator can increase the stability or speed of response of a system. a lag compensator
can reduce (but not eliminate) the steady-state error. Depending on the effect desired, one or
more lead and lag compensators may be used in various combinations. A system which has one
pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is closer to the origin than all over zeros is known
as dominating zero.) is known as lead network. If we want to add a dominating zero for
compensation in control system then we have to select lead compensation network.
AIM: To perform a trade off study for lead compensation using MATLAB

THEORY:
Steps to design Lead Compensator using Bode Plot:
Step 1: Obtain the Bode plot of the given system.
Step 2: Find the phase lead angle to be provided by the compensator.

where φ is the phase margin of the un-compensated system, φreq

m req

Is the required Phase Margin of compensated system and ε = 5 to 12°, this is to compensate
the shift in gain cross over frequency.
1 sin m 1
Step 3: Calculate and mag = -20log .
1 sin m

Step 4: Obtain the frequency (ωc) corresponding to this magnitude from the bode plot of
uncompensated system.
1 1
Step 5: But this new gain cross over frequency c . Thus T
T c
1 1
Step 6: Corner frequencies of the lead compensator are 1
and 2
T T
1 s 1
Step 7: Transfer function of the compensator is G c s
s 2

Step 8: Obtain the PM and GM of the system with compensator. If they do not meet the
required specifications, continue from step 2 with updated ε.

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Necessity of Compensation

1. In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks.
Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed forward path gain
adjustment.
2. Compensate an unstable system to make it stable.
3. A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
4. These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system. An important
point to be noted here is that the increase in the steady state accuracy brings instability to the
system.
5. Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby causes changes
in the transfer function of the system. Due to this, performance specifications of the system
change.

20
PROBLEM: Design a lead compensator for the system given by phase margin is
s ( s 0.5s )

at least 55° and gain margin is 12dB.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Gc(s)

PROCEDURE:
1. Write the program in Matlab m file
Program1:
% Input the value of phi required for compensation
req_phi = 55;

sys=tf([20], conv([1 0], [.5 1])); %input the transfer function

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bode(sys); % draw the bode plot
[gm pm wgc wpc] = margin(sys);

% addition of tolerance +6°, usually tolerance of 5 to 12° is added

phi1=req_phi - pm + 6;

alpha = (1-sin (phi1*pi/180))/(1+sin (phi1*pi/180))

mag = -20*log10(1/sqrt(alpha))

2. Now check the Pm and GM of the system, GM is

3. Now from bode plot obtain frequency corresponding to this magnitude mag
say freq is = 9.49 rad/sec.
Now write the program in Matlab m file,

Program 2:
req_phi = 55;

sys=tf([20], conv([1 0], [.5 1]));

bode(sys);
[gm pm wgc wpc] = margin(sys);

phi1=req_phi - pm + 6;

alpha = (1-sin (phi1*pi/180))/(1+sin (phi1*pi/180)) mag = -20*log10(1/sqrt(alpha));

% from bode plot obtain frequency corresponding to this magnitude mag

% say freq is = 9.49 rad/sec

wc=9.49;

T=1/(sqrt(alpha)*wc);

w1=-1/T;
w2=-1/(alpha*T);

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sys_compensator=zpk([w1], [w2], 1/alpha)
sys_overall=sys* sys_compensator;
bode(sys2);

[gm1 pm1 wgc1 wpc1] = margin(sys2);

margin(sys2);

Note: Take the reading of phase margin and gain margin to check if the compensator
satisfies the given requirement. Vary the tolerance for further adjustment.

Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 18 deg (at 6.17 rad/sec)
50

40

30

20
Magnitude (dB)

10

-10
System: sys
Frequency (rad/sec): 9.5
-20 Magnitude (dB): -7.24

-30

-40

-50
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode diagram for the un-compensated system

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Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 54.9 deg (at 9.49 rad/sec)
50
sys_overall

Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode diagram for the overall system after compensation

INFERENCE:
Phase margin of the uncompensated system = 18 ° and gain margin = infinity.
Required phase margin = 55°

502893( s 4.123)
Transfer function of the compensator Gc( s)
(s 21.87)

502893( s 4.123) 20
Transfer function of the overall system = Goverall ( s)
( s 21.87) s( s 0.5s)
Phase margin of the overall system after compensation = 54.9° and gain margin = infinity.

By adding the Lead compensator the phase margin of the system is improved to meet the required
specification.

9 d) TO DESIGN A PI CONTROLLER AND VERIFY ITS EFFECT ON STEADY STATE

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ERROR

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EXPERIMENT: 10
ROOT LOCUS PLOT USING MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
The root locus is a plot of the roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system
as a function of one system parameter varies, such as the gain of the open-loop transfer
function. It is a method that determines how the poles move around the S-plane as we
change one control parameter. This plot was introduced by Evans in 1948 and has been
developed and used extensively in control engineering.

AIM:
1. To obtain the root locus plot of a given open loop transfer function using
MATLAB and determine
a. The range of open loop gain K for which the closed loop system is
stable.
b. The breakaway and/or break-in points and the corresponding gain.
2. Verify the effect of open loop poles and zeros on root locus
3. Verify the effect of open loop gain on root locus.

THEORY:
The Root Locus Method tells us the position of the poles in the s-plane for each value of a
control parameter. By using root locus method the designer can predict the effects of location
of closed loop poles by varying the gain value or adding open loop poles and/or open loop
zeroes. The closed loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation. This method brings
in to focus the complete dynamic response of the system. By using root locus method the
designer can predict the effects of location of closed loop poles by varying the gain value or
adding open loop poles and/or open loop zeroes. The closed loop poles are the roots of the
characteristic equation. This method gives the information about absolute and relative
stability of the system.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Assign the numerator (num) and denominator (den) polynomial.
2. Define the system by using the command
sys=tf(num,den)
3. The root locus plot is obtained by using the command
rlocus(sys)
4. To determine the range of K for which the system is stable: In order to find
the range of K for stability of closed loop system the point of intersection of
the root locus with the imaginary axis (if it intersects) is required. It can be
found using the function
rlocfind(sys).
5. Use the above function from the command window, select the point of
intersection with the imaginary axis on the root locus by moving the crosshair
cursor and click on it. The gain and the corresponding locations of all poles will
be displayed. Now decide the range of K for stability of closed loop system.

6. To determine the breakaway point or break-in point: Use the function

rlocfind as above.
7. To determine the angle of departure from the complex pole: It is obtained by
selecting a point very near the pole and finding the angle made by the vector
joining the pole to this point. The procedure is as follows:
[K,P]=rlocfind(sys)
8. Move the crosshair cursor and click on the pole at which angle of departure is
required. The gain K and the location of poles in the form of column vector will
be displayed. Now identify the element of P corresponding to the selected pole
and call it by a separate variable say a. For example, if the second element of P
is the selected pole, then enter

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a=P(1)
9. Again use the function rlocfind by entering
[ K1,P1]=rlocfind(sys)
10. Move the crosshair cursor on the root locus and select a point very near to the
pole at which the angle of departure is required. The value of K and
corresponding P will be displayed. Identify the element of P and call it by
another variable say b. For example, if the second element of P is the selected
point, then b=P1(1)
11. Now the angle of departure will be the angle of vector (b-a). Use the angle()
function to find the angle. This displays the angle in radian. So to convert in
degree -
depangle=angle(b-a)*180/pi

Example:

k
1.
s(s 4)(s 5)

Program 1:
clc
clear all
k=1
sys = zpk([], [0 -4 -5],1);
rlocus(sys)
title('Root Locus Plot for k/s(s+4)(s+5)');
rlocfind(sys)

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Root Locus
15
System: sys
Gain: 274
Pole: 0.409 + 5.27i
10
Damping: -0.0774
Overshoot (%): 128
Frequency (rad/sec): 5.29
5
Imaginary Axis

0
System: sys
Gain: 13.1
Pole: -1.47 - 3.62e-008i
-5
Damping: 1
Overshoot (%): 0
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.47
-10

-15
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis

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𝐾
2. G(S)H(S)=𝑆(𝑆 2 +4𝑆+13)

Program 2.
clc
clear all
k=1
num = k;
den =[1 4 13 0];
sys = tf(num/den)
rlocus(sys);
𝐾
title('Root Locus Plot for G(S)H(S)=𝑆(𝑆 2+4𝑆+13)');

rlocfind(sys)

RESULT:

Theoretical value Experimental value

Imaginary Angle Imaginary
Transfer Break Break Angle of
Sl # Axis of axis cross
function Away away departure
crossover departu Over
point point (if any)
point re point

𝐾 (ifany)
1. 1.472 ±j4.472 ------ 1.42 ±j4.47 ----
𝑆(𝑆+4)(𝑆+5)

𝐾
2. ---- ±j3.6 -33.69° --- ±j3.6 -33.69°
𝑆(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 13)

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Verification of effect of addition of poles and zeros on root locus

3. Addition of pole:
𝑲
G(S)H(S) =
𝑺(𝑺+𝟒)(𝑺+𝟓)(𝒔+𝟏)

Program 3

clc
clear all
k=1
sys = zpk([], [0 -1 -4 -5], 1);
rlocus(sys)
title('Root Locus Plot with addition of pole’);

rlocus(sys)

4.Addition of zero:
𝑲(𝒔+𝟏)
G(S)H(S) =𝑺(𝑺+𝟒)(𝑺+𝟓)

PROGRAM
clc
clear all
k=1
sys = zpk([-1], [0 -4 -5]
rlocus(sys)
title('Root Locus Plot with addition of zero');
rlocus(sys)

Theoretical verification.
𝑲
1. G(S)H(S) =
𝑺(𝑺+𝟒)(𝑺+𝟓)

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1. poles are at s = 0,s = -4 , s = -5

poles p=3, zeros z = 0

2. Number of branches of root locus = p = 3
3. Number of asymptotes =p-z =3-0=3
4. The three branches of root locus starts at three poles at s=0,s=-4 ,s=-5 where
k=0 and ends at infinity.
5. Angle of Asymptotes
2q 1
θ= *180 ,q=0,1,2
p z

2*0 1
θ 1= *180 =60o
3 0
2 *1 1 2*2 1
θ 2= *180 =180o θ3= *180 =300o
3 0 3 0
(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒)−(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠)
6. centroid=
𝑝−𝑧

0−4−5−0
= = -3.
3−0
7. Break away point:
The characteristic equation is
1+ G(S)H(S)=0
𝐾
1+ 𝑆(𝑆+4)(𝑆+5)

K=-(s3+ s2+20s+k)
dk/ds=0
3s+2s+20=0
s=-1.472,-4.52
s=-1.472 is valid break away point.

8. Intersection with imaginary axis:

The characteristic equation is
s3+ s2+20s+k=0

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Routh array
s3 1 20
s2 9 K

S1 180 - k/9
s0 k

for marginal stability ,(180-K)=0

K=180
A(s)=9S2+K=0
s=±j4.472

𝑲
2. G(S)H(S)= 𝟐
𝑺(𝑺 +𝟒𝑺+𝟏𝟑)

1. poles are at s=0,s=-2-j3- ,s=-2+j3

pol,es,p=3,zeros,z=0
2. Number of braches of root locus =p=3
3. Number of asymptotes =p-z =3-0=3
4. The three braches of root locus starts at three poles at s=0,s=-2+j3 ,s=-2-j3 where
k=0 and ends at infinity.
5. Angle of Asymptotes
2q 1
θ= *180 ,q=0,1,2
p z

2*0 1
θ 1= *180 =60o
3 0
2 *1 1 2*2 1
θ 2= *180 =180o θ 3= *180 =300o
3 0 3 0
(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒)−(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠)
6. centrod=
𝑝−𝑧

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0−2−2−0
= = -1.33.
3−0
7. 7.Break away point:
There is no break away point

8. Intersection with imaginary axis:

The characteristic equation is
1+ G(S)H(S)=0
𝐾
1+𝑆(𝑆 2+4𝑆+13) =0

s3+ 4s2+13s+k=0
Routh array
s3 1 13
s2 4 K

S1 (52-k)/4 0
s0 k

For marginal stability , (52-K)=0

K=52
A(s)=9S2+52=0
s=±j3.6
9. Angle of departure
θd=180o - θ p1- θdp2
=180o -180o +56.3o -90o = 33.7o

RESULT AND INFERENCE

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Transfer function Break away Imaginary axis INFERENCE
point cross over point

Basic transfer function

k The system is stable for
s( s 4)(S 5) 1.472
4.472 0<K<178
Kmargin = 178

The system is stable for

Addition of pole 0<K<52.7.
1.6
k 0.808
Kmargin = 52.7
s( s 4)(S 5)(s 1) Addition of pole decreases
the range for stability.

The root locus does not

Addition of zero intersect the imaginary
k ( s 1) axis. So system is stable
s( s 4)(S 5) 4.5 ----- for all value of K>0.

Addition of zero increases

the rang of stability.

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EXPERIMENT: 11

Comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and Root locus with respect to

stability

INTRODUCTION: Magnitude and phase shift of the frequency response can be plotted directly
on linear scale but to see the effect in a wide range of frequency the linear plot becomes
cumbersome. Thus The plot of the magnitude and phase shift with respect to frequency is
plotted in logarithmic scale . This is known as Bode Plot after Hendrick Wade Bode.
Hendrick W. Bode was an American engineer, researcher, inventor,
author and scientist, of Dutch ancestry. As a pioneer of
modern control theory and electronic telecommunications he
revolutionized both the content and methodology of his chosen fields
of research. He made important contributions to the design, guidance
and control of anti-aircraft systems during World War II. He helped
develop the automatic artillery weapons that defended London from
the V-1 flying bombs during world war II. He also made important
contributions to control systems theory and mathematical tools for
the analysis of stability of linear systems, inventing Bode plots, gain Hendrick Wade Bode
margin and phase margin. [ 1905-1982]

Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete frequency response of

the open loop transfer function.
Harry Nyquist was a Swedish-born American electronic
engineer who made important contributions to control theory and
communication theory. As an engineer at Bell Laboratories, Nyquist
did important work on thermal noise, the stability
of feedback amplifiers, telegraphy, television, and other important
communications problems
Harry Nyquist
[ 1889-1976]

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AIM: To obtain comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and Root locus with respect to stability
using Matlab.

THEORY:
Condition for determination of Stability from Bode Plot: For a system to be stable, the gain
crossover frequency is to be less than phase cross over frequency or both the gain margin
and phase margin should be positive.

Nyquist Stability Criterion: Nyquist stability criterion states that For the closed loop system
to be stable the number of encirclements of the nyquist plot about the critical point (-1+j0)
must be equal to the poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of the 's' plane.
Nyquist plot has advantages over the root locus and Routh-Horwitz because it easily handles
time delays.

Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers
to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system
unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system. It
refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
It is usually expressed in terms of phase angle.
Gain Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which magnitude curve cuts the zero
dB axis in the bode plot.
Phase Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the
negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each other is
known as break frequency or corner frequency.
The margins are undefined when there is no crossover at 0dB and if there is no crossover at
180°.

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Advantages of Bode Plot
1. It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple method to
plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
2. The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can be treated
as an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic
scale.
3. With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the system
without doing any calculations.
4. Bode plots provides relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase margin.
5. It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range. 6. Transfer function can be
obtained experimentally using Bode plot.
Advantages of Nyquist Plot
1. In practice most of the real time systems experience delay such systems will have loop
transfer functions involving exponentials. Such systems cannot be treated with Routh
Hurwitz criterion and are difficult to treat with Root-Locus method. The stability of such
systems can be estimated using Nyquist plot.
2. The nyquist plot is easy to obtain especially with the aid of computer.
3. In addition to providing absolute stability, Nyquist plot also gives information on relative
stability of stable systems and degree of instability of unstable system.
4. It also gives information on the frequency characteristics such as peak resonant
amplitude, peak resonant frequency, bandwidth, gain margin, phase margin etc.
System Transfer function

K
G( s)
(s 1)(s 2)(s 5)
PROCEDURE:
A. Root locus: Plot the root locus for the same system using MATLAB and obtain the
range of K for stability.
Program:
sys=zpk([], [-1 -2 -5], 1);
rlocus(sys);
rlocfind(sys);

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Click on the intersecting point of imaginary axis and note the value of K margin for stability.
Zoom in to get the accurate value.

B. Bode Plot:

The Bode diagrams can be obtained using MATLAB either by executing MATLAB
statements one by one through command window or by creating a matlab file (.m file)
of program statements and executing it as follows.

1. In the matlab editor enter the program to obtain the Bode diagrams for the given
transfer functions. A sample program is given below:
%bode diagrams
%plot of system1
sys=zpk([], [-1 -2 -5], 60);
% One value less than Kmargin (in place of 60) for stable system,
% one value greater than Kmargin for unstable system
% one value = Kmargin for marginaaly stable system
margin(sys);

2. Save the program as a .m file and run the program.

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3. From the plot note down the gain margin (GM), phase margin (PM), and
corresponding cross over frequencies. If GM and PM is not displayed correctly, it
can be obtained by clicking on the plots at suitable points.
i. Click on the phase angle curve and find the frequency at which the curve
crosses –180 degree line. This gives the phase cross over frequency p.
ii. Click on the magnitude curve and find the magnitude at = p. The
gain margin is calculated as, GM = - magnitude at phase cross over
frequency.
iii. Click on the magnitude curve and find the frequency at which the
curve crosses 0dB line. This will be the gain cross over frequency g.

iv. Find the phase angle by clicking on the phase curve at = g. The
phase margin is calculated as PM=180 + phase angle at = g.

Note: GM is obtained at phase crossover frequency and PM is obtained at gain

crossover frequency.

4. The GM, PM and the cross over frequencies can also be obtained using the
following function.
[GM PM WCF WCG]= margin (sys);
Where GM=Gain margin is in abs units ( 20logGM is the GM in db) PM=Phase margin
WCF=Phase cross over frequency WCG=Gain cross over frequency.
These parameters will be displayed in the command window.
Note: Verify the result with a gain less than Kmargin, equal to Kmargin and greater
than Kmargin and conclude.

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

Bode Diagram with K = 60 (stable system)

Bode Diagram with K = 200 (unstable system)

C. Nyquist plot
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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
1. The Nyquist plot can be obtained using MATLAB either by executing MATLAB
statements one by one through command window or by creating a matlab file (.m
file) of program statements and executing it as follows:

Program:

sys=zpk([], [-1 -2 -5], 60);

nyquist(sys)

2. Check the number of open loop poles (P) in the right half of s plane.
Find out the number of encirclements (N) about the point -1+j0 in
anticlockwise direction.
3. I f N=P the system is stable. Otherwise the system is not stable.
4. Find out the point where magnitude = 1, corresponding frequency is gain
cross over frequency.
5. Find out the point when phase angle = -1800, corresponding frequency is
phase crossover frequency.
6. Alternatively right click on the plot -> Characteristics -> All stability Margin, Now if
cursor is brought on the dots the GM, corresponding frequency i.e phase
crossover frequency, PM and the corresponding frequency i.e gain crossover
frequency can be noted down.

Note: Verify the result with a gain less than Kmargin, equal to Kmargin and greater than
Kmargin and conclude

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

Nyquist Plot with K = 60 (unstable system)

Nyquist Plot with K = 200 (unstable system)

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66

TABULAR COLUMN

Root Locus Bode plot Nyquist plot

The range of K for the For K = 60, For K = 60,
system to be stable is GM= 6.45 dB GM= 6.45 dB
obtained as PM= 25.1 ° PM= 25.1 °
0<K<126 wgc= 2.84 rad/sec wgc= 2.84 rad/sec
wpc= 4.12 rad/sec wpc= 4.12 rad/sec
Thus for any value of K < As gain crossover Number of poles in right half
126 system is unstable and frequency is less than of s-plane = 0, number of
for K = 126, system is phase cross over encirclement of nyquist plot
marginally stable and for frequency, the system is about -1+j0 point = 0, the
K> 126 the system is stable. system is stable.
unstable.
For K = 200, For K = 200,
GM= - 4.01 dB GM= - 4.01 dB
PM= - 12.6 ° PM= - 12.6 °
wgc= 5.06 rad/sec wgc= 5.06 rad/sec
wpc= 4.12 rad/sec wpc= 4.12 rad/sec
As gain crossover Number of poles in right half
frequency is greater than of s-plane = 0, number of
phase cross over encirclement of nyquist plot
frequency, the system is about -1+j0 point = 2, the
unstable system is unstable

For K = 126, For K = 126,

GM= 0.00787 dB GM= 0.00787 dB
PM= 0.0233 ° PM= 0.0233 °
wgc= 4.12 rad/sec wgc= 4.12 rad/sec
wpc= 4.12 rad/sec wpc= 4.12 rad/sec
As gain crossover The nyquist plot passes
frequency is equal to phase through the -1+j0 point so
cross over frequency and the system is marginally
GM and PM are almost stable.
zero, the system is
marginally stable

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Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
INFERENCE: For the given transfer function Bode plot, Nyquist plot and Root locus plot are
obtained. It is observed that the range of stability obtained from all three methods are same.
Using root locus method the range of K for stability is obtained. Using Bode plot or Nyquist plot
for a given K whether the system is stable or unstable or marginally stable can be obtained.

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 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

Sample Viva Questions

1. Define system

• A system is a collection of elements or components that are organized for a common purpose.
2. Define control system

• A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or
regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired results.
3. Define transfer function

• For a linear, time invariant, single input single output system Transfer function is defined as the ratio
of laplace transform of output to laplace transform of input with all initial conditions set to zero.
4. Define poles and zeros.

• Values of s which makes transfer function equal to infinity is called poles. Poles can be obtained by
the solving the equation denominator of transfer function to zero.

• Values of s which makes transfer function equal to zero is called zeros. zeros can be obtained by the
solving the equation numerator of transfer function to zero.
5. Define order of the system.

• Order of characteristic equation is called the order of a system.

6. Define Characteristic equation

• Denominator of the transfer function equated to zero is the characteristic equation.

7. What is type of a system?

• Number of poles at origin is equal to the type of system.

8. What is Servo motor?

• Servo motors are intended and designed to use in motion control applications which require high
accuracy positioning, quick reversing and exceptional performance. A servo motor is a linear or
rotary actuator that provides fast precision position control for closed-loop position control
applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for continuous energy
conversion.
 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
9. What is ac servo motor?

• AC servo motors are basically two-phase squirrel cage induction motors and are used for low power
applications. Nowadays, three phase squirrel cage induction motors have been modified such that
they can be used in high power servo systems.

• The main difference between a standard split-phase induction motor and AC motor is that the
squirrel cage rotor of a servo motor has made with thinner conducting bars, so that the motor
resistance is higher. Based on the construction there are two distinct types of AC servo motors, they
are synchronous type AC servo motor and induction type AC servo motor.
10. What is dc servo motor?

• A DC servo motor consists of a small DC motor, feedback potentiometer, gearbox, motor drive
electronic circuit and electronic feedback control loop. It is more or less similar to the normal DC
motor. The rotor consists of brush and shaft. A commutator and a rotor metal supporting frame are
attached to the outside of the shaft and the armature winding is coiled in the rotor metal supporting
frame. A brush is built with an armature coil that supplies the current to the commutator. At the
back of the shaft, a detector is built into the rotor in order to detect the rotation speed.

• With this construction, it is simple to design a controller using simple circuitry because the torque is
proportional to the amount of current flow through the armature.

• DC servo motor provides very accurate and also fast respond to start or stop command signals due
to the low armature inductive reactance.

11. List the differences between AC servo motor and DC servo motor
AC servo motor DC Servo motor
It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W

It has more stability problems It has less stable problems

It requires frequent maintenance due to the It requires less maintenance due to the absence
presence of commutator of commutator
It provides high efficiency The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is

about 5 to 20%
The life of DC servo motor depends on the life on The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing life
brush life

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12. What are the applications of ac and dc servomotrs?

• Applications of AC servomotor

• automation, robotics, CNC machinery, and other applications involving a high level of
precision

• Applications of DC servo motor

• DC servo motors are used in similar equipments and computerized numerically controlled
machines.

13. What is linear system?

• A linear system is a system that satisfies superposition theorem

14. What is super position theorem

• The principle of superposition theorem includes two the important properties and they are
explained below:
• Homogeneity : A system is said to be homogeneous, if we multiply input with some constant A
then output will also be multiplied by the same value of constant (i.e. A).
• Additivity : Suppose we have a system S and we are giving the input to this system as a1for the
first time and we are getting output as b1 corresponding to input a1. On second time we are giving
input a2 and correspond to this we are getting output as b2.
• Now suppose this time we are giving input as summation of the previous inputs (i.e. a1 + a2)
and corresponding to this input suppose we are getting output as (b1 + b2) then we can say
that system S is following the property of additivity.
15. Define stability. What is BIBO stability?
• For a stable system if a bounded (limited) input is applied then a bounded (limited) output is
obtained and for no input output would tend to zero.
16. What is the condition for stability?
• A system is said to be stable if all the closed loop poles lie in the left half of s plane. If a pole or
a pair of poles lie on the imaginary axis a system is said to be marginally stable. A system is said
to be unstable, If there is at least one pole in the right half of splane or there is a repeated pole
on imaginary axis.
 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
17. What are the different signals used for analysis of time response of a control system?
• step , impulse, ramp, parabolic.

18. What is the time constant of a control system?

• a time which represents the speed with which a particular system can respond to change,
typically equal to the time taken for a specified parameter to vary by a factor of 1− 1/ e
(approximately 0.6321).

19. What is damping ratio? Specify the range of damping ratio for un-damped, under damped,
critically damped and over damped system.
• Damping ratio basically indicates the amount of damping present in the overall system
denoted by zeta, where damping is a counter force. If the ratio is zero, that indicates there is no
damping present and as such the system will oscillate forever (oscillations are the natural
frequency response). A system with ratio between 0 & 1 has some amount of damping and
accordingly the oscillations will die down slowly or quickly as damping ratio changes from 0 to 1.
• A system with damping ratio 1 has no overshoots and the quickest rise time.
• Systems with damping ratio more than 1 are overdamped i.e. such systems have more than
desired damping (friction) that causes the system response to be sluggish.
• ζ= 1 is called critically damped, ζ >1 is called overdamped
• ζ= 0 is undamped and the oscillations never decay to zero
20. What are the time domain specifications?
• Time response specifications are delay time, rise time, maximum overshoot, peak time and
settling time.
21. Define delay time, rise time, settling time, peak time, overshoot and steady state error.
• Settling Time Ts is the time required for the response to remain within a certain percent of its
final value, typically 2% to 5%.
• Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response signal
during its first cycle of oscillation.
• Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time response
signal during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise time is counted as
the time required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.
• Peak time (tp) is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e. the peak of
first cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot.

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• Maximum overshoot (Mp) is the difference between the magnitude of the highest peak of time
response and magnitude of its steady state. Maximum overshoot is expressed in term of
percentage of steady-state value of the response.
• Steady-state error (e ss ) is the difference between actual output and desired output at the
infinite range of time
22. What is the effect of adding zero to a second order system?
• Addition of pole improves the stability of the system.

23. What are the frequency domain specifications?

• The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth,
cut off frequency, phase margin, gain margin, gain crossover frequency, phase crossover
frequency.
24. Define resonant frequency, cut off frequency, bandwidth, cut off rate, gain cross over
frequency, gain margin, phase cross over frequency, phase margin.
• Resonant frequency - It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response
has peak value for the first time.
• Resonant peak - It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude. A system, with larger
resonant peak will exhibit a larger overshoot.
• Bandwidth – In feedback control system, the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude

Mr
M is greater than or equal to 2 is defined as bandwidth.
1
• Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the magnitude is equal to 2 times of its
maximum value is known as cut off frequency or corner frequency. In other words, frequency at
which the magnitude is 3 dB less than its maximum value is called the cut-off frequency.
• Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers
to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
It is usually expressed in dB.
• Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers
to the phase which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is
usually expressed in phase.
• Gain Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which magnitude curve cuts the zero
dB axis in the bode plot.
 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
• Phase Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the negative
times the 180o axis in this plot.
• Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each other is
known as break frequency or corner frequency.
25. Difference between time domain and frequency domain analysis
Time Domain analysis Frequency Domain Analysis
A time domain graph shows how a signal The frequency domain graph shows how
changes over time much of the signal lies within each given
frequency band over a range of
frequencies.
Time domain is the domain for analysis of Frequency domain is the domain for
mathematical functions or signals with analysis of mathematical functions or
respect to time. signals with respect to frequency.
Transfer function calculation is not possible Transfer function of a system can be
experimentally using time domain analysis. experimentally calculated using frequency
domain analysis

26. What are the effects of phase lead network?

• The velocity constant Kv increases.
• The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative
stability improves and error decrease as error is directly proportional to the slope.
• Phase margin increases.
• Response becomes faster.
27. What are the limitations of phase lead network?
• Steady state error is not improved.

28. What are the effects of phase lag network?

• Gain crossover frequency increases.
• Bandwidth decreases.
• Phase margin will increase
• Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the settling
time become larger.

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are the advantages of lag lead network?
 • Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
• Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved
30. What is compensator and what is a controller?
• COMPENSATOR: modification of system dynamics (equations by which system is described ) is
required in order to obtain performance specification, like in case of Lead and Lag compensator
which are often designed to satisfy phase and gain margins, these bode plot of the system itself
changes after the insertion of compensator, bode plot indirectly represents system dynamics.
• CONTROLLER: aim of controller design is to reduce the error between the reference and the
output signal which is fed back to the controller with input (reference) signal.
31. What are the necessity of compensators?
• In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks.
• To compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
• A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
• Compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system

32. What is P, PI, PD, PID controller?

• A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but
never eliminate, the steady-state error.
• An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may
make the transient response worse.
• A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing
the overshoot, and improving the transient response but little effect on rise time
• A PD Controller could add damping to a system, but the steady-state response is not
affected.(steady state error is not eliminated)
• A PI Controller could improve relative stability and eliminate steady state error at the same
time, but the settling time is increased(System response sluggish)
• But a PID controller removes steady-state error and decreases system settling times while
maintaining a reasonable transient response.
33. What are the effects of adding P, PI, PD, PID controller?
• A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but
never eliminate, the steady-state error.
• An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may
make the transient response worse.
 Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
• A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing
the overshoot, and improving the transient response but little effect on rise time
• A PD Controller could add damping to a system, but the steady-state response is not
affected.(steady state error is not eliminated)
• A PI Controller could improve relative stability and eliminate steady state error at the same
time, but the settling time is increased(System response sluggish)
• But a PID controller removes steady-state error and decreases system settling times while
maintaining a reasonable transient response.
34. What is Bode plot?
• A Bode plot is simply a plot of magnitude and phase of a transfer function as frequency varies.

35. How to determine stability from bode plot?

• Condition for determination of Stability from Bode Plot: For a system to be stable, the gain
crossover frequency is to be less than phase cross over frequency or both the gain margin and
phase margin should be positive.
36. State Nyquist stability criterion.
• Nyquist stability criterion states that For the closed loop system to be stable the number of
encirclements of the nyquist plot about the critical point (-1+j0) must be equal to the poles of
the open loop transfer function in the right half of the 's' plane. Nyquist plot
has advantages over the root locus and Routh-Horwitz because it easily handles time delays.

37. What is Nyquist contour?

• The Nyquist contour is a closed contour in the s-plane which completely encloses the entire
right-hand half of s-plane.

38. What is root locus?

• root locus analysis is a graphical method for examining how the roots of a system (roots of
characteristic equation) change with variation of a certain system parameter, commonly a gain
within a feedback system. Root locus start from poles and terminates at zeros or at infinity in
the direction of asymptote. Number of root locus is equal to number of poles (or number of
zeros whichever is greater).

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39. What is breakaway/break-in point?
• Break away points occur on the locus where two or more loci converge or diverge. Break away
points often occur on the real axis, but they may appear anywhere in the s-plane. Break away
point is always on root locus.
40. List the advantages of root locus technique?
• Root locus technique in control system is easy to implement as compared to other methods.
• With the help of root locus we can easily predict the performance of the whole system.
• Root locus provides the better way to indicate the parameters.
41. What are the Advantages of Bode Plot
• It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple method to
plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
• The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can be treated as
an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic scale.
• With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the system without
doing any calculations.
• Bode plots provides relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase margin.
• It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range. 6. Transfer function can be obtained
experimentally using Bode plot.
42. What are the Advantages of Nyquist Plot
• In practice most of the real time systems experience delay such systems will have loop transfer
functions involving exponentials. Such systems cannot be treated with Routh Hurwitz criterion
and are difficult to treat with Root-Locus method. The stability of such systems can be estimated
using Nyquist plot.
• The nyquist plot is easy to obtain especially with the aid of computer.
• In addition to providing absolute stability, Nyquist plot also gives information on relative
stability of stable systems and degree of instability of unstable system.
• It also gives information on the frequency characteristics such as peak resonant amplitude,
peak resonant frequency, bandwidth, gain margin, phase margin etc.
43. What is angle of departure?
• The angle of departure is the angle at which the root locus leaves a complex pole in the s-plane.
The angle of arrival is the angle at which the root locus arrives at a complex zero in the s-plane.
44. What is asymptote?
• The asymptotes indicate where the poles will go as the gain approaches infinity. For systems
with more poles than zeros, the number of asymptotes is equal to the number of poles minus
the number of zeros.
45. What is Synchro?
Control Systems Lab manual 18EEL66
• A Synchro system is formed by interconnection of the devices called the Synchro Transmitter
and the synchro control transformer. They are also called as synchro pair. The synchro pair
measures and compares two angular displacements and its output voltage is approximately linear
with angular difference of the axis of both the shafts. They can be used in the following two ways.
i. To control the angular position of load from a remote place / long distance.
ii. For automatic correction of changes due to disturbance in the angular position of the load
46. What are the applications of synchros?
• The synchros are extensively used in servomechanism for torque transmission, error detection
and for adding and subtracting rotary angles.
47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of synchro?
• Advantages of synchro
The operating speed of synchro is very high, they have full 360 degree rotation without
electrical break and they are highly reliable.
• Disadvantages of synchro
They have full range in order of 30 degrees linearity is not much better than modern
potentiometers.

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