GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Green Building
Green building refers to both a Environmental Benefits:
structure and the application of •Reduce wastage of water
processes that are environmentally •Conserve natural resources
responsible and resource-efficient •Improve air and water quality
throughout a building's life-cycle: •Protect biodiversity and ecosystems
from planning to design, construction, Economic Benefits:
operation, maintenance, renovation, •Reduce operating costs
and demolition. •Improve occupant productivity
•Create market for green product and
services
Social Benefits:
•Improve quality of life
•Minimize strain on local infrastructure
•Improve occupant health and comfort

IGBC Headquarters, Hyderabad. India’s

First Platinum Rated Green Building.
 Objectives of study

 Goals of Green Building

 IGBC Certification
 BEE / GRIHA Certification
 LEED Certification
 Environmental Implications of Buildings
 Embodied energy of Buildings
 Comforts in Buildings
 Utility of solar energy in Buildings
 Green composites for Buildings
 Goals of Green Building

1. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

2. Plan and structure design efficiency
3. Energy efficiency
4. Water efficiency
5. Materials efficiency
6. Indoor environmental quality enhancement
7. Operations and maintenance optimization
8. Waste Reduction
9. Reduce impact on to electricity network
 Indian Green Building Council

• The Indian Green Building Council(IGBC) was formed by The

Confederation of Indian Industry(CII) in 2001.
• IGBC is the country’s premier body for green building certification
and other allied services.
• IGBC certifies the green projects which are conceptualized,
designed, constructed and operated as per IGBC Ratings.
• Till date more than 1250 projects (approx. 400 million sq.ft) have
been rated by IGBC.
• Green projects rated by IGBC fall under one of the following
levels (in ascending order): Certified, Silver, Gold and Platinum.
 BEE/GRIHA Certification
• The Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) launched the Energy
Conservation Building Code (ECBC2017). The code is set for energy
efficiency standards for large commercial buildings with connected load
of 100 kW and above. ECBC for residential buildings is launched in 2018 to
push for energy efficiency in residential sector.
• IGBC rated green buildings are ECBC compliance.
• The CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre is a BEE 5 star rated
building.

TERI (The Energy Research Institute) formerly known as Tata Energy

Research Institute, a non profit organization has developed GRIHA (Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) in the year 2007 which is
recognized as Green building rating system in India
 LEED certification
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) is a rating system (Certified,
Silver, Gold & Platinum) designed by the USGBC to evaluate the environmental
performance of a building and encourage sustainable design.
 LEED Gold certified building uses 25%
less energy and 11% less water than
the average non-LEED rated building.
 A LEED Gold certified building has
19% lower maintenance costs than
the average non-LEED rated building.
 A LEED Gold certified building
produces 34% less greenhouse gas
emissions.
 Occupants of LEED Gold certified
buildings are generally more satisfied
comfort levels by an average of 27% Taipei 101, the tallest and largest LEED
than non-LEED rated building platinum certified building in the world.
occupants.
 Unit I Environmental Implications of Buildings

• Energy use & Carbon emissions

• Water use & Waste disposal
• Embodied energy of Building materials –
sources, production methods & Transportation
• Maintenance energy of buildings
 Unit II Embodied energy of buildings

• Alternative technologies in Building

construction
• Alternative building materials-Recycling of
Industrial and building wastes
• Biomass resources for buildings
 Unit III Thermal comfort in Buildings

• Heat transfer characteristics of building

materials and techniques
• Incidence of solar heat on buildings
• Implications of geographical locations
 Unit IV Solar energy in Buildings

• Utility of solar energy in buildings

• Solar passive cooling and heating of buildings
• Low energy cooling in buildings
• Case studies of solar passive cooled and
heated buildings
 Unit V Green composites for buildings

• Low energy approaches to water management

in buildings
• Solid waste and waste water management in
buildings
• Green cover and Built environment
 References
Text books:
1. K.S.Jagadish, B.U.Venkataramareddy and K.S.Nanjundarao,
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies, New Age
International, 2017.
2. Ursula Eicker, Low energy cooling for sustainable buildings,
John Wiley and sons Ltd., 2009.

References:

1. Osman Attmann, Green Architecture Advanced Technologies

and Materials, Mcgraw Hill
2. Marian Keeler, Bill Burke, Fundamentals of Integrated design
for sustainable building, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Thank You
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Topic 1:Energy Use

• Types of Energy
• Non -Renewable Energy
• Renewable Energy
• Global Energy consumption
 Types of Energy
Sources of Energy can be widely classified as
 Renewable Vs Non Renewable Energy
Non Renewable Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources
• Fossil Fuels • Solar
• Coal • Hydro
• Natural Gas • Wind
• Petroleum Products • Tidal
• Nuclear • Geothermal
• Biomass
 Animate Energy

Animate Energy, which uses the muscle power of Humans and Animals in
traditional construction
 Fossil Fuels
Fossil Fuel refers to buried combustible geologic deposits of organic
materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been
converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas by exposure to heat and pressure in
the earth’s crust over hundreds of millions of years.
 Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy comes from splitting

atoms in a reactor to heat into
steam, turn a turbine and generate
electricity. Kudankulam Nuclear
Power Plant is the largest nuclear
power station in India.
2 × 1000 MW
Units operational
(gross)
Make and model VVER-1000/412
Units planned 2 × 1000 MW
Units under const. 2 × 1000 MW
 Biomass Energy
Biomass energy, which uses the plants and animal residues for energy
production.
 Solar energy

Solar, or photovoltaic (PV), cells are

made from silicon or other materials
that transform sunlight directly into
electricity. Distributed solar systems
generate electricity locally for homes
and businesses, either through
rooftop panels or community
projects that power entire
neighborhoods..
 Wind energy

Wind has become the cheapest

energy source in many parts of the
country. Wind energy turns a
turbine’s blades, which feeds an
electric generator and produces
electricity. The turbines can be
placed anywhere with high wind
speeds—such as hilltops and open
plains—or even offshore in open
water.
 Geothermal energy

The earth’s core is about as hot as the

sun’s surface, due to the slow decay
of radioactive particles in rocks at the
center of the planet. Drilling deep
wells brings very hot underground
water to the surface as a
hydrothermal resource, which is then
pumped through a turbine to create
electricity. Geothermal plants
typically have low emissions if they
pump the steam and water they use
back into the reservoir.
 Hydropower

India is blessed with immense amount

of hydro-electric potential and ranks
5th in terms of exploitable hydro-
potential on global scenario. As per
assessment, India is endowed with
economically exploitable hydro-power
potential to the tune of 1,48,700 MW
of installed capacity.
 Tidal Energy

Tidal turbines look similar to wind

turbines. They can be placed on
the sea floor where there is strong
tidal flow. Tidal turbines are more
expensive to build than wind
turbines but capture more energy
with the same size blades
World energy consumption
is the total energy produced
and used by the entire
human civilization. Typically
measured per year, it
involves all energy
harnessed from every
energy source applied
towards humanity's
endeavors across every
single industrial and
technological sector, across
every country.
 Energy Consumption
Commercial Buildings Operational Energy Consumption
HVAC

Water Heating, 14% Others

Refrigeration
Lighting, 11% HVAC, 41%
Electronics &
Computers
Electronics & Lighting
Computers, 13%
Water Heating

Others, 15%
Refrigeration,
6%
 Topic 2: Carbon Emissions

• Embodied Carbon
• Greenhouse gases
• Carbon Emission in buildings
• Impact of Fossil Fuels on the Environment
• Carbon Footprint
 Embodied Carbon
Embodied carbon is the sum of all the greenhouse gas emissions (Water
vapor, Carbon dioxide, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous oxide) resulting from the
mining, harvesting, processing, manufacturing, transportation and installation
of building materials.

Embodied carbon emissions are released during the process that begins with
sourcing materials and ends with the completion of construction; operating
carbon emissions resulting from heating, cooling, lighting, occur over the life
of a building which can be 50 years or more. For new buildings, embodied
carbon emissions typically equal about 20 years of operating emissions. When
looking at total greenhouse gas emissions for new buildings built over the
next ten years — the critical period for action to address the global climate
emergency — it is estimated that 80% will come from embodied emissions, so
lowering embodied carbon emissions is now even more urgent than lowering
operating emissions.
 Greenhouse gases
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil
fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and
also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon
dioxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by plants as part of the
biological carbon cycle.
 Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal,
natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other
agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste
landfills.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial
activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of
wastewater.
 Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons,
sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse
gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. These gases are
typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse
gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases.
 Embodied Carbon Emission In Buildings
The carbon emission happens in different stages of Buildings like Production,
Transportation and Construction. The sum total of carbon emission is considered
as the Embodied Carbon.
Operational Carbon is the amount of carbon emitted during the usage of electrical
appliances and other gadgets in day today living.
 Carbon Emissions
Embodied carbon is the carbon footprint of a material. It considers how much
greenhouse gases (GHGs) are released throughout the supply chain and is
often measured from cradle to (factory) gate, or cradle to site (of use). In the
most simple terms, embodied carbon is calculated by finding the quantity of
all materials needed for the building’s lifetime and multiplying this by the
carbon factor (expressed in kg CO2equivalent per kg of material/product) for
each material.

An illustration of some of the common boundaries of assessment are outlined

further.
• Cradle to Gate
• Cradle to Construction site
• Cradle to Grave
• Cradle to Cradle
 Cradle to Gate
Cradle-to-gate – the carbon emitted to bring from material or product from the
cradle (earth) to the point it leaves factory gate after processing and
manufacturing (not including the transportation to the site)
 Cradle to Construction Site
Cradle-to-completed construction – cradle to gate plus delivery to the site,
construction and assembly on-site
 Cradle to Grave
Cradle-to-grave – cradle to completed construction plus maintenance,
renovation, demolition, waste treatment and disposals (grave)
 Cradle to Cradle
Cradle-to-cradle - The process of making a component or product and then, at the
end of its life, converting it into a new component of the same or lesser quality.
 Impact of Using Fossil Fuel on the Environment

Fossil fuels contain sulphur, acid rain can result when they are present in the atmosphere.
Acid rain causes corrosion or destruction of metals and can irritate human mucous
membranes present in the skin and eyes. Fly ash from burning fossil fuels can also
contaminate water sources. Coal burning produces a lot of dust and carbon particles,
which can deposit in the lungs and cause respiratory diseases.
 Carbon Foot Print
A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions caused by an individual,
event, organization, service, or product, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent.
Greenhouse gases, including the carbon-containing gases like carbon dioxide and
methane, can be emitted through the burning of fossil fuels, land clearance and the
production and consumption of food, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads,
buildings, transportation and other services.

Control methods in Building construction:

Reuse buildings (especially the foundations and structure where most of the embodied
carbon is). Always consider reuse and retrofit before designing a new building. Reuse
and renovation with system upgrades typically generates 50% to 75% less embodied
carbon emissions than new construction.

Concrete, specifically the production of cement for concrete, is responsible for more
GHG emissions than any other material. Specify low carbon concrete mixes – replace
cement with fly ash, ground blast furnace slag, calcined clays, and other substitute
materials, reducing the cement content of concrete as much as possible.
Use high recycled content materials – especially metals. Steel is second only to
concrete in embodied carbon impact. Virgin steel can have an embodied carbon
foot print that is 5 times higher than high recycled content steel. Virgin
aluminum can have an embodied carbon foot print 6 times higher than recycled
aluminum.

Limit carbon intensive materials – aluminum, plastics, certain foam insulations,

etc. Use these materials sparingly and only when there are no alternatives.

Choose lower carbon alternatives for structure and finishes, such as wood
structure over steel and concrete, wood siding over vinyl siding. Choose carbon
impounding materials whenever possible. Wood is usually a lower carbon choice
than steel or concrete.

Reuse materials – brick, metals, broken concrete, wood. Salvaged materials

typically have a much lower embodied carbon footprint than newly
manufactured materials.

Use structural materials as finishes and use fewer finish materials and minimize
waste.
 Total carbon emission –Projected-2020-2050

When we look at all the new

construction that is projected to take
place between now and 2050, we see
the critical role embodied carbon plays.
Every year, 6.13 billion square meters
of buildings are constructed. The
embodied carbon emissions of that
construction is approximately 3729
million metric tons CO2 per year. By
the year 2050, accounting for all the
new construction in that 30 year span,
embodied carbon emissions and
operational carbon emissions will be
roughly equivalent.
 THE 2030 CHALLENGE FOR PLANNING IN
REDUCTION OF CARBON EMISSION

NEW
CONSTRUCTION &
MAJOR
RENOVATIONS 

2018

EXISTING 15% 20% 35% 50%

BUILDINGS 

2018
Thank you
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Topic 2: Carbon Emissions

• Embodied Carbon
• Greenhouse gases
• Carbon Emission in buildings
• Impact of Fossil Fuels on the Environment
• Carbon Footprint
 Embodied Carbon
Embodied carbon is the sum of all the greenhouse gas emissions (Water
vapor, Carbon dioxide, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous oxide and
Chlorofluorocarbons) resulting from the mining, harvesting, processing,
manufacturing, transportation and installation of building materials.

Embodied carbon emissions are released during the process that begins with
sourcing materials and ends with the completion of construction; operating
carbon emissions resulting from heating, cooling, lighting, occur over the life
of a building which can be 50 years or more. For new buildings, embodied
carbon emissions typically equal about 20 years of operating emissions. When
looking at total greenhouse gas emissions for new buildings built over the
next ten years — the critical period for action to address the global climate
emergency — it is estimated that 80% will come from embodied emissions, so
lowering embodied carbon emissions is now even more urgent than lowering
operating emissions.
 Greenhouse gases
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil
fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and
also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon
dioxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by plants as part of the
biological carbon cycle.
 Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal,
natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other
agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste
landfills.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial
activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of
wastewater.
 Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons,
sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse
gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. These gases are
typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse
gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases.
 Embodied Carbon Emission In Buildings
The carbon emission happens in different stages of Buildings like Production,
Transportation and Construction. The sum total of carbon emission is considered
as the Embodied Carbon.
Operational Carbon is the amount of carbon emitted during the usage of electrical
appliances and other gadgets in day today living.
 Carbon Emissions
Embodied carbon is the carbon footprint of a material. It considers how much
greenhouse gases (GHGs) are released throughout the supply chain and is
often measured from cradle to (factory) gate, or cradle to site (of use). In the
most simple terms, embodied carbon is calculated by finding the quantity of
all materials needed for the building’s lifetime and multiplying this by the
carbon factor (expressed in kg CO2equivalent per kg of material/product) for
each material.

An illustration of some of the common boundaries of assessment are outlined

further.
• Cradle to Gate
• Cradle to Construction site
• Cradle to Grave
• Cradle to Cradle
 Cradle to Gate
Cradle-to-gate – the carbon emitted to bring from material or product from the
cradle (earth) to the point it leaves factory gate after processing and
manufacturing (not including the transportation to the site)
 Cradle to Construction Site
Cradle-to-completed construction – cradle to gate plus delivery to the site,
construction and assembly on-site
 Cradle to Grave
Cradle-to-grave – cradle to completed construction plus maintenance,
renovation, demolition, waste treatment and disposals (grave)
 Cradle to Cradle
Cradle-to-cradle - The process of making a component or product and then, at the
end of its life, converting it into a new component of the same or lesser quality.
 Impact of Using Fossil Fuel on the Environment

Fossil fuels contain sulphur, acid rain can result when they are present in the atmosphere.
Acid rain causes corrosion or destruction of metals and can irritate human mucous
membranes present in the skin and eyes. Fly ash from burning fossil fuels can also
contaminate water sources. Coal burning produces a lot of dust and carbon particles,
which can deposit in the lungs and cause respiratory diseases.
 Carbon Foot Print
A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions caused by an individual,
event, organization, service, or product, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent.
Greenhouse gases, including the carbon-containing gases like carbon dioxide and
methane, can be emitted through the burning of fossil fuels, land clearance and the
production and consumption of food, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads,
buildings, transportation and other services.

Control methods in Building construction:

Reuse buildings (especially the foundations and structure where most of the embodied
carbon is). Always consider reuse and retrofit before designing a new building. Reuse
and renovation with system upgrades typically generates 50% to 75% less embodied
carbon emissions than new construction.

Concrete, specifically the production of cement for concrete, is responsible for more
GHG emissions than any other material. Specify low carbon concrete mixes – replace
cement with fly ash, ground blast furnace slag, calcined clays, and other substitute
materials, reducing the cement content of concrete as much as possible.
Use high recycled content materials – especially metals. Steel is second only to
concrete in embodied carbon impact. Virgin steel can have an embodied
carbon foot print that is 5 times higher than high recycled content steel. Virgin
aluminum can be more than 6 times higher than recycled aluminum.

Limit carbon intensive materials – aluminum, plastics, certain foam

insulations, etc. Use these materials sparingly and only when there are no
alternatives.

Choose lower carbon alternatives for structure and finishes, such as wood
structure over steel and concrete, wood siding over vinyl siding. Choose
carbon impounding materials whenever possible. Wood is usually a lower
carbon choice than steel or concrete.

Reuse materials – brick, metals, broken concrete, wood. Salvaged materials

typically have a much lower embodied carbon footprint than newly
manufactured materials.
Maximize structural efficiency. Use the most efficient structural solutions to
save on quantities of materials used.

Use structural materials as finishes and use fewer finish materials. Exposed
concrete floors and ceilings and exposed wood structure look good and save
carbon.

Minimize waste. Design in material size modules to minimize waste, taking

advantage of standard size sheets for common materials such as 4×8 plywood
and gypsum board.
 Total carbon emission –Projected-2020-2050

When we look at all the new

construction that is projected to take
place between now and 2050, we see
the critical role embodied carbon plays.
Every year, 6.13 billion square meters
of buildings are constructed. The
embodied carbon emissions of that
construction is approximately 3729
million metric tons CO2 per year. By
the year 2050, accounting for all the
new construction in that 30 year span,
embodied carbon emissions and
operational carbon emissions will be
roughly equivalent.
 THE 2030 CHALLENGE FOR PLANNING IN
REDUCTION OF CARBON EMISSION

NEW
CONSTRUCTION &
MAJOR
RENOVATIONS 

2018

EXISTING 15% 20% 35% 50%

BUILDINGS 

2018
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Topic: Water Use and Waste Disposal
 Global Water use
Water use has been increasing
worldwide by about 1% per
year since the 1980s, driven by
a combination of population
growth, socio-economic
development and changing
consumption patterns. Global
water demand is expected to
continue increasing at a similar
rate until 2050, accounting for
an increase of 20 to 30% above
the current level of water use,
mainly due to rising demand in
the industrial and domestic
sectors.
 Uses of Water
The bulk of the world's water use is for agriculture, industry, and
electricity. It is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used for
irrigation, with 15–35% of irrigation withdrawals being
unsustainable. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used
in industry. Roughly 75 per cent of all industrial water withdrawals
are used for energy production. Major industrial users include
hydroelectric dams for power generation, thermoelectric power
plants which use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries which
use water in chemical processes, manufacturing plants which use
water as a solvent, use of water in processing wood to make
paper and in producing steel for automobiles. It is estimated that
8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These
include drinking, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning,
laundry and gardening.
 Sustainable development

•2 billion people lack access to safely

managed drinking water services.
(WHO/UNICEF 2019)
•Over half of the global population or 4.2
billion people lack safely managed
sanitation services. (WHO/UNICEF 2019)
•297,000 children under five die every
year from diarrhoeal diseases due to poor
sanitation, poor hygiene, or unsafe
drinking water. (WHO/UNICEF 2019)
•2 billion people live in countries
experiencing high water stress. (UN 2019)
•80 per cent of wastewater flows back
into the ecosystem without being treated
or reused. (UNESCO, 2017)
 Water Efficiency& Conservation
Water efficiency is the smart use of our water resources through water-
saving technologies and minimizing waste water. It also points toward using
improved practices and technologies which deliver equal or better life
service with reduced water consumption. Using water efficiently will help
ensure reliable water supplies today and for future generations.

Water Conservation – It implies curtailment of water usage and includes

day-to-day demand management for better water usage. water is at the core
of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic development,
healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself. The main objective of the
National water mission is conservation of water, minimizing wastage and
ensuring its more equitable distribution across all states through integrated
water resources development and management.

What are the strategies to be followed to improve the efficiency of water

use?
 Waste disposal (Waste Management)
It is the process of Removing and
destroying damaged, used or other
unwanted domestic, agricultural or
industrial products and substances.
Disposal includes burning, burial at
landfill sites or at sea, and recycling.

waste disposal is an activity that is

directly responsible for much
environmental damage, and hence
locating waste disposal sites,
determining what waste materials
were disposed of through time, and
determining ownership and whether
disposal methods were proper or
improper are important issues in
environmental litigation.
 Waste management hierarchy

waste Disposal Practices: There are eight major groups of waste management
methods, each of them divided into numerous categories. These include source
reduction and reuse, animal feeding, recycling, composting, fermentation, landfills,
incineration and land application
Methods of Waste Disposal
· Landfill
The Landfill is the most popularly used method of waste disposal used today.
This process of waste disposal focuses on burying the waste in the land
· Incineration
Incineration or combustion is a disposal method in which municipal solid
wastes are burned at high temperatures so as to convert them into residue
and gaseous products. .
· Recovery and Reuse
Resource recovery is the process of taking useful discarded items for a
specific next use. These discarded items are then processed to extract or
recover materials and reuses or convert them to energy in the form of
useable heat, electricity or fuel. It decreases the amount of waste for
disposal, saves space in landfills, conserves natural resources and cost
effective method.
·
• Recycling
It is the process of converting waste products into new products to prevent
energy usage and consumption of fresh raw materials. Recycling is
the third component of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy. The idea
behind recycling is to reduce energy usage, reduce volume of landfills,
reduce air and water pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
preserve natural resources for future use.
• Plasma gasification
It is an extreme thermal process using plasma which converts organic matter
into a synthesis gas which is primarily made up of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. A plasma torch powered by an electric arc is used to ionize gas
and catalyze organic matter into syngas, with slag remaining as a byproduct.
It is used commercially as a form of waste treatment and has been tested for
the gasification of refuse, biomass, industrial waste, hazardous waste and
solid hydrocarbons.
• Pyrolysis

It is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues

into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste,
food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an
alternative to fossil fuels. Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical
decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen; the
decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases. During pyrolysis, the
molecules of object vibrate at high frequencies to an extent that molecules
start breaking down. In industrial applications, temperatures are above
430 °C (800 °F). Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal. The solids
left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand and pyrolysis coke which does
not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of
pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali
metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields
gasses which impact the environment such as HCl and SO2.
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 UNIT – 1
Topic: Embodied Energy in
Building materials
 Embodied Energy
Embodied energy in building is the energy consumed by all of the processes
associated with the construction of a building, from the mining and processing of
natural resources to manufacturing, transport and product delivery. It is a complex
combination of many processed materials which determines
a building's total embodied energy. Embodied energy considers only the front end
aspect of the impact of the building material It does not include the operation or
disposal. But Renovation and maintenance add to the embodied energy over a
building’s life. The four categories of energy consumption in a building are
1Embodied energy in building materials
2.Energy consumption during building construction
3.Energy utilized for operation during the lifespan of a building.
4 Energy spent in demolition of the building.

The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the buildings energy
use. So, reducing embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall
environmental impact of the building. Embodied energy is measured as the
quantity of Non-Renewable energy per unit of building material, component or
system. It is expressed in mega joules (MJ) or giga joules (GJ) per unit weight (Kg or
Tons) or area (m2).
.
 Why is it necessary to find Embodied Energy?
1.One fundamental purpose for measuring this quantity is to compare the
amount of energy saved by the product to the amount of energy consumed in
producing it.

2. Embodied energy in building materials is an accounting method which aims to

find the sum total of the energy necessary for an entire product lifecycle.

3 Energy consumption produces CO2, which contributes to Green House Gas

emissions. According to the United Nations Environment program the
construction sector is responsible for up to 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions.
So Embodied energy is considered an indicator of the overall impact of a building
materials and systems.

4. Choices of materials and construction methods can significantly change the

amount of energy embodied in the structure of a building, as embodied energy
content varies enormously between products and materials.

So there is a need to understand the nature of energy utilisation in EE in

buildings since we have limited energy resources in the country.
Environmental lifecycle for buildings

of

Demolition
Components of Embodied Energy of a Building
Energy Consumption in a Building Construction
 Energy in Building materials
Material Unit Energy per Type of Energy
unit, MJ
Burnt brick One brick 4.63-5.6 Coal/Fire wood
230x108x75mm
Cement 1kg 3.0-3.6 Coal + Electricity
Lime (Ca (OH)2) 1kg 6.2-8.1 Coal/Fire wood
Lime +Fly Ash 1kg 2.1-2.67 Coal/Wood
Steel 1kg 28.0 Coal + Electricity
Aluminium 1kg 236.8 Electricity
Glass 1kg 14-17 -
Sand (100 km 1m3 154 Diesel
Transport)
Coarse Aggregate 1m3 111.2 Electricity/Diesel
Marble(Rajasthan to 1m2 200.0 Diesel
Bangalore)
FRP 1kg 107-118 Petroleum
Polyester 1kg 84-93 Petroleum
Mangalore Tile 1Tile 5.2-15.8 Coal/Wood
Plywood 16mm 1m2 166-218 -
Bamboo Board 16mm 1m2 216.0 -
Composite Aluminium 1m2 659.0 -
Panel
 Energy in Building blocks
Sl.No Type of Block Size (mm) Energy/Un Energy per brick
. it MJ equivalent MJ

1 Size stone 180x180x180 0 0

2 Burnt Brick 230x108x75 4.63 4.63
3 Stabilized 230x190x100 2.85 0.95
Mud Block
4 Hollow 400x200x200 8.0 0.93
Concrete
Block
5 Hollow Clay 400x200x200 16.7 1.94
Block
6 Sandstone 450x230x150 7.55 0.91
(KutchDistrict)
% of Embodied Energy Emission in Building Materials
Flow diagram on Embodied Energy calculation of manufacturing cement
Building materials contribution to embodied energy per sq.m
 Environmental Issues Related to Building Materials

Stone Fine dust inhaled by workers are subjected to silicosis or

tuberculosis
Top Soil for Depletion of rich source of nutrients for trees and crops by
Brick large scale brick manufacture near metropolitan cities like
Delhi.
Pollution by Agricultural land in Rajasthan is widely occupied by
Marble dust Marble processing Industry.
Mangalore Tile Deforestation due to extensive use of fire wood for
making Mangalore tiles in coastal regions.
Alternatively Natural gas or coal can be used.
Timber Causes massive deforestation, usage of timber may be
replaced by concrete or Ferro cement. Cement based
materials causes depletion of fossil fuels and excessive
carbon emissions leading to Global warming. Use of
timber alleviates Global warming since the carbon in
timber is stored for long period.
 Operational Energy in Buildings
A considerable amount of energy is used in buildings during their
lifetime. This energy is required for heating, cooling, ventilation,
lighting, cooking and other domestic activities. The energy use
patterns inside buildings vary a great deal according to occupants’
behaviour, type of structure and location of buildings. In residential
buildings, urban and rural patterns tend to be very different.
Household income and climate have major influences both on the
type of energy sources and end-use patterns.
Architects and engineers have a crucial role to play in designing
buildings to minimise energy use for active climatisation and
lighting. A good approach is to take advantage of natural means such
as solar radiation and winds and use the building as a collector,
storage and transfer mechanism. The knowledge of passive
techniques is well developed but is unfortunately not yet effectively
practiced.
Construction sector can make a real difference by using wooden construction
materials that both capture carbon for their entire life span as well as they are
produced with very little CO2 emissions during production.
Eco-friendly materials

The analysis to discern the impact of the construction industry on the

environment is very complicated. To assess how different materials and
operations influence the environment over a longer period of time, it is
worth considering a life cycle approach to materials and buildings.
Products achieving good ratings in life cycle assessments are based on
renewable raw materials, produced with methods using low amount of
energy and having low pollution, sound and non-hazardous for the users,
etc. Many industrial countries have developed the so-called eco-labeling
schemes to promote production of environmentally friendly products.
Products that meet the requirements get the eco-label, which works as a
"guarantee" for consumers that the particular product is environmentally
friendly. The increasing awareness among consumers of the importance of
protecting the environment have made eco-labels important tools to
building products.
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Topic: Embodied Energy, Operational &
Maintenance Energy for Buildings
 Embodied Energy in Building materials

Material Unit Energy per Type of Energy

unit, MJ
Burnt brick One brick 4.63-5.6 Coal/Fire wood
230x108x75mm
Cement 1kg 3.0-3.6 Coal + Electricity
Lime (Ca (OH)2) 1kg 6.2-8.1 Coal/Fire wood
Lime +Fly Ash 1kg 2.1-2.67 Coal/Wood
Steel 1kg 28.0 Coal + Electricity
Aluminium 1kg 236.8 Electricity
Glass 1kg 14-17 -
Sand (100 km 1m3 154 Diesel
Transport)
Coarse Aggregate 1m3 111.2 Electricity/Diesel
Marble(Rajasthan to 1m2 200.0 Diesel
Bangalore)
FRP 1kg 107-118 Petroleum
Polyester 1kg 84-93 Petroleum
Mangalore Tile 1Tile 5.2-15.8 Coal/Wood
Plywood 16mm 1m2 166-218 -
Bamboo Board 16mm 1m2 216.0 -
Composite Aluminium 1m2 659.0 -
Panel
Ceramic Tile 1m2 11 Coal / Firewood
 Embodied Energy in Building blocks

Sl.No. Type of Size (mm) Energy/U Energy per

Block nit MJ brick
equivalent MJ
1 Size stone 180x180x180 0 0
2 Burnt Brick 230x108x75 4.63 4.63
3 Stabilized 230x190x100 2.85 0.95
Mud Block
4 Hollow 400x200x200 8.0 0.93
Concrete
Block
5 Hollow Clay 400x200x200 16.7 1.94
Block
6 Sandstone 450x230x150 7.55 0.91

7 Laterite block 400 x200 x250 0.25

Embodied Energy in Building Materials
Embodied Energy assessment of cement manufacture
Embodied Energy assessment of Aluminium rolled coils manufacture
 Operational Energy in Buildings
Operational energy is the energy required during the entire service life of a structure such
as lighting, heating, cooling, and ventilating systems; and operating building appliances.The
energy use patterns inside buildings vary a great deal according to occupants’ behaviour,
type of structure and location of buildings. In residential buildings, urban and rural patterns
tend to be very different. Household income and climate have major influences both on the
type of energy sources and end-use patterns.
 Maintenance Energy for Buildings

Maintenance energy refers to energy

spent on various operation and
maintenance activities in a building.
The buildings energy consumption can
benefit from rigorous operation &
Maintenance practices. Properly
planned and executed operation &
maintenance is one of the most cost
effective strategies for ensuring
equipment longevity, reliability,
safety, energy efficiency in
commercial buildings.
Maintenance strategies for Buildings
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 What is Framed Structure?
Framing means to give shape and support to a
structure by combining components in
building. Hence, a framed structure is a
structure having the combination of beam,
column and slab to resist the gravity and
other lateral loads. These structures are
generally used to overcome the large forces,
moments developing due to the applied
loading. Frames are generally used in building
and are composed of beams and columns
that are pinned or fixed connection, like
trusses. Frames can be of any materials i.e.
RCC, steel, wood etc. In case of framed
structure, the loads of floors, roofs and panel
walls are supported by the beams which
ultimately transmit these loads to the
columns. In framed structure, load transfer
path is from slab/floor to beam, beam to
column and column to footing, i.e. to ground.
There are basic three frames depending on material used in construction:

•Steel Frame
•Concrete Frame
•Wooden Frame
There are also different types of frames depending on the connection
between beams and columns.
1. Braced Frames – All connection between beams and columns are
pinned and there are diagonal bracing members.

2. Moment Resisting Frames – Connections between beams and

columns are rigid and there is no diagonal bracing members.
 Steel frame structure

These buildings are made up of a steel

framework which supports all the loads.
The columns, the beams, and girders in
these buildings are made of steel
sections. These buildings should be
adequately braced in order to resist the
wind and earthquake forces. Fire-
resistant materials and other light
materials are generally used for the
partitions and exterior walls of these
buildings. Thus, the steel framed
buildings are similar to RCC framed
building. Steel, being so much stronger
than all forms of masonry is capable of
sustaining far greater load in a given
space.
Wall of a structure

A wall is a member of framed structure, whose length and height are

larger than the thickness of it. Walls which are subjected to vertical
loads called are load bearing walls. Walls subjected to no loads other
than their own weight, such as panel or enclosure walls, are called non-
load bearing walls or partition walls. Walls with a primary function of
resisting horizontal loads are called shear walls. In framed structure, the
walls are normally non-load bearing except shear walls. RCC non-load
bearing, reinforced concrete walls, frequently classified as panels,
partitions, or cross walls, may be precast or cast in place. Panels serving
merely as exterior cladding, when precast, are usually attached to the
columns or floors of a frame, supported on grade beams, or supported
by and spanning between footings, serving as both grade beams and
walls. Cast-in-situ cross walls are most common as substructures.
 R.C.C. framed structure

RCC framed structure consists of

series of frames which are formed by
interconnecting columns and beams
at floor and roof levels, so as to form
a grid of the beams and girders. Walls
are constructed within these frames.
Slab, beams, girders and columns are
built monolithically and rigidly with
each other at junction. The main
advantages of framed construction
are reduced deflections and bending
moments in the members which
result in the economical construction
of buildings with adequate safety.
 Wall cladding

Panel walls can be replaced by

cladding panels. Cladding is a term
which is generally used for thin sheets
required to enclose the framework.
The wall cladding can be of asbestos
cement sheets, corrugated galvanized
iron sheets, copper sheets, thin
concrete slabs, panel of glass or
wood, tiles, etc.
Advantages of Framed Structure

01. Speedy construction is possible due to its simple geometry. It can be

constructed more rapidly than ordinary walled structures. It consists of only
columns and beams (or partially the floor slab) as the main structural elements.
It is possible to carry out several building construction activities, e.g.,
construction of frame work of the upper floors and finishing of the lower floors
simultaneously. Hence speed in construction in a framed structure can be easily
achieved.

02. The strength and stability of the structures is more.

03. Multi storied structures can also be constructed. Dead load is reduced due to
absence of thick load bearing walls etc.

04. A framed structure is better resistant to vibration. Framed structure can

resist vibrations effectively and hence are ideal for buildings in seismic zones and
for factory building.
05. Framed structures are very rigid and stable. Framed structures are able to
resist tremendous vertical (dead load) as well as lateral loads (wind), earthquake
without substantial deformation/deflection.
06. Framed structures can be easily altered within limits of frame.
It is possible to change the position of panel wall to meet the
requirements at any time. Thus, greater freedom in planning can
be easily achieved.
07. Offsite preparation is possible in framed structure, especially
for prefabricated construction using precast concrete or structural
steel elements.
08. Acceptable distribution of natural light – window openings can
be provided easily on external walls.
09. Easy to analyze and design structures including computer aided
designs, due to simple geometry, i.e. easy methods of analysis.
10. This form of construction divides building components into two
distinct categories, i.e., load bearing and non-load bearing. Non-
load bearing members can be constructed with low-cost materials.
11. These structures are most suitable and economical on filled
and soft grounds when compared to ordinary walled structures.
 Masonry Construction
A. Stone masonary.
B. Brick masonary.
C. Composite masonary.
D. Cavity walls
 Masonry

 Masonary may be definedas the construction of building

units bonded tougher with mortar.
 The building units may be stones, bricks, or precast
concrete blocks.
 Depending upon the types of buildings units used,
MASONRY can be classified into following categories:
A. Stone masonry.
B. Brick masonry.
C. Composite masonry.
D. Cavity walls.
 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF WALLS

Part of a cavity wall with the

1. Strength internal skin removed to expose
2. Stability the Insulation.
3. Weather exclusion
4. Thermal Insulation
5. Sound Insulation
6. Durability
7. Fire resistance
8. Appearance
A.STONE MASONRY
 STONE MASONRY
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or
dressed and then finished for building purposes, is called "Stone" and
the art of building the structure with stones as constructional units is
called "Stone masonry".

 Types of stone masonry:-

(1) Rubble masonry:-

(2) Ashlar masonry:-
 Stone masonry

Rubble masonry Ashlar masonry

1. Coursed rubble masonry

1. Ashlar Fine masonry
2.Un-Coursed rubble
masonry. 2. Ashlar Rough Tooled
3. Random rubble masonry 3. Rock (or) Quarry Faced
4.Polygonal rubble 4. Ashlar Chamfered
masonry 5. Ashlar Block in Course
5. Flint rubble masonry 6. Ashler Facing
6. Dry rubble masonry
 RUBBLE MASONRY
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed
stones are laid is called "Rubble masonry".
In this masonary, the joints of mortar are not of uniform thickness.
The strength of rubble masonary dependon:
 The Quality of Mortar.
 The use of long throughstones.
 The proper filling of mortar between the spaces of stones
 1.COURSED RUBBLE MASONRY.

 In this type of masonry, the

stones used are of widely
different sizes. This is the
roughest and cheapest form of
stone masonry.
 In coursed random rubble
masonry, the masonry work is
carried out in courses such that
the stones in a particular course
are of equalheight.
 2.UN-COURSED RUBBLE MASONRY.

 In this type of masonry, the stones

used are of widely different sizes.
This is the roughest and cheapest
form of stone masonry.
 In un-coursed random rubble
masonry, the courses are not
maintained regularly. The larger
stones are laid first and the spaces
between them are then filled up by
means of spalls orsneeks.
 3.RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY.

 In this type of masonry stones having

straight bed and sides are used. The
stones are usually squared and
brought to hammer dressed or
straight cut finish.
 In the coursed square rubble
masonry, the work is carried out in
courses of varyingdepth.
 4.POLYGONAL RUBBLE MASONRY

 In this type of
rubble masonary, the
stones are hammer
dressed. The stones
used for face work are
dressed in an irregular
polygonal shape. Thus
the face joints are seen
running in an irregular
fashion in all directions.
 6.DRY RUBBLE MASONRY

In this type of

masonry, mortar is not
used in the joints.
This type of
construction is the
cheapest and requires
more skill in
construction. This may
be used for non-load
bearing walls such as
compound walls, etc…
 ASHLAR MASONRY

 The stone masonary in which finely dressed stones are laid in

cement or lime mortar, is known as "Ashlar masonry".
 In this masonary all the joints are regular, thin, and of
uniform thickness.
 This type of masonary is costly in construction as involves heavy
cost of dressing of stones.
 This masonary is used for heavy structures, arches, architectural
buildings, high piers, abutments of bridges, etc.
 1. ASHLAR FINE MASONRY

In this type ashlar

masonry, each stone is cut
to uniform size and shape
with all sides rectangular, so
that the stone gives
perfectly horizontal and
vertical joints with
adjoining stone. This type
of ashlar masonry is very
costly.
 2. ASHLAR ROUGH MASONRY

In this type of ashlar

masonry, the beds and
sides are finely chisel-
dressed. But the face is
made rough by means of
tools. A strip, about 25mm
wide and made by means
of chisel is provided
around the perimeter of
the rough dressed face of
each stone.
 3. ROCK & QUARRY FACED
 In this type of ashlar
masonry, a strip about
25mm wide and made by
means of chisel is provided
around the perimeter of
every stone as in case of
rough-tooled ashlar
masonry. But the
remaining portion of the
face is left in the same form
as received from quarry.
 4. ASHLAR CHAMFERED MASONRY

In this type of ashlar

masonry, the strip is
provided as below. But it
is chamfered or beveled at
an angle of 45 degrees by
means of chisel for a
depth of about 25mm.
 5. ASHLAR BLOCK IN COURSE MASONRY
 This is
combination of rubble
masonry and ashlar
masonry. In this type of
masonry, the face work is
provided with rough
tooled or hammer
dresses stones and
backing of the wall may
be made in rubble
masonry.
 6. ASHLAR FACING MASONRY
If the backing is of Rubble masonary, It is called “Rubble Ashlar" and
if the backing is of brick work the masonary is termed as “BrickAshlar”.
B.BRICK MASONARY
 BRICK MASONARY

 Bond is the arrangement of bricks in each course, so as to ensure the

greatest possible interlocking and to avoid the continuity of vertical
joints in two successive courses, both on the face and in the body of a
wall.
TYPES OF BRICKS

 Bricks used in masonary

can be of two types:-
(1) Traditional bricks.
(2) Modular bricks.
 TYPES OF BONDS

1) Stretching Bond
2) Heading Bond
3) English Bond
4) Flemish Bond
(i) Double Flemish Bond
(ii) Single Flemish Bond
5) Garden Wall Bond
(i) English Garden Wall Bond
(ii) Flemish Garden Wall Bond
6) Raking Bond
(I) Herring Bone Bond
(Ii) Diagonal Bond
7) Dutch Bond
 1.STRETCHING BOND

The bond in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers in every course
is called "Stretching bond”.
 2.HEADING BOND

 The bond in which all the

bricks are laid as headers
in every course of a wall is
called "Heading bond".

 This bond is commonly

used for constructing
staining of wells, footings
of walls and columns,
corbels, cornices, etc.
3.ENGLISH BOND
 4.FLEMISH BOND

 The bond, in which

headers and stretchers
are laid alternately in
the same course, is
called "Flemish bond".

 Two types Flemish bond:-

(i) Double Flemish Bond:-
(ii) Single Flemish Bond:-
 5.GARDEN WALL BOND

 This bond is used for constructing one brick thick garden walls,
boundary walls, and other walls such as outer leaves of cavity walls to
provide goodappearance.

 Two types Flemish bond:-

(i) English garden wall bond
(ii) Flemish garden wall bond

7.DUTCH BOND
 This bond in which two stretchers and one header are laid alternately in each
course iscalled " Dutch Bond".
 This bond is used in the construction of boundarywalls
 CAVITY WALL

 Cavity walls consist of two 'skins'

separated by a hollowspace.
 The skins are commonly masonary
such as brick orconcrete block.
 masonary is an absorbent material,
and therefore will slowly draw
rainwater or even humidity into the
wall.
 The cavity serves as a way to drain
this water back out through weep
holes at the base of the wall system
or above windows, but is not
necessarilyvented.
 CAVITY WALL INSULATORS :

 Cavity wall insulation is

used to reduce heat loss
through a cavity wall by
filling the air space with
material that inhibits heat
transfer.
 This is because up to 35%
of the heat loss from your
property is through the
walls.
Topic: Use of Agro & Industrial wastes in Building
construction

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Use of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes in Production of
Building Materials

A large number of industrial and agricultural wastes have found wide

acceptance as alternatives to clay, limestone and various other argillaceous
and siliceous materials in the production of bricks, tiles, cement, concrete
slab and ceramics.
Table 1 Indicates a list of well established industrial, mining and mineral
wastes and by-products and their use in production of building materials as
developed in India.
Use of agro-industrial wastes not only helps in tackling the environmental
problems but at many instances actually improves the properties and
durability of building materials.
Scientific studies for in-depth analysis of available technologies for
changeover to alternative fuel sources in manufacturing materials that will
reduce Green House Gas emissions requires to be initiated.
 Types of Agro wastes & Biomass resources

Some of the agro wastes which can have applications in Building construction
are listed below.

1. Rice Husk & Rice husk ash

2. Bagasse ash
3. Sugar cane tops
4. Coir fibre, Jute fibre, Sisal fibre& banana fibre
5. Coconut & areca nut tree trunks
6. Straw
7. Bamboo, Cane & Lantana
8. Groundnut hulls
9. Corn cobs
10.Cotton waste
 Types of Industrial wastes

Some of the typical industrial wastes are listed below.

1. Fly ash from thermal power station

2. Blast furnace slag from steel plants
3. Mine waste from iron ore mines
4. Tailings from copper mines
5. Fine rock dust from gold mines
6. Rock dust from stone quarry
7. Red mud from Aluminium factories
8. Granite polishing wastes
9. Marble polishing wastes
10.Brick, Mortar & Concrete wastes from demolished buildings.
Topic: Embodied energy of alternative building
technologies

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Alternatives for wall construction
Alternative roof systems
Topic: Biomass resources for Buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Biomass resources

Waste Biomass
Crop and forestry residues, animal manure, food
processing waste, yard waste, municipal solid wastes,
sewage, industrial waste
New Biomass:
Terrestrial & Aquatic plants
Conventionally harvested for food, feed, fiber, &
construction materials
Agricultural and Forestry Wastes

Crop residues
Animal manures
Food processing residues
Logging residues
Wood processing mill residues
Paper & pulping waste slurries
 Municipal garbage & other landfill wastes

Municipal Solid Waste

Urban wood residues
Construction & Demolition wastes
Tree trimmings
Yard waste
Packaging
Discarded furniture
 Types of Agricultural wastes

Some of the agro wastes which can have applications in Building construction
are listed below.

1. Rice Husk & Rice husk ash

2. Bagasse ash
3. Sugar cane tops
4. Coir fibre, Jute fibre, Sisal fibre& banana fibre
5. Coconut & areca nut tree trunks
6. Straw
7. Bamboo, Cane & Lantana
8. Groundnut hulls
9. Corn cobs
10.Cotton waste
Topic: Thermal comfort in Buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
What is THERMAL COMFORT?

The most commonly used definition for THERMAL COMFORT according

to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) is “That condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective
evaluation”. Although thermal sensitivity varies from one person to
another, according to age (the very young and very old being particularly
sensitive), gender, dress, activity, cultural habits, etc., the basic
principles behind thermal comfort are largely universal. Maintaining this
standard (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55) of thermal comfort for occupants
of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers.
The THERMAL COMFORT is experienced via a number of conscious
interactions between three personal and environment factors:

Physiological : the way our bodies work and interact with our environment;

Physical : the main parameters of the environment around us (air

temperature, air humidity, air movement, room surface temperature);

Socio Psychological: the way we feel as a whole (for example, if we are tired,
stressed, happy…) and the kind of social environment we live in.
The physiological aspect

Regulation systems within our bodies continuously strive to balance our heat
exchanges with the environment, by speeding up or slowing down our
heartbeat to modify our blood flow and regulate heat distribution; by
shivering when too cold in order to increase heat production; by sweating
more when too hot to reduce skin temperature.
A comfortable indoor environment limits the efforts our bodies need to
make to regulate body temperature, establishing a good energy balance.

The physical aspect

In the physical environment, thermal energy (heat or cold) is transferred

through conduction, radiation and convection.
Conduction is energy transfer via a solid, such as the floor or wall.
Convection is energy transfer from a solid to an adjacent gas or fluid (air or
water). And radiation is the energy emitted from a surface.
The socio psychological aspect

An individual’s current emotional state, mood, level of fatigue, etc. will affect
their experience of an environment. Expectations play an important role in
how an individual experiences the physical world: one would expect a beach
to be hot and a mountain lodge to be cool, but more generally, perceptions
are likely to based on one’s own thermal history. Other environmental
factors, noise or glare for example, may influence thermal perception,
leading to an increased sensation of overheating.
A balanced thermal environment is essential to feeling comfortable.
Concentration, manual dexterity and the occurrence of accidents are all
influenced by excessively high or low temperatures. Operative Temperature and
Relative Humidity in a space determine Global Comfort conditions, depending
on what we are wearing and what we are doing. Our bodies are also sensitive to
small variations in factors such as Air Velocity and Temperature Gradient. The
impact of local discomfort elements must be minimized so we can fully enjoy
the space and function comfortably, whatever we’re doing.

The THERMAL COMFORT is determined by:

- Air temperature
- Surface temperatures
- Humidity
- Absence of draughts

The MULTI COMFORT Buildings must keep the ideal indoor temperature all year
round using very little energy, have walls that are nice to touch or lean
regardless of the weather outside and have no draughts even on the floor.
HOW DO WE DESIGN THERMAL COMFORT?
1. Air tightness and ventilation
An airtight envelope, together with natural or mechanical ventilation, can
control the indoor thermal environment by managing the air exchanges with
the outside.
2. Thermal inertia
The materials used to construct the building (the choice of brick, stone or
wood, for example) have an impact on how quickly changes in weather
conditions are felt.
3. Solar gain
Through its overall shape, orientation, number and size of windows and the
ability of surfaces to reflect heat, the building envelope can control how
much heat from the sun (solar gain) is allowed to enter into the building.
4. Insulation
Insulating the building envelope and using thermally efficient windows
reduces heat loss in winter and conduction heat gains in summer.
THERMAL COMFORT is the outcome of a well-balanced combination of
building systems adapted to both the location of the building as well as the
type of activity performed within the building or the room of the building.
One of the first steps to consider is the design of an efficient building
envelope. This acts as a filter between the exterior and the indoor climates.
The building envelope can greatly affect the indoor thermal environment of
the building through its management of the factors.

SOLUTIONS

Glazing to let the sun in or block it out depending on the climate

- Insulation to reduce heat loss or summer heat gains
- Plasters and plasterboards to improve THERMAL COMFORT
- Smart membranes to improve airtightness and manage moisture
- Renders that insulate and provide weather defense
Topic: Heat transfer characteristics of Building
Materials & wall element

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Heat transfer through a building envelope can be attributed
to a combination of conductive, convective and radiative heat
transfer components determined by the constituent material
and its microstructure. This controls the material
thermophysical properties such as thermal conductivity,
specific heat and density.
Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms, such as
thermal conduction, thermal
convection, thermal radiation,
and transfer of energy by
phase changes. Engineers also
consider the transfer of mass
of differing chemical species,
either cold or hot, to achieve
heat transfer.
Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Conductance

Each building material’s Thermal Conductivity (W/mdegC) denotes how

well the material conducts heat and Thermal Resistivity (mdegC/W)
measures the thermal insulating property of the material. Both measures
remain constant regardless of the thickness of the material. Glass for
instance has a Conductivity of 1 whereas Steel has a Conductivity of 200.
Thermal capacity and Specific Heat are also important characteristics of
the material in determining its behavior.
Thermal Conductance(W/m2degC) measures how quickly heat energy
flows through a surface and varies with thickness of the material.
It is hence seen that the difference between conductance and
conductivity is that conductance involves area while conductivity involves
length of a material. Metals have high thermal conductance and heavy
building materials such as concrete, brick and stone are moderate
conductors of heat. Timber and fabrics have low thermal conductance
while bulk insulating materials(e.g fiberglass) have even lower
conductance again.
Thermal Resistance
Each building product (building material and insulation product) as well as
the film of air on the external and internal surfaces of a building has a
thermal resistance to conduct heat flow, so called R-Values (m2degC/W) and
are quoted for a specified thickness of the material.
The Total R-value of a building element takes into account resistance from
specified construction materials , internal air gaps, thermal bridging,
insulation materials and air films adjacent to solid materials. The higher the
R-value the greater the resistance to heat flow.
Thermal Transmittance ‘
The overall thermal transmittance or U-Value is also referred to as the heat
transfer coefficient and denotes the thermal transmittance of that element
including air films and air speed.
U-Values are generally used for homogenous materials such as wall, ceiling
and glazing systems. For glazing systems most of the U-value is due to the air
films next to the surface. This means that the U-value of the glass material
has such a small contribution to the overall U-value of the glass window,
hence double and triple glazing will always be more effective versus a thicker
glass.
Resistance of Surfaces
A material’s thermal performance is effected by its Absorptance, Emittance
and Reflectance. The reflectance of most building materials to solar radiation
is highly dependent on the properties and color of the surface. Shiny
surfaces and light colors have a much higher reflectance (e.g new and bright
aluminimum~0.95 reflectance, 0.05 emittance) than matt and darker
surfaces (Unpainted concrete ~0.4 reflectance, 0.9 emittance ).

Thermal Capacity
Thermal capacity is an important characteristic when analysing the thermal
impacts of high mass materials and should be used together with properties
such as resistance or U-value. Thermal capacity is used in Building Thermal
Performance assessments when comparing elements. Heat capacity or
thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of
heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in
its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin.

Specific heat is defined by the amount of heat neede to raise the

temperature of 1 gram of a substance to 1 deg.celcius. Unit Joule/deg.C/Kg
 Thermal
Density Specfic Heat
Material Name Conductivity

kg/m3 J/kgK W/mK

Air 1.29 1004 0.025

Aluminum 2698 921 226

Bronze, silicon 8530 377 33

Carbon, graphite 2250 707 167

Concrete, lightweight 950 657 0.209

Copper 8940 385 397

Epoxy 1200 1046 0.188

Fireclay brick 2000 753 1.004

Fused silica glass 2200 745 1.381

Gold 19300 128 318
Limestone (h2o 15.3) 1650 921 0.92
Magnesium 1740 1004 151

Mica insulating powder 330 837 0.121

Rubber, natural 930 2092 0.138

Rubber, natural, foam 100 2092 0.042

Silver 10500 236 427

Soil, sandy dry 1650 795 0.264

Steel, stainless 304 7920 502 15

Water (liquid) 1000 4184 0.603

Window glass, lime 2480 753 1.318

Topic: Solar radiation on buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
SOLAR RADIATION
Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed,
scattered, and reflected by:
 Air molecules
 Water vapor
 Clouds
 Dust
 Pollutants
 Forest fires
 Volcanoes.
This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the
Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation.
The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar
radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10%
on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days.
Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at
different times of the year. They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling
on regions at the same latitude with similar climates. Measurements of solar
energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a horizontal surface or as
total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.
Radiation data for photovoltaic systems are often represented as kilowatt-
hours per square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also
be expressed as watts per square meter (W/m2).
Incident solar radiation on buildings and ground surfaces is reflected back
according to their reflective nature. Most building materials reflect diffusely
and although their reflectivity (albedo) changes with change in the angle of
incidence of the incoming radiation the variation is small in most cases.
Albedo is defined as the ratio of the radiation reflected from the surface to
that originally incident upon it. The albedo of a surface is also dependent
upon its moisture content and roughness. An increase in the moisture
content of the surface tends to decrease its albedo. Experience shows that
wet surfaces appear darker than the dry ones.
ALBEDO (REFLECTION COEFFICIENT) OF COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS AND
GROUND SURFACES

No. Material/Surface Albedo No. Material/Surface Albedo

1. Water 0.06 13. Glass 0.1
(angle of incidence = 60° (angle of incidence=35°)
2. Snow, fine particles 0.87 14. White paint 0.8
Sand, yellow 0.35 15. Black paint 0.02−0.06
3. Sand, dry 0.18 16. Alumunium foil 0.8
Sand, wet 0.09 17. Alumunium foil 0.85
4. Desert surface 0.25 18. Galvanised iron, new 0.35
5. Moist ground, 70–95% bare 0.12−0.09 19. Galvanised iron, grey 0.2
6. Ground, dry ploughed 0.2−0.25 20. Lawn 0.25
7. Grass, high dry 0.31−0.33 21. Concrete side-walks 0.3
Grass, dry low 0.19 22. Macadam roadway 0.15
8. Plaster, white 0.93 23. Bituminous surface 0.09−0.11
9. Red bricks 0.45 24. Stony soil 0.1 −0.2
10. Concrete, new 0.40
Concrete, old 0.22−0.24
11. Asbestos slates 0.19
12. Linoleum, red-brown 0.16
Depending upon the type of exposure and arrangement of surfaces the
building material has a strong influence on the resulting surface temperatures
which affects thermal comfort. It is also observed a difference of more than
10°C between horizontal surfaces made of sandstone and dry sand on a hot
summer day. On vertical surfaces these differences are multiplied due to inter-
reflection between different surfaces of urban structures. These differences are
clearly affected by the solar radiation input at the facets of building surfaces
and thus are time dependent due to change in sun's position.
Topic: Passive solar building design

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to
collect, store, reflect, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the
winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design
because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of
mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to take advantage of the
local climate performing an accurate site analysis. Elements to be considered
include window placement and size, and glazing type, thermal insulation,
thermal mass and shading.
Site specific considerations during
design includes the following.

•Latitude, sun path

and Insolation (sunshine)
•Seasonal variations in solar gain
e.g. cooling or heating days
•Diurnal variations in temperature
•Climatic conditions related to
breezes, humidity, vegetation and Darmstadt University of technology, Germany
land contour
•Obstructions / Over-shadowing –
to solar gain or local cross-winds
Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates

•Placement of room-types, internal doors and walls, and equipment in the house.
•Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few degrees to the East to capture
the morning sun)
•Extending the building dimension along the east/west axis
•Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun in the winter, and be shaded in
the summer.
•Minimizing windows on other sides, especially western windows
•Erecting correctly sized, latitude-specific roof overhangs,[or shading elements
•Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation including radiant barriers
• Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:

•Deviation from ideal orientation

•Excessive glass area ("over-glazing") resulting in overheating (also resulting
in glare and fading of soft furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air
temperatures fall
•Installing glazing where solar gain during the day and thermal losses during
the night cannot be controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing,
•Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
•Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of high solar gain
•(Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of warm air between upper
and lower floors as warm air rises)
•High building surface area to volume – Too many corners
•Inadequate weatherization leading to high air infiltration
•Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers during the hot season.
•Insulation materials that are not matched to the main mode of heat transfer
(e.g. undesirable convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)
Direct solar system

In a direct-gain passive solar system, the indoor space acts as

a solar collector, heat absorber, and distribution system.
South-facing glass in the northern hemisphere(north-facing in
the southern hemisphere) admits solar energy into the
building interior where it directly heats (radiant energy
absorption) or indirectly heats (through convection) thermal
mass in the building such as concrete or masonry floors and
walls. The floors and walls acting as thermal mass and temper
the intensity of heating during the day. At night, the heated
thermal mass radiates heat into the indoor space.
In cold climates, a sun-tempered building is the most basic
type of direct gain passive solar configuration that simply
involves increasing (slightly) the south-facing glazing area,
without adding additional thermal mass. It is a type of direct-
gain system in which the building envelope is well insulated, is
elongated in an east–west direction, and has a large fraction of
the windows on the south side. (limited to 5 to 7% of the total
floorarea )
In direct gain passive solar systems, sufficient thermal mass is required to
prevent large temperature fluctuations in indoor air; more thermal mass is
required than in a sun tempered building. Overheating of the building interior
can result with insufficient or poorly designed thermal mass. About one-half to
two-thirds of the interior surface area of the floors, walls and ceilings must be
constructed of thermal storage materials. Thermal storage materials can be
concrete, adobe, brick, and water. Thermal mass in floors and walls should be
kept as bare as is functionally and aesthetically possible; thermal mass needs
to be exposed to direct sunlight. Wall-to-wall carpeting, large throw rugs,
expansive furniture, and large wall hangings should be avoided.
Typically, for about every 1 ft2 of south-facing glass, about 5 to 10 ft3 of thermal
mass is required for thermal mass (1 m3 per 5 to 10 m2). The simplest rule of
thumb is that thermal mass area should have an area of 5 to 10 times the
surface area of the direct-gain collector (glass) area.
Solid thermal mass (e.g., concrete, masonry, stone, etc.) should be relatively
thin, no more than about 4 in (100 mm) thick. Thermal masses with large
exposed areas and those in direct sunlight for at least part of the day (2 hour
minimum) perform best. Medium-to-dark, colors with high absorptivity, should
be used on surfaces of thermal mass elements that will be in direct sunlight.
Thermal mass that is not in contact with sunlight can be any color. Lightweight
elements (e.g., drywall walls and ceilings) can be any color.
Indirect solar system
In an indirect-gain passive solar system, the thermal mass (concrete, masonry, or water) is
located directly behind the south-facing glass and in front of the heated indoor space and so
there is no direct heating The position of the mass prevents sunlight from entering the indoor
space and can also obstruct the view through the glass. There are two types of indirect gain
systems: thermal storage wall systems and roof pond systems.
Thermal Storage (Trombe) Walls
In a thermal storage wall system, often called a Trombe wall, a massive wall is located directly
behind south-facing glass, which absorbs solar energy and releases it selectively towards the
building interior at night. It consists of a 4 to 16 in (100 to 400 mm) thick masonry wall coated
with a dark, heat-absorbing finish (or a selective surface) and covered with a single or double
layer of high transmissivity glass. The glass is typically placed from ¾ in to 2 in from the wall to
create a small airspace. The wall can be constructed of cast-in-place concrete, brick, adobe,
stone, or solid (or filled) concrete masonry units. Sunlight enters through the glass and is
immediately absorbed at the surface of the mass wall and either stored or conducted through
the material mass to the inside space. Temperatures of the air in this space can easily exceed
120 °F (49 °C). This hot air can be introduced into interior spaces behind the wall by
incorporating heat-distributing vents at the top of the wall.
Roof Pond System
A roof pond passive solar system, sometimes called a solar roof, uses water stored on
the roof to temper hot and cold internal temperatures, usually in desert environments.
It typically is constructed of containers holding 6 to 12 in (150 to 300 mm) of water on a
flat roof. Water is stored in large plastic bags or fiberglass containers to maximize
radiant emissions and minimize evaporation. It can be left unglazed or can be covered
by glazing. Solar radiation heats the water, which acts as a thermal storage medium. At
night or during cloudy weather, the containers can be covered with insulating panels.
The indoor space below the roof pond is heated by thermal energy emitted by the roof
pond storage above. With the angles of incidence of sunlight during the day, roof ponds
are only effective for heating at lower and mid-latitudes, in hot to temperate climates.
Roof pond systems perform better for cooling in hot, low humidity climates. Not many
solar roofs have been built, and there is limited information on the design, cost,
performance, and construction details of thermal storage roofs.
In an isolated gain passive solar system, the components
(e.g., collector and thermal storage) are isolated from the
indoor area of the building. An attached sunspace, also
sometimes called a solar room or solarium, is a type of
isolated gain solar system with a glazed interior space or
room that is part of or attached to a building but which can
be completely closed off from the main occupied areas. It
functions like an attached greenhouse that makes use of a
combination of direct-gain and indirect-gain system
characteristics. A sunspace may be called and appear like a
greenhouse, but a greenhouse is designed to grow plants
whereas a sunspace is designed to provide heat and
aesthetics to a building. Sunspaces are very popular passive
design elements because they expand the living areas of a
building and offer a room to grow plants and other
vegetation. In moderate and cold climates, however,
supplemental space heating is required to keep plants from
freezing during extremely cold weather.
Insulation
Thermal insulation (type, placement and amount) reduces unwanted leakage of
heat. Some passive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.
Special glazing systems and window coverings
The effectiveness of direct solar gain systems is significantly enhanced by insulative
(e.g. double glazing) or movable window insulation (window quilts, bifold interior
insulation shutters, shades, etc.)
The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is also affected by the angle of
the incident. Sunlight striking a single sheet of glass within 45 degrees is mostly
transmitted (less than 10% is reflected), whereas for sunlight striking at 70 degrees
from perpendicular over 20% of light is reflected, and above 70 degrees this
percentage reflected rises sharply.
Topic: Low energy cooling of buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Low energy cooling technologies

 Evaporative cooling system

 Vapour Absorption system
 Radiant cooling system
 Evaporative cooling
Evaporative coolers cool their
surroundings by drawing warm air over
wet pads where evaporation of the water
from the pads cools the air by as much as
20 degrees and then exhausting the
cooled air at high speed. Evaporative air-
cooler works on the same principle as
perspiration on the human body. As air
passes over the skin evaporation takes
place and a cooling effect is felt. In a
similar way evaporative air coolers use
filter pads as the cooling outer skin. A fan
draws air through the water-soaked pads,
evaporating the water and cooling the air Evaporative cooler (also called air cooler) is a
that is then blown into the house. device that cools air through the evaporation
of water. Evaporative cooling differs from
Evaporative cooling is most efficient in
typical air conditioning systems, which use
areas of low humidity.
vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration
cycles.
Indirect evaporative cooling (closed
circuit) is a cooling process that uses
direct evaporative cooling in addition
to some heat exchanger to transfer
the cool energy to the supply air. The
cooled moist air from the direct
evaporative cooling process never
comes in direct contact with the
conditioned supply air. The moist air
stream is released outside or used to
cool other external devices such as
solar cells which are more efficient if
kept cool. This is done to avoid excess
humidity in enclosed spaces, which is
not appropriate for residential
systems.
Two-stage evaporative cooling, or indirect-direct
In the first stage of a two-stage cooler, warm air is pre-cooled indirectly by
passing inside a heat exchanger that is cooled by evaporation on the outside.
In the direct stage, the pre-cooled air passes through a water-soaked pad and
picks up humidity as it cools. Since the air supply is pre-cooled in the first
stage, less humidity is transferred in the direct stage, to reach the desired
cooling temperatures. The result, according to manufacturers, is cooler air
with a RH between 50-70%, depending on the climate, compared to a
traditional system that produces about 70–80% relative humidity in the
conditioned air.
 Vapour absorption cooling
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems (VARS) belong to the class of vapour cycles similar to
vapour compression refrigeration systems. However, unlike vapour compression refrigeration
systems, the required input to absorption systems is in the form of heat. Hence these systems
are also called as heat operated or thermal energy driven systems. Since conventional
absorption systems use liquids for absorption of refrigerant, these are also sometimes called as
wet absorption systems. Similar to vapour compression refrigeration systems, vapour absorption
refrigeration systems have also been commercialized and are widely used in various refrigeration
and air conditioning applications. Since these systems run on low-grade thermal energy, they are
preferred when low-grade energy such as waste heat or solar energy is available. Since
conventional absorption systems use natural refrigerants such as water or ammonia they are
environment friendly.
In the simplest absorption refrigeration system, refrigeration is obtained by
connecting two vessels, with one vessel containing pure solvent and the
other containing a solution. Since the pressure is almost equal in both the
vessels at equilibrium, the temperature of the solution will be higher than
that of the pure solvent. This means that if the solution is at ambient
temperature, then the pure solvent will be at a temperature lower than the
ambient. Hence refrigeration effect is produced at the vessel containing pure
solvent due to this temperature difference. The solvent evaporates due to
heat transfer from the surroundings, flows to the vessel containing solution
and is absorbed by the solution. This process is continued as long as the
composition and temperature of the solution are maintained and liquid
solvent is available in the container. Vapour absorption systems using water-
lithium bromide pair are extensively used in large capacity air conditioning
systems. In these systems water is used as refrigerant and a solution of
lithium bromide in water is used as absorbent. It is used only in applications
requiring refrigeration at temperatures above zero degree.
 Radiant cooling
Radiant cooling is the use of cooled surfaces to remove heat primarily by thermal
radiation and only secondarily by other methods like convection. ASHRAE defines
radiant systems as temperature-controlled surfaces where 50% or more of the design
heat transfer takes place by thermal radiation. Unlike “all-air” air conditioning
systems that circulate cooled air only, hydronic radiant systems circulate cooled
water in pipes through specially-mounted panels on a building's floor or ceiling to
provide comfortable temperatures. There is a separate system to provide air for
ventilation, dehumidification and potentially additionally cooling. Radiant systems are
less common than all-air systems for cooling, but can have advantages compared to
all-air systems in some applications. Radiant cooling may also be integrated with
other energy-efficient strategies such as night time flushing, indirect evaporative
cooling as it requires a small difference in temperature between desired indoor air
temperature and the cooled surface. Radiant cooling systems offer lower energy
consumption than conventional cooling systems based on research. Radiant cooling
energy savings depend on the climate. Cool, humid regions might have savings of
17% while hot, arid regions have savings of 42%. Hot, dry climates offer the greatest
advantage for radiant cooling as they have the largest proportion of cooling by way of
removing sensible heat. Much of the energy savings is also attributed to the lower
amount of energy required to pump water as opposed to distribute air with fans.
Radiant cooling have lower first costs and lifecycle costs compared to conventional
systems.
Because of the potential for condensate formation on the cold radiant surface ,
radiant cooling systems have not been widely applied. condensation caused by
humidity is a limiting factor for the cooling capacity of a radiant cooling system.
While there are a broad range of system technologies, there are two primary
types of radiant cooling systems. The first type is systems that deliver cooling
through the building structure, usually slabs. These systems are also named
thermally activated building systems (TABS). The second type is systems that
deliver cooling through specialized panels. Systems using concrete slabs are
generally cheaper than panel systems and offer the advantage of thermal mass,
while panel systems offer faster temperature control and flexibility.
Radiant cooling systems work
by circulating chilled water
through a network of
polymer pipes installed in
floors, walls or ceilings. This
network of pipes can turn the
floors, walls and ceilings of a
conditioned space into cooled
surfaces that evenly absorb
heat energy.
Chilled slabs
Radiant cooling from a slab can be delivered to a space from the floor or ceiling. Since
radiant heating systems tend to be in the floor, the obvious choice would be to use the
same circulation system for cooled water. While this makes sense in some cases,
delivering cooling from the ceiling has several advantages. First, it is easier to leave
ceilings exposed to a room than floors, increasing the effectiveness of thermal mass.
Floors offer the downside of coverings and furnishings that decrease the effectiveness
of the system. Second, greater convective heat exchange occurs through a chilled
ceiling as warm air rises, leading to more air coming in contact with the cooled surface.
Cooling delivered through the floor makes the most sense when there is a high amount
of solar gain from sun penetration, because the cool floor can more easily remove
those loads than the ceiling. Chilled slabs offer more significant thermal mass and
therefore can take better advantage of outside diurnal temperatures swings. Chilled
slabs cost less per unit of surface area, and are more integrated with structure.
Chilled beam/ceiling

Radiant/convective heating/cooling systems

are generally integrated into slab or dropped
ceilings, or attached to ceilings, but can be
attached to walls also. The modular nature of
ceiling panels offers increased flexibility in
terms of placement and integration with
lighting or other electrical systems, but are less
efficient than chilled beam systems. Chilled
beams/ceilings are also better suited to
buildings with spaces that have a greater
variance in cooling loads. Ceiling panels are
very suitable for retrofits because they can be
attached to any ceiling. Chilled ceiling panels
can be more easily integrated with ventilation
supplied from the ceiling.
Topic: Passive solar heating & cooling of buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Solar shading
Well-designed sun control and shading devices, either as parts of a
building or separately placed from a building facade, can
dramatically reduce building peak heat gain and cooling
requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building
interiors. The design of effective shading devices will depend on the
solar orientation of a particular building facade. For example, simple
fixed overhangs are very effective at shading south-facing windows
in the summer when sun angles are high.
 Shading by textured surfaces
Surface shading can be provided as an
integral part of the building element
also. Highly textured walls have a
portion of their surface in shade as
shown in Figure 5. The increased
surface area of such a wall results in
an increased outer surface coefficient,
which permits the sunlit surface to
stay cooler as well as to cool down
faster at night
 Insulation

The effect of insulation is to reduce heat gain and heat loss. The more
insulation in a building exterior envelope, the less heat transferred into or out
of the building due to temperature difference between the interior and
exterior. Insulation also reduces draughts produced by temperature differences
between walls and air. Insulation is of great value when a building requires
mechanical heating or cooling and helps reduce the space-conditioning loads.
Location of insulation and its optimum thickness are very important. In hot
climates, insulation is placed on the outer face (facing exterior) of the wall or
roof so that thermal mass of the wall is weakly coupled with the external
source and strongly coupled with the interior. Use of 40 mm thick expanded
polystyrene insulation on walls and vermiculite concrete insulation on the roof
has brought down space-conditioning loads of the RETREAT building in Gurgaon
by about 15%. Air cavities within walls or in the roof ceiling combination reduce
the solar heat gain factor, thereby reducing space-conditioning loads. The
performance improves if the void is ventilated. Heat is transmitted through the
air cavity by convection and radiation.
 Solar Chimney

A solar chimney is a modern device that induces natural ventilation by the

thermal-buoyancy effect. The structure of the chimney absorbs solar energy
during the day, thereby heating the enclosed air within and causing it to rise.
Thus air is drawn from the building into an open near the bottom of the
chimney. The air exhausted from the house, through the chimney, is
replaced by ambient air. The solar chimney is used to exhaust hot air from
the building at a quick rate, thus improving the cooling potential of incoming
air from other openings. Thus solar chimneys having a relatively low
construction cost, can move air without the need for the expenditure of
conventional forms of energy, and can help achieve comfort by cooling the
building structure at night. They can also improve the comfort of the
inhabitants during the day if they are combined with an evaporative-cooling
device.
Curved roofs and air vents are used in
combination for passive cooling of air in
hot and dry climates, where dusty winds
make wind towers impracticable. Suited
for single units, they work well in hot and
dry and warm and humid climates. A hole
in the apex of the domed or cylindrical
roof with the protective cap over the vent
directs the wind across it. The opening at
the top provides ventilation and provides
an escape path for hot air collected at top.
Arrangements may be made to draw air
from the coolest part of the structure as
replacement, to set up a continuous
circulation and cool the living spaces. The
system works on the principle of cooling
by induced ventilation, caused by pressure
differences.
In a Wind tower, the hot ambient air
enters the tower through the
openings in the tower, gets cooled,
and thus becomes heavier and sinks
down. The inlet and outlet of rooms
induce cool air movement. It
resembles a chimney, with one end in
the basement or lower floor and the
other on the roof. The top part is
divided into several vertical air spaces
ending in the openings in the sides of
the tower . In the presence of wind,
air is cooled more effectively and
flows faster down the tower and into
the living area.
 Radiative cooling
The roof of a building can be used both as a radiator and also as a cold store. It is
often a cost-effective solution. During the night the roof is exposed to the night
sky, losing heat by long- wave radiation and also by convection. During the day,
the roof is externally insulated in order to minimize the heat gains from solar
radiation and the ambient air.
Diode roof
It is a pipe system, consisting of a corrugated sheet-metal roof on which are
placed polyethylene bags coated with white titanium oxide each containing a
layer of pebbles wetted with water. The roof loses heat by long-wave heat
radiation to the sky and by the evaporation of water which condenses on the
inside surface of the bags and drops back onto the pebbles.
Roof pond
In this system a shallow water pond is provided over highly conductive flat roof
with fixed side thermal insulation. The top thermal insulation is movable. The
pond is covered in day hours to prevent heating of pond from solar radiation. The
use of roof pond can lower room temperature by about 20°C. While keeping the
pond open during night the water is cooled by cooling. The covered pond during
the day provides cooling due to the effect of cooled water pond and on other side
the thermal insulation cuts off the solar radiation from the roof.
Passive downdraft evaporative
cooling systems consist of a
downdraft tower with wetted
cellulose pads at the top of the tower.
Water is distributed on the top of the
pads, collected at the bottom into a
sump and re-circulated by a pump.
Certain designs exclude the re-
circulation pump and use the pressure
in the supply water line to periodically
surge water over the pads,
eliminating the requirement for any
electrical energy input. In some
designs, water is sprayed using
Passive downdraft evaporative cooling tower
micronisers or nozzles in place of
has been used successfully at the Torrent
pads, in others, water is made to drip. Research Centre in Ahmedabad
Thus, the towers are equipped with
evaporative cooling devices at the top
to provide cool air by gravity flow.
 Roof surface evaporative cooling (RSEC)

In a tropical country like India, the solar radiation incident on roofs is very high
in summer, leading to overheating of rooms below them. Roof surfaces can be
effectively and inexpensively cooled by spraying water over suitable water-
retentive materials (e.g., gunny bags) spread over the roof surface. Wetted roof
surface provides the evaporation from the roof due to unsaturated ambient
air. As the water evaporates, it draws most of the required latent heat from the
surface, thus lowering its temperature of the roof and hence reduces heat gain.
Therefore, the wetted roof temperatures 40°C are much lower than the
ambient air about 55°C. However, the water requirement for such
arrangement is very high and it is a main constrain in the arid region to adopt
this technique
 Earth air tunnel
The use of earth as a heat sink or a source for cooling/heating air in
buried pipes or underground tunnels has been a testimony to Islamic
and Persian architecture. The air passing through a tunnel or a buried
pipe at a depth of few meters gets cooled in summers and heated in
winters (Fig. 10). Parameters like surface area of pipe, length and
depth of the tunnel below ground, dampness of the earth, humidity of
inlet air velocity, affect the exchange of heat between air and the
surrounding soil.
 Earth berming
In an earth sheltered building or earth
bermed structure the reduced infiltration
of outside air and the additional thermal
resistance of the surrounding earth
considerably reduces the average thermal
load. Further the addition of earth mass of
the building acts like a large thermal mass
and reduces the fluctuations in the thermal
load. Besides reducing solar and convective
heat gains, such buildings can also utilize
the cooler sub-surface ground as a heat
sink. Hence with reference to thermal
comfort, an earth sheltered building
presents a significant passive approach.
 Desiccant cooling

Desiccant cooling is effective in warm and humid climates. In the desiccant

cooling method, desiccant salts or mechanical dehumidifiers are used to
reduce humidity in the atmosphere. Materials having high affinity for water
are used for dehumidification. They can be solid like silica gel, alumina gel
and activated alumina, or liquids like triethylene glycol. Air from the outside
enters the unit containing desiccants and is dried adiabatically before
entering the living space. The desiccants are regenerated by solar energy.
Topic: Green composites in Buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Introduction
• Green composites are classified as a bio-composite
combined by natural fibers with biodegradable resins.
Because of their durability, green composites are mainly used
to increase the life cycle of products with short life.
• Ecological concerns have resulted in renewed interest in
natural materials.
• Recyclability and environmental safety are becoming
increasingly important to the introduction of materials and
products.
• Petroleum based products such as resins in thermoset plastics
are toxic and non-biodegradable.
• The resins and fibres used in the green composites are
biodegradable, when they dumped, decomposed by the
action of micro organisms. They are converted into the form
of H2O and CO2 and absorbed into the plant systems.
Green composite combines plant fibres with natural resins to create
natural composite materials. They are called green composites mainly
because of their degradable and sustainable properties, which can be
easily disposed without harming the environment.
Life cycle of Green composites
A biocomposite is a composite material formed by a matrix (resin) and a
reinforcement of natural fibers. Environmental concern and cost of synthetic
fibres have led the foundation of using natural fibres as reinforcement in
polymeric composites. The matrix phase is formed by polymers derived from
renewable and nonrenewable resources. The matrix is important to protect
the fibers from environmental degradation and mechanical damage, to hold
the fibers together and to transfer the loads on it. In addition, bio-fibers are
the principal components of bio-composites, which are derived from
biological origins, for example fibers from crops (cotton, flax or hemp),
recycled wood, waste paper, crop processing byproducts or regenerated
cellulose fiber (viscose/rayon). The interest in bio composites is rapidly
growing in terms of industrial applications (automobiles, railway coach,
aerospace, military applications, construction and packaging) due to its great
benefits (renewable, cheap, recyclable, and biodegradable). Bio composites
can be used alone, or as a complement to standard materials, such as carbon
fiber. The use of bio composites improve health and safety in their
production, are lighter in weight, have a visual appeal similar to that of
wood, and are environmentally superior
Advantages of Bio composites

The differential for this class of composites is that they are biodegradable and
pollute the environment less which is a concern for many scientists and
engineers to minimize the environmental impact of the production of a
composite. They are a renewable source, cheap, and in certain cases
completely recyclable. Another advantage of natural fibers is their low
density, which results in a higher specific tensile strength and stiffness than
glass fibers, besides of its lower manufacturing costs. As such, bio composites
could be a viable ecological alternative to carbon, glass, and man-made fiber
composites. Natural fibers have a hollow structure, which gives insulation
against noise and heat. It is a class of materials that can be easily processed,
and thus, they are suited to a wide range of applications, such as packaging,
building (roof structure, bridge, window, door, green kitchen), automobiles,
aerospace, military applications, electronics, consumer products and medical
industry
Bio composites are divided into non-wood fibers and wood fibers, all of which
present cellulose and lignin. The non-wood fibers (natural fibers) are more
attractive for the industry due to the physical and mechanical properties
which they present. Also, these fibers are relatively long fibers, and present
high cellulose content, which delivers a high tensile strength, and degree of
cellulose crystallinity, whereas natural fibers have some disadvantages
because they have hydroxyl groups (OH) in the fiber that can attract water
molecules, and thus, the fiber might swell. This results in voids at the
interface of the composite, which will affect the mechanical properties and
loss in dimensional stability. The wood fibers have this name because almost
more than 60% of its mass is wood elements. It presents softwood fibers
(long and flexible) and hardwood fibers (shorter and stiffer), and has low
degree of cellulose crystallinity. The wood fibers could be recycled or non-
recycled. The natural fibers are divided into straw fibers, bast, leaf, and grass
fibers. The fibers most widely used in the industry are flax, jute, hemp, kenaf,
sisal and coir. The straw fibers (Rice, wheat, corn straws) could be found in
many parts of the world, and it is an example of a low-cost reinforcement for
bio composites.
Advantages of green composites over traditional composites (wood, glass, concrete)

Less expensive.
Reduced weight.
Increased flexibility.
Renewable resource.
Sound insulation.
Thermal recycling is possible where glass poses problems.
Friendly processing and no skin irritation
Wood Plastic Composite
WPC board is a mixture of reclaimed
wood, recycle plastic and a small
amount of adhesive. Now it becomes
an ideal building material for
residential and commercial use.
Combines the advantage of different
materials, WPC boards are more
sturdy and durable than wood, but
also have natural appearance of the
wood..
WPC Wall Panel
WPC wall panels are ideal for any
commercial or domestic, new build or
refurbishment cladding project as a color-
stable alternative to real timber planks.
Made from a unique combination of
recycled wood and plastic it gives the
traditional appearance of wood with the
durability of an engineered composite.

WPC Decking
WPC decking is an established alternative
to traditional wood decking for gardens.
With its superior finishing, lifetime cost &
virtually zero maintenance benefits
choosing composite decking over natural
timber decking.
WPC Pergola
The WPC Pergola basically solved the
problem that wood easily gets rot and
deformed after exposing to moist and
water environment, it can be used in
environment where traditional
wooden products can not be applied.
Pest control, various colors to choose
from, embodied with wood sense and
wood texture are its advantages.
Topic: Water & Waste water management techniques
in buildings

Presentation by
Dr. S. Ramanagopal, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
 Water Efficiency In Green Buildings

As access to fresh water continues to be a

source of worry in many areas of the world
(including India), water efficiency strategies in
green building practices have become
paramount to both new and existing
construction efforts. Green building mentions
a building structure that is designed to be
environmental-friendly and makes nominal
and efficient use of natural resources. Such
buildings are resource-efficient and eco-
friendly during its entire lifespan starting from
its construction to demolition. A Green
building design largely emphasizes on making
effective use of natural resources like water,
energy, etc. while reducing several bad effects
on the environment and the occupant’s
health during its use. Water efficiency means
reducing usage of water and minimizing
waste water.
Considering water efficiency in Green Buildings, today several technologies are being
used rainwater harvesting, recycling and reuse of grey water, low-flow fixtures, sensors
etc. Water efficiency measures in residential and commercial buildings can greatly reduce
water waste, yielding lower sewage volumes, reduced energy use, and bring in financial
benefits too. The three key components of water efficiency in green buildings according
to the USGBC (U.S. Green Building Council) are:
Reduce Indoor Potable Water Use
Reducing Water Consumption to Save Energy
Improve Environmental Well-Being
The strategies and technologies involved in a green building aim at reducing the amount
of potable water consumed in buildings. Today there are several water conservation
strategies which involve a low cost of implementation and have a very quick payback.
Water utilization in buildings

Estimations vary, but every single

person uses around 80-100 gallons of
water each day. With so much water
getting wasted and overused, high
volume of fresh water is getting
drawn out resulting to depletion.
Hence, water efficient technologies
play a great role in conserving potable
and non-potable water and eventually
save the already scarce freshwater
resources.
Rain Water Harvesting
In simple terms, it is the active
collection and distribution of
rainwater which rather than going to
the sewage is put into use in daily life.
Typically, rainwater is collected from
the rooftops, deposited in a reservoir
with filtration. Once the water is
purified, it is can be used for
cultivation, gardening, and other
domestic uses. One of the biggest
uses of rainwater harvesting is during
summer where there is a lower rate
of rainfall.
Grey Water (Sullage) Recycling
Grey water can be defined as untreated
waste water which has not come into
contact with water closet waste. Basically,
it emanates from showers, bathtubs,
bathroom wash basins, washing machines,
and dishwashers. Treatment of greywater
can include:
Filtering
Settlement of solids
Flotation and separation of lighter solids
Aerobic or anaerobic digestion
Chemical or UV disinfection
But again, irrespective of the treatment
such water is never safe to drink but can
be used for flushing toilets, landscape,
external washing and irrigation purposes.
One of the major benefits of recycling
greywater is that it is a huge source with a
low concentration of organic matter.
Pressure Reduction
These days, pressure reducing valves are
being very commonly installed in high rise
residential and commercial buildings to help
to maintain a consistent water pressure at the
water fixtures across the entire building from
top to bottom. With these higher pressures,
water flows through the system with greater
flow through the terminal fixtures beyond
rated flow capacities, this additional water is
wasted and it serves no extra benefit to the
rated performance. Most plumbing codes
demand pressure reducing valves on the
systems where water pressures exceed 80 psi
and in most of the cases, pressures can be
depressed through the implementation of
supplementary pressure-reducing valves. In
addition to that, higher pressures could break
pipes and damage fixtures which could result
in even greater water waste in domestic
settings.
Cooling Towers

Green buildings make use of

evaporative cooling systems to save
on energy. Such systems use water for
cooling. Keeping in mind the huge
need to conserve water, the water
used such cooling towers is non-
potable water and the same is not
drained out but recycled time and
again and reused.
Low-Flow Plumbing Fixtures
Low-flow plumbing fixtures like
faucets, shower heads, and toilets
have become an increasingly common
feature in green homes today, and for
good reason. Large quantities of
water are saved by the use of
plumbing fixtures which are designed
to operate with less water. For
example, toilets were once made to
function using 7 gallons per flush, but
these days they can efficiently
operate using only 1.3 gallons – this
clearly means water savings of over
80 percent.
 Water conservation methods

Water efficient appliances

Water audit
Efficient use of water during construction
Landscape design
Mulch for conserving moisture
Porous paving system using pervious concrete