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Chapter 2 - Acids, Bases and Salts

Introduction

Electrolytes: The substances which when dissolved in water conduct electricity.

Acids, bases and salts are three main categories of chemical compounds. The sour taste of many
fruits and vegetables, lemon for instance, is due to various types of acids present in them. The
digestive fluids of most animals and humans also contain acids.
The word 'acid' is derived from a Latin word, which means "sour". The acids we use in the
laboratory are stronger acids like hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. Strong acids are corrosive
and can burn your skin. Bases on the other hand are the chemical opposites of acids. They are
bitter in taste and soapy to touch. Sea water and detergents are some examples of substances that
are basic. Many bases are oxide or hydroxide compounds of metals. Strong bases can also burn
ones skin.

• Acids present in plant materials & animals are called Organic acids.
Some naturally occurring acids,
Vinegar Acetic acid
Sour milk (curd) Lactic acid
Oranges Citric acid
Lemons Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid
Ant sting Formic acid
Apples Malic acid
Tomatoes Oxalic acid.

Inorganic or Minerals acids are derived from minerals occurring in nature.

Some common acids that are found in laboratories are
Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and
Nitric acid (HNO3).
Some of the lesser used acids are
Acetic acid (CH3COOH),
Hydrofluoric acid (HF), Hydrofluoric acid is a highly corrosive acid and is used to etch glass.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3).

General properties of Acids:

• Tastes sour
• Reacts with metals such as zinc, magnesium etc. liberating hydrogen gas.

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• Changes the colour of litmus from blue to red.

• Conducts electricity.

General properties of Bases

• Have a soapy feel,
• May also burn the skin
• Common examples are soaps & detergents.
• Commonly found bases in laboratories and in our daily life are: Caustic soda, NaOH; Caustic
potash, KOH; Milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2; Liquor ammonia, NH3; Washing powder, Tooth
paste.

ACIDS

Concentrated & Dilute acids - A concentrated acid is one which contains the minimum amount
of water in it. A dilute acid is obtained by mixing the concentrated acid with water.

Addition of Acids or Bases to Water - The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a
highly exothermic one. As this reaction generates lot of heat care must be taken while mixing
concentrated acids with water, specially nitric acid or sulphuric acid with water. As a rule:

Always add Acid to Water and Never the Other Way! The acid must be added slowly to water
with constant stirring. If one mixes the other way by adding water to a concentrated acid, the heat
generated causes the mixture to splash out and cause burns. The glass container may also break
due to excessive local heating and cause damages! Mixing an acid or base with water results in
dilution. It decreases the concentration of ions (H3O+/OH-) per unit volume thereby dissipating the
heat effect easily.

What Happens to an Acid in a Water Solution? Acids - Since all acids contain hydrogen ions,
the more hydrogen ions they contain, the stronger the acids are. A good definition of an acid is a
compound that produces H+ ions when it dissolved in water. Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone,
but they exist after combining with water molecules. H+ ions in association with a water molecule
form H3O+ ions or hydronium ion.
H+ + H2O H3O+
For example, when hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, the hydrogen chloride molecules
immediately dissociate or split into hydrogen ions and chloride ions. The solution becomes a very
strong acid solution called hydrochloric acid.

The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of water. Thus hydrogen
ions must always be shown as H+(aq) or (H3O+).

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The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of the hydronium ions (H 3O+) present in a
solution. We know that greater the number of hydronium ions present, greater is the strength of
acid. However, some acids do not dissociate to any appreciable extent in water such as carbonic
acid. Therefore, these acids will have a low concentration of hydronium ions

How Strong are Acid Solutions? Strong Acid - An acid, which dissociates completely or almost
completely in water, is classified as a strong acid. An aqueous solution of a strong acid contains
only ions along with water.
It must be noted that in these acids all the hydrogen ions (H +) combine with water molecule and
exist as hydronium ions (H3O+). Examples of strong acids are: Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid,
Nitric acid etc.

H2SO4 (aq)  2H+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq)

Weak Acid – An acid that dissociates only partially when dissolved in water, is classified as a
weak acid. An Aqueous solution of a weak acid contains ions and molecules. Examples are: acetic
acid, formic acid, carbonic acid etc.

Reaction of Acids with Metals

(a) All metals above hydrogen in the metal reactivity series generally react with dilute acids to
form their respective salt and liberate hydrogen.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen

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(b) Very active metals like potassium, sodium and calcium also react similarly, but tend to
explode when combining with acids.

(c) Nitric acid (of various concentrations) usually exhibits oxidizing property, rather than acidic
properties. Metals such as magnesium combine with extremely dilute (1%) nitric acid to
liberate hydrogen.
(d) Reaction of Metal Carbonates and Metal Hydrogen Carbonates with Acids?
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates) to form their respective
salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Carbonate/Bicarbonate + Acid Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Neutralization
The reaction between the hydrogen ions of an acid and the hydroxyl ions of a base is called
neutralization. In general, a neutralization reaction can be written as:
Acid + Base Salt + Water
Examples:
1.

2.

3.

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The acidic property of an acid is due to the presence of hydrogen ions (H+) while that of a base or
alkali, is due to the presence of hydroxyl (OH -) ions in them. When an acid and base (alkali)
combine, the positively charged hydrogen ion of the acid combines with the negatively charged
hydroxyl ion of the base to form a molecule of water. Hence, the water molecule formed does not
have any charge because the positive and negative charges of the hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions
get neutralized.

Neutralization can be viewed as a reaction in which an acid combine with a base, neutralizing the
positively charged hydrogen ion and the negatively charged hydroxyl ion, to form a molecule of
water and the respective salt.

Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids

Action with Basic Oxides

Oxides that react with an acid to form salt and water are called basic oxides. These oxides get
neutralized when they react with acids.
Basic oxide + Acid Salt + Water
1.

2.

3.

Action with Basic Hydroxides

Acids undergo neutralization reaction with basic hydroxides to form salt and water.
Basic hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water
1.

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2.

3.

Reaction of Non-metallic Salts with Base

Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts with carbon dioxide to produce salt and water. Since
this is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that nonmetallic oxides
are acidic in nature.

This reaction occurs during white washing.

Bases
The oxides and hydroxides of metals are called bases. Examples of bases- sodium hydroxide,
magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, copper oxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide etc.
Some bases are water soluble and dissolve in water to produce hydroxyl ions. A base that is
soluble in water is an alkali. For example, when sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water it readily
dissociates to produce a lot of hydroxide ions.

All alkalis are bases that dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ion (OH -) as the only negative
ions. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide are
the common alkalis.
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH- (aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Strong Base /Alkali - The strength of a base depends on the concentration of the hydroxyl ions
when it is dissolved in water. A base that dissociates completely or almost completely in water to
give a high concentration of hydroxyl ions is classified as a strong base. The greater the number

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of hydroxyl ions the base produces, the stronger is the base. NaOH, KOH, & LiOH are strong
alkalis.
Example:

Weak Base / Alkali - A base that dissociates in water only partially to give a low concentration
of hydroxyl ions is known as a weak base. Calcium hydroxide & ammonium hydroxide are weak
alkalis.
Example:

Reactions of Bases/alkalis
Neutralization Reaction – Already done
Action of Alkalis/Base with Ammonium Salts
Alkalis combine with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia.
Alkali + Ammonium salt Salt + Water + Ammonia

pH scale: The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
in moles per litre.

pH = - log [H+(aq)]

The pH scale is a continuous scale and the value of pH varies between 0 to 14.

The pH of pure or neutral water is 7. Solutions having pH less than 7 are acidic in nature and the
solutions with pH more than 7 are basic in nature.

Indicators
Acids and bases can be better distinguished with the help of indicators. Indicators are substances
that undergo a change of color with a change of acidic, neutral or basic medium.
Litmus, a purple dye extracted from the lichen plant, is commonly used as an indicator in
laboratories. Acids change the color of litmus solution to red, and bases change the color of litmus
solution to blue.

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Turmeric is another common household indicator. A stain of turmeric based food spill on a white
cloth becomes reddish-brown when soap is scrubbed on it. Soap is basic in nature and changes the
color of the turmeric stain. It turns yellow again when the cloth is washed with plenty of water.
Other indicators—
• Red cabbage extract gives red color in acidic solutions & yellow color in basic solutions.
• Onion has a characteristic smell. In basic solutions like NaOH, there is no smell. Acids
however, do not destroy the smell of onions.
• Vanilla extract has a pleasant smell in acidic solutions, in basic solutions there is no smell.

The common indicators used and the color changes observed are mentioned below:
Indicator Acid Alkali
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Deep pink
Methyl red Yellow Red

Universal Indicator: It is a mixture of indicators which give a gradual change of various colors
over a wide range of pH.

Approximate pH Values of Some Common Substances

Substance pH Value
Hydrochloric acid 1.0
Sulphuric acid 1.2
Gastric juice 2.0
Rain water 6.2
Lemon 2.3
Milk 6.5
Vinegar (Acetic acid) 2.8
Pure water 7.0
Soft drink 3.0
Apple 3.1
Sea water 8.5

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Grape 3.1
Ammonium hydroxide 11.1
Tomato 4.2
Sodium hydroxide 13.0

Importance of pH in our daily life:

(a) pH and Plants: Proper pH of soil is required for healthy growth of plants. It should not be too
acidic or too basic.

(b) pH in the digestive system: Human body secrets hydrochloric acid which aids in digestion.
Hyperacidity: The Condition of excess acid in the stomach. Hyperacidity can be cured by
taking ant-acid tablets or suspensions.

(c) pH and tooth decay: Tooth enamel which is the hardest substance in our body is corroded
when the pH of the mouth is below 5.5. Cleaning of teeth using toothpaste helps in preventing
tooth decay. Toothpastes are basic in nature, therefore neutralize the excess acid in the mouth
and thus prevent tooth decay.

Salts & pH of Salts

Salts are obtained by treating an acid with a base. Salts consist of both positive ions or 'cations',
and negative ions or 'anions'. The cations are called basic radicals and are mostly obtained from
metallic ions (ammonium ion being one exception), while the anions are called acidic radicals and
are obtained from acids.

Salt is a compound, which on dissociation in water yields positive ions other than a hydrogen ion
or hydronium ion, and a negative ion other than hydroxyl ion.

Family of Salts: Salts can be classified into the following types:

Normal or Neutral Salts - A salt that is formed by the complete replacement of the replaceable
hydrogen ions of an acid by a metal ion or ammonium ion is called a normal salt.
Examples: NaCl, Na2SO4, Na3PO4, NH4Cl, K2CO3 etc.
A neutral salt arises due to the neutralization reaction. Here, salts of strong acid and strong base
combine to form such salts that show a neutral pH of 7.

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Sodium Chloride
Sodium chloride is the commonly available salt and so is called common salt. Seawater is the main
source of sodium chloride. Seawater contains about 3.5% of soluble salts, the most common of
which is sodium chloride (2.7 to 2.9%). Saline water of inland lakes is also a good source of this
salt. Sodium chloride is also found as rock salt.
Common salt is generally obtained by evaporation of seawater. Crude sodium chloride is obtained
by crystallization of 'brine' that contains sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate, calcium chloride and
magnesium chloride as impurities.
Pure sodium chloride is obtained from the crude salt by dissolving it in minimum amount of water
and filtering it to remove insoluble impurities. The solution is then saturated with hydrogen
chloride gas, when crystals of pure sodium chloride separate out. Calcium and magnesium
chlorides, being more soluble than sodium chloride, remain in solution.

Properties
• Sodium chloride is a white crystalline solid having a density of 2.17 g/ml.
• It melts at 1080 K (807°C) and boils at 1713 K (1440°C).
• It is soluble in water and its solubility is 36 g per 100 g of water at 273 K. (0°C). The solubility
in water remains constant with temperature.
• Pure sodium chloride is non-hygroscopic, but behaves as hygroscopic due to the impurities of
CaCl2 and MgCl2 in it.
• Solid Sodium chloride does not conduct electricity at room temperature but molten sodium
chloride is a very good ionic conductor.

Uses
• As table salt, an essential constituent of our food.
• In the manufacture of Na2CO3, NaOH, Cl2, etc.
• For salting out soap, and organic dyes.
• In freezing mixtures.
• In tanning and textile industries.
• As a preservative for fish, meat, butter etc.

Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)

Sodium carbonate exists as anhydrous (Na2CO3) and also as hydrated salt. The dehydrated salt
(Na2CO3.10H2O) is known as washing soda while the anhydrous salt is called soda ash.

Manufacture of Sodium Carbonate

Sodium carbonate is usually made by the Ammonia-soda process or Solvay process. The raw
materials for this process are common salt, ammonia and limestone (for supplying CO 2 and
quicklime).

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When carbon dioxide is passed into a concentrated solution of brine saturated with ammonia,
ammonium bicarbonate is produced. The ammonium bicarbonate then reacts with common salt
forming sodium bicarbonate.

Sodium bicarbonate being slightly soluble (in presence of sodium ions) gets precipitated.
Precipitated sodium bicarbonate is removed by filtration and changed into sodium carbonate by
heating.

Steps in the Solvay process

Step 1. Ammoniacal brine reacts with carbon dioxide to produce sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
NaCl + NH3 + H2O + CO2  NH4Cl + NaHCO3 .

Step 2. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated to get sodium carbonate.

2 NaHCO3  Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2.

Step 3. Sodium carbonate is recrystallized by dissolving in water to get washing soda.

Na2CO3 + 10 H2O  Na2CO3 .10H2O
Limestone is heated to obtain CO2. CaCO3  CaO + CO2.
The quicklime is dissolved in water to obtain slaked lime which is made to react with ammonium
chloride to obtain ammonia which is used in step 1.
CaO + H2O  Ca (OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + NH4Cl  CaCl2 + 2 NH3 + 2H2O

Properties
Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline solid, which can exist as anhydrous salt (Na2CO3),
monohydrate salt (Na2CO3.H2O), heptahydrate salt (Na2CO3.7H2O) and decahydrate
(Na2CO3.10H2O - washing soda). Sodium carbonate is readily soluble in water. On heating, the
decahydrate salt gradually loses water to, finally give anhydrous salt (Na 2CO3 - soda ash).

Uses
• For the manufacture of glass.

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• For washing purposes in laundries.

• For the manufacture of other sodium compounds like sodium silicates, sodium hydroxide,
borax, hypo etc.
• As a household cleansing agent.
• In paper and soap/detergent industries.
• For the softening of water.
• A mixture of NaCO3 and KCO3 is used as a fusion mixture.
• In textile industry and petroleum refining.

Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate, (NaHCO3)

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also known as sodium bicarbonate or baking soda because it
decomposes on heating to generate bubbles of carbon dioxide (leaving pores in cakes or pastries
and making them light and fluffy).

Preparation
NaHCO3 is made by saturating a solution of sodium carbonate with carbon dioxide. The white
crystalline powder of sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble gets separated.

On an industrial scale, sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3) is obtained as an intermediate

product in Solvay process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate.

Properties
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate is a white crystalline solid having a density of about 2.2 g/ml.
• It has alkaline taste and is sparingly soluble in water. The solubility of sodium hydrogen
carbonate increases with the rise of temperature.

Uses
• As a component of baking powder.
• In fire extinguishers.
• In medicines as a mild antiseptic for skin diseases and to neutralize the acidity of stomach.
• As a reagent in laboratory.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Sodium hydroxide is commonly called caustic soda because of its corrosive action on animal and
vegetable tissues. Large quantity of sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolytic process called
the 'Chlor-alkali process'. Here, chlorine gas is given of at the anode and hydrogen gas at the
cathode. Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.

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Properties
• Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent solid having melting point at 591 K (318°C).
• It is stable towards heat.
• It is highly soluble in water and considerable amount of heat is evolved due to the formation
of a number of hydrates e.g., NaOH.H2O, NaOH.2H2O. It is also soluble in alcohol.
• Aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is strongly alkaline due to its complete dissociation
into Na+ and OH-.

• Solution of sodium hydroxide is soapy to touch. It has a bitter taste. When a concentrated
solution of sodium hydroxide comes in contact with skin, it breaks down the skin and flesh to
a pasty mass.

Uses
• In the manufacture of soap, paper, viscose rayon (artificial silk), organic dyestuffs, and many
other chemicals.
• In the refining of petroleum and vegetable oils.
• In the purification of bauxite for the extraction of aluminum.
• As a cleansing agent and in washing powder for machines, metal sheets etc. It is too caustic to
be used in washing clothes or hands.
• For mercerizing cotton.
• As a reagent in the laboratory.
• In reclaiming rubber.
• In the preparation of soda lime.

Plaster of Paris, [CaSO4. ½ H2O]

Calcium sulphate with half a molecule of water per molecule of the salt (hemi-hydrate) is called
plaster of paris (plaster of paris).

Water of Crystallization
When crystals of certain salts are formed, they do so with a definite number of molecules of water,
chemically combined in a definite proportion. Water of crystallization is the number of water
molecules, chemically combined in a definite molecular proportion, with the salt in its crystalline
state. This water is responsible for the geometric shape and color of the crystals.

Remember
A substance containing water of crystallization is called a hydrous substance or a hydrate. This
water can be expelled, by heating, and then the salt is said to have become anhydrous.

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Preparation
Plaster of Paris is prepared by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 120°C in rotary kilns, where it
gets partially dehydrated.

The temperature should be kept below 140°C otherwise further dehydration will take place and
the setting property of the plaster will be partially reduced.

Properties
It is a white powder. When mixed with water (1/3 of its mass), it evolves heat and quickly sets to
a hard porous mass within 5 to 15 minutes. During setting, a slight expansion (about 1%) in volume
occurs so that it fills the mould completely and takes a sharp impression. The process of setting
occurs as follows:

The first step is called the setting stage, and the second, the hardening stage. The setting of plaster
of Paris is catalyzed by sodium chloride, while it is reduced by borax, or alum.

Uses
• In surgery for setting broken or fractured bones.
• For making casts for statues, in dentistry, for surgical instruments, and toys etc.
• In making black board chalks, and statues.
• In construction industry.

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Chapter 4 - Carbon and its Compounds

Introduction
The list given below illustrates the importance of carbon compounds in our daily life:
• Foods [starch, sugar, fats, vitamins, proteins]
• Fuels [wood, coal, alcohol, petrol]
• Household and commercial articles [paper, soap, cosmetics, oils, paints]
• Textile fabrics [cotton, wool, silk, linen, rayon, nylon]
• Drugs and disinfectants [penicillin, quinine, aspirin, sulpha drugs]
• Poisons [opium, strychnine]
• Perfumes [vanillin, camphor]
• Explosives [nitro glycerine, dynamite, picric acid, TNT]
• Dyes [indigo, congo red, malachite green]
• War gases [mustard gas, chloropicrin, lewisite]

Hydrocarbons – Compounds containing carbon and hydrogen.

Organic Compounds– Hydrocarbons and compounds derived from hydrocarbons.
Bonding in Carbon - The Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is defined 'as the force of attraction arising due to mutual sharing of
electrons between the two atoms.' The combining atoms may share one, two or three
pairs of electrons. The covalent bond is formed between two similar or dissimilar atoms
by a mutual sharing of electrons, which are counted towards the stability of both the
participating atoms. When the two atoms combine by mutual sharing of electrons, each
of the atoms does so, in order to acquire stable configuration of the nearest noble gas. A
small line (-) between the two atoms is represents a covalent bond. The compounds
formed due to covalent bonding are called covalent compounds.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

• The covalent compounds do not exist as ions but they exist as molecules
• They exist at room temperature, as liquids or gases. However, a few compounds
also exist in the solid state e.g. urea, sugar, etc.
• The melting and boiling points of covalent compounds are generally low
• Covalent compounds are generally insoluble or less soluble in water and in other
polar solvents
• These are poor conductors of electricity in the fused or dissolved state
• Since the covalent bond is localized in between the nuclei of atoms, it is directional
in nature
• A covalent bond can be formed in different ways. When a bond is formed by mutual
sharing of one pair of electrons it is known as a 'single covalent bond', or simply 'a
single bond'. When a bond is developed due to mutual sharing of more than one
pairs of electrons it is termed as 'multiple covalent bond'. Such bonds can be a
double covalent bond or a triple covalent bond.

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Types of Covalent Bonds

Single Bond
Hydrogen Molecule
Hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost shell, and requires one more
electron to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration of helium (He:1s 2). To do so,
two hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each to share one pair of electrons between
them. This leads to the formation of a single covalent bond between the two hydrogen
atoms.

Chlorine Molecule
Chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. Thus, each Cl atom requires one more
electron to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ar:2, 8, 8). This they do by
mutual sharing of one pair of electrons as shown below.

Double Bond
Oxygen Molecule
An oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell. As a result, it requires 2 more
electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. When two oxygen atoms share
two pairs of electrons this is achieved:

Triple Bond
Nitrogen Molecule
Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell. It requires three more electrons to
acquire a stable configuration of the nearest noble gas (neon). This is done by mutually
sharing three pairs of electrons as shown below.

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Activity
Show how nitrogen shares a covalent bond with hydrogen in the formation of ammonia
(NH3). Are all electrons involved in the bonding? Give the Lewis structure of the
covalent bond also.

Suggested Answer
The electronic configurations of nitrogen and hydrogen are

Thus, each nitrogen atom requires three more electrons to acquire a stable noble gas
configuration. On the other hand, each H-atom requires only one electron to achieve the
stable helium configuration. This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons
between one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms, as shown below.

The unshared pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom (in ammonia molecule) is not
involved in bond formation and is called a lone pair of electrons.

Multiple Bonds – Double and triple bonds are collectively known as multiple bonds.

Covalency: The number of electrons contributed by an atom of the element for sharing
while forming covalent bonds is known as covalency of the element.

Tetravalency in Carbon
A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-shell
has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons. This distribution indicates that in
the outermost shell there are one completely filled 's' orbital and two half-filled 'p'

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orbitals, showing carbon to be a divalent atom. But in actuality, carbon displays

tetravalency in the combined state. Therefore, a carbon atom has four valence electrons.
It could gain four electrons to form C4- anion or lose four electrons to form C4+ cation.
Both these conditions would take carbon far away from achieving stability by the octect
rule. To overcome this problem carbon undergoes bonding by sharing its valence
electrons. This allows it to be covalently bonded to one, two, three or four carbon atoms
or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms.

Methane Molecule
Carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell. Thus, it requires four more
electrons to acquire a stable noble gas configuration. Each of the hydrogen atoms has
only one electron in its outermost shell and requires one more electron to complete its
outermost shell (to acquire He configuration).

Carbon Dioxide Molecule

The electronic configurations of carbon and oxygen are:

Thus, each carbon atom requires four, and each oxygen atom requires two more
electrons to acquire noble gas configurations. To achieve this, two oxygen atoms form a
double covalent bond with carbon as follows.

Acetylene Molecule
Carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and hydrogen atoms have only
one electron in its outermost shell. Carbon share one of its electrons with hydrogen to
form a single bond each. Each carbon then requires three more electrons to acquire a
stable configuration of the nearest noble gas (neon). This is done by mutually sharing
three pairs of electrons between the two carbon atoms to form a triple bond as shown
below.

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Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy: The phenomenon of existence of an element in different forms having
different physical properties but identical chemical properties is called allotropy and the
various forms are called allotropic forms or allotropes.
Crystalline form: Diamond, Graphite
Amorphous form: Coal, Coke, Charcoal (or wood charcoal), Animal Charcoal (or
bone black), Lamp black, Carbon black, Gas carbon and Petroleum coke.
Diamonds and graphite are two crystalline allotropes of carbon. Diamond and graphite
both are covalent crystals. But, they differ considerably in their properties.

Comparison of the Properties of Diamond and Graphite

Diamond Graphite
It occurs naturally in free state. It occurs naturally and is manufactured
artificially.
It is the hardest natural substance It is soft and greasy to touch.
known.
It has high relative density (about 3.5). Its relative density is 2.3.
It is transparent and has high
refractive index (2.45). It is black in colour and opaque
It is non-conductor of heat and Graphite is a good conductor of
electricity. heat and electricity.
It burns in air at 900°C to give CO2. It bums in air at 700-800°C to give
CO2.
It occurs as octahedral crystals. It occurs as hexagonal crystals
It is insoluble in all solvents. It is insoluble in all ordinary solvents

These differences in the properties of diamond and graphite are due to the difference in
their structures. In diamond, each C atom is linked to its neighbors by four single
covalent bonds. This leads to a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds. In
graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat parallel layers as regular hexagons. Each

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carbon in these layers is bonded to three others by covalent bonds. Graphite thus
acquires some double bond character. Each layer is bonded to adjacent layers by weak
van der Waals forces. This allows each layer to slide over the other easily. Due to this
type of structure graphite is soft and slippery, and can act as a lubricant. Graphite is also
a good conductor of electricity due to mobile electrons in it.

Amorphous Forms of Carbon

Coal
Coal is formed in nature by the 'carbonisation' of wood. Conversion of wood to coal
under the influence of high temperature, high pressure, and in the absence of air is
termed carbonisation.

Amongst coal varieties, anthracite is the purest form. It contains about 94 - 95% of
carbon. The common variety of coal is bituminous coal; it is black, hard and burns with
smoky flame.

Wood Charcoal
When wood is heated strongly in a very limited supply of air, wood charcoal is
obtained. This process is called destructive distillation of wood. The volatile products
are allowed to escape. Charcoal is a black, porous and brittle solid. It is a good
adsorbent. Charcoal powder adsorbs colouring matter from solutions, and poisonous
gases from the air. Charcoal is also a good reducing agent.

Animal Charcoal
Animal charcoal (or Bone charcoal) is obtained by destructive distillation of bones. It
contains about 10-12% of amorphous carbon.

Sugar Charcoal
It is obtained by heating sugar in the absence of air. Sugar charcoal is the purest form of
amorphous carbon.

Sugar charcoal becomes activated charcoal when it is powdered to particle size of about
5 µ and heated at about 1000 K in vacuum. Activated charcoal has an increased
adsorption capacity.

Lamp Black
Lamp black is manufactured when tar and vegetable oils (rich in carbon) are burnt in an
insufficient supply of air and the resulting soot is deposited on wet blankets hung in a
room. Lamp black is a velvety black powder. It is used in the manufacture of India ink,
printer's ink, black paint and varnishes and carbon papers.

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Carbon Black
When natural gas is burned in limited supply of air, the resulting soot is deposited on
the underside of a revolving disc. This is carbon black and it is then scraped off and
filled in bags. It differs from lamp black in being not so greasy. Carbon black is added
to the rubber mix used for making automobile tyres, and has replaced the use of
lampblack for a number of purposes.

Gas Carbon and Petroleum Coke

Carbon scraped that is from the walls of the retort used for the destructive distillation of
coal in called gas carbon. During refining of crude petroleum, petroleum coke is
deposited on the walls of the distillation tower.
Both, gas carbon and petroleum coke are used for making electrodes in dry cells and are
good conductors of electricity.

Fullerenes
Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon that were discovered as recently as 1985. They have
been found to exist in the interstellar dust as well as in geological formations on earth.
They are large cage like spherical molecules with formulae C32, C50 C60, C70, C76, C84
etc. The most commonly known fullerene is C60 which is named as 'buckminster
fullerene after the designer of the geodesic dome, American architect Buckminister.

C60 molecule has marvellously symmetrical structure. It is a fused-ring of aromatic

system containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of C atoms. The structure bends
around and closes to form a soccer ball shaped molecule. It is therefore, called
buckyball also. Fullerene looks different from diamond and graphite. It is a yellow
powdery substance, which turns pink on dissolution in solvents like toluene. It
polymerizes on exposure to U.V. radiations.
Fullerenes are fascinating because they show unusual characteristics and applications
like:

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• They are wonderful lubricants because the balls can roll between the surfaces.
• Alkali compounds of C60 (A3C60) are super conducting materials even at high
temperatures of the order of 10-40 K.

Organic Compounds– Compounds of carbon and hydrogen.

Organic Chemistry – The branch of Chemistry that deals with the study of compounds
of carbon and hydrogen.

Distinguishing features of Organic Compounds

1. Types of Linkages – Organic compounds generally contain covalent linkages while

Inorganic Compounds are ionic in nature.

2. Melting and Boiling Point – Organic Compounds have low melting and boiling
points because of their covalent nature. Inorganic Compounds usually have high
melting and boiling points.

3. Solubility – Organic Compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in organic

solvents.

4. Electrical Conductivity – Organic Compounds are bad conductors of electricity while

inorganic compounds are good conductors of electricity.

5. Nature of reactions – Organic reactions are complicated and slow whereas Inorganic
reactions are instantaneous.

6. Stability – Organic Compounds are less stable to heat than Inorganic Compounds.

7. Combustibility – Organic Compounds are combustible and generally leave no

residue, when burnt. Inorganic Compounds are incombustible.

Reasons for the formation of large number of Organic Compounds

1. Catenation – The property of atoms of an element to link with one another forming
chains of identical atoms is called catenation.
Carbon exhibits catenation to maximum extent because of strong carbon carbon bond
and tetravalency.

2. Formation of C-C Multiple Bonds

Due to its small size the carbon atom can also form multiple bonds i.e., double and
triple bonds with not only carbon but with atoms of other elements like oxygen,

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nitrogen, etc. The formation of these multiple bonds gives rise to a variety in the carbon
compounds.

Types and number of bonds Structure

Linked to four atoms with four single bonds.

Tetrahedral geometry (sp3 hybridisation)

Linked to three atoms with two single and one

double bond. Trigonal geometry (sp2 hybridisation)

Linked to two atoms with one single and one triple

bond. Linear geometry (sp hybridisation)

Whatever be the nature of bonding, all the compounds of carbon always have a total of
four bonds around the carbon atom.

3. Isomerism - The unique feature of the carbon-carbon bonding has also led to the
formation of compounds that can have the same molecular formula, but different
structures. This phenomenon of different structural formula of the same molecule,
giving rise to different properties of compounds, is called Isomerism. In the above
illustrations pentane and iso-pentane display isomerism. Such compounds with the
same molecular formula are called isomers of one another. Another common instance
of isomerism is butane, where there are following two possible structures for the same
molecular formula C4H10.

Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

Organic Compounds are classified as saturated and unsaturated depending upon
whether they contain single or multiple bonds.
Saturated Carbon Compounds
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen whose adjacent carbon atoms contain only one
(carbon-carbon) bond are known as saturated hydrocarbons. Their carbon-hydrogen
bonds are also single covalent bonds. They are called saturated compounds because all

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the four bonds of carbon are fully utilised and no more hydrogen or other atoms can
attach to it. Thus, they can undergo only substitution reactions. They are also
representative of open-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons. These saturated hydrocarbons are
called as alkanes.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen that contain one double covalent bond between
carbon atoms (carbon=carbon) or a triple covalent bond between carbon atoms (
) are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. In these molecules, since all
the bonds of carbon are not fully utilised by hydrogen atoms, more of these can be
attached to them. Thus, they undergo addition reactions (add on hydrogen) as they have
two or more hydrogen atoms less than the saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes).
Unsaturated hydrocarbons can be divided into 'alkenes' and 'alkynes' depending on the
presence of double or triple bonds respectively.

Properties of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds

Saturated Organic Compounds Unsaturated Organic Compounds
These organic compounds contain single These organic compounds contain at
Carbon carbon covalent bond. least one double or triple covalent
bond.
Due to the presence of all single Due to the presence of double and triple
covalent bonds, these compounds are Covalent bonds, these compounds bonds,
less reactive. these compounds are more reactive.
Saturated compounds undergo Unsaturated compounds undergo addition
substitution reactions. Example: reactions. Example:

The number of hydrogen atoms is more The number of hydrogen atoms is less
when compared to its corresponding when compared to its corresponding
unsaturated hydrocarbon. unsaturated hydrocarbon.

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Classification of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are broadly classified into two categories – Open
chain/Aliphatic/Acyclic Compounds and Carbocyclic Compounds. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are
further classified into alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. Carbocyclic Compounds are further
classified into two types – Alicyclic Compounds and Aromatic Compounds.

Homologous Series & Nomenclatur e

Affinity of Carbon with Other Elements
It is quite evident that carbon displays a great propensity in forming a large variety of carbon and
hydrogen compounds. But carbon can also form bonds with other elements in a hydrocarbon
chain, when one or more hydrogen is replaced by an element like oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur etc.
such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied. When an atom or a group of atoms forms a
bond with the carbon atom in the chain or ring of an organic compound, while showing some
characteristic properties of their own, they are termed as a functional group. The property of the
whole organic molecule is then due to this functional group. In such compounds, the element
replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom. These heteroatoms confer specific properties
to the compound, regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain and form the functional
group. Thus a functional group is the site of chemical reaction in an organic compound and all
compounds containing a particular functional group undergo similar reactions.
For example, in alcohols like methanol and ethanol, -OH is the functional group and in acids like
ethanoic acid, -COOH is the functional group. The -NH2 functional group possesses basic
character. The functional group present in the following molecules is encircled. Free valency or
valencies of the group are shown by the single line. The functional group is attached to the
carbon chain through this valency by replacing one hydrogen atom or atoms.

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Homologous Series
All organic compounds are made up of a progressively building chain of carbon atoms with a
number of compounds having the same functional groups. Such a series of similarly constituted
compounds are called a homologous series. Members of a homologous group are similar in
structure and display similar chemical characteristics. The two consecutive members of the series
differ in their molecular formula by a 'CH2' group.
Some important characteristics of the homologous series are:
• All the members conform to a general molecular formula and have a similar functional
group.
• Each consecutive member differs in the molecular formula by a unit of 'CH 2'.
• All the members of the series exhibit similar properties, but the extent of the reactions varies
with increasing relative molecular mass.
• The physical properties, such as solubility, melting point, boiling point, specific gravity etc.
show a gradual change with the increase in their relative molecular masses.

Hydrocarbons and their major sub groups form a homologous series of organic compounds. As
an illustrative example, the simplest of all hydrocarbons is methane whose molecular formula is
CH4. This molecule consists of a single carbon atom linked to four hydrogen atoms by single
covalent bonds. A straight line is used to represent each shared pair of electrons (bond) and the
structure of methane (structural formula) can be thus written as follows:

There are about 60 hydrocarbons of the methane type i.e., whose carbon atoms are linked to each
other in single covalent bonds while the hydrogen atoms satisfy the remaining valencies. If their
molecular formulae are arranged in order of increasing number of carbon atoms in their
molecules, the following series is obtained.

Each member of this series differs from the previous one by an increment of -CH2- group. Thus,
the methane family is a homologous series that can be characterised by the formula C nH2n+2. All
members of this group can be prepared by the reduction of their appropriate alkyl halides
(CnH2n+1X). This group is called the alkane group. Similarly the alkene and alkyne groups are
characterised by the formula CnH2n-2 and CnH2n respectively.

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Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

"Nomenclature is the system of assigning a proper name to a particular carbon compound on the
basis of certain rules."
Most of the carbon compounds have two types of names:
• Trivial Names
• IUPAC Names

Trivial Names
The trivial names are the commonly used names of carbon compounds. They are derived mostly
from the source of the compound e.g., the name of formic acid is derived from 'formicus' the
Greek word meaning red ants. Names arrived in this way were ambiguous and repeating.

IUPAC Names
With the large growth of carbon compounds, it was necessary to name these compounds in a
more systematic way. A committee called the 'International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry' (IUPAC) put forward a system of giving proper scientific names to carbon based
compounds. The names derived by their rules are the names followed all over the world and in
short are called IUPAC names.
In this system the name of a carbon compound has three main parts as mentioned below:

Wood Root
This denotes the number of carbon atoms present in a given molecule. For e.g., C 1-Meth, C2-
Eth, C3 - Prop, C4- But.

Suffix
The suffix denotes the type of bonds or the functional group present in the carbon chain, e.g.
'ane' - (single bond)
'ol' for alcohols -(-OH)
'ene' (double bond)
'al' for aldehydes - (-CHO)
'yne' - (triple bond)
'oic acid' for carboxylic acid - (-COOH)

Prefix
This denotes the presence of other functional groups and their position.
For e.g., the following compound can be named as:

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Word root: But (C4)

Prefix: 3, chloro
Suffix: -ol
Name: 3-chloro butanol
Note carbon atoms are numbered from the side of the functional group (-OH in this case).
The IUPAC names along with trivial names and formula of some organic compounds are given
in the following table:

Trivial Names, IUPAC Names and Molecular Formula of someOrganic

Trivial Name IUPAC Formula

Name
Methane Methane
Ethane Ethane
Ethylene Ethene
Acetylene Ethyne
Formaldehyde Methanal
Acetaldehyde Ethanal
Formic acid Methanoic
acid
Acetic acid Ethanoic
acid

The Following Four Steps areInvolved in Naming the Compound Containing Functional
Group.
• The functional group present is identified. This enables us to choose the appropriate suffix or
prefix. For example, the functional group present in the following compound is carboxylic
acid and the suffix is oic acid.

• The longest continuous chain containing the functional group is determined. The longest
continuous chain in the above compound contains five carbon atoms. Therefore, the base
name is pentane.

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• Following the principle of assigning the lowest possible number to the functional group, the
chain is numbered. In the above compound, carboxylic acid carbon is number 1 and the
carbon at which the branching is present is carbon 3.
• Then the name is arrived at. The alkyl group (CH3-) at carbon 3 comes as a prefix. In this
way, the name of the compound is completed(3-methylpentanoic acid).

Isomers and Isomerism

Compounds which have same molecular but different structural formulae are called isomers and
the phenomenon is known as isomerism.

1. Chain Isomerism – The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each other due to the
presence of different carbon chain skeletons .Example: n-butane and iso-butane.

2. Position Isomerism – the type of isomerism in which the isomers differ in the position of the
functional group. Example: But-1-ene and But-2-ene.

3. Functional Isomerism – The type of isomerism in which the isomers differ in structure due to
the presence of different functional groups.

Chemical Properties of CarbonCompounds

Most of the carbon-containing compounds associated with hydrogen i.e., hydrocarbons are fuels
that produce heat on burning. Petroleum products like natural gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, heavy
oils etc., and in a larger sense, wood, biogas, charcoal and coke are all rich source of carbon
compounds used as fuels.
Combustion
Combustion means the burning of a substance. It is a process that is highly exothermic i.e.,
produces a lot of heat. The products of combustion of carbon and its compounds are heat energy,
carbon dioxide and water (vapour).
In order that a fuel undergoes combustion, three basic requirements are to be present.
• A combustible substance: All carbon compounds are combustible, but carbon as diamond is
not. Petrol is a combustible substance.
• A supporter of combustion: Atmospheric air or oxygen gas is a supporter of combustion. In
their absence, combustion will not be supported. Carbon dioxide or nitrogen gases do not
support combustion.
• Heating to ignition temperature: A minimum amount of temperature or heat is required to
enable a fuel to catch fire. Coal has a high ignition temperature; a matchstick cannot produce
enough heat to ignite it. However, a matchstick can ignite paper or LPG gas as it has low
ignition temperature.

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When the above conditions are present in any combustion process, proper combustion (energy
production) takes place with minimum wastage and pollution. For example, if an ideal fuel like
LPG (high calorific value and relatively high amounts of branched hydrocarbons) is available, a
sufficient and continuous supply of oxygen should be maintained to burn it. If the ignition spark
or flame is sufficient then the combustion is smooth and complete as follows.

It produces high heat energy with no wastage of raw material (un-reacted) and no production of
undesirable by products (pollutants).
Most of the carbon compounds like the hydrocarbons when burnt in air or oxygen produce large
amounts of heat, together with carbon dioxide and water vapour formation. Hence they are used
as fuels. For example, methane burns with a blue flame in air. Alkanes burn with a non sooty
flame in plenty of oxygen, but when the supply of oxygen is limited, they burn with a sooty
flame.

In a very limited supply of air methane gives carbon black.

Some carbon compounds are very combustible and have an explosive reaction with air e.g.,
alkenes. They burn with a luminous flame to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Some hydrocarbon compounds undergo cracking or thermal decomposition. In this process,

substances are heated to high temperatures of (500 - 8000C) in the absence of air, and they
decompose into a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons and hydrogen.

Oxidation
Carbon
Carbon undergoes oxidation by combining with oxygen at higher temperature to form to oxides,
viz., carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon monoxide is formed, when
incomplete combustion of carbon or carbon containing fuels takes place

CO is present in automobile exhausts (when there is incomplete combustion), volcanic gases,

chimney gases etc.

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Carbon dioxide may be prepared by the complete combustion of carbon, hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide etc.

Carbon Containing Compounds

These undergo oxidation reactions when burnt in air or oxygen. For example, when methane is
mixed with oxygen and heated in presence of molybdenum oxide, it gets oxidized to methanal or
formaldehyde.

Oxidation of carbon compounds is used as for producing other carbon compounds with different
functional groups like alcohol, carboxylic acid, ethers etc. Oxidation is achieved by using an
oxygen atmosphere or oxidizing agents like alkaline KMnO 4 or acidified K2Cr2O7. Methanol, an
industrial alcohol, for instance, is prepared by the oxidation of methane.

Acetic acid is manufactured by the oxidation of fermented liquors (10-15% alcohol) in air along
with the presence of mycoderma aceti. A 3-7% solution of acetic acid is obtained and it is called
vinegar.

When ethene is passed through an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, the purple
colour of the permanganate solution fades away.

Addition Reaction
The reactions in which an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with another substance to form a
single product are called addition reactions. For example,

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Carbon containing double bonds like the alkenes readily react with certain molecules to form
saturated addition products.
The addition of Cl2, Br2 or I2 molecule across the double bond of the alkene is called
halogenation.

The addition of a hydrogen molecule across the double bond of the alkene to form saturated
products is called hydrogenation. This takes place in the presence of the catalyst, nickel.

Vegetable oils like ground nut oil, cotton seed oil & mustard oil are unsaturated compounds
containing double bonds.
They exist as liquids at room temperature.
Hydrogenation occurs at the double bonds to form saturated products called vanaspati ghee or
vegetable ghee.
These are solids at room temperature.
R2C=CR2 + H2 R2CH.CHR2 ( in the presence of Ni at high temperature & pressure.
Substitution Reaction
The reactions in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by
different atoms or group of atoms are called substitution reaction. For example,

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In substitution reactions the hydrogen of the alkane molecule is replaced by another atom or a
group of atoms (like alkyl) resulting in the formation of the derivatives of that hydrocarbon.
Substitution by halogen atom is generally called halogenation. This type of substitution results in
chlorination, bromination or iodination.

Chlorination of Methane
Chlorination of methane is carried out by taking a mixture of methane and chlorine in the
sunlight or by heating to a temperature of 250o- 300oC. If chlorine is in excess, a number of
substitution products are obtained.

Like methane, ethane also forms a series of substitution products in the presence of excess
chlorine and sunlight.

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Some Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol or Ethyl Al cohol

Usually the term 'alcohol' refers to ethanol. Man has been using ethanol for thousands of years
especially in the form of wine.
The structural formula of ethanol is given as follows:

Its molecular formula is CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH

• Ethanol is colourless liquid and has a pleasant odour.
• Its boiling point is 78o C and its freezing point is -114oC.
• It is soluble in water and almost all the organic solvents.
• It is highly intoxicating in nature.
• It is combustible and burns with a blue flame.

Properties of Ethanol
Action with Sodium Metal
When a piece of sodium is dropped in ethyl alcohol, bubbles of hydrogen gas are observed.

Action with Phosphorus Trichloride

Ethanol reacts with phosphorus trichloride to form ethyl chloride.

Action with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid

At 170oC ethyl alcohol undergoes dehydration when treated with concentrated H2SO4 to form
ethane.

At lower temperature of 140oC and when present in excess ethyl alcohol forms a pleasant
smelling substance called diethyl ether.

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Oxidation of Ethyl Alcohol by Acidified Potassium Dichromate

Alcohols on oxidation give aldehydes. The aldehydes on further oxidation give carboxylic acids.

Uses
All these are important chemical compounds used further by chemical industries.
• Ethyl Alcohol is used as a solvent for many organic solutes, especially which are insoluble in
water.
• It is used in the preparation of perfumes.
• It is used in the manufacturing of gasohol, which is 90% mixture of petrol (gasoline) and
10% ethanol. It helps to save gasoline.
• Ethyl Alcohol is used in making tinctures and medical syrups.
• It is used in alcoholic beverages.
• It is used as a solvent for paints, varnishes, dyes etc.
• It is used in the production of many organic compounds.

Effect of Alcohol on Human Beings

Chemically the term alcohol refers to a group of organic compounds, having
-OH group in their composition. But the word alcohol used by the common man refers to ethyl
alcohol or ethanol. It has a variety of uses, especially as a solvent. But by far the greatest use of
alcohol is in the form of alcoholic beverages, such as wine, beer, rum, brandy, whisky etc. In
small quantities it may serve as a source of energy, but in large amounts, it affects the nervous
system. The person experiences loss of control over muscles and loses his or her sense of balance
and mental ability. It can be a habit forming activity. If consumed over a period of time, alcohol
can ruin one's health especially the liver, which gets affected by cirrhosis. This type of
consumption can be fatal and ruins one's family life.

Methylated Spirit or Denatured Alcohol

Alcoholic drinks are heavily taxed by the government, so as to discourage people from over
consuming it. Alcohol used for industrial and surgical purposes is not taxed heavily. But in order
to prevent people from buying and consuming this alcohol, it is mandatory that ethyl alcohol be
mixed with a certain percentage of highly poisonous methyl alcohol or methanol. This renders
the ethyl alcohol unfit for human consumption. This mixture is called "Methylated Spirit". If

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chemicals like copper sulphate or pyridine are added to ethyl alcohol it is called 'denatured
alcohol'.
Remember
Denatured spirit or methylated spirit mixture is prepared so as to prevent people from drinking
ethanol heavily.

Spurious Alcohol
This is illicit liquor made by improper distillation or by using methylated spirit. It is cheap and is
mostly used by the lower strata of our society. It contains higher percentage of methyl alcohol,
which is poisonous. Consumption of such liquor may cause blindness, other serious health
problems and even death. Sometimes even other chemicals are mixed with the ethyl alcohol so
that the consumer gets a feeling of "intoxication". Even these are highly poisonous and can cause
severe damages to the body and even death can occur.

Ethanoic Acid
Acetic acid is one of the commonest organic acids and has been known for quite a long time in
the form of vinegar. It is also present free in a number of fruit juices. In the combined state it
occurs in many oils and essential oils.
Formula: CH3COOH, IUPAC Name: Ethanoic acid
Acetic acid is a colourless, corrosive liquid with a pungent smell at ordinary temperatures. But
below 290K, it solidifies to an icy mass called glacial acetic acid. It boils at 391K and its specific
gravity is 1.08 at 273K. It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether in all ratios. It is a good
solvent for phosphorus, sulphur, iodine and inorganic compounds.
Since acetic acid contains an alkyl group and an acid moiety (each of the two parts into which a
thing is divided), it exhibits the properties of both these groups.

Reactions of Alkyl Group - Halogenation

In acetic acid, halogen atoms successively replace the three hydrogen atoms of the alkyl group.

Reactions Involving Replaceable Hydrogen Atom

Acetic acid ionizes in polar media to give hydrogen ion that is responsible for its acidic
behaviour.

Accordingly, acetic acid can react with alkalis and alkali metal carbonates and also with metals.

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Acetic acid turns blue litmus to red, neutralizes alkalis to form salt and water. It also decomposes
carbonates and bicarbonates to liberate carbon dioxide indicated by effervescence.

Bicarbonate test is used as an identification test for the presence of carboxylic group in a
compound.

Acetic acid reacts with strongly electropositive metals like sodium and zinc to give the respective
acetate and liberate hydrogen.

Acetic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of dehydrating agents like anhydrous zinc
chloride or concentrated sulphuric acid to form esters.

Dry distillation of the anhydrous alkali salts of acetic acid with soda-lime yields methane.

Though acetic acid is resistant to reduction, prolonged heating under pressure with concentrated
hydriodic acid and red phosphorus gives ethane. This is also possible by heating the acid with
hydrogen at high temperature and under pressure in the presence of a nickel catalyst.

In the presence of lithium aluminium hydride, acetic acid can be reduced to ethanol.
Hydrogenation in the presence of ruthenium or copper-chromium oxide catalyst gives the same
result.

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Oxidation
On prolonged heating with a strong oxidizing agent, acetic acid is oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water.

Uses
• Ethanoic aid is used in the manufacture of dyes, perfumes and rayons
• Manufacture of rubber from latex and casein from milk. It is used for coagulation.
• In the form of salts in medicine and paints.
• In the form of acetates of aluminium and chromium is used as mordants.
• In dilute form is used as vinegar and in the concentrated form as a solvent.
• In form of organic esters as perfumes.

Soaps & Detergents

Introduction
Soaps or detergents are cleansing agents that are capable of reacting with water to dislodge these
foreign particles from a solid surface (e.g. cloth or skin). Soaps have their origin in oils and fats
present in the animal and plant kingdom and synthetic detergents find their source in mineral oils
(hydrocarbon compounds of petroleum or coal). Chemically speaking, Soaps are sodium or
potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can be either saturated
or unsaturated. They contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon with one
carboxylic acid group as the functional group.
Saturated fatty acids such as stearic and palmitic etc. contain only single bonds in their molecule,
while unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic etc., contain one or more double bonds. Thus,
soaps are usually a mixture of the sodium salts of the following acids:
• Stearic acid as sodium stearate (C17H35COONa) - saturated fatty acid; from vegetable oils
like linseed oil, soyabean oil.
• Palmitic acid as sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa) - saturated fatty acid; Palm oil, animal fat
• Oleic acid as sodium oleate (C17H33COONa) - unsaturated fatty acid; Vegetable oils like
linseed oil, soyabean oil.
When soap is made from the sodium salts of the acids of cheap oils or fats, the resulting soap is
hard. These soaps contain free alkalis and are mainly used as washing bars for laundry. When
soap is prepared from the potassium salts of the acids of good grade oils and fat, it results in soft
soap. These soaps do not contain free alkalis. They produce more lather and are used mainly as
toilet soaps, shaving cream and shampoos.
Difference between Toilet Soap and Laundry Soap
Toilet soap Laundry soap
High quality fats and oils are used as raw Cheaper quality fats and oils are used as raw
materials materials

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Expensive perfumes added Cheap perfumes added

Care is taken to ensure that there is no free No such care is taken
alkali content to prevent injuries to the skin
No fillers Fillers present

Cleansing Action of Soap

A soap molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have different polarities. At one end is
the long hydrocarbon chain that is non-polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but oil
soluble. At the other end is the short polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water
soluble but insoluble in oil and grease.

When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in nature. Agitating it
tends to concentrate the solution on the surface and causes foaming. This helps the soap
molecules make a unimolecular film on the surface of water and to penetrate the fabric. The long
non-polar end of a soap molecule that are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt
(fat or oil with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end containing the carboxylate ion, face the
water away from the dirt. A number of soap molecules surround or encircle dirt and grease in a
clustered structure called 'micelles', which encircles such particles and emulsify them.

The subsequent mechanical action of rubbing or tumbling dislodges the dirt and grease from the
fabric. These get detached and are washed away with excess of water leaving the fabric clean.

Limitations of Soaps
• Soaps do not wash well in hard water and does not form much lather or foam. The calcium,
magnesium or iron ions of hard water form an insoluble sticky grey coloured precipitate
called scum, which restricts the cleansing action of soap and makes washing more difficult.
The scum formed also hardens and discolours the fabric. Thus, a large amount of soap is
wasted and cleaning is not efficient.

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• Ordinary soaps are not suited for fabrics such as silks, wool etc. The alkalis in them injure
the fibre.
• If the water is slightly acidic in nature soaps cannot be used for cleaning purpose. The acid
media change soaps into carboxylic acid and the action of soap becomes ineffective.
To overcome these drawbacks new types of chemical based cleansing agents were
developed. These are called synthetic detergents or simply detergents.

Synthetic Detergents
A detergent is a non-soapy cleaning agent that uses a surface-active agent for cleaning a
substance in solution. Synthetic detergents are described as soapless soaps. Unlike soaps they are
effective even in hard or salt water, as they form no scum.
Modern synthetic detergents are alkyl or aryl sulphonates produced from petroleum (or coal) and
sulphuric acid. They can be defined as 'the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain alkyl
benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate
that have cleansing properties in water'.
Like soaps, detergents contain one large non-polar hydrocarbon group and one short ionic or
highly polar group at each end, which allow for the cleansing action of dirt in water. Two basic

examples of well-known detergents of the sulphonate group or the sulphate group

are:

Cleansing Action of Detergents

Synthetic detergents have the same type of molecular structure as soaps i.e. a tadpole like
molecule having two parts at each end i.e., one large non-polar hydrocarbon group that is water

repelling (hydrophobic) and one short ionic group usually containing the or

group that is water attracting (hydrophilic). Thus the cleansing action is exactly
similar to that of soaps whereby the formation of micelles followed by emulsification occurs.
However, synthetic detergents can lather well even in hard water. This is because they are
soluble sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic acid or alkyl hydrogen sulphate and similarly
form soluble calcium or magnesium salts on reacting with the calcium ions or magnesium ions
present in water. This is a major advantage of the cleansing property of detergents over soap.

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Advantages of Detergents
• Synthetic detergents clean effectively and lather well even in hard water and salt water (sea
water). There is no scum formation.
• Since detergents are the salts of strong acids they do not decompose in acidic medium. Thus
detergents can effectively clean fabric even if the water is acidic.
• Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.
• They have a stronger cleansing action than soaps.
• As detergents are derived from petroleum they save on natural vegetable oils, which are
important as essential cooking medium.

Disadvantages of Detergents
Detergents are surface-active agents and cause a variety of water pollution problems.
• Many detergents are resistant to the action of biological agents and thus are not
biodegradable. Their elimination from municipal wastewaters by the usual treatments is a
problem.
• They have a tendency to produce stable foams in rivers that extend over several hundred
meters of the river water. This is due to the effects of surfactants used in their preparation.
Thus they pose a danger to aquatic life.
• They tend to inhibit oxidation of organic substances present in wastewaters because they
form a sort of envelope around them.

Differences between Soaps and Detergents

Soaps Detergents
They are metal salts of long These are sodium salts of long chain
Chain higher fatty acids. hydrocarbons like alkyl sulphates or alkyl
benzene sulphonates.
These are prepared from vegetable, Oils and They are prepared from hydrocarbons of
animal fats petroleum or coal.
They cannot be used effectively in hard water These do not produce insoluble precipitates in
As they produce scum. i.e .insoluble hard water. They are They are effective in
Precipitates of Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ soft, hard or salt water.
These cannot be used in acid solutions. They can be used even in acid solutions.
Their cleansing action is not very strong Their cleansing action is by surfactants, which
is a strong cleansing action.
These are biodegradable. Some of these are not biodegradable.

If a straight chain hydrocarbon is used in the detergent instead of a branched chain hydrocarbon,
then the detergent becomes biodegradable. Thus the major disadvantage of detergents can be
overcome.

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Chapter 1 - Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical change: - is a change in which one or more new substances are formed.
In a chemical change—
• New substances are formed.
• Energy changes are involved.
• There is a change in mass during the reaction.
• Permanent change takes place.

Examples –
❖ Cooking of food
❖ Rusting of iron
❖ Heating of Lead nitrate
❖ Souring of milk
❖ Ripening of fruit.

Rusting of iron is a chemical change because

❖ A new substance iron oxide is formed.
❖ The change is permanent; the article has got a rust layer (which may only peal off).
❖ There is an increase in mass when rust forms.
❖ An energy change has taken place (which may not be visible).

Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions.

Exothermic Reaction - A chemical reaction which is accompanied by evolution of heat energy

is known as exothermic reaction.
Examples:

The amount of heat (energy) produced is written along with the products. This indicates that heat
is given out.

Endothermic Reactions - A chemical reaction which is accompanied by absorption of heat

energy is known as exothermic reaction.
Examples:

The amount of heat (energy) produced is written along with the reactants. This indicates that heat
is absorbed.

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Chemical Formulae - The chemical formula of a substance is the symbolic representation of the
actual number of atoms present in one molecule of that substance.
(a) Formula of one molecule of water is H2O. It shows that one molecule of water is made up
of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
(b) Formula of one molecule of sulphuric acid is H2SO4. It shows that one molecule of
sulphuric acid is made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 atom of Sulphur and 4 atoms of
oxygen.

Chemical Equations - Representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae of

the reactants and products is known as chemical equation of the reaction.
Example

+ + + +

Steps for writing Chemical Equation

Step I: Writing skeletal Equation

A word-equation shows change of reactants to products through an arrow placed between them (
). The arrow may be read as "to yield" or "to form" or "to give" and shows the direction of the
reaction.

The reactants are placed on the left hand side (LHS) of the arrow and the products on the right
hand side (RHS). The different reactants as well as products are connected by a plus sign (+).
A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their physical states
symbolically and is a balanced account of a chemical transaction.

Step II: Balancing of Chemical Equation

An equation in which number of atoms of each element is equal on both the sides of the equation
is known as balanced chemical equation.

A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type involved in a
chemical reaction are the same on the reactant and product sides of the equation.

Equations must always be balanced.

Whenever H2O is present on any side, the number of hydrogen on both the sides should be an
even number (2 atoms of hydrogen in water). If there are 4H2O, then 4 × 2 = 8 hydrogen atoms.
If there are 7H2O, then 7 × 2 = 14 hydrogen atoms i.e., all are even numbers.

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 On the reactant side, there must be an even number in front of HCl. (What that number is, we
will find out later). As a result, the number of chlorine atoms will also be even. But on the
product side, the number of chlorine atoms is odd (i.e., KCl = 1, MnCl2= 2, Cl2 = 2. i.e., 1 + 2 +
2 = 5). The only odd number of chlorine atoms is in KCl. Let us change it into the simplest even
number possible i.e., 2.

Since number of K atoms in 2 KCl = 2, place 2 in front of KMnO 4 to balance K atom.

In 2 KMnO4, there are 2 K, 2 Mn, and 8 O. So add these numbers in front of K, Mn and O, (K is
already done).

If there are 8 H2O on the product side, there should be 16 H (8 x 2) on the reactants side as well.

Now the only unbalanced one is Chlorine. On the left hand side, there are 16 Cl. On the right
hand side, firstly, there are 2 Cl in 2 KCl + 4 Cl in 2 MnCl2, making total of 6(2 + 4).
Subsequently 10 more Cl atoms are to be accounted for. So place 5 in front of Cl2 to make it 10
(5 x 2).

This type of balancing the chemical equations is known as the Hit and trial method.

Information conveyed by a chemical equation

1. Names of various reactants and products
2. Formulae of reactants and products
3. Relative number of moles of the reactants and products
4. Relative masses of reactants and products
5. Relative volumes of gaseous reactants and products

Limitation of a Chemical Equation

• It does not mention the state of the substances. Accordingly, the following symbols should be
added to make it informative: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (aq) if the reactant or product is
present as a solution in water, (g) for gas and (vap) for vapour.
Example: CaCO3 (s)+ HCl (aq) CaCl2 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
• The reaction may or may not be complete. An equation does not reveal this.
• It does not give any information regarding the speed of the reaction.
• It does not give the concentration of the substances. In some cases, terms like diluted (dil)
and concentrated (conc) may be added.
• It does not give the conditions of temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc. This is overcome by
mentioning these above or below the arrow. e.g.

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• It does not give any idea about color changes, which has to be mentioned separately.

• It does not give any indication regarding the production or absorption of heat. This is
mentioned separately.
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
2C + O2 2CO + Heat

• Some reactions are reversible. They are represented by or

• Chemical reactions that proceed with evolution of heat energy, that is, in which heat is given
out along with the product, are called exothermic reactions.
• Chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of heat energy are called endothermic
reactions.

Balancing of simple Chemical Equations - The number of atoms of each element should
remain same before and after the reaction.
Balancing: To make the number of atoms of all the elements equal on both the sides in a skeletal
equation. A simple equation is balanced by Hit and trial method.

Steps involved in balancing a Chemical Equation:

Step 1: Write the correct skeleton equation.

Step 2: Start with the compound that has the maximum atoms or maximum kinds of atoms and
the atoms present in it are balanced first.
Step 3: Balance elements that appear only once on each side of the arrow first. Then balance
elements that appear more than once on a side.
Step 4: Elementary substances are balanced last of all.
Step 5: If required the whole equation is multiplied by some suitable number in order to make
all the coefficients whole numbers.

Balancing of Ionic Equations:

A balanced ionic equation must satisfy mass as well as charge balance.

Calculations based on Chemical Equations:

We can get a lot of quantitative information from a chemical reaction. Number of moles of
reactants and products can be calculated from a chemical reaction.

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Types of Reactions

Combination or Synthesis Reactions:

The reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance.

Types of Combination reactions:

1. Combination of two elements to form a compound
• Burning of hydrogen in air or oxygen to produce water.

2. Combination Reactions involving an Element and a Compound

• Burning of carbon monoxide in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
2CO (g) + O2(g) 2CO2 (g)

3. Combination Reactions involving Two Compounds

• Combination of ammonia and hydrogen chloride to produce ammonium chloride.

Decomposition reactions: are opposite to combination reactions. In a decomposition reaction a

compound breaks down into two or more simple substances by the application of heat or
electricity.
When a substance decomposes due to heat it is called thermal decomposition, while
decomposition due to electricity, is called electrolytic decomposition.

Electrolysis: The decomposition of a substance by passing electric current through it is called

electrolysis.

Photolysis: The decomposition of a compound with light is called photolysis.

1. Mercuric oxide, when heated, undergoes thermal decomposition, to give mercury and oxygen.

2. Similarly, if blue crystals of copper nitrate are heated, they undergo thermal decomposition to
give black colored copper oxide, reddish brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide, and a colorless
gas of oxygen.

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3. When water taken in an electrolytic cell, is acidified with a small quantity of sulphuric acid
and a direct current passed through it undergoes electrolytic decomposition to yield hydrogen
and oxygen.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝐻2 𝑂(𝐼) → 2𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝑂2(𝑔)
Water Hydrogen Oxygen

4. If an electric current is passed through molten lead bromide, it decomposes to give lead and
bromine.

Activity Series: The activity series of metals is a list of metals in the order of their decreasing
chemical activity.

A substitution or displacement reaction is a chemical change in which atoms of one element

replace the atoms of another element from the molecules of a compound. Elements which are
higher in the Activity Series displace those elements which are placed below them. More electro
positive elements displace lesser electropositive elements. Conversely, higher electro negative
elements will displace lesser electro negative elements. For e.g.,

The iodine so liberated, dissolves in the chloroform, giving it a purple color.

Double Displacement Reactions / Metathesis reactions: The reactions in which two

compounds react to form two different compounds by mutual exchange of ions.

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Types of Double displacement reactions:

1. Precipitation Reaction
2. Neutralization Reactions

1. Precipitation
In all the above reactions a white substance, which is insoluble in water, is formed. This
insoluble substance formed is known as a precipitate. A reaction that produces a precipitate is
called a precipitation reaction.

2. Neutralization
Neutralization is a type of double displacement reaction, in which, the reactants are a base and an
acid, and the products are salt and water. The positive charge of the hydrogen ion of the acid, and
the negative charge of hydroxyl ions or oxide ions of the base, lose their electrical charge, and
become covalent molecule of water.

A neutralization reaction is basically a reaction between H+ and OH- ions i.e.,

Oxidation - Reduction Reactions/Redox Reactions

Classical Concept of Oxidation and Reduction

"Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added or hydrogen is removed from a substance."

Addition of Oxygen - Oxygen adds on to magnesium to become magnesium oxide.

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Removal of Hydrogen - Hydrogen is removed from hydro iodic acid to liberate free iodine.

"Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from a substance or hydrogen is added to a

substance."

Removal of Oxygen - Oxygen is removed from copper oxide to form copper metal.

Addition of Hydrogen - Hydrogen adds to chlorine to form hydrogen chloride gas.

Oxidation and reduction reactions may occur simultaneously, these reactions as "redox"
reactions.
Example of Redox Reaction

Example of Non-redox Reaction

Redox reactions are the reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously.

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Oxidizing Agent: A substance that brings about oxidation.

Reducing Agents: A substance that brings about reduction.

Another definition of Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation: The process of addition of electronegative element or radical or removal of
electropositive element or radical.

Reduction: The process of addition of electropositive element or radical or removal of

electronegative element or radical.
Electronic Concept of Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation: The process in which there is loss of electrons.

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Reduction: The process in which there is gain of electrons.

The Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Every Day Life

Corrosion
Many metals are chemically active elements and get easily affected by substances like moisture,
air, acids, etc. One must have observed iron articles that are shiny when new, but get coated with
a reddish brown powder when left for some time. This process is commonly known as rusting of
iron. The problem with iron (as well as many other metals) is that oxidation takes place and the
oxide formed does not firmly adhere to the surface of the metal causing it to flake off easily. This
eventually causes structural weakness and disintegration of the metal.
Hence metal is attacked by substances around it, it is said to corrode and this process is called
corrosion. Corrosion causes deterioration of essential properties in a material.
What happens to copper vessels or artifacts when exposed to air and water? They slowly get
tarnished by acquiring a thin green oxide layer. Similarly, silver quickly acquires a thin black
oxide coating in moist air. The heaviest metal lead also tarnishes in moist weather. The black
coating on silver and the green coating on copper are examples of corrosion in which the oxides
formed strongly bond to the surface of the metal, preventing the surface from further exposure to
oxygen and consequently slowing down corrosion.

Rancidity
Have you ever tasted or smelt the fat/oil containing food materials left for a long time? This
unpleasant change in the flavor and odour of a food is called rancidity. The most important cause
of rancidity is the deterioration in fats and fatty foods because of oxidation process. When an
oxygen atom replaces hydrogen atom in the fatty acid molecule it destabilizes the molecule.
Factors which accelerate fat oxidation include, salt, light, water, bacteria, moulds trace metals
(iron, zinc, etc.).
Usually substances which retard fat oxidation or rancidity are called antioxidants (such as BHT,
BHA, vitamin E, and vitamin C, and spices such as sage and rosemary). These are added to
foods containing fats and oil to prevent such spoiling. Keeping food in air tight containers or air
tight wrapping also helps to slow down oxidation.
Some high fat foods such as potato chips are packaged in materials that protect them from light
and oxygen and the containers are flooded with nitrogen to further exclude oxygen. At times, to
avoid the presence of oxygen altogether, vacuum packaging is used in some processed foodstuff.

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Chapter 7 - Control and Coordination

Animals- Nervous System:

Nervous system is the organ system present in the animals to control and coordinate different
activities of the body. Nervous system comprises of the brain, the spinal cord, and a huge network
of nerves that are spread throughout the body.
The nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving and processing messages in the form of
chemical signals called as impulses.

Nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or neurons. It is specialized for
conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another. A neuron is
the basic unit of the nervous system. Each neuron consists of three parts, namely, the cell body or
cyton, branched projections called the dendrites, and the long process from the cell body, called
the axon.
Synapse is a gap between two neurons.
Nerves are thread like structures emerging out of the brain and spinal cord. Nerves branch out to
all parts of the body and are responsible of carrying messages in the body.
Types of nerve cells or neurons:
• Sensory nerves send messages from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord.
• Motor nerves carry messages back from the brain or spinal cord to all the muscles and glands
in the body.
• Interneuron or relay neuron connects neuron within specific regions of the central nervous
system. These are neither motor nor sensory.

What happens in reflex actions?

Reflex action: A reflex action, differently known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly
instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. Reflex is an action generated by the body in
response to the environment.
The process of detecting signal or the input and responding to it by an output action might be
completed quickly. Such a connection is commonly called a reflex arc. Reflex arcs are formed in
the spinal cord itself; although the information input goes on to reach the brain. In higher animals,
most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. Reflex arc
continue to be more efficient for quick response.

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Human brain:
Types of nervous system
The nervous system is divided into two systems – the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.

Central nervous system: It includes the brain and the spinal cord. It receives information from
the body and sends out instructions to particular organs. The brain has three such major parts or
regions namely the fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.
• The forebrain is the main thinking part of the brain. It consists of the cerebrum and
diencephalon. The cerebrum is the seat of memory and intelligence, and of sensory centres
like hearing, smell and sight. The diencephalon is the seat for pressure and pain.
• The midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain and controls the reflexes for sight and
hearing.
• The hindbrain consists of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. The cerebellum coordinates
muscular activities and maintains balance and posture. The medulla controls involuntary
activities like blood pressure, salivation, vomiting and heart beat.
• The spinal cord extends from the medulla of the brain through the whole length of the vertebral
column and is protected by the vertebral column or backbone.

Peripheral nervous system: It consists of the cranial and spinal nerves arises from the brain and
spinal cord respectively.

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How are the tissues protected?

Human brain is protected by the thick bones of the skull and a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
which provides further shock absorption.
How does the nervous tissue cause action?
When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle the muscle fibre must move. The muscle cells will move
by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have special proteins that change both
their shape and their arrangement in the cell in response to nervous electrical impulses. When this
happens new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle cells a shorter form.
Coordination in plants:
All living things respond to environmental stimuli. Plants also respond to stimuli with the help of
chemical compounds secreted by the cells. Plants being living organisms, exhibit some
movements. Plants show two different types of movement- one dependent on growth and the other
independent of growth.
The plants also use electrical chemical means to convey this information from cell to cell but there
is no specialized tissue in plants for the conduction of information. Plants respond to stimuli slowly
by growing in a particular direction. Because this growth is directional it appears as if the plant is
moving.

Directional movements: These are also called as tropic movements. These movements can be
either towards the stimulus or away from it.
• Positive phototropism is seen in shoots which respond by bending towards light. Negative
geotropism is seen in shoots by growing away from the ground.
• Roots bend away from light exhibiting negative phototropism. They grow towards the ground
exhibiting positive geotropism.
• Hydrotropism is a growth response in which the direction is determined by the stimuli of
water.

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• Chemotropism is a growth movement of a plant part in response to chemical stimulus. e.g.

Growth of pollen tubes towards ovules.
Hormones are the chemical compounds released by stimulated cells. Hormones diffuse all
around the cell. They are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse
to the area of action. Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment. Different hormones secreted by the plant are auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid.
• Auxins are the hormones synthesised at the tip of the stem. These help the plant in growth by
cell elongation. Auxin induces shoot apical dominance.
• Gibberellins are hormones that help in the growth of the stem, seed germination, bolting, and
flowering.
• Cytokinins are hormones present in the areas of rapid cell division, such as fruits and seeds.
They also promote the opening of the stomata.
• Abscisic acid is a hormone that inhibits the growth in various parts. It is also responsible for
the closure of stomata. Its effects include wilting of leaves.

Hormones in Animals:
Endocrine system is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances
called as hormones. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.
Hormones are minute, chemical messengers thrown into blood to act on target organs.

Endocrine glands
Different types of endocrine glands present in our body are the pituitary gland, the pineal gland,
the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the thymus, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the
testes and the ovary.

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The adrenal glands:

These are located above the kidneys.
Two regions of the adrenal gland are adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
• Adrenal cortex secretes the hormones like cortisol, aldosterone and androgens.
• Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones like adrenaline and noradrenaline. Adrenaline is also
called the “hormone of fight or flight,” or the emergency hormone. It prepares the body to
face an emergency condition of physical stress, like danger, anger and excitement.

The thyroid gland:

• It is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx.
• It is the one of the largest endocrine glands.
• The principal hormones produced by this gland are triiodothyronine and thyroxine.
• Thyroxine is a hormone that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in
the body. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin. Deficiency of iodine in food causes
goiter. One of the symptoms in this disease is a swollen neck.

The pituitary gland:

• It is located at the base of the brain.
• It is considered to be master gland as it secretes many hormones to regulate the organs as well
as the other glands.
• Different hormones secreted by this gland include Growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH,
MSH, Vasopressin and Oxytocin. Growth hormone regulates growth and development of the
body. If there is a deficiency of this hormone in childhood, it leads to dwarfism. Excess
secretion of this hormone leads to gigantism.

Gonads:
Two types of gonads present in human beings are female gonads and male gonads.

Female gonads
• A pair of ovaries forms the gonads in female.
• Ovaries are the female sex organs that lie one on either side of the abdominal cavity. Ovaries
produce two hormones, namely, oestrogen and progesterone.
• Oestrogen controls the changes that occur during puberty, like feminine voice, soft skin and
development in mammary glands.
• Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle, and helps in the maintenance
of pregnancy.

Male gonads
• A pair of testes forms the gonads in males.
• A pair of testes is the male sex organ located in the scrotum, which is outside the abdomen.

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• Testes produce the hormone testosterone.

• Testosterone controls the changes, which occur during puberty, like deeper voice,
development of penis, facial and body hair.

The pancreas:
It is located just below the stomach within the curve of the duodenum. It is both exocrine and
endocrine in function.
• It secretes hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.
• Insulin regulates the sugar level in our blood. Insulin secreted in small amounts increases the
sugar level in our blood which in turn causes a disease called diabetes mellitus.

The pineal gland:

• It is located near the centre of the brain, dorsal to the diencephalon.
• It produces the hormone melatonin.
• Melatonin affects reproductive development, modulation of wake and sleep patterns, and
seasonal functions.

The hypothalamus:
• It is a neuro-endocrine part of the brain.
• It links the nervous system and the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.
• Hormones like Stomatostatin, Dopamine are secreted by this gland.

Parathyroid glands:
• These are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands embedded on the dorsal surface of the thyroid
gland present in the neck.
• They secrete parathormone. It helps in regulation of calcium and phosphate ions in the bones
and blood.
• Hyposecretion leads to tetany and hypersecretion causes osteoporosis.

The thymus gland:

• It is located in front of the heart, in the upper part of the sternum.
• It produces the hormone thymosine.
• It helps in the maturation of T-lymphocytes.

The timing and amount of hormones released are regulated by feedback mechanisms. For example,
if the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of pancreas which respond by
producing more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is reduced.

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Chapter 12 - Electricity

Introduction
Electricity originated from the Greek words “Electrica” and “Elektron”.
The Greek Philosopher Thales was the first to observe the attracting capacity of certain
materials when rubbed on other materials.
Gilbert classified these materials as Vitreous and Resinous.
These names were later changed to positive and negative charges.

Frictional Electricity
Fur, Flannel, Wax, Glass, Cotton, Paper, Silk, Human skin, Wood, Metals, Rubber, Resin,
Amber, Sulphur, Ebonite.
If any two materials in this series are rubbed against each other the element occurring first in
series will acquire positive charge and the element occurring later will acquire negative
charge.

Fundamental Laws of Electrostatics

There are two kinds of charges- positive and negative.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

Coulomb’s Law
F α (q1q2)/r2
The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between a pair of charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
F = (Kq1q2)/r2
K is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 9 × 109 Nm2/C2 for free space.
For similar charges the force is repulsive and for dissimilar charges it is attractive.

Charge Conservation
When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, the ebonite rod acquires negative charge and the fur
acquires positive charge. This means electrons have moved from fur to ebonite. The net charge
in the system remains the same. So charges are neither created nor destroyed but transferred
from one material to the other.

Insulators and Conductors

Insulators are bad conductors of charges but they can be charged easily by friction.
Conductors allow free flow of charges.

Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
If q is the charge in coulomb and t is the time is seconds then current I=q/t
The SI unit of current is ampere (A).
Current is a scalar quantity.

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Symbols used in electric circuit

Electric
Function/Description Symbol
Component
A connecting wire is represented by a straight
line. It is usually made of copper and is provided
Connecting wire
with insulation to make electrical connections
between two points.
The resistor is represented by a zip zap line. Two
thick dots at the ends represent brass terminals to
Resistor which a wire is fixed. The resistor wire is
generally made from alloys, such as nichrome,
manganin, constantan and eureka.
A thin long line represents the positive terminal
of a cell, whereas thick and short line represents
Cell
negative terminal of the cell. Source of electrical
current.
Fuse To limit the current in an electric circuit

Plug key To make or break electric circuit for long time

A combination of two or more cells. Here the
Battery cells are arranged in series. Source of electrical
current.
An electric device, such as incandescent lamp, is
lamp, glow lamp, or fluorescent lamp that emits
Electric bulb
light when voltage is applied across the
terminals.
Connecting
Wires connected together
wires
Connecting
Wires crossing without being connected
wires
It is a device used for measuring potential
Voltmeter difference between two points in an electric
circuit

It is a device used for measuring current in an

Ammeter
electric circuit

Alternating A current which changes its direction rapidly on

current its own is called alternating current.

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A diagram which shows how different components in a circuit have been connected using
conventional symbols for the components is called a circuit diagram.

Electrical Potential
Electric potential is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from infinity to a point.
If W is the work done q is the charge, then electric potential V = W/q
The SI unit of electric potential is Volts (V)
Electric Potential Difference
The electric potential difference between two points is the work done in carrying a unit positive
charge from one point to the other.
The electric potential difference between points A and B
VAB = Work done to carry charge q from A to B / charge q
The SI unit of electric potential difference is Volts (V)
Electric Potential energy
Electric potential energy is the work which has to be done to bring charges to their respective
locations against the electric field with the help of a source of energy.
This work done is stored in the form of potential energy of the charges.
Ohm’s Law
Under similar physical conditions, the current flowing through a wire is directly proportional to
the difference in potential applied across its ends.
IV
V = I × R, where R is the resistance offered.

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Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
The SI unit of resistance is OHM (Ω)
1 ohm is the resistance offered by a wire carrying 1 A current when 1 V is applied across its ends.

Factors Affecting Resistance

The resistance of a conducting wire depends on:
Nature of the material of the wire (Resistivity- Ω)
Length of the wire (l)
Cross-sectional area of the wire (A)
R = Ω (l/A)

Resistivity
The resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ω − m).
Resistivity is also referred to as specific resistance.
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.
Conductivity, Ω = 1/ Ω Ω.
SI unit of conductivity is ohm-1 m -1 or mho-m-1

Effect of Temperature
The resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of an insulator increases with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
Resistivity of an alloy increases with increase in temperature.

Semiconductors and Superconductors

Materials having resistivity between that of an insulator and a conductor are called
semiconductors.
Materials which lose their resistivity at low temperatures are called super conductors.

Resistances in Series
If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series the equivalent resistance R s = R1 + R2 + R3

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Resistances in Parallel
1
If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel the equivalent resistance Rp is given by R =
p

(1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)

Electrical Energy
Because of the existence of resistance to the flow of current work has to be done in order to
maintain the flow of current.
Since the potential difference V is the work done to carry unit positive charge from infinity to a
point, the work done to carry a charge q is given by:
W= qV
But I = q/t
So W = ItV
Since V = I R
W = I2Rt = V2t/R
This work done is stored as energy.
SI unit of electrical energy is Joule.

Joule’s Law of Heating

When a current I flows through a resistor R heat is produced.
H = I2Rt, this is Joule’s law of heating.

Electric Power
The rate at which electric energy is consumed is called electric power.
Power = work done/time.
P = W/t = V × I = I2 R = V2R
SI unit of electric power is Watt.

Calculation of Power for House Hold Electricity

Kilowatt hour (kWh) is the commercial unit for electrical energy
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
No. of units of electricity consumed in a household = no. of kWh
Total cost of electricity = total units × cost per unit of electricity

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Fuse Wire
The wire which melts, breaks the circuit and prevents the damage of various appliances in
household connections is called a fuse wire
A fuse wire is made of an alloy of aluminium, copper, iron and lead
The thickness of the fuse wire increases the maximum safe current that can flow through it

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Chapter 9 - Heredity and Evolution

1. Accumulation of variation during Reproduction.

Variations in an individual may be an advantage or disadvantage for it. It may enable or
disable it to cope with changes in the environment. Advantageous variations are selected by
environmental factors. For example bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a
heat wave. Such heritable variations lead to the evolution and formation of new species.
An advantage of sexual reproduction is that the variations accumulated in the gametes of each
sex are combined when they fuse to form the zygote. Hence an offspring produced from the
zygote receives and carries the variations of both the parents. On the other hand, in asexual
reproduction there are minor differences among the offspring. These are due to small errors
in DNA copying. As gametes and zygote formation are not involves the asexually produced
offspring are quite similar. They have fewer variations accumulated over generations.

2. Heredity:
The process of passing traits from parent to offspring is called heredity. Trait is any
characteristic that is transferred from parent to offspring. e.g. height and colour.

2.1 inherited traits.

In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit
the brown-eye trait from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the
complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype.

2.2 Rules for the Inheritance of traits- Mendel’s contributions:

Gregor Johann Mendel was a pioneer among geneticists who put forward the concept of
inheritance of characteristics or traits from parent to offspring. Mendel proposed the principle
of inheritance and is known as the “Father of Genetics”. Mendel has chosen pea plants for his
experimentation and found variations among them. Gene is a structural and functional unit of
heredity and variations. Gene is a DNA segment on the chromosome. Genes control the
expression of characteristics. Mendel called the genes to be factors.
Traits can be either dominant or recessive. Tallness in a plant is a dominant trait, controlled
by a dominant allele and is represented by “T” (capital). Shortness in a plant is a recessive
trait, controlled by a recessive allele and is represented by “t” (small).

• Homozygous is a condition in which a gene possesses a pair of the same alleles (TT or tt)
for a single characteristic.
• Heterozygous is a condition in which a gene possesses a pair of different alleles (Tt) for a
single characteristic.

Phenotype is a morphological expression of a single character. For example, tallness or

shortness represents the phenotype of the plant. Genotype is the genetic make-up of a cell, an
organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele make-up of the individual), usually with

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reference to a specific characteristic under consideration. Alleles combine to make a

genotype, such as TT or Tt or tt.
Punnett square is a statistical method that was used by Mendel to predict the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.

Monohybrid inheritance
It is the inheritance of a single characteristic controlled by different alleles of the same gene.

• F1 generation is the first filial generation offspring produced by crossing two parental
strains. All the progeny of F1 generation were tall i.e. the traits of only one parent were
visible.
• F2 generation is the second filial generation offspring produced by crossing F1 ’s. The F2
progeny were not all tall. Instead, one quarter of them was short indicating both the traits –
that of tallness and shortness were inherited in the F2 plants.
• Genotypic ratio – 1:2:1, Phenotypic ratio – 3:1.

Dihybrid inheritance
It is the simultaneous inheritance of two characters.
• Dihybrid inheritance is the experimentation of two characteristics with their four
contrasting traits.
• For instance, dihybrid inheritance involves a plant producing round and yellow seeds (RR
and YY) crossing with a plant producing wrinkled green seeds (rr and yy).
• F1 progeny produces round and yellow seeds (R and r, and Y and y) in which round and
yellow are dominant traits.
• F2 progeny were similar to their parents and produced round yellow seeds, while some of
them produced wrinkled green seeds. However, some plants of the F2 progeny even
showed new combinations, like round-green seeds and wrinkled-yellow seeds.
Thus the tall/ short trait and the round seed/wrinkled seed trait are independently inherited.

2.3 How do these traits get expressed?

A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.
The proteins synthesized according to this information may be enzymes that catalyse
biochemical reactions. Each trait is the outcome of several such biochemical reactions each of
this is controlled by a specific enzyme.
Each parent contributes one copy of the gene for a particular character. Thus there are two
genes for every character. In the gamete, however, only one copy is present because of
reduction division and these may be either maternal or paternal origin. When two germ cells
combine they will restore the normal number of gene copies in the progeny ensuring the
stability of the DNA of the species.

2.4 Sex determination

It is a mechanism which determines the individual to be a male or a female based on the sex
chromosomes present in it. In human beings, sex is determined by genetic inheritance. Genes
inherited from the parents determine whether an offspring will be a boy or a girl. Gene for all

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the characters are linearly arrange on the chromosomes. The chromosomes that carry genes
for sexual characters are called autosomes or sex chromosomes while those that carry genes
for the vegetative characters are called autosomes or non sex chromosomes.
Women have XX chromosomes while men have XY.
All the children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless of whether they
are boys or girls. Thus the sex of the children will be determined by what they inherit from
their father.

3. Evolution:
All the life on Earth has descended from a common ancestor. Evolution is the sequence of
gradual changes over millions of years in which new species are produced. Charles Robert
Darwin was an English naturalist who observed various species of life on the earth and put
forward the idea of “evolution of species by natural selection.” He said that a species inherits
its characters from its ancestors.
Acquired and inherited traits:
An acquired trait is not transmitted to the off spring. In sexually reproducing organisms germ
cells are produced in the reproductive organs, while the rest of the body has somatic cells.
Changes in somatic cells due to environmental factors are not transmitted to the offspring.
This is because a change in a somatic organ caused by a physiological response by the body
does not bring about a corresponding change in reproduction organs.
A trait or character that is genetically inherited or passed down from generation to generation
is known as inherited trait. Hugo de Vries explained the mechanism of heritable variations.
According to him heritable variations arise when there is a change in the genes of the
germplasm. He called it mutation. If a particular trait spreads in the population, it means that
is favuored by natural selection.

4. Speciation:
Species can be defined as a group of individuals of the same kind that can interbreed and
produce fertile progeny.

Speciation: It is an event that splits a population into two independent species which cannot
reproduce among them.

• Process of speciation-Genetic drift: It occurs due to changes in the frequencies of

particular genes by chance alone. e.g. If a hurricane strikes the mainland, and bananas with
beetle eggs on them are washed away to an island. This is called a genetic drift.
• Process of speciation - natural selection: These are the variations caused in individuals
due to natural selection which lead to the formation of a new species. e.g. If the ecological
conditions are slightly different on the island as compared to the mainland, it leads to a
change in the morphology and food preferences in the organisms over the course of
generations.

Process of speciation - splitting of population: A population splits into different sub-

populations due to geographical isolation that leads to the formation of a new species.

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Natural selection: It explains that organisms that are physiologically or behaviourally better
adapted for the environment are selected. Selected organisms can survive and reproduce.

Genetic drift: It is the genetic variation in small populations caused by a specific

environmental factor.

Gene flow: It is the transfer of genes from one population to another due to migration.
Breeding between the brown and green beetles introduces new gene combinations into the
population.
Over generations, genetic drift will accumulate different changes in each sub population.
Also, natural selection may also operate differently in the different geographic locations.
Speciation due to inbreeding, genetic drift and natural selection will be applicable to all
sexually reproducing organism.

5. Evolution and Classification:

Characteristics are the hereditary traits transmitted from parent organisms to their offspring.
These are details of appearance or behavior in other words a particular form or a particular
function. It shows how closely organisms are related with respect to evolution. The more
characteristics two species will have in common, the more closely they are related. And the
more closely they are related, the more recently they will have had a common ancestor. For
example, a brother and a sister are closely related. They have common ancestors in the first
generation before them, namely their parents. A girl and her first cousin are also related, but
less than the girl and her brother. This is because cousins have common ancestors, their
grandparents in the second generation before them, not in the first one.

5.1 Tracing Evolutionary relationships:

Characteristics are of two types namely, homologous characteristics or analogous
characteristics.

• Homologous characteristics are organs that have the same basic structure and origin, but
different functions. For example, mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have four limbs
with the same basic limb layout because they have inherited the limbs from a common
ancestor. These limbs have been modified to perform different functions.
• Analogous characteristics are organs that have different structures and are of different
origin, but perform same functions. For example, the design of the wings of bats and the
wings of birds look similar because they have a common purpose – to fly.

5.2 Fossils:
Usually, when organisms die, their bodies will decompose and be lost. But sometime some
body parts may not decompose completely and they will eventually harden and retain the
impression of the body parts. All such preserved traces of living organisms are called fossils.
Fossils are the remains or traces of a plant or animal that existed in a past geological age, and
that has been excavated from the soil. Fossilisation is the process in which an organism is
converted into a fossil. Paleontology is the study of fossils.

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There are two ways to determine the age of fossils. One way is to dig the earth and start
finding fossils. The second way of dating fossils is by detecting the ratios of different
isotopes of the same element in the fossil material.

5.3 Evolution by Stages:

Evolution is a gradual process- no organism evolved suddenly. Complex organs evolved in
organisms gradually. The eyes of the octopus and the eyes of vertebrates have evolved
independently. These similarities of structure, despite of different origins provide a classic
example of biological convergence.
Biological convergence is a phenomenon by which two unrelated organisms become quite
alike after a period of time through few generations, if it is assumed that they have a common
ancestor.

A change that is useful for one property to start with can become useful for quite a different
function. For example, long feathers were considered to provide insulation in cold
weather. Some reptiles like the dinosaur had feathers but very few were adapted for flying. In
the present day, birds use feathers for flight, which is an example of adaptation. It is a
characteristic of a particular animal may, post-evolution be useful for performing a totally
different function.

It is all very well to say that very dissimilar looking structures evolve from a common
ancestral design. It is true that analysis of the organ structure in fossils allow us to make
estimates of how far back evolutionary relationships go. The wild cabbage plant is a good
example. Broccoli, kohlrabi and kale are produced from its ancestor wild cabbage by
artificial selection.

Another way of tracing evolutionary relationships depends on the changes in DNA during
reproduction. Comparing the DNA of different species should give us a direct estimate of
how much the DNA has changed during the formation of new species. This method is now
extensively used to define evolutionary relationships.

6. Evolution should not be equated with progress.

Evolution is simply generation of diversity and the shaping of the diversity by environmental
selection. It is not as if the newly generated species are in any way better than the older one.
It is just natural selection and genetic drift have together led to the formation of a population
that cannot reproduce with the original one, as in case of the evolution of humans and
chimpanzees from a common ancestor.
In evolution the new forms evolved are more complex than their ancestors. It is the
adaptability of a species to the environment that supports its survival not the complexity of
the species. Each species, whether complex or simple is subjected to natural selection. Each
species has to go through the process of natural selection to survive and reproduce. In
evolutionary terms, we cannot say that a particular species has a better design than another.
Each species is well suited and adapted to its environment and hence is good enough to live
and reproduce.

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6.1 Human Evolution:

The tools used to trace evolutionary relationships are excavation, time-dating, studying
fossils, and determining DNA sequences have been used for studying human evolution.

All the human beings in the world, whether they are African or American, share the same
gene pool and hence all modern humans belong to the same species- Homo sapiens. There
are, however, a large number of genes in the gene pool that serve as the source of individual
variations. It is for this reason that no two individuals are identical in looks, abilities,
behavior, etc. therefore, there is great diversity in human features such as skin colour, height,
hair colour, and so on. But there is no biological basis for assuming that humans with
different features belong to different races.

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Chapter 8 - How do Organisms Reproduce?

1. Do organisms create exact copies of themselves?

Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features from
parents to next generation in the form of DNA molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the
information source for making proteins. If the information is changes, different proteins will
be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs. Therefore, a basic
event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional cellular apparatus and then the
DNA copies separate each with its own cellular apparatus. Effectively a cell divides to give
rise to two cells.
The process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time. As a result the DNA
copies generated will be similar but may not be identical to the original.

1.1 The importance of variation

The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of
body design features that allow the organism to use that particular niche. Reproduction is
therefore linked to the stability of populations of species.
Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because sometime for a species, the
environmental conditions change so drastically that their survival becomes difficult. For
example, if the temperature of water increases suddenly then most of the bacteria living in
that water would die. Only few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.
However, if these variants were not there then the entire species of bacteria would have been
destroyed. Variation is ths useful for the survival of species over time.

2. Modes of reproduction used by single organisms

Reproduction is the phenomenon which involves the production of an offspring by particular
individual or individuals to propagate their species. Reproduction is done during reproductive
phase.

Types of reproduction
Reproduction can be of two different types, namely, asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction.

• Asexual mode of reproduction: It is a mode of reproduction in which a single

individual is responsible for creating a new generation of species.
• Sexual mode of reproduction: It is a mode of reproduction in which two individuals
are responsible for creating a new generation of species.
Reproduction in unicellular organisms is different from that of the reproduction in
multicellular organisms. Most often unicellular organisms reproduce asexually. Some of
them can also exhibit sexual mode of reproduction. Unicellular organisms reproduce
asexually through fission, fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative propagation
and spore formation.

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2.1 Fission:
For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission leads to the creation of new individuals.
Fission can be transverse binary fission or longitudinal binary fission or multiple fission.

• Transverse binary fission is the splitting of the cells along any plane during division. e.g.
amoeba
• Longitudinal binary fission is the division occurring in a definite orientation in relation to
the whip-like structures located at one end of the cell. e.g. Leishmania.
• Multiple fission is the division of mother cell into many daughter cells simultaneously.
e.g. Plasmodium.

2.2 Fragmentation:
This is the process in which the organism breaks up into smaller pieces on maturation. Each
fragment grows into a new individual. e.g. Spirogyra.

2.3 Regeneration:
Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual organism
from their body parts. That is if the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces,
many of these pieces grow into separate individuals. This is known as regeneration. Eg:
Planaria, Hydra

2.4 Budding:
A protuberance like outgrowth called as bud grows and detaches from the parent to develop
into a separate organism. Each bud develops into a tiny individual. e.g. Hydra.

2.5 Vegetative propagation

This is the mode by which plants reproduce asexually. It involves the production of new
plants from the vegetative parts of an existing plant. Different methods of vegetative
propagation in plants include stem cutting, layering and grafting.
• Grafting involves fusion of tissues of one plant with those of another plant. Grafting is a
vegetative method of propagation for apples and roses.
• Leaf buds can grow as young plants in Bryophyllum. When the leaf touches moist soil,
each bud grows into a new plantlet.
• Rhizomes are horizontal, underground plant stems with shoots and roots serving as
reproductive structures.

Advantages:
Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.
All plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its
characteristics.

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2.6 Spore formation:

Sporangia which contain cells or spores that eventually develops into new individuals. Spores
are very light and are covered by thick walls that protect them. Spores germinate into new
individuals on moist surfaces. e.g. Rhizopus.

3. Sexual Reproduction:
3.1 Why the sexual mode of Reproduction?
Sexual reproduction involves two organisms, the male and the female in the process of
producing the offspring. Sexual reproduction provides greater variations in the DNA thereby
making the offspring adapted for better survival. Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the
gene pool of the species. Due to genetic recombination, variations occur in the process of
sexual reproduction.
During Sexual reproduction the combination of DNA from two parents would result in the
offspring having twice the amount of DNA. To solve this problem, sexually reproducing
individuals have special germ cells (gametes) with only half the normal number of
chromosomes and, therefore half the amount of DNA compared to the other cells of the body.
When such germ cells from two individuals untie during sexual reproduction the normal
chromosome number and DNA content are restored.
In multicellular organisms body designs become more complex, the germ cells also
specialize. One germ cell is large and contains the food stores while the other is smaller and
likely to be motile. The motile germ cell is called the male gamete and germ cell containing
the stored food is called the female gamete.

3.2. Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants

Plants reproduce sexually by producing male gametes in the form of pollen and the female
gametes in the form of eggs. The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.
A flower comprises sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. Stamen and carples are the
reproductive parts of a flower which contain germ cells.

• A unisexual flower contains either stamens or carpels. For example, papaya and
watermelon are unisexual flowers
• A bisexual flower contains stamens as well as carpels. For example, hibiscus and
mustard flowers are bisexual.

Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains. Carpel is present in the
centre of a flower and is the female reproductive part. It consists of the ovary, style and
stigma. The ovary is the swollen part at the bottom of the carpel. Ovary contains the female
gametes in the form of eggs or ovules. The male germ cell produced by pollen grain fuses
with the female gamete present in the ovule. This fusion of the germ cells or fertilization
forms the zygote which is capable of growing into a new plant.
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the carpel is known as
pollination. Two types of pollination are self-pollination and cross-pollination. Self-
pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower.
Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the

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stigma of another flower. This transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by
agents like wind, water or animals.
After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma it has to reach the female germ cells which are in
the ovary. For this a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach
the ovule. Inside the ovule a male germ cell fuses with a female germ cell and forms a zygote.
This is known as fertilization.
After fertilization, the zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo which resides inside the
seed. The ovule develops into a seed. The ovary ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile the petals,
sepals, stamens, style and stigma may fall off. Seed inside the fruit encloses the embryo, the
future plant. The seed contain the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling
under appropriate condition. This process is known as germination. The factors essential for
germination are nutrients, water and proper temperature. Seed has an embryo protected by
reserved food materials in the form of cotyledons and also an outer covering called as seed
coat.

3.3 Reproduction in Human Beings.

Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction. Reproductive phase is the phase in the life of
every individual which makes the individual capable of reproducing the offspring. In the
early reproductive phase, individuals acquire changes in the body which result in the
formation of germ cells. Sperms are male germ cells and eggs are female germ cells.
Reproductive phase involves the changes in appearance and size of the bodily organs.
Adolescence is the period of life that leads to sexual maturity. During this period of life, one
can observe many changes in the body. Puberty is the period at the beginning of adolescence
when the sex glands in a boy and a girl are capable of reproduction. Different changes in boys
include change in the voice, active functioning of sweat and sebaceous glands, growth of
facial and body hair, enlargement of penis etc. Different changes in girls include growth of
pubic hair, active functioning of sweat and sebaceous glands, menstrual cycle, enlargement of
breasts.

3.3 (a) Male reproductive system

This system includes a pair of testis, vas deferens and a muscular organ, the penis. Testes are
placed in a structure called as scrotum which is located outside the abdominal cavity because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature. Testes
produce the male gametes known as sperms. Testosterone is the male sex hormone secreted
by the testes. It regulates the development of sperms and the secondary sexual characteristics
leading to puberty. The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the testes. The urethra
forms a common passage for both the sperm and urine as it is just one tube that connects both
the glands – urinary bladder and vas deferens. Prostate gland and seminal vesicles secrete
semen to make the movement of sperms easier and also provides nutrition. The sperms are
tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and along tail that helps them to move
towards the female germ cell.

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3.3 (b) Female Reproductive System.

This system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus and vagina opening out
through urethra. Eggs, the female gametes develop inside the ovaries. One mature egg is
released by either of the ovaries per month. Ovaries secrete two hormones namely estrogen
and progesterone which bring about secondary sexual characters in females. The egg is
carried from the ovary to the uterus through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube. The two oviducts
combine and open into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. The uterus opens
into vagina through cervix. The uterus helps in the development of the foetus. The sperm
enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. The sperms begin moving up the
vagina and uterus, finally reaching the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, the zygote gets
implanted in the lining of the uterus and starts dividing. It divides repeatedly to form an
embryo. Embryo gets implanted in the lining of the uterus for further development.
The placenta is a connective tissue established between foetus and the mother. It contains
villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. It provides a large surface area for the nutrients and
oxygen to pass from mother to the embryo. It also helps in transporting excretory wastes from
embryo to mother. The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes
approximately nine months. The child is born as a results of rhythmic contractions of the
muscles in the uterus.

3.3 (c) what happens when the egg is not fertilized?

If the egg is not fertilized it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every
month the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg. Thus its lining
becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilization
has taken place. Now, however the lining is not needed any longer. So the lining slowly
breaks ans comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle take place roughly
every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about 2-8 days.

3.3 (d) Reproductive Health.

Reproductive health is concerned with healthy and safe sexual practices. Unhealthy practices
can lead to the transmission of disease from one partner to another and even to the offspring.
Reproductive health also depends on healthy behavior and outlook towards sex life. Sexual
maturation and body growth are gradual processes. Even with some degree of sexual
maturation the body and mind are not mature enough for a sexual act, childbearing and
bringing up children.

As, sexual intercourse involves intimate physical contact between the male and female sex
organs, it may transmit certain disease from one partner to another. Such diseases are called
sexually transmitted disease (STDs). e.g. Bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and
syphilis, viral infections such as warts and HIV.

Contraceptive devices are the devices which block the entry of sperm into oviducts thereby
preventing the egg from being fertilized. These devices help to prevent transmission of many
infections to some extent. e.g. Copper-T or intra uterine contraceptive device (IUCD) placed
in the uterus blocks the passage of sperm. Contraceptive drugs can also be taken orally as

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pills to avoid pregnancy. Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in the vagina can
also be used. Surgical methods like vasectomy in males to block the vas deference so that
sperm transfer will be prevented and tubectomy in females to block the fallopian tube which
makes the egg unreachable to uterus are proven to be contraceptive methods. Surgical
methods are safe in the long run.
Surgery can also be used for aborting unwanted pregnancies. However, this is often misused
for illegally aborting female fetuses. To prevent female foeticide (killing of a foetus), prenatal
sex determination has been prohibited by law.

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Chapter 11 - Human Eye and Colourful World

Structure of Eye

The front part of the eye is covered by a transparent spherical membrane called the cornea. Light
enters the eye through cornea. The space behind the cornea is filled with a liquid called aqueous
humour.

Just behind the cornea is a dark coloured muscular diaphragm called iris which has a small
circular opening in the middle called pupil. The pupil appears black because no light is reflected
from it.

The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye. It regulates the light by adjusting the size
of the pupil.

The eye lens is a convex lens made of a transparent jelly - like proteinaceous material. The eye
lens is hard at the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the outer edges. The eye lens is
held in position by ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles help in changing the curvature and focal
length of the eye lens.

The inner back surface of the eye ball is called retina. It is a semi-transparent membrane which is
light sensitive and is equivalent to the screen of a camera. The light sensitive receptors of the
retina are called rods and cones. When light falls on these receptors they send electrical signals
to the brain through the optic nerve. The space between the retina and eye lens is filled with
another fluid called vitreous humour.

The light coming from an object enters the eye through cornea and pupil. The eye lens

converges these light rays to form a real, inverted and diminished image on the retina. The light
sensitive cell of the retina gets activated with the incidence of light and generates electric signals.
These electric signals are sent to the brain by the optic nerves and the brain interprets the
electrical signals in such a way that we see an image which is erect and of the same size as the
object.

The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal length of an eye lens to focus distant
or near objects clearly on the retina is called the accommodation of the eye.

The ability of the eye to focus objects lying at different distances is called the power of
accommodation of the eye.

The distance between the near point and the far point is called the range of vision.

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Colour vision is possible only through cones of the retina which are stimulated only in bright
light. You cannot make out the red, violet or purple flowers in a garden on moonlight, because
then only rods function and not cones.

Defects in the Eye

Colour blindness (colour vision deficiency) is a condition in which certain colours cannot be
distinguished, and is most commonly due to an inherited condition.

Cones (colour sensitive receptors) containing single visual pigments selective for red, green, and
blue light, are present in the normal human eye.

Disturbances of colour vision will occur if the amount of pigment per cone is reduced or if one or
more of the three cone systems are absent.

Protanomaly is referred to as "red-weakness", an apt description of this form of colour

deficiency.

Deuteranomalous person adjust your television and he would add more green and subtract red.
He is considered "green weak".

Nyctalopia (Greek for "night blindness") is a condition making it difficult or impossible to see in
relatively low light. It is a symptom of several eye diseases.

Night blindness may exist from birth, or be caused by injury or malnutrition (for example, a lack
of vitamin A).

The outer area of the retina is made up of more rods than cones. The rod cells are the cells that
enable us to see in poor illumination. This is the reason why loss of side vision often results in
night blindness.

A cataract is an opacity that develops in the crystalline lens of the eye or in its envelope. Early
on in the development of age-related cataract the power of the crystalline lens may be increased,
causing near-sightedness (myopia), and the gradual yellowing and opacification of the lens may
reduce the perception of blue colours.

Cataracts develop from a variety of reasons, including long-term ultraviolet exposure, exposure
to radiation, secondary effects of diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and advanced age; they
are usually a result of denaturation of lens proteins

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There are various types of cataract, e.g. nuclear, cortical, mature, hypermature. Cataracts are also
classified by their location, e.g. posterior (classically due to steroid use and anterior (common
(senile) cataract related to aging).

Hypermetropia or hyperopia is an eye defect in which distant vision is clear while near vision is
blurred.

In the case of a normal eye the rays of light from the object fall on the eye and converge on the
retina but in the case of a hypermetropic eye the light rays are focused behind the retina.

Myopia is an eye defect due to which the eye is not able to see distant objects clearly.

Myopia is the defect of the eye due to which the eye is not able to see the distant objects this
defect is commonly known as nearsightedness.

Astigmatism is the most common vision problem resulting in distorted images, as light rays are
prevented from meeting at a common focus. Astigmatism may accompany Hypermetropia or
Myopia

Presbyopia is caused when the centre of the eye lens hardens making it unable to accommodate
near vision. This condition generally affects almost everyone over the age of 50 - even those
with myopia.

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Chapter 6 - Life Processes

What are life processes?

Biology is the study of living things. All living things are called organisms, both plants and
animals are living organisms. But how we decide whether something is living or non-living
depends on 7 life processes. If something is living it will carry out the 7 life processes below.

1. Movement
Both animals and plants have the ability to move. Plants are rooted and move slowly as they
grow. Their roots move down into the soil and their stems move up towards the light. Animals
on the other hand move quickly and can move their entire bodies. They can move in search of
food, shelter or to avoid danger.

2. Respiration
Respiration is the process of extracting energy out of the food we eat. All living things respire
because they need energy to grow, to replace worn out parts and to move. Respiration takes
place in the mitochondria of the cell.

3. Sensitivity
All living organisms are sensitive; this means that they have an awareness of changes in their
environment. Animals respond quickly to stimuli such as heat, light, sound, touch and
chemicals which have taste and smell. On the other hand, plants generally appear less sensitive
and their response is slower.

4. Growth
All living organisms grow. Plants continue growing throughout their lives. Animals stop
growing once they reach adulthood. Even when growth stops, materials within an animal’s
body are still being replaced from its food.

5. Excretion
All living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need
to be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. Plants store waste
substances in their leaves, the waste is removed when their leaves fall off. Animals breathe
out waste carbon dioxide, other waste substances leave the body in urine and sweat.
Note: Getting rid of faeces or undigested food is not excretion but egestion.

6. Reproduction
All living things must produce offspring like themselves in order for their species to survive.
This is the process known as reproduction. Plants produce seeds that give rise to new plants
of the same species. Animals lay eggs or have babies. Reproduction can be of two types,

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Sexual which involves two parents and the union of two gametes and Asexual where one
parent can reproduce itself.

7. Nutrition
Nutrition is needed for energy and growth, both plants and animals need food. Plants are able
to make their own food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to turn simple molecules like
carbon dioxide and water into more complex carbohydrate molecules. Animals are unable to
make their own food so rely on other plants and other animals for their nutrition. Animals take
in complex substances and break them down into small, simple, soluble molecules which can
be used for energy and growth

Nutrition:
Energy required to carry out different life processes is obtained through the process of nutrition.
Depending on the mode of obtaining nutrition, organisms are classified as autotrophs or
heterotrophs.
i. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide
and water. Examples: Green plants and some bacteria.
ii. Heterotrophs cannot synthesise their own food and are dependent on other organisms for
obtaining complex organic substances for nutrition. Example: Animals and fungi

Autotrophic Nutrition:
A type of nutrition in which organisms synthesize the organic materials they require from
inorganic sources. Chief sources of carbon and nitrogen are carbon dioxide and nitrates,
respectively. All green plants are autotrophic and use light as a source of energy for the synthesis
of food through photosynthesis.
6CO2  12H2O  Sunlight
Chlorophyll
C6H12O6  6H2O  6O2
Glucose

The following events occur during this process.

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

These green plants absorbs water from the soil by roots. Co 2 enters from the atmosphere through
stomata, Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.
Heterotrophic Nutrition:

All heterotrophs depend on autotrophs for their nutrition.

The three main types of heterotrophic nutrition are:
1. Holozoic nutrition: Complex food is taken into a specialist digestive system and broken down
into small pieces to be absorbed. Eg: Ameoba, Humans

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2. Saprophytic nutrition: Organisms feed on dead organic remains of other organisms. Eg: Fungi
like bread moulds yeast and mushrooms.
3. Parasitic nutrition: Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the
host receiving no benefit from the parasite. Eg: cascuta, ticks, lice, leeches and tape worms.

How do Organisms Obtain Their Utrition?

In single celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface.
Eg: Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface which fuse
over the food particle forming a food-vacuole. Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are
broken down into simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested
material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.

Nutrition in Human Beings:

In humans, digestion of food takes place in the alimentary canal, made up of various organs and
glands.

In the mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which
contains amylase for digesting starch.

On swallowing, food passes through the pharynx and oesophagus to reach the stomach. Gastric
juice contains pepsin (for digesting proteins), HCl and mucus.

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The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin.
The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal
conditions.

From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. The small intestine is the site of the
complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
The liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains the enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for
digesting starch, proteins and fats, respectively.

In the small intestine, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose,
aminoacids, fatty acids and glycerol.

The villi of the small intestine absorb the digested food and supply it to every cell of the body.

The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from this
material. The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.

Respiration:

During respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form of
ATP.
Depending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be of two types:
i. Aerobic respiration: It occurs in the presence of air (oxygen).
ii. Anaerobic respiration: It occurs in the absence of (air) oxygen.

In all cases the first step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a three-caron
molecule called pyruvate. This process taken place in the cytoplasm. Further, the pyruvate may be
converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation.
Since this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobic respiration.
Break-down of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria.
A large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic
respiration.
Some times when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruvate is converted into lactic
acid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.

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Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration, whereas aquatic organisms use
oxygen dissolved in water.
In humans, inhalation of air occurs through the following pathway:
Nostrils _ Nasal passage _ Pharynx _ Larynx _ Trachea _ Bronchus _ Bronchiole _ Alveolus
(please put arrow marks ------)

In human beings are is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing through the nostrils
is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in
this process. From here, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are
present in the throat. These ensure that the air-passage does not collapse.
Within the lungs the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in
balloon-line structures which are called alveoli.
The alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sites where exchange of gases (O2
and CO2) occurs between blood and the atmosphere.
The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the
oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all

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the cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always
contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for
the carbon dioxide to be released.
In humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the different
tissues of the body. This pigment in present in the red blood cells.

Transportation:
Transportation in Human Beings:
The circulatory system is composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels which transport various
materials throughout the body.

The heart:

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The human heart has four chambers—two atria (right and left) and two ventricles (right and left).
These chambers prevent the oxygen rich blood from mixing with the blood containing carbon
dioxide. The right half of the heart receives deoxygenated blood, whereas the left half receives
oxygenated blood.
The carbon dioxide –rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and
the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart. This oxygen-rich blood
is then pumped to the rest of the body.
Ventricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls.
Humans show double circulation i.e. blood goes through the heart twice and complete separation
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Arteries carry blood from the heart to different parts of the body, whereas veins deliver the blood
back to the heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are
exchanged between the blood and cells.
Blood has platelet cells which circulates around the body and prevent the blood loss at the site of
injury.
Lymph is also involved in transportation. It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and
contains less protein. It drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces which join
to from large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. It carries digested and absorbed fat
from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood.

Transportation in plants:
Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These
two pathways are constructed as independently organized conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves
water and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem transports products of photosynthesis
from the leaves where they are synthesised to other parts of the plant.

The component of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessesls) of roots, stems, leaves are interconnected
to form a continuous system of water conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant.
Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells
of the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all parts of the plant
parts through the interconnected water conducting channels.

The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
Thus it helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from
roots to the leaves. It also regulates temperature.
The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in phloem.
It transports amino acids and other substances. The translocation of food and other substances
takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and down
ward directions.

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The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. Material like sucrose is transferred
into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue
causing water to move into it. This pressure. This allows the phloem to move material according
to the plant’s needs. For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be
transported to the buds which need energy to grow.

Excretion:
During excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body

Excretion in Human Beings:

In humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, the urinary bladder and the urethra constitute the
excretory system. Kidneys are located in the addomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine
produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until
it is released through the urethra.

Each kidney has large numbers of basic filtration units called nephrons. Some substances in the
initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water, are selectively re-
absorbed as the urine flows along the tube. The amount of water re-absorbed depends on how
much excess water there is in the body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the
kidneys with the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to
pass it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular so it is under nervous control. As a result
we can control the urge to urinate.

Excretion in plants:
Plants do not have an excretory system and carry out excretion in various ways such as
transpiration, releasing wastes into the surrounding soil, losing their leaves and storing waste
materials in cell vacuoles. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums in old xylem.

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Chapter 10 - Light

Important Terms
Light is a form of energy and can be transformed into other forms of energy.
Light does not require a material medium for its propagation.
The velocity of light in air or vacuum is 3 x 10 8 m/s.

Rectilinear Propagation of Light

In a homogenous transparent medium light travels in a straight line and this is known as
rectilinear propagation of light.

Reflection of Light
The phenomenon by which a ray of light changes the direction of propagation when it strikes a
boundary between different media through which it cannot pass is described as the reflection of
light
There are two types of reflection of light:
➢ Regular reflection or specular reflection
➢ Irregular reflection or diffused reflection

Regular Reflection

Specular or regular reflection is the perfect, mirror-like reflection of light.

Reflection in a mirror, a water surface and highly polished floors, are examples of regular
reflections.

Irregular Reflection:

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Irregular reflection or diffused reflection takes place when a ray of light is incident on a wall or
wood, which is not smooth or polished. In this case, the different portions of the surface reflect
the incident light in different directions. In such cases no definite image is formed, but the
surface becomes visible. It is commonly known as scattering of light. Thus diffused reflection
makes non-luminous objects visible.

Reflection of Light by a Plane Surface:

The figure shows how a ray of light is reflected by a plane surface. Let MM' represent a
reflecting surface. When a ray of light is incident on MM' in the direction IO it gets reflected
along the direction OR. IO is the incident ray; O is the point of incidence and OR is the
reflected ray.

Let ON be the normal drawn perpendicular to the surface MM' at the point of incidence. The
angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence is called the angle
of incidence and is denoted by the letter 'i'. The angle that the reflected ray makes with the
normal at the point of incidence is called the angle of reflection 'r'. Mirror is an example of a
reflecting surface.

Laws of Reflection:
The reflection at any plane surface is found to obey the laws of reflection. The laws of
reflection are:
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Nature of Image Formed By a Plane Reflecting Surface:

An image can be real or virtual. A real image is formed when the rays of light actually intersect
after reflection. A virtual image is formed when the light rays after reflection do not actually
intersect but appear to diverge from it (these rays of light intersect when produced backwards).

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Ray Diagrams of Plane Mirrors:

The following rays are usually considered while constructing ray diagrams:
A ray of light incident on a plane mirror at 90 degree gets reflected from the mirror along the
same path.
A ray of light falling on a plane mirror at any angle gets reflected from the mirror such that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The image is formed at a point where the
reflected rays appear to meet.

Spherical Mirrors:
A mirror whose polished, reflecting surface is a part of a hollow sphere of glass or plastic is
called a spherical mirror.
In a spherical mirror, one of the two curved surfaces is coated with a thin layer of silver
followed by a coating of red lead oxide paint. Thus, one side of the spherical mirror is opaque
and the other side is a highly polished reflecting surface. In a diagram the opaque side of a
mirror is always shown shaded.
In the diagrams given here, please remember that the opaque, non - reflecting side is shaded
blue and the reflecting side is blue.
Depending upon the nature of the reflecting surface of a mirror, the spherical mirror is
classified as:
Concave mirror
Convex mirror

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Concave Mirror:
Concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the
sphere of which the mirror is a part.

Convex Mirror:
Convex mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the
sphere of which the mirror is a part.

Centre of Curvature:
Centre of Curvature is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror forms a part. It is
denoted by the letter C.

Radius of Curvature:
Radius of Curvature is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part. It is represented by
the letter R.

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Linear Aperture:
Linear aperture is the distance between the extreme points (X and Y) on the periphery of the
mirror.

Pole:
Pole is the midpoint of the aperture of the spherical mirror. It is represented by the letter P.

Principal Axis:
Principal axis is the straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a
spherical mirror.

Secondary Axis:
Secondary axis is any other radial line passing through the centre of curvature other than the
principal axis.

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Normal:
The normal at any point of the spherical mirror is the straight line obtained by joining that point
with the centre of the mirror. The normal at point A on the mirror is the line AC obtained by
joining A to the centre of curvature of the mirror. Normal at any point on a spherical mirror is
equal to the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.

Principal Focus or Focus:

The rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a mirror after reflection, either pass through a
point (in case of a concave mirror) or appear to diverge from a point (in the case of a convex

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mirror) on the principal axis and this point is referred to as the principal focus or focal point of
the mirror.

Focal Length:
Focal length is the distance between the pole and the focus of a mirror. It is represented by the
letter f.

Characteristics of Focus of a Concave Mirror and a Convex Mirror

Convex Mirror Concave Mirror
The focus lies behind the mirror The focus is in front of the mirror
The focus is virtual as the rays The focus is real as the rays of
of light after reflection appear to light after reflection converge at
come from the focus the focus

Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors

The following sign convention is used for measuring various distances in the ray diagrams of
spherical mirrors:
Object is always placed to the left of mirror
All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive and the distances measured
in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
Distances measured along y-axis above the principal axis are positive and that measured along
y-axis below the principal axis are negative.

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Table Showing the Sign Convention

Concave Mirror
When an object is placed in front of a concave mirror, light rays from the object fall on the
mirror and get reflected. The reflected rays produce an image at a point where they intersect or
appear to intersect. Formation of an image by mirrors is usually shown by constructing ray
diagrams. To construct a ray diagram, we need at least two rays whose paths after reflection
from the mirror are known. These rays must be chosen according to our convenience. Any two
of the following rays can be considered to obtain the image.
A ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection from a concave mirror passes
through its focus.

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A ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror after reflection emerges parallel to
the principal axis.

A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror retraces its path after
reflection as the ray passing through the centre of curvature acts as a normal to the spherical
mirror.

A ray of light which strikes the mirror at its pole gets reflected according to the law of
reflection.

Formation of Image by a Concave Mirror

When the Object Is At Infinity
When an object is placed at infinity, the rays coming from it are parallel to each other. Let us
consider two rays, one striking the mirror at its pole and the other passing through the centre of
curvature. The ray which is incident at the pole gets reflected according to the law of reflection
and the second ray which passes through the centre of curvature of the mirror retraces its path.
These rays after reflection form an image at the focus. The image formed is real, inverted and
diminished.

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The image is at F
Real
Inverted
Diminished

When the Object Is Placed Beyond C

The two rays which are considered to obtain the image are:
A ray passing through the centre of curvature.
A ray parallel to the principal axis.
The ray passing through the centre of curvature retraces its path and the ray which is parallel to
the principal axis passes through the focus after reflection. These rays after reflection meet at a
point between C and F. The image is inverted, real and diminished.
The image is:
Between C and F
Real
Inverted
Diminished

When the Object Is Placed At the Centre of Curvature

Here we consider the two rays, one parallel to the principal axis and the other passing through
the focus. The ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus after
reflection. The other ray passing through the focus after reflection emerges parallel to the axis.
After reflection these rays meet at the centre of curvature to form an inverted image, which is
real and of the same size as the object.

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The image is:

At C
Real
Inverted
Same size as object

When the Object Is Between C and F

Here we consider a ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis and another ray passing
through the focus. The ray which is parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal
focus and the ray which passes through the focus after reflection emerges parallel to the
principal axis. The reflected rays meet at a point beyond C and the image is real, inverted and
magnified.
The image is:
Beyond C
Real
Inverted
Magnified

When the Object Is at the Focus

Here, we consider a ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis and another ray passing
through the centre of curvature. The ray which is parallel to the principal axis passes through
the focus and the ray which passes through the centre of curvature retraces its path. The
reflected rays are parallel to each other, and would meet only at infinity i.e., the image is
formed at infinity and it is a real, inverted and enlarged.

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The image is at infinity

Real
Inverted
Magnified

When the Object Is Between the Pole and the Focus

Here we consider a ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis and another ray which is
passing through the centre of curvature. The ray which is passing through the centre of
curvature retraces its path and the other ray which is parallel to the principal axis after
reflection passes through the focus. These rays appear to meet behind the mirror when the
reflected rays are extended backwards. The image is virtual, erect and magnified.

The image is:

Behind the mirror
Virtual
Erect
Magnified

Uses of Concave Mirrors

Concave mirrors are used for the following purposes:
As reflectors in the head lights of cars, search lights in torches etc. to obtain a parallel beam of
light. For this, the source of light is placed at the focus of the concave reflector.

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By dentist to focus light on the tooth to be examined.

As shaving mirrors and as make up mirrors to get an enlarged erect image of the face

To concentrate solar radiations in solar heating devices. For this the food or substance that has
to be heated is placed at the focus of a large concave reflector. After reflection, sun light
converges on the substance and heats it.

Position of the Position of the Nature and size of

Use
object image the image
At infinity At the focus Real, inverted and Used by ENT surgeons and
diminished dentists
Beyond the centre of Between the Real, inverted and Used in solar cookers
curvature focus and the diminished
centre of
curvature
At the centre of At centre of Real, inverted and Used as an erecting mirror
curvature curvature same size as object in terrestrial telescopes

Between the focus Beyond the centre Real, inverted and Used in hospitals and clinics
and centre of of curvature magnified to see the internal parts of
curvature the body

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Position of the Position of the

Nature and size of
Use
object image the image
At focus At infinityReal, inverted and Used in search lights and in
magnified head lights of motor cars
Between the pole of Appears behind Virtual, erect and Used as a shaving mirror
the mirror and the the mirror magnified
focus

Convex Mirror
The following rays are considered while constructing ray diagrams.
A ray of light travelling parallel to the principal axis after reflection from a convex mirror
appear to come from its focus behind the mirror.

A ray of light traveling towards the centre of curvature behind the mirror hits the mirror at 90o
and is reflected along its path.

A ray of light which is directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection
will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
A ray of light incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards the pole of the mirror gets
reflected according to the laws of reflection.
A convex mirror always gives a virtual image irrespective of the position of the object.

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Formation of Image in a Convex Mirror

When the Object Is Placed Between Infinity and the Pole of the Mirror
The image is:
Formed between the pole and the focus
Erect
Diminished
Virtual

When the Object Is At Infinity

The image is:
Formed at the focus
Extremely diminished
Virtual
Erect

Uses Of Convex Mirror

Rear-view mirror in an automobile. This convex mirror gives the driver a clear view of the
traffic approaching from behind as convex mirrors are curved outwards giving a wider field of
view.

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Vigilance mirror in departmental stores

Reflector in street lamps so as to diverge the light over a large area

Position of the Position of the

Size of the image Nature of the image
object image
Extremely
At infinity At focus Virtual and erect
diminished
Between infinity and Between the focus
Diminished Virtual and erect
pole of the mirror and pole

Mirror Formula

u – Object distance
v – Image distance
f – Focal length

Magnification
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of an
object is magnified with respect to the object size.
Magnification is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
It is usually represented by the letter m.

If h is the height of the object and h' is the height of the image then the magnification m
produced by a spherical mirror can be written as

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The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can be
expressed as:
h' v
m 
h u
The negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real. A positive
sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.

Refraction
The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to another medium of
different density is called refraction.

The twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. Since light bends towards
the normal the apparent position of the star is slightly different from its actual position as it
passes through the atmosphere. Hence the star appears slightly higher than its actual position.
Due to changing condition of earth's atmosphere the apparent position of the star changes
slightly and the intensity of light reaching the eye also fluctuates. This gives rise to the
twinkling effect of the star.

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Incident Ray (IO)

The ray of light striking the surface of separation of the media through which it is traveling is
known as the incident ray.

Point of Incidence (O)

The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of separation of the two media is called
the point of incidence.

Normal (N)
The perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of incidence is called the
normal.

Refracted Ray (OR)

The ray of light which travels into the second medium, when the incident ray strikes the surface
of separation between the media 1 and 2, is called the refracted ray.

Angle of Incidence (i)

The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is called
angle of incidence.

Angle of Refraction (r)

The angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is called
angle of refraction.
A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as it passes from one optical medium to
another because the speed of light changes.

Laws of Refraction
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie
in one plane.
For any two given pair of media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is a constant.
The above law is called Snell's law after the scientist Willebrod Snellius who first formulated it
sin 𝑖
Thus sin 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜇
Where µ is the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.

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The refractive index of glass with respect to air is given by the relation.
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣
In general, if a ray of light is passing from medium 1 to medium 2, then
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1
1𝜇2 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2
If the medium 1 is air or vacuum, the refractive index of medium 2 is referred to as the absolute
refractive index.
The refractive index of a medium depends on the following factors:
The nature of the medium.
The colour or wavelength of the incident light.

Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab

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When a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a denser medium,
the refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of incidence. In this case i >
r. But when the ray of light is passing from glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a
rarer medium the refracted ray bends away from the normal. In this case r > i.
The emergent ray, O1E which is nothing but the refracted ray emerging out of the glass slab is
parallel to the incident ray. This means that the refracted ray (emergent ray) has been displaced
from its original path by a distance XY. This displacement is referred to as lateral
displacement.

Lenses
A lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces which are
generally spherical or cylindrical or one curved and one plane surface.
Basically, the lenses are classified as;
Convex lens or converging lens.
Concave or diverging lens.

Convex Lens
A lens which is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges is called a convex lens.
In a convex lens at least one of its surfaces is bulging out at the middle. According to their
shapes the convex lenses are classified as;
bi-convex or double convex lens
Plano - convex lens
concavo - convex lens

Concave Lens
A lens which is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges is called a concave lens.
Like convex lenses these lenses are also classified as:
bi-concave
Plano - concave
convexo - concave

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Terminology Used in Optics

Optical Centre

It is the centre of a lens. It is denoted by the letter O. A ray of light passing through the optical
centre of a lens does not suffer any deviation. It is also referred to as optic centre.

Principal Axis

Principal axis is the straight line joining the centers of curvatures of the two curved surfaces of
a lens.

Principal Foci
Rays of light can pass through the lens in any direction and hence there will be two principal
foci on either side of the lens and they are referred to as the first principal focus and the second
principal focus of a lens.

First Principal Focus (F1)

It is a point on the principal axis of the lens such that the rays of light starting from it (convex
lens) or appearing to meet at the point (concave lens) after refraction from the two surfaces of
the lens become parallel to the principal axis of the lens.

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The distance from the optic centre to the first focus is called the first focal length (f1) of the
lens.

Second Principal Focus (F2)

It is a point on the principal axis of the lens such that the rays of light parallel to the principal
axis of the lens after refraction from both the surfaces of the lens pass through this point
(convex lens) or appear to be coming from this point (concave lens).

The distance from the optic centre to the second principal focus is called the second focal
length (f2) of the lens.
If the medium on both sides of the lens is same then the first and the second focal lengths will
be equal.
Focus of a convex lens is real whereas that of the concave lens is virtual.

Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses

All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive and the
distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.
All measurements made above the principal axis are taken as positive and the measurements
made below the principal axis are taken as negative, i.e., object height is always taken as
positive and the image height is positive only for virtual image.
Formation of Image by a Convex Lens
A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens travels straight without suffering
any deviation. This holds good only in the case of a thin lens.

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An incident ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus.

An incident ray passing through the focus of a lens emerges parallel to the principal axis after
refraction.

When the Object is Placed between F1 and O

The image is:

Formed behind the object
Virtual
Erect
Magnified
When the Object is placed at 2F1

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The image is:

Formed at 2F2
Real
Inverted
Same size as the object

When the Object is placed Between F1 and 2F1

The image is:

Formed beyond 2F2 Real Inverted Magnified

When the Object is placed at F1

The image is: formed at infinity real inverted magnified

When the Object is placed beyond 2F1

The image is: formed between F2 and 2F2 real inverted diminished

When the Object is placed at Infinity

When the object is at infinity, the rays coming from it are parallel to each other.

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The image is: formed at F2 inverted real highly diminished

The table gives at a glance the position, size and nature of the image formed by a convex lens
corresponding to the different positions of the object and also its application.
Position of the Position of the Nature of Size of the
Application
object image the image image
Magnifying lens
On the same Erect and (simple microscope),
Between O and F1 Magnified
side of the lens virtual eye piece of many
instruments
Inverted and
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Photocopying camera
real
Photographic camera,
Between F and Inverted and terrestrial
Beyond 2F2 Magnified
2F1 real telescopes, Photocopie
r used for replication
Inverted and
At F1 At infinity Magnified Search lights
real
Between F2 Inverted and objective lens of a
Beyond 2F1 Diminished
and 2F2 real telescope
Inverted and
At infinity At F2 Diminished photographic camera
real

Convex lens is also used in spectacles the correct the eye defect hypermetropia.

Formation of Image by a Concave Lens

An incident ray of light coming from the object parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens
after refraction appears to come from its focus.

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An incident ray of light passing through the optical centre comes out of the lens without any
deviation.

A concave lens always gives a virtual, erect and diminished image whatever may be the
position of the object. Let us now draw ray diagrams to show the position of the images when
the object is placed - at infinity and between O and F1 and Any position between infinity and
O.

When the Object is at Infinity

The image is: formed at F1 erect virtual diminished

When the Object is placed at any Position between O and infinity

The image is: formed between O and F1 erect virtual diminished

Uses of concave lens

It is used in spectacles for correcting myopia.
Along with convex lens it is used to overcome defects like chromatic aberration and spherical
aberration (the failure of rays to converge at one focus because of a defect in a lens or mirror).

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Sign Convention for Lenses

Following sign convention is used for measuring various distances:

➢ All distances on the principal axis are measured from the optical centre.
➢ The distances measured in the direction of incident rays are positive and all the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
➢ All distances measured above the principal axis are positive. Thus, height of an object and
that of an erect image are positive and all distances measured below the principal axis are
negative.
Note:
The rules are same as in case of spherical mirrors.
The following table gives the sign convention for lenses:
Following sign convention is used for measuring various distances:

All distances on the principal axis are measured from the optical centre.

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The distances measured in the direction of incident rays are positive and all the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
All distances measured above the principal axis are positive. Thus, height of an object nd that
of an erect image are positive and all distances measured below the principal axis are negative.
Note:
The rules are same as in case of spherical mirrors.
The following table gives the sign convention for lenses:
Height of
Type Height of Height of
the
of U V V f f the image the image
object
lens (hI) (hI)
Ho
Real Virtual Real Virtual Real Virtual
No
Conve
- + - + virtual - + +
x
focus
No
real
Conca image No real No real is
- - - + +
ve is focus formed
forme
d

Lens Formula
The relationship between distance of the object (u), distance of the image (v) and focal length
(f) of the lens is called lens formula or lens equation.
1 1 1
= − 𝑢 -------- Lens formula
𝑓 𝑣
This lens formula is applicable to both convex and concave lenses.
Note:
Points to be remembered while using the lens formula. The values of the known parameters
should be used with their proper sign as per the sign convention. No sign should be assigned to
the unknown parameter during calculations.

Magnification
Magnification is the ratio of the size of the image (hI) to the size of the object (ho)
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝐼 𝑣
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚 = = =
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑂 𝑢
Magnification produced by a lens can be equal to one, greater than one or less than one
depending upon the size and nature of the image.
Case I
When, height of the image (hI) = height of the object (ho)
ℎ𝐼
𝑚= =1
ℎ𝑜
Thus, when the magnification is one, the size of the image is equal to the size of the object.

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Case II
When hI > ho
ℎ𝐼
𝑚= > 1. The image is magnified
ℎ𝑜
Case III
ℎ𝐼
𝑚= < 1. The image is diminished
ℎ𝑜
For both type of lenses, the height of the object is always positive, while the height of the
image may be + or - depending upon its nature.
As per sign convention for lenses, the height of an inverted and real image is negative and
hence the magnification of a lens is negative when it produces an inverted and real image. For
an erect and virtual image, the height of the image is positive. So, the magnification is positive
when an erect and virtual image is formed.
Power of a Lens
Whenever a ray of light passes through a lens (except when it passes through the optical
centre) it bends. The bending of light rays towards the principal axis is called convergence and
bending of light rays away from the principal axis is called divergence. The degree of
convergence or divergence of a lens is expressed in terms of its power. A lens of short focal
length deviates the rays more while a lens of large focal length deviates the rays less. Thus
power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in meters.
1
Power of a lens = 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
The unit of power is dioptre
1
1 dioptre = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
1D = 1 𝑚−1
If there is convex lens of power 1 D then its focal length is equal 1 meter.
The power of a convex lens is positive and concave lens is negative.
If the focal lengths of the individual lenses f1 f2 are f1, f2 ....... then the focal length of the
equivalent lens is given by-
1 1 1 𝑓1𝑓2
= + 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 =
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1+𝑓2
In terms of the power of the lenses P = P1 + P2......

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Dispersion and Scattering of light

Newton's Experiment - Dispersion of Light

Sir Isaac Newton, while studying the images of heavenly bodies formed by a lens, found that
the images were coloured at the edges. In 1665, to investigate this, he performed an experiment
using a prism. Newton darkened his room at Trinity College, Cambridge and allowed a beam
of sunlight to pass through a small circular hole in the shutter forming a white circular patch on
the opposite wall. He then placed a triangular prism in the path of the beam of light and
observed that the white light was split into seven colours and that the seven colours resembled
the colours of a rainbow namely violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red
(VIBGYOR).

This process of splitting of white light into its constituent colours when it is passed through a
transparent medium is known as Dispersion.
The band of colours obtained due to the dispersion of white light is referred to as a spectrum.
From the above experiment Newton concluded that white light consists of a mixture of seven
different colours.
Tracing the Path of Light through a Prism
Let us now trace the path of light through a prism.
Place a prism on a white sheet of paper with the triangular face on the sheet and trace its
boundary ABC.
Fix two pins T and S on one side.
Place the prism on the boundary ABC.
Looking through the other side fix two more pins Q and R in such a way that the all four pins
appear to be in the same line.
Remove the pins and mark their positions.
Join TS and RQ and extend them to meet the faces of the prism at P and O respectively.
Join PO.

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TP represents the incident ray

PO represents the refracted ray
And OR represents the emergent ray which is bent towards the base.
Let PN and ON be the normal at the points P and O respectively.
And let i be the angle of incidence and r the angle of refraction.
If the incident ray TP is extended forward and the emergent ray RO backwards, they meet at M,
forming the angle OML.
Measure the angle OML.
This angle is called the angle of deviation.
Angle of deviation is the angle through which an incident ray deviates.
Repeat this for different values of angle of incidence.

Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism

Even though all colours of the visible spectrum travel with the same speed in vacuum, the speed
of the colours of the visible spectrum varies when they pass through a transparent medium like
glass and water. That is, the refractive index of glass is different for different colours.

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When a polychromatic light (multi coloured or light containing more than one wavelength) like
white light is incident on the first surface of the prism it gets refracted. But each constituent of
the white light gets refracted through a different angle, i.e., white light gets dispersed. When
these colours are incident on the second surface of the prism they again undergo refraction (they
get refracted from a denser to rarer medium) and the colours are separated further. Thus a beam
of white light incident on a prism splits into its constituent colours to form a spectrum.
Each constituent of the white light is deviated towards the base of the prism. Violet colour
suffers the maximum deviation and red the least. The spectrum obtained is impure as the colours
in the spectrum do not have any sharp boundaries i.e., each colour merge gradually into the next

Recomposition of White Light

In order to get white light from the dispersed light the prisms are arranged as shown in the
diagram. Recombination of the seven colours of the dispersed white light to get white light is
known as recomposition of white light.

Experiment to Show the Recomposition of White Light

Place a prism (P1) on a table and a screen behind it. Allow a narrow beam of light to be incident
on the prism (P1). The white light gets dispersed and we obtain a band of seven colours on the
screen.

Now remove the screen and place another prism P 2 of the same material in the opposite
direction. Place a white screen behind P2. A spot of white light appears on the screen. Thus the
second prism has recombined the dispersed light.

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Formation of a Rainbow

The small droplets of rain water which remain suspended in air just after the rains act like a
prism. When sunlight passes through these drops of rainwater, it gets dispersed and we see the
seven colours of the rainbow.

Atmospheric Refraction

Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial object caused by the
refraction of light rays as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere. The twinkling of stars and
variation in size of the Sun are due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.

Twinkling of Stars

The rays of light coming from the stars travel through the layers of air of varying densities.
These rays get refracted continuously and they bend towards the normal as the refraction is from
a rarer to a denser medium. The movements of air and convection currents cause a change in the
density of the layers of air. As a result, the position of the image of the star goes on changing
after every short interval. These different positions of the images formed at short intervals of
time give the impression that the star is twinkling

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Variation in the Size of the Sun

At dusk or dawn the Sun appears to be larger than at noon. This is because when the sun is near
the horizon the rays of light coming from the sun have to pass through layers of air of increasing
density.
Due to continuous bending of light the sun appears to be larger. At noon, the sun appears to be
smaller than at dusk or dawn. This is because the rays of light that fall normally on the surface of
the earth do not get refracted.

Scattering of Light
Scattering is a general physical process whereby some forms of radiation, such as light or
moving particles, for example, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or more
localized non-uniformities in the medium through which it passes.

A large number of molecules are present in the earth’s atmosphere. These molecules scatter light
in various directions. The air is composed of many tiny particles including dust and water
vapour. As the sunlight passes through the air, the shorter blue light waves are reflected and
refracted by the particles while the other coloured light waves being longer are unaffected and
are not reflected by the water vapour or dust in the air. Blue, therefore, is scattered the most and

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this explains the bluish colour of the sky. At sunset or sunrise, the sunrays have to cover large
atmospheric distances to reach us and most of the blue light gets scattered and doesn’t reach us.
The sky as well as the sun, at sunrise and sunset, therefore looks reddish.

Tyndall Effect
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These particles include
smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When beam of light
strikes such air particles, the path of the beam becomes visible. Similarly the path of a beam of
light passing through a true solution is not visible. However, its path becomes visible through a
colloidal solution where the size of the particles is relatively larger. The phenomenon of
scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.

Tyndall effect is the visible scattering effect of light on particles path of a beam of light passing
through a colloid system.

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Chapter 13 - Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Introduction
A magnet is a material which can attract substances like iron, nickel, cobalt and steel.
A magnet has 2 poles – north and south.
When suspended freely the 2 poles seek the north and south pole of earth.
When broken into pieces each piece becomes a magnet.

Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet where its influence is felt by any other magnetic element is known as
a magnetic field.
Magnetic field can be measured in Tesla or Weber/m2

Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines come out of the north pole of a magnet externally and get into the South Pole
forming closed loops.
Magnetic field lines are closest at the poles, where the magnetic field strength is the maximum.
No two magnetic field lines intersect each other.
The direction of the magnetic field at a point is indicated by the tangent at that point.

Natural Magnet
Magnetite or Lodestone (Fe3O4), the black ore of iron is a naturally existing magnet.
Oersted’s Experiment

The needle is deflected which means that the electric current through the copper wire has produced
a magnetic effect.
This means we can say that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other.

Magnet in a Magnetic Field

When a magnet is placed in a magnetic field it aligns itself along the field lines with the North
Pole in the direction of the magnetic field.

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On the surface of earth a magnetic field exists due to the contents of the earth making it behave
like a magnet. Because of this a magnetic needle is used to find the direction on the surface of the
earth.

Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Straight Conductor

If the current in the copper wire is changed, the deflection in the needle also changes. In fact, if
the current is increased, the deflection also increases.
It indicates that the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a given point increases as the
current through the wire increases.

Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Circular Conductor

The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire at a given point depends directly on the
current passing through it.
If there is a circular coil having n turns, the field produced is n times as large as that produced by
a single turn.

Magnetic Field Due To a Solenoid

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder
is called a solenoid.

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The magnetic field lines around a solenoid are as shown in the diagram below.
One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as the South
Pole.
The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines.
This indicates that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid.
That is, the field is uniform inside the solenoid.

Rules for Determining Direction of Magnetic Field:

Right hand thumb rule for straight conductors
If a straight conductor is grasped in the palm of right hand with the thumb pointing along the
direction of current flow, then the direction of the curled fingers point in the direction of the
magnetic field.

Right hand thumb rule for circular conductors

If the direction of the circular current coincides with the direction of the curled fingers then the
thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.

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Maxwell’s cork screw rule

If the direction of a linear motion of a cork screw represents the direction of the current through
the conductor, then the direction of rotation of the cork screw gives the direction of the magnetic
field.

Ampere’s swimming rule

If a man swims along the wire carrying current such that his face is always towards the magnetic
needle with current entering his feet and leaving his head, then the north pole of the magnetic
needle is always deflected towards his left hand.

Magnetizing a Material:
The process of converting a material into a magnet is called magnetizing.
Once magnetized the material is capable of exhibiting magnetic properties.

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Permanent Magnets:
If the material which is magnetized does not lose its magnetic properties, it becomes a permanent
magnet.
Steel exhibits this property.

Electromagnets and Its Uses:

A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be
Used to magnetize a piece of magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil.
The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
Electromagnets are used in electric bells, loudspeakers, telephone diaphragms and electric fan.
Giant electromagnets are also used in cranes to carry materials in bulk.

Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A current carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field.

The direction of force is reversed when the direction of current in the conductor is reversed.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

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According to Fleming’s left hand rule, when the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left
hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of
the magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current, then, the thumb points in
the direction of the force exerted on the conductor.

Electric Motor
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into magnetic energy.

DC Motor
Principle
When a rectangular coil carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, a torque acts on the coil
which rotates it continuously.
When the coil rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates and thus it is able to do mechanical work.

Construction and Working

Parts of a DC Motor

Armature
A D.C. motor consists of a rectangular coil made of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron
core. This coil wound on the soft iron core forms the armature. The coil is mounted on an axle and
is placed between the cylindrical concave poles of a magnet.

Commutator
A commutator is used to reverse the direction of flow of current. Commutator is a copper ring split
into two parts C1 and C2. The split rings are insulated from each other and mounted on the axle of
the motor. The two ends of the coil are soldered to these rings. They rotate along with the coil.
Commutator rings are connected to a battery. The wires from the battery are not connected to the
rings but to the brushes which are in contact with the rings.

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Brushes
Two small strips of carbon, known as brushes press slightly against the two split rings, and the
split rings rotate between the brushes.
The carbon brushes are connected to a D.C. source.

Working of a DC Motor
When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated around the armature. The left side of the
armature is pushed away from the left magnet and drawn towards the right, causing rotation.

When the coil turns through 900, the brushes lose contact with the commutator and the current
stops flowing through the coil.
However the coil keeps turning because of its own momentum.
Now when the coil turns through 1800, the sides get interchanged. As a result the commutator ring
C1 is now in contact with brush B2 and commutator ring C2 is in contact with brush B1. Therefore,
the current continues to flow in the same direction.

The efficiency of the DC Motor Increases by:

Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
Increasing the strength of the current.
Increasing the area of cross-section of the coil.
Increasing the strength of the radial magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon by which an emf or current is induced in a conductor due to a change in the
magnetic field near the conductor is known as electromagnetic induction.

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Michael Faraday the English scientist was the first person to prove that a magnet can create a
current.
To test this he moved a magnet towards and away from the coil of wire connected to a
galvanometer.
He observed that there was a deflection in the galvanometer indicating that a current is induced in
it.
The current obtained due to the relative motion between the coil and the magnet is called induced
current.
The phenomenon by which an emf or current is induced in a conductor due to change in the
magnetic field near the conductor is known as electromagnetic induction.
Faraday arrived at a few conclusions by moving a bar magnet in and out of the coil of wire.
Some of the experiments performed by Faraday and his observations are tabulated here. Go
through them.

Experiment

Observation
Deflection in the galvanometer indicates that the current is induced in the coil due to the relative
motion between the magnet and the coil.

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Observation
The deflection in the galvanometer is reversed when the same pole of the magnet is moved in the
opposite direction.

Observation
The galvanometer pointer comes back to the zero position indicating that the deflection in the
galvanometer lasts as long as there is relative motion between the magnet and the coil.

Observation
The deflection in the galvanometer is reversed when the opposite pole is moved in the same
direction.

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Observation
The deflection in the galvanometer changes with the change in number of turns of the coil - more
the number of turns in the coil greater the deflection. The magnetic field goes around each loop of
wire in the coil, so if we increase the number of coils the change in magnetic field is more.
The magnet is moved faster in and out of the coil. The deflection is more if the magnet is moved
faster. That is, the rate at which the current is induced is more when the magnet is moved faster.

Mutual Induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to change of current in a
neighboring coil is called mutual induction. Let us perform an experiment to understand this.
Place two coils P and S close to each other as shown here.
Connect a battery and a key to the primary coil P and connect the secondary coil S to a sensitive
galvanometer G.
Whenever the key is pressed or released the galvanometer shows a deflection.
Now observe the deflection of the galvanometer needle by pressing and releasing the key.
The needle deflects because the current flowing through the primary coil induces a current in the
secondary coil.

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How does Mutual Induction Occur?

When the key K is pressed, current starts flowing through the coil P and this increases the magnetic
flux linked with P.
Since S is very close to P, the magnetic flux linked with S also increases. Thus induced emf, hence
induced current is produced in S.
The direction of induced current in S is given by the arrow marked 1, in accordance with Lenz's
law.

Similarly, when the key is released, magnetic flux associated with the coils decreases and this
gives rise to induced current in the direction shown by the arrow marked 2.
That is mutual induction is the production of induced emf in the secondary coil during the time of
make or break of current in the primary coil.

Rules for Determining the Direction of Induced Current

The direction of induced current can be determined by using Fleming's Right Hand Rule.

Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand, such that they are
mutually perpendicular to each other. If forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field, the

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thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, then, middle finger indicates the direction
of induced current in the conductor.
The electric generator works on the above explained phenomenon.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule – Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right
hand, such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If forefinger indicates the direction
of the magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle
finger indicates the direction of induced current in the conductor.

Electric Generator (AC)

The electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The two types of generators are DC and AC generators:
DC Generators - A cycle dynamo and a car dynamo are examples of DC generators. They produce
DC.
AC Generators - AC Generators or alternators are used in power stations and industries to produce
AC.
AC Generator
Principle
When a straight conductor is moved rapidly in a magnetic field, then a current is induced in the
conductor. It is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

Construction
Main Parts of the AC Generator
An AC generator consists of a magnet with concave cylindrical poles, an armature, and a current
collecting arrangement.
The current collecting arrangement consists of slip rings and brushes.

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Armature is a soft iron core on which a coil having a large number of turns of insulated copper
wire is wound. Magnetic poles are concave and cylindrical. The concave poles produce a radial
magnetic field.
The ends of the armature are connected to two slip rings. They rotate along with the coil. The slip
rings are made of metal and are insulated from each other.
There are two brushes B1 and B2 made of carbon. One end of each brush is in contact with the
rotating slip rings and the other end is connected to an external circuit. Here the brushes are
connected to a galvanometer and brushes do not rotate with the coil.
The axle is rotated mechanically from outside by a diesel engine, flowing water, steam or high-
speed wind.

Working
As the armature rotates about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, it keeps on changing its
relative orientation with respect to the field.
Thus the flux keeps on changing continuously with time.
This change in magnetic flux induces an emf.
If the outer terminals of the armature are connected to an external circuit, an electric current flows
through it.
The deflection of the galvanometer needle indicates that an emf is induced.
The direction of the induced emf is reversed after every half rotation of the coil.
Thus in one rotation of the coil, the current changes its direction twice.
To understand how the direction of current changes go through the diagram given below:

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Such a current which changes its direction after equal intervals of time is called alternating current
(AC).
To get a direct current (DC) generator a split-ring type commutator must be used. In this
arrangement, one brush is at all times in contact with the arm moving up in the field while the
other is in contact with the arm moving down. Thus a unidirectional current is produced in such a
generator.
The AC current produced in India has a frequency of 50 hertz (Hz). The coil is rotated at the rate
of 50 revolutions in 1 second. So in 50 revolutions the current changes its direction 100 times in
one second.

DC Generator
The output produced here is unidirectional.
The slip rings are replaced with split rings to achieve this.
To get a direct current (DC) generator a split-ring type commutator must be used. In this
arrangement, one brush is at all times in contact with the arm moving up in the field while the
other is in contact with the arm moving down. Thus a unidirectional current is produced in such a
generator.

Direct Current
When the current flows in the same direction it is called 'direct current' or DC
The current derived from a cell or battery is unidirectional. So it is a DC source.
It is represented in an electrical circuit as:

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The voltage V/s time graph for a DC source is represented as follows:

The +ve and -ve terminals are fixed.

Alternating Current:
The current changes its direction after equal intervals of time,
It is called alternating current.
Most of the power stations generate AC current.
It is represented in an electrical circuit as:

The voltage V/s time graph for an AC source is represented as follows:

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It has no fixed terminals as the current changes its direction after every half cycle.
Domestic Electric Circuits:
Electric power is usually generated at places which are far away from the places where it is
consumed. At the generating station, the electric power is generated at 11,000 volts. This voltage
alternates at a frequency of 50 Hz.
The power is transmitted over long distances at high voltage to minimize the loss of energy in the
transmission.

Domestic Wiring:
The electric power line enters our house through three wires- namely the live wire, the neutral wire
and the earth wire. To avoid confusion we follow a colour code for insulating these wires. The red
wire is the live wire, and the black wire is neutral. The earth wire is given green plastic insulation.
The live wire has a high potential of 220 volts whereas the neutral wire has zero potential. Thus
the potential difference between the live wire and the neutral wire is 220-0 = 220 volts.

The earth wire is much thicker in size and is made of copper. One end of it is connected to a copper
plate buried deep under the earth. The earth connection is made to the electric meter and then to
the main switch.
In our homes, we receive supply of electric power through a main supply (mains), either supported
through overhead electric poles or by underground cables.
The live wire and neutral wire, coming from the electric pole, enter a box fitted just outside our
house which has a main fuse F1. The fuse is connected in series with the live wire. This is done so
because it is only the live wire which has a high potential of 220 volts unlike the neutral wire which
carries zero potential. The fuse F1 has a high rating of about 50 amperes. Thus it prevents any
damage such as fire to the entire electrical wiring entering the house due to short-circuit or
overloading.
The two wires then enter the electricity meter which records the electrical power consumed by us
in kilowatt-hour (kWh). This meter is installed by the electric supply Department of our city.

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These two wires coming out of the meter are then connected to a main switch which is placed in a
distribution box. Another fuse F2 is placed in series with the live wire in this box for the sake of
consumer safety.
There are two separate circuits in a house namely lighting circuit and power circuit. The lighting
circuit with a 5 A fuse is used for running electric bulbs, fan, radio, TV, tube lights etc. and the
power circuit with a 15 A fuse is used for running electric heater, electric iron, geyser, refrigerator
etc as it draws more current.
The distribution circuits are always connected in parallel combination. In a parallel circuit even if
there is a fault or short-circuiting in any one line, the corresponding fuse blows off leaving the
other circuits and appliances intact and prevents damage to the entire house.
In case short-circuit occurs in the power circuit, then the power-fuse will blow off but our lights
will continue to burn as the lighting circuit remains unaffected.
A constant voltage of the main line is available for all other electrical appliances.
Along with the two wires, a third wire called the earth wire also enters our house as shown in the
fig. The earth connection is first made to the electric meter and then to the main switch. This wire
then goes into the rooms along with the live and neutral wires.

Electric Fuse:
Electric fuse is a device which is used to limit the current in an electric circuit. The fuse safeguards
the circuit and the electrical appliances from being damaged.
The fuse wire is generally an alloy of lead and tin. It has a low melting point and breaks the circuit
if the current exceeds a safe value. The thickness and length of the fuse wire depends on the
maximum current allowed through the circuit.
It is connected in series in the beginning of the electric circuits.
When the circuit current exceeds a specified value due to voltage fluctuations or short-circuiting,
the fuse wire gets heated and melts. Thus it breaks the connection as shown in the figure and no
current flows. This prevents damage to the appliance.

Causes of Damage to Electric Circuits:

Overloading
If too many electrical appliances of high power rating (like electric iron, water heater etc) are
switched on at the same time, they draw an extremely large current from the circuit. This condition
is called overloading and it can cause overheating of the wiring and lead to a fire. It can also happen
due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage.

Short-circuiting
In an electric circuit a short - circuit occurs whenever the live wire and the neutral wire come in
direct contact. The wires touch may each other due to faulty connection or sometimes due to the
wearing off the insulation. This condition leads to overheating of the wires and causes a fire.

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Earthing of Electrical Appliances:

To avoid the risk of electric shocks, the metal of an electrical appliance is 'earthed'.
Earthed means to connect the metal case of the appliance to the earth (at zero potential) by means
of a metal wire (copper) called the earth wire. One end of the earth wire is buried deep in the earth;
the other end of the wire is connected to the three pin socket.
When the electrical appliance is switched on, the metal casing of the appliance will remain at zero
potential as it is in contact with the earth wire in the three pin socket. It thus prevents us from an
electric shock even if we touch it accidentally.

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Chapter 16 - Management of Natural Resources

We often hear or read about environmental problems. These are often global-level problems
and we feel helpless to make any changes. There are international laws and regulations and
then there are our own national laws and acts for environmental protection. There are also
national and international organizations working towards protecting our environment.
Natural resources are the materials provided by nature. They include forests, water, coal and
petroleum reserves. Day-by-day we are exploiting our natural resources. River Ganga
features an example for the exploitation of natural resources. The coliform bacteria are
usually found in the human intestine whose presence in the Ganga water indicates
contamination by faeces and disease-causing micro-organisms. The Ganga Action Plan
project was launched in 1985 to clean the Ganga and make its water free from pollution.
The 3R's in conserving resources are Reduce, Recycle and Reuse. We can make environment
friendly decision by knowing more about how our choices affect the environment. The
concept of sustainable development encourages forms of growth that meet current basic
human needs, while preserving the resources for the needs of future generations. Economic
development is linked to environmental conservation. Thus sustainable development implies
a change in all aspects of life.

1. Why do we need to manage our resources?

All the things we use or consume are obtained from resources on the earth. The only thing we
get from outside is energy which we receive from the Sun. Our resources are not unlimited.
With the human population increasing at a tremendous rate due to improvement in health
care, the demand for all resources is increasing at an exponential rate. The management of
natural resources requires a long term perspective so that these will last for the generations to
come and will not merely be exploited to the hilt for short term gains.
Another factor to be considered while we exploit these natural resources is the damage we
cause to the environment while these resources are either extracted or used. For eg: mining.
Hence sustainable natural resource management demands that we plan for the safe disposal of
these wastes too.

2. Forests and Wild life:

Forests are 'biodiversity hotspots' due to the sheer number as well as the variety of species of
flora and fauna that live in them.

2.1 Stakeholders:
Stakeholders are
(1) The people who live in or around forests are dependent on forest products for various
aspects of their life.
(2) The forest department of the government which owns the land and controls the resources
from forests.
(3) The industrialists who use various forest products but are not dependent on the forests in
any one area.

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(4) The wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine form.
We have to conserve forests which are of greater use to the environment. The conservation of
forests by the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan became well known because of Amrita Devi
Bishnoi, who sacrificed her life in 1731 for the protection of the Khejri trees in Khejrali
village near Jodhpur Rajasthan.
We need to accept that human intervention has been very much a part of the forest landscape.
Forest resources ought to be used in a manner that is both environmentally and
developmentally sound. The environment must not be regarded as a pristine collection of
plants and animals. It is a vast and complex entity that offers a range of natural resources for
our use. We need to use these resources with due caution for our economic and social growth
and to meet our material aspirations.

2.2 Sustainable Management:

Sustainable development is not only about the resources we use but also ensures that they are
equally distributed. Stakeholders together help in sustainable management. The Chipko
Andolan ('Hug the Trees Movement') originated in the 1970's, in a village called Reni in
Garhwal high up in the Himalayas. It was to save trees from being cut down. The Chipko
movement quickly spread across communities and media and forced the government, to
whom the forest belongs, to rethink their priorities in the use of forest products. Experience
has taught people that the destruction of forests affected not just tha availability of forest
products, but also the quality of soil and the sources of water. Participation of the local people
can indeed lead to the efficient management of forests.
Government should control the industries in using raw materials. Government should also
control illegal activities. Industries should play an important role in the management of
natural resources.

3. Water for all:

Water is an essential form of life. It is a basic necessity for all terrestrial forms of life. Water
is useful in agriculture, industries, cooking and various domestic activities. Most of us depend
on rainfall for water.
The rainfall pattern in India differs in different geographical regions. Rains in India are
largely due to the monsoons. Tropical regions receive more rainfall as compared to desert
regions.
Despite nature’s monsoon bounty, failure to sustain water availability underground has
resulted largely from the loss of vegetation cover, diversion for high water demanding crops,
and pollution from industrial effluents and urban wastes. Irrigation methods like dams, tanks
and canals have been used in various parts of India since ancient times. These were generally
local interventions managed by local people and assured that the basic minimum
requirements for both agriculture and daily needs were met throughout the year.

3.1 Dams:
Dams are the structures constructed to divide and retain river water in a particular area. Large
dams can ensure the storage of water not just for irrigation but also for generating electricity.
Some famous dams in India are the Bhakra Nangal Dam, the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the

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Tehri Dam. Water from dams is distributed through canal systems that transport stored water
to great distances. The disadvantages of dams are deforestation, sedimentation, erosion of
river beds, and disruption of animal and plant life. Also, they displace large number of
peasants and tribals without adequate compensation or rehabilitation. The construction of
large dams swallows up huge amounts of public money without the generation of
proportionate benefits.

3.2 Water Harvesting:

Watershed management emphasises scientific soil and water conservation in order to increase
the biomass production. The aim is to develop primary resources of land and water to
produce secondary resources of plants and animals for use in a manner which will not cause
ecological imbalance.
Watershed management not only increases the production and income of the watershed
community but also mitigates droughts and floods and increases the life of the downstream
dam and reservoirs.
Water harvesting techniques are highly locale specific and the benefits are also localised.
Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that mismanagement and over
exploitation of these resources is reduced.
The advantages of water stored in the ground are many. It does not evaporate, but spreads out
to a recharge wells and provides moisture for vegetation over wide area. It does not provide
breeding grounds for mosquitoes like stagnant water collected in ponds or artificial lakes. The
ground water is also relatively protected from contamination by human and animal waste.

4. Coal and petroleum:

Other important resources are fossil fuel that is coal and petroleum which are important
resources of energy for us. These are non-renewable sources of energy. Coal and petroleum
were formed hundreds of million years ago as a result of the action of heat and pressure on
decaying, buried plants in the swampy areas of the earth. The disadvantages of fossil fuels are
that they release carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur on combustion.
Carbon dioxide causes global warming. Thus we need to use these resources judiciously.
Some alternative sources of energy are wind, solar, thermal and hydroelectric energy. These
are all viable options since they are more environment-friendly. Energy conservation can be
done by recycling and reusing plastic bags, switching off lights, and also by using CFL bulbs.
Fuel is most commonly used in internal combustion engines for transportation and recent in
this field concentrates on ensuring complete combustion in these engines in order to increase
efficiency and also reduce air pollution.

5. An overview of natural resource management:

Sustainable management of natural resources is a difficult task. In addressing this issue, we
need to keep an open mind with regard to the interests of various stakeholders. Going beyond
laws, rules and regulations, we need to tailor our requirements, individually and collectively,
so that benefits of development reach everyone now and for all generations to come.

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Chapter 3 - Metals and Non-metals

Introduction
There are 118 elements present in the periodic table, 92 of which are naturally occurring. Metals
and non-metals are characterized by distinctly different physical and chemical properties. At present
about 80 metals are known to us.
At room temperature, over half of the non-metals are gases, except bromine, which is a liquid.
The most abundant non-metal in the earth's crust is oxygen, which constitutes about 50% of the
earth's crust and along with nitrogen it forms the main constituents of air.
The next abundant nonmetal is silicon which constitutes about 26% of the earth’s crust. Oxygen and
silicon are the two major constituents of earth. Hydrogen and oxygen are the two major constituents
of the oceans.

Position of Metals and Non-metals in the Periodic Table

Metals occupy the groups on the left of the periodic table. Group IA consists of highly reactive
metals called the alkali metals, while group II A elements are called alkaline earth metals. Elements
between group IIA and IIIA are all called transition metals.

The non-metals are elements (with the exception of hydrogen) that are found to the right on the
Periodic Table i.e., groups IVA, VA, VIA &VIIA. The non-metallic character of these elements
increases from top to the bottom of the group. For example, in group VA the first and second
members are non-metals, the third and fourth are metalloids and the last member is a metal. The
metalloids are a group of elements which have properties similar to both the metals and non-metals.
These metalloids are: Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and astatine. The
non-metals are elements found to the right of these metalloids, including the element, hydrogen.

Group Non Metals Nitrogen,

VA Phosphorous,
Metalloids Arsenic, Antimony
Metal Bismuth

Physical Properties of Metals

Physical State - Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury and gallium,
which are liquids at room temperature.

Lustre - Metals have the quality of reflecting light from its surface and can be polished e.g., gold,
silver and copper.

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Malleability - Metals have the ability to withstand hammering and can be made into thin sheets
known as foils. Except Zinc which is brittle.

Ductility - Metals can be drawn into wires. Except Zinc which is brittle.

Hardness - All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with a
knife.

Conduction - Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and copper are
the two best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth,
mercury and iron are also poor conductors

Density - Metals have high density and are very heavy. Iridium and osmium have the highest
densities whereas lithium has the lowest density.

Melting and Boiling Point - Metals have high melting and boiling point. Tungsten has the highest
melting point where as silver has low boiling point. Sodium and potassium have low melting points.

Alloy Formation - Metals form homogeneous mixture with each other called an alloy. Example-
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Sonorous - Metals are sonorous i.e. they produce sound when hit with some solid object.

Physical Properties of Non-metals

Physical State - Most of the non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room
temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (iodine, carbon, sulphur). These have no metallic lustre,
(except iodine) and do not reflect light. (Except carbon in the form of diamond).

Nature - Non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into wires or pounded into sheets.
Except- diamond is the hardest substance known.

Conduction - They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. (Except graphite conducts heat, both
graphite & gas carbon conduct electricity.)

Electronegative Character - Non-metals have a tendency to gain or share electrons with other
atoms. They are electronegative in character.

Reactivity - They generally form acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen.

Melting and Boiling Points – Non-metals have low melting and boiling points.

Comparative Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

Property Metals Non-metals

State of matter These are usually solid, except mercury, These exist in all the three states.

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Property Metals Non-metals

which is a liquid at room temperature. Bromine is the only liquid. Solids

Gallium and Caesium melt below 30oC. – iodine, carbon, sulphur.
So if room temperature is around 30oC,
they may also be in liquid state

Density They usually have high density, except Their densities are usually low.
for sodium, potassium, calcium etc.

Melting point They usually have a high melting point Their melting points are low.
except mercury, cesium, gallium, tin,
lead.

Boiling point Their boiling points are usually high. Their boiling points are low.

Hardness They are usually hard, except mercury, They are usually not hard. But the
sodium, calcium, potassium, lead etc. exception is the non-metal
diamond, the hardest substance.

Malleability They can be beaten into thin sheets. They are generally brittle.

Ductility They can be drawn into thin wires, They cannot be drawn into thin
except sodium, potassium, calcium etc. wires.

Conduction of heat They are good conductors of heat. They are poor conductors of heat.
(exception- carbon in the form of
graphite)

Conduction of They are good conductors of electricity. They are non-conductors, except
electricity for carbon in the form of graphite
and the gas carbon.

Lustre Newly cut metals have high lustre. Usually not lustrous, except
Some get tarnished immediately. iodine and diamond - the most
lustrous of all the substances.

Alloy formation They form alloys. Generally, they do not form

alloys. However, carbon,
phosphorus, sulphur etc. can be
present in some alloys.

Tenacity These usually have high tensile strength These have low tensile strength.
except sodium, potassium, calcium,
lead etc.

Brittleness They are hard but not brittle, except They are generally brittle.
zinc at room temperature.

Electronic They usually have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in They usually have 4, 5, 6 or 7

their valence shell. The greater the electrons in the valence shell. If it

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Property Metals Non-metals

configuration number of shells and lesser the number has 8 electrons, it is called a
of valence electrons, the greater is the noble gas. Lesser the number of
reactivity of the metal. shells and greater the number of
valence electrons, greater is the
reactivity of the non-metal.

Ionization They always ionize by losing electrons: They always ionize by gaining
electrons:

Charge of ions Positively charged. Negatively charged.

Type of valency Metals always exhibit electrovalency. Non-metal exhibit both

electrovalency or covalency.

Deposition during They are always deposited at the They are always deposited at the
electrolysis cathode. anode.

Redox reaction These lose electrons and hence get These gain electrons and hence
oxidized. get reduced.

Redox agents They are reducing agents. They are oxidizing agents.

Nature of oxides They generally form basic oxides, some They generally form acidic
of which are also amphoteric, such as oxides.
aluminum oxide, zinc oxide, lead oxide
etc. Neutral oxides are nitrous oxide,
nitric oxide, carbon monoxide
water etc.

Hydrides They do form hydrides except some They do form hydrides, e.g. NH3,
transition elements. PH3, HCl, HBr, HI, H2S, H2O etc.

Atomicity These are always monatomic. These can be mono, di, tri, or
polyatomic.

Solubility They do not dissolve in solvents except They dissolve in solvents and can
by chemical action. be re-obtained by evaporation.
Example: Sulphur in carbon
disulphide.

Action with They produce chlorides, which are They produce chlorides, which
chlorine electrovalent. are covalent.

Action with dilute On reaction with dilute acids they give They do not react with dilute
acids respective salt and hydrogen. acids.

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Chemical Properties of Metals

Metals are Electropositive Elements

Metals are very reactive. Metals tend to lose electrons easily and form positively charged ions;
therefore, metals are called electropositive elements. Sodium metal forms sodium ions Na +. The
electropositive nature allows metals to form compounds with other elements easily.

Reaction of Metals with Oxygen

Metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are some of the most reactive metals. Potassium,
sodium, lithium, calcium and magnesium react with oxygen and burn in air.
Metals from aluminum to copper in the activity series of metals react slowly when heated in air to
form the metal oxides. Aluminum is the fastest and copper is the slowest of them.
• Sodium metal reacts with the oxygen of the air at room temperature to form sodium oxide.
Hence, sodium is stored under kerosene to prevent its reaction with oxygen, moisture and
carbon dioxide.

• Sodium oxide is a basic oxide which reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide.

• Mg does not react with oxygen at room temperature. On heating, Mg burns in air with intense
light and heat to form MgO.

• Zinc metal burns in air only on strong heating to form zinc oxide.

• In moist air, iron is oxidized to give rust.

• On heating in air it burns with a brilliant flame forming triferric tetroxide.

• Copper is the least reactive metal and does not burn in air even on heating. However, on
prolonged strong heating copper reacts with oxygen and forms copper (II) oxide (CuO) outside
and copper (I) oxide (Cu2O) inside.

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• Gold and platinum do not react with oxygen in air.

Reaction of Metals with Water

Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium react with cold water.
• Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

• Metals from magnesium to iron in the activity series of metals, react with steam (but not cold
H2O) to form the metal oxide and hydrogen gas.

• Red hot iron reacts with steam to form Iron (II, III) oxide.

Note: The reaction between iron and steam is irreversible. Tin, lead, copper, silver, gold and
platinum do not react with water or steam.

Reaction of Metals with Acids

• Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium react violently with dilute H 2SO4 and dilute HCl,
forming the metal salt (either sulphate or chloride) and hydrogen gas. The reaction is similar to
the reaction with water.

• Magnesium, aluminum, zinc, iron, tin and lead react safely with dilute acid. Magnesium is the
fastest and lead is the slowest of the six.

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Zinc with dilute sulphuric acid is often used for the laboratory preparation of hydrogen. The
reaction is slow at room temperature, but its rate can be increased by the addition of a little
copper (II) sulphate. Zinc displaces copper metal, which acts as a catalyst.

Metals below hydrogen (copper, silver, gold and platinum), will not react with dilute acid to
liberate hydrogen. In general,

• Hydrochloric acid makes a metal chloride.

• Sulphuric acid makes a metal sulphate.
• Reactions with nitric acid are more complex, the nitrate is formed but the gas is rarely hydrogen,
and more often, an oxide of nitrogen.

Reaction of Metals with Salt Solutions

Reactive metals can displace any metal less reactive than itself, from the oxide, chloride or
sulphate of the less reactive metal in solution or their molten state. If metal A displaces metal B
from its solution, it is more reactive than B.

Copper (II) sulphate solution is blue; iron sulphate solution is almost colourless when dilute. During
the displacement, the blue solution loses its color and the iron metal is seen to turn pink-brown as
the displaced copper becomes deposited on it.
On heating the mixture of magnesium powder and black copper (II) oxide, white magnesium oxide
is formed with brown bits of copper:

Adding magnesium to blue copper (II) sulphate solution, the blue color fades as colourless
magnesium sulphate is formed and brown bits of copper metal form a precipitate:

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Electronic Nature of Metals and Non-metals

The atoms of all elements, except noble gases, have an incomplete outermost shell. . Noble gases
have their outermost shell complete and hence they are not reactive or "inert".

Most elements are reactive and try to achieve the stability of the noble or inert gases by electron
transfer or by electron sharing. Elements that can donate electrons are called metals. They form
positive ions by losing electrons.

The elements that accept electrons are called non-metals. They form negative ions by gaining
electrons. Metals have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atom and non-metals have 4 to
8 electrons in the outermost shell.
There are two exceptions to this rule: Hydrogen and helium. Hydrogen is a non-metal having 1
electron in the valence shell and helium too is an inert gas having 2 electrons in the valence shell.

Number of
Type of Atomic
Element Electrons in
Elements Number
Shells

K L M N

Noble Gases Helium (He) 2 2

Neon (Ne) 10 2 8

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Number of
Type of Atomic
Element Electrons in
Elements Number
Shells

Argon (Ar) 18 2 8 8

Metals Sodium (Na) 11 2 8 1

Magnesium
12 2 8 2
(Mg)

Aluminium
13 2 8 3
(Al)

Potassium
19 2 8 8 1
(K)

Calcium (Ca) 20 2 8 8 2

Non-metals Nitrogen (N) 7 2 5

Oxygen (O) 8 2 6

Fluorine (F) 9 2 7

Phosphorus
15 2 8 5
(P)

Sulphur (S) 16 2 8 6

Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 8 7

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Important Point

Metals that donate electrons gain positive charge equal to the number of electrons donated. For
example, atomic number of aluminum is 13, so the electronic configuration of Al is 2, 8, and 3.
Aluminum has 3 electrons in the valence shell; it loses 3 electrons to form Al3+.
Alo – 3e- 
 Al3+

Other examples,

Non-metals gain electrons and hence gain negative charge equal to the number of electrons
accepted.
For example,

The Reactivity Series of Metals

Although most metals are usually electropositive in nature and lose electrons in a chemical reaction
they do not react with the same vigour or speed. Metals display different reactions towards different
substances. The greater the ease with which an element loses its electrons and acquires a positive
charge, the greater is its reactivity. Further, the greater the number of shells and lesser the number
of valence electrons, the greater is the reactivity of the metal. The activity series of metals, arranges
all metals in order of their decreasing chemical activity. As we go down the activity series from
potassium to gold the ease with which a metal loses electrons, and forms positive ions in solutions,
decreases.
The most active metal, potassium, is at the top of the list and the least reactive metal, gold, is at the
bottom of the list. Although hydrogen is a non-metal it is included in the activity series due to the
fact that it behaves like a metal in most chemical reactions i.e., the hydrogen ion has a positive
charge [H+] like other metals.

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Element Symbol Group Number

Potassium K IA

Sodium Na IA

Lithium Li IA

Calcium Ca IIA

Magnesium Mg IIA

aluminium Al IIIA

Carbon C IVA

Zinc Zn IIB

Iron Fe VIII

Tin Sn IVA

Lead Pb IVA

Hydrogen H IA

Copper Cu IB

Silver Ag IB

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Element Symbol Group Number

Gold Au IB

Platinum Pt VIII

• The higher the metal in the series, the more reactive it is i.e., its reaction is fast and more
exothermic.
• This also implies that the reverse reaction becomes more difficult i.e., the more reactive a metal,
the more difficult it is to extract from its ore. The metal is also more susceptible to corrosion
with oxygen and water.
• The reactivity series can be established by observation of the reaction of metals with water,
oxygen or acids.
• Within the general reactivity or activity series there are some periodic table trends:

Metals Reactivity and reactions

Potassium K Very reactive, very rapid with cold water forming the alkali potassium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas (which is ignited).
2K+2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) +H2(g)

Sodium Na Fast reaction with cold water forming the alkali sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

The reaction of sodium with water-the sodium melts to a silvery ball and
fizzes as it spins over the water. The rapid exothermic reaction produces
a colourless gas that gives a squeaky pop! with a lit splint-hydrogen.
Universal indicator will turn from green to purple/violet-the strong
alkali sodium hydroxide is formed. The sodium floats because it is less
dense than water.

Calcium Ca Quite reactive with cold water forming the moderately soluble alkali
calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Ca(s) +2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq/s) + H2(g)

Very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless

soluble salt calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.

Ca(s) +2HCl(g) CaCl2(aq) +H2(g)

Not very reactive with dilute sulphuric acid because the colourless
calcium sulphate formed is not very soluble and coats the metal
inhibiting the reaction.

Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)

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Metals Reactivity and reactions

Magnesium Mg Slow reaction with water forming the slightly soluble base magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas.
With steam, the reaction is faster with heated magnesium and a white
powder magnesium oxide is formed along with hydrogen.
Magnesium will burn with a bright white flame in steam, if previously
ignited in air.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
In fact it will even burn in carbon dioxide forming black specks of
carbon!
2Mg(s) +CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless
soluble salt, magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) +2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) +H2(g)
Very reactive with dilute sulphuric acid forming colourless soluble
magnesium sulphate and hydrogen.
Mg(s) +H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Aluminum Al Aluminum has no reaction with water or steam due to a protective
aluminum oxide layer of Al2O3. Slow reaction with dilute hydrochloric
acid to form a colourless soluble salt aluminum chloride and hydrogen
gas.

2Al(s) +6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

The reaction with dilute sulphuric acid is extremely slow to form

colourless aluminum sulphate and hydrogen.

2Al(s +3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

(Carbon C,a Elements higher than carbon i.e aluminum and the more reactive metals
non-metal) must be extracted by electrolysis (or displacing it with an even more
reactive metal). Metals below it, i.e., zinc or a less reactive can be
extracted by reducing the hot metal oxide with carbon.

Zinc Zn No reaction with cold water. When the metal is heated in steam zinc,
oxide and hydrogen are formed.

Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Quite reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless

soluble salt zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Zn(s) +2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq)
+ H2(g)

Quite reactive with dilute sulphuric acid forming the colourless soluble
salt zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.

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Metals Reactivity and reactions

Zn(s) + H2SO4(g) ZnSO4(s) + H2(g)

(this reaction is catalyzed by adding a trace of copper sulphate solution)

Zinc can be extracted by reducing the hot metal oxide on heating with
carbon
2ZnO(s) + C(s) 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
A zinc coating (galvanizing) is used to protect iron from rusting.
Iron Fe No reaction with cold water (rusting is a joint reaction with oxygen).
When the metal is heated in steam an iron oxide (unusual formula) and
hydrogen are formed. This oxide is 'technically' Iron (III, II) oxide!

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) +4H2(g)

Slow reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the soluble pale
green salt Iron (II) chloride and hydrogen gas.

Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Slow reaction with dilute sulphuric acid forming the soluble pale green
salt Iron (II) sulphate and hydrogen gas.

Fe(s) + 2H2SO4(g) FeSO4(s) + H2(g)

Iron can be extracted by reducing the hot metal oxide on heating with
carbon monoxide formed from carbon in the blast furnace e.g.,

Fe2O3(s) +3CO(g) 2Fe(s) +3CO2(g)

Fe3O4(s) +4CO(g) 3Fe(s) +4CO2(g)

(Hydrogen H None of the metals below hydrogen can react with acids to form
non-metal) hydrogen gas. They are least easily corroded metals and partly accounts
for their value and uses in jewellery, electrical contacts etc.

Copper Cu No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam. No reaction with
dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. Copper can be
extracted by reducing the hot black metal oxide on heating with carbon.
2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) +CO2(g)

Silver Ag No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam. No reaction with
dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. Silver can be extracted
by reduction but can be found 'native' as the element.

Gold Au No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam. No reaction with
dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. Gold can be readily
extracted from its ores easily by reduction but it is usually found 'native'.
Pure gold is 24 carat.

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Metals Reactivity and reactions

Platinum Pt No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam. No reaction with
dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. Like gold, it is a very
rare metal. It is used in expensive jewellery, laboratory ware (inert
crucible container) as a industrial catalyst, and catalytic converters in
car exhausts.

Bonding
The tendency of an atom to take part in chemical combination is determined by the number of
valence electrons (electrons in the outermost shell of an atom). The atoms acquire the stable noble
gas configuration of having eight electrons in the outermost shell (called octet rule) during chemical
combination.
The combination of atoms occurs in two ways: either by electrovalent bonding or covalent bonding.
In all chemical reactions, it is the electrons from the outermost shell of an atom that are involved in
interacting with other atoms, either by their transfer or by sharing.

Electrovalent Bonding
When an atom donates one, two or three electrons from its valence shell to another atom, which has
the ability to accept these electrons, it is known as electrovalency. As a result of electrovalency,
both these atoms achieve the structure of an inert gas. When the chemical bond occurs by the
transfer of electrons from the atom of an element to the atom or atoms of another it is called Ionic or
Electrovalent bond.

Thus, the electrovalency of sodium is 1+, and that of chlorine is 1- in NaCl. Similarly, calcium,
magnesium in their chloride exhibits an electrovalency of 2+. There are many elements, which
show different electrovalencies in different compounds. This phenomenon is called 'variable
electrovalency' e.g., iron exists as Fe2+ and Fe3+ in ferrous sulphate and ferric sulphate respectively.

Formation of Sodium Chloride

During the formation of an ionic bond between the metal sodium and the non-metal chlorine,
sodium loses one electron to complete its octet as it has only one electron in its valence shell. It
acquires a noble gas configuration of neon (2, 8). While the chlorine atom has seven electrons in its
valence shell and gains one electron to complete its octet and also acquires stable electronic
configuration of argon.

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Formation of Magnesium Chloride

Magnesium, whose atomic number is 12, has 2, 8, 2 configurations. Its valence shell has two
electrons. The electronic configuration of chlorine (At. no. 17) is 2, 8, 7. It has seven valence
electrons. Since, magnesium has two electrons in excess of the neon configuration (2, 8), and
chlorine is one electron short of the argon configuration (2,8,8), hence one atom of magnesium will
look for two atoms of chlorine to transfer its two electrons to (one to each) as shown below:

The Mg2+ and the two Cl- so formed, then form ionic bonds between them.

In terms of Lewis dot structure,

Formation of Magnesium Oxide

Mg (at no 12) has configuration 2, 8, 2.
The atom of Mg loses 2 electrons to become stable like Neon (2, 8)
Mg – 2e-  Mg2+
Oxygen (at no 8) has configuration 2,6.The atom of Oxygen gains 2 electrons to become stable like
Ne (2, 8 )
O + 2e-  O 2-

Mg2+ + O2-  MgO

Formation of Calcium oxide

Ca (at no 20) has configuration 2,8,8,2.
The atom of Ca loses 2 electrons to become stable like Argon (2,8,8)
Ca – 2e-  Ca2+
Oxygen (at no 8) has configuration 2, 6.
The atom of Oxygen gains 2 electrons to become stable like Ne (2, 8)

O + 2e-  O 2-

Ca 2+ + O2-  CaO

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Properties of Electrovalent Compounds

Property Electrovalent or ionic compounds

Structure of charged
They consist of oppositely charged molecules.
ions

Physical state and The inter-atomic attraction is high, hence they are brittle, hard,
hardness crystalline solids.

Melting and boiling Due to strong attraction between the particles, high
points temperatures are required to melt or boil them.

They are usually soluble in water, but insoluble in organic

Solubility
solvents.

Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state

because movement of ions in the solid is not possible due to
their rigid structure. In the molten form or in aqueous solution
Passage of electricity
form, since the electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions are overcome they allow the flow of
electricity, and get decomposed by it.

Rate of reaction Their reaction usually occurs with high speeds.

Since electrovalent compounds are made up of charged ions,

Dissociation in solution they dissociate to give negative and positive ions in solution.

These compounds can undergo electrolysis. The cations get

Electrolysis
discharged at cathode and anions at anode.

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Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is defined 'as the force of attraction arising due to mutual sharing of electrons
between the two nonmetallic atoms'. The combining atoms may share one, two or three pairs of
electrons. The covalent bond is formed between two similar or dissimilar atoms of nonmetals by
a mutual sharing of electrons, which are counted towards the stability of both the participating
atoms.

When the two atoms combine by mutual sharing of electrons, then each of the atoms acquires a
stable configuration of the nearest noble gas. The compounds formed due to covalent bonding
are called covalent compounds. The shared pair of electrons are called Bond Pairs.

Formation of Covalent Bonds

The Hydrogen Molecule

The hydrogen atom (Atomic number = 1) has 1 electron in the K shell. It tries to acquire the
configuration of He (Atomic number 2). This is possible if the two combining atoms share their
valence electron to form one covalent bond between themselves.

H-H ; H: H 1 covalent bond between two 2 H atoms forms H2

The Oxygen Molecule

Oxygen (Atomic number 8) has 6 valence electrons, 2 short of the octet configuration. The two
oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons to form 2 covalent bonds between them.

To form Oxygen molecule O2.

Covalency

The number of electrons, which an atom contributes towards mutual sharing during the
formation of a chemical bond, is called its covalency in that compound. Thus, the covalency of
hydrogen in H2 (H - H, H : H) is one; that of oxygen in O2 is two (O  O, O :x
x O) and that of
x
nitrogen in N2 is three (N  N, N x
x N) .

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Sometimes one or more pairs of electrons in the valence shell of the atom do not take part in
bonding, and are known as a lone pairs; they are also called non-bonding pair of electrons.

Example:

Each atom of oxygen has 2 pairs of non bonding electrons.

Multiple Covalent Bonds

The covalent bonds developed due to mutual sharing of more than one pair of electrons, are
termed 'multiple covalent bonds'. These are:

Double covalent bond

The bond formed between two atoms due to the sharing of two electron-pairs is called a double
covalent bond or simply a double bond. It is denoted by two small horizontal lines (=) drawn
between the two atoms, e.g., O = O,

O = C = O etc.

Triple covalent bond

Bond formed due to the sharing of three electron pairs is called a triple covalent bond or simply a
triple bond. Three small horizontal lines between the two atoms denote a triple bond e.g.,

N  N, and H-C  C-H (acetylene).

Formation of Molecules Having Double Bond

Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell. Thus, it requires 2 more electrons to
achieve the nearest noble gas configuration. This is achieved by sharing two pairs of electrons by
the two oxygen atoms as shown below:

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Formation of carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)

The electronic configurations of carbon and oxygen are,

C 2, 4 and O 2, 6

Thus, each carbon atom requires four, and each oxygen atom requires two more electrons to
acquire noble gas configurations. This is achieved as follows:

Formation of molecules having triple bond

Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule

Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell. Thus, it requires three more electrons to
acquire a stable configuration of the nearest noble gas (neon). This is done by mutually sharing
three pairs of electrons as shown below:

Formation of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecule

The carbon atom in HCN, shares one electron-pair with hydrogen, thus forming a single covalent
bond with H atom. The C atom shares three electron pairs with N atom to form a triple bond
between C and N. The combining of atoms and Lewis structure of HCN molecule is given
below:

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General Properties of Covalent Compounds

The main characteristic properties of covalent compounds are:

• State of existence: The covalent compounds do not exist as ions but exist as molecules. There
are weak intermolecular forces between the molecules and hence they exist as liquids or
gases at room temperature. However, a few compounds also exist in the solid state e.g., urea,
sugar etc.
• Low melting and boiling points: The melting and boiling points of covalent compounds are
generally low. This is because of the fact that the forces between the molecules are weak and
thus are easily overcome at low temperatures.
• Solubility: Covalent compounds are generally insoluble or less soluble in water and in other
polar solvents. They are however, soluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene, carbon
tetrachloride etc.
• Non-conductors: Since covalent compounds do not give ions in solution, these are poor
conductors of electricity in the fused or dissolved state.
• Molecular reactions: The reactions between covalent compounds occur between their
molecules. These involve the breaking of covalent bonds in reacting molecules and forming
new covalent bonds to give molecules of the products. These reactions are quite slow
because energy is required to break covalent bonds.

Occurrence of Metals

Minerals and Ores

Metals and their compounds are found in the earth’s and are known as minerals. Ores are
minerals from which metals are extracted profitably and conveniently. Ores contain metal
compounds with a lower percentage of impurities. All the ores are minerals, but all minerals are
not necessarily ores.

Types of ores

Oxides Carbonates Halides Sulphides Sulphates

Marble or Zinc blende

Fluorspar Anglesite
Zincates (ZnO) limestone (ZnS) Galena
(CaF2) (PbSO4)
(CaCO3) (PbS)

Haematite Calamine Cryolite Iron pyrites Barium sulfate

(Fe2O3.xH2O)Magnetite (Fe3O4) (ZnCO3) (Na3AlF6) (FeS2) (BaSO4)

Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) Siderite Horn Silver Cinnabar (HgS) Gypsum

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(FeCO3) (AgCl) (CaSO4.2H2O)

Magnesite Rock salt Epsom salt

Cuprite (Cu2O)
(MgCO3) (NaCl) (MgSO4.7H2O)

In the Free State

Very few metals exist in the free or native state. Only metals like gold, platinum and mercury are
occasionally found in the Free State i.e., in the pure form. Sometimes, copper and silver may also
be found in the Free State. Such metals are not acted upon by air or water.

In the Combined State

The rest of the metals occur in the combined form as compounds such as oxides, carbonates,
sulphides, sulphates, silicates, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates etc. Copper and silver are two
metals which occur in free as well as combined state as sulphide, oxide or halide ores. Metals at
the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive that they are never found in
nature as free elements. The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.) are
moderately reactive. They are found in the earth's crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or
carbonates.

Extraction of Metals - Metallurgy

The various processes involved in the extraction of metals from their ores and their subsequent
refining are known as metallurgy.

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Concentration - Enrichment of Ores

Ore is an impure metal containing large amount of sand and rocky material. The impurities like
sand, rocky materials, limestone, mica etc present in the ore is called gangue or matrix. These
impurities must be removed from the ore before the extraction of the metal. The substance added
to the ore to remove the matrix called flux results in the formation of a fusible compound called
slag.

Gangue + Flux = Slag.

The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the differences between
the physical or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore. At first the ore is crushed to
powder. The pulverized ore is separated by physical processes like hydraulic washing, froth-
floatation, and magnetic separation or by chemical processes, depending on the nature of the ore
and its impurities. Concentration of the ore is also known as 'dressing' or 'enrichment' of ore.

Physical Methods of Concentration

Hydraulic Washing (Gravity Separation)
The ore particles are poured over a hydraulic classifier which is a vibrating sloped table with
grooves and a jet of water is allowed to flow over it. The denser ore settle in the grooves while
the lighter gangue particles are washed away. This method is used for concentration of heavy
oxide ores of lead, tin, iron etc.

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Froth Floatation
This method employs a mixture of water and pine oil which is made to froth in a tank to separate
sulphide ores. The differences in the wetting properties of the ore and gangue particles separate
them.

A mixture of water, pine oil, detergent and powdered ore is first taken in a tank. A blast of
compressed air is blown through the pipe of a rotating agitator to produce froth. The sulphide ore
particles are wetted and coated by pine oil and rise up along with the froth (froth being lighter).
The gangue particles wetted by water sink to the bottom of the tank (water being heavier).
Sulphide being more electronegative attracts the covalent oil molecules. The gangue being less
electronegative is attracted by the water. The froth containing the sulphide ore is transferred to
another container, washed, and dried.

Magnetic Separation
Magnetic ores like pyrolusite (MnO2) and chromite (FeO.Cr2O3) are enriched by this method by
making use of the difference in the magnetic properties of the ore and gangue particles.

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The powdered ore is dropped over a conveyor belt running over two rollers, one of which is
magnetic. The magnetic ore particles get attracted to the magnetic roller and run along with the
conveyor belt for a little longer than the non magnetic gangue. Gangue particles drop down first
forming a heap. Then, the magnetic ore particles drop down forming a separate heap. Thus, two
separate heaps of ore and gangue particles are formed.

Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series

Metals that are low in the activity series are very un-reactive. The oxides of these metals can be
reduced to metals by heating alone. For example, mercury is obtained from its ore, cinnabar
(HgS), by the process of heating.
Reduction Using Heat

Copper can also be obtained in a similar manner from its sulphide ore (Cu 2S).

Note: The oxides of Mercury & copper metals decompose on heating.

Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series

Metals such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, etc., are in the middle of the reactivity series. These are
moderately reactive metals and are usually present as sulphides or carbonates.

These metals are obtained from their ores by the processes of reduction. In the reduction process,
it is the oxide ore that is reduced.
It is easier to reduce an oxide ore as compared to its sulphides and carbonates. If the ore is not an
oxide ore, it is first converted to the oxide by the process of calcination or by roasting.

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Roasting
Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess air, so that
oxygen gets added to form the corresponding oxides. Sulphur impurities escape as gas. This
process is known as roasting.

Calcination
In this process the ore is heated to a high temperature in the absence of air, or where air does not
take part in the reaction. Usually, carbonate ores or ores containing water are calcined to drive
out carbonate and moisture impurities.

Differences between Roasting and Calcination

Roasting Calcination

Heating in the presence of air Heating in the absence of air

Carbonate ores are calcined.

Sulphide ores are roasted Sulphur dioxide is
Carbon dioxide is released
released

Is done at high temperatures, sometimes higher Is done at lower temperatures, generally

that the melting point of the ore. below the melting point of the ore.

Purpose is to remove impurities as volatile oxides

Purpose is to remove impurities as volatile
& to oxidize the ore and to remove any moisture
oxides and to remove the moisture present.
that may be present.

Reduction of Ores

The oxide obtained by calcination or roasting is then reduced by either carbon or hydrogen.
Carbon is usually used in the form of coke, or carbon monoxide. Not all metallic oxides can be
reduced by carbon or carbon monoxide. Thus, in order to extract metal from its ore the method
adopted depends on the reactivity of the metal i.e., its position in the metal activity series.

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Metal Method of reduction of oxide

Zn By carbon reduction method. This metal can be reduced by coke only

By carbon reduction method. These metals can be reduced by coke as well

Fe, Pb, Cu
as carbon monoxide. They can also be reduced by hydrogen.

Reduction Using Carbon (Coke)

This method is used for oxides of moderately reactive metals. Coke is an inexpensive reducing
agent and is most widely used.

Reduction Using Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a powerful reducing agent. It is used for the reduction of hematite in the
blast furnace.

Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series

Metals such as sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminum high up in the reactivity series are very
reactive and cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon. This is because
these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon. These metals are obtained by
electrolytic reduction.

Reduction by Electrolysis
This process is used for oxides of highly reactive metals that are above aluminum in the
reactivity series. It is also used for reduction of aluminum oxide. Example:

Alumina has a very high melting point and the cost of maintaining the electrolyte in the molten
state is very high. However, if alumina is mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6) and fluorspar (CaF2) the
melting point is lowered drastically and the cost reduced too. These substances increase the
conductivity of the electrolyte.

Reduction Using Aluminum (Aluminothermy)

Aluminum is an expensive reducing agent. It is used for reduction of oxides of highly reactive
metals. But these metals need to be below aluminum in the reactivity series. Example:

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Aluminothermy is also used for welding broken iron rails. As the reaction is highly exothermic,
the heat generated in the reaction causes the metallic iron formed to melt. This molten iron drips
down over the two pieces to be welded and joins them on solidifying.

Refining of Metals

Most metals obtained by the reduction process are not very pure. These have to be further refined
or purified. Purification of the metal is the last step in metallurgy. Refining is based on the
difference between the properties of metals and their impurities. The following process we use
for refining.

Electro refining
Electrolysis can be used for both extractions of metal (which cannot be separated by chemical
reduction process) as well as for further purification of metals obtained by any other method. In
the electro refining process a block of impure metal is made the anode and a thin sheet of pure
metal is made the cathode. The electrolytic cell contains an aqueous solution of the metal salt.
When electric current of a suitable voltage is passed, impure metal at the anode gets dissolved to
deposit the pure metal at the cathode. Metal ions from the anode enter the electrolyte as follows:

These ions get deposited on the cathode as follows

The impurities are left behind as anode mud near the anode. The anode finally disintegrates
while the cathode gains in weight due to the collection of pure metal.

This method is used for refining volatile metals like copper, silver, tin, nickel that have boiling
points lower than their impurities. e.g., zinc, mercury.

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• An electrolyte is a compound (salt, acid or base), which in solution or in a molten state

conducts an electric current and is simultaneously decomposed by it.
Electrolytes are ionized into electrically charged ions, which carry the current.
• Charged ions move towards the oppositely charged electrodes to give up their electric charge
and become atoms; these are either liberated or deposited at the electrodes.

Corrosion of Metals

We have learnt that metals that are chemically active get corroded in the presence of a moist
atmosphere. Corrosion is an oxidation reaction with atmospheric oxygen in the presence of water
on the surface of a metal. Iron corrodes more quickly than most other transition metals to form
an iron oxide. Corrosion or rusting of iron is accelerated in the presence of CO 2 and also in the
presence of salt solution.

i.e., rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide

Rusting is oxidation because it involves iron gaining oxygen (Fe Fe2O3) or iron atoms losing
- 3+
electrons (Fe - 3e Fe ). The equation is not meant to be balanced and the amount of water 'x'
is variable, from dry to soggy.
The major problem of corrosion occurs with iron (or steel) as it is used as a structural material in
industries like construction, infrastructure, bridges, rail transport power transmission,
shipbuilding, automobiles, heavy industries etc.
Aluminum, another useful structural metal, also undergoes an oxidation reaction, but does not
oxidize and corrode as quickly as its reactivity suggests. Once a thin oxide layer of Al2O3 has
formed on the surface, it forms a barrier to oxygen and water to prevent further corrosion of the
aluminum. Hence aluminum is called a self-protective metal. Aluminum can be made harder,
stronger and stiffer by mixing it with small amounts of other metals (e.g., magnesium) to make
alloys.
The alkali metals like sodium used in chemistry laboratories and in some chemical industries
rapidly corrodes in air and need to be stored under oil.
Copper and lead are both used in roofing situations because neither is very reactive. The
compounds formed on the surface do not flake away as easily as rust does from iron. Lead
corrodes to a white lead oxide or carbonate and copper corrodes to form a basic green carbonate
(combination of the hydroxide Cu(OH)2 and carbonate CuCO3). In the past both metals have
been used for piping but as lead is considered too toxic copper is usually used.
Non-reactive metals like gold, platinum, mercury do not corrode.

Prevention of Corrosion
Iron and steel (alloy of iron) are most easily protected by paint which provides a barrier between
the metal and air/water. Moving parts on machines can be protected by a water repellent oil or
grease layer. Covering the surface with enamel and lacquers is another method.

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Sacrificial Protection
'Rusting' can be prevented by connecting iron to a more reactive metal (e.g., zinc or magnesium).
This is referred to as sacrificial protection or sacrificial corrosion, because the more reactive
protecting metal is preferentially oxidized away, leaving the protected metal intact.

Alloying
Iron or steel along with other metals can also be protected by 'alloying' or mixing with other
metals (e.g., chromium) to make non-rusting alloys. Stainless steel is an example of a non-
rusting alloy of iron and carbon. Brass, an alloy containing copper is another metal alloy which is
less expensive and non-reactive.

Galvanizing
Coating iron or steel with a thin zinc layer is called 'galvanizing'. This layer is produced by
electrolytic deposition. Dipping the iron/steel object in molten zinc and using it as the negative
cathode zinc is coated on it. Zinc preferentially corrodes or oxidizes to form a zinc oxide layer
that does not flake off like iron oxide rust. Also, if the surface is scratched, the exposed zinc
again corrodes before the iron and continues to protect it.

Electroplating
Coating the surface with metals like tin, chromium, nickel etc. by electroplating is also utilized
to prevent corrosion. Steel cans are protected by relatively un-reacted tin and works well as long
as the thin tin layer is complete.

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Chapter 15 - Our Environment

1. What happens when we add our waste to the environment?

The environment of an organism means the physical and biological conditions in which it
lives. The physical conditions include soil, light, temperature, etc. And the biological
conditions include the other plants, animals and microorganisms around it. A change in any
of these conditions can affect the organism.
When the wastes are added to our environment it disrupts the ecological balance. Substances
or wastes are of two types. Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said
to be biodegradable. Substances that are not broken down by biological processes are said to
be non-biodegradable. These substances may be inert and simply persist in the environment
for a long time or may harm the various members of the eco-system.

2. Eco system- What are its components?

All organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings as well as the
physical surroundings interact with each other and maintain a balance in nature.
The ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting with
each other as an ecological unit, involving the flow of energy. An ecosystem consists of
biotic components including living organisms and abiotic components, the physical factors
like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals.
An ecosystem can be natural or artificial. Ponds, forests and lakes are natural ecosystems
while garden and crop fields are human made or artificial ecosystems. In both the ecosystems
all living organisms interact with each other and their growth, reproduction and other
activities are affected by the abiotic components of ecosystem.
Organisms in the ecosystem can be categorised into producers, consumers and decomposers
according to the manner in which they obtain their substance from the environment.
Producers are the organisms that produce their own food without the help of any other
organism. These are also known as autotrophs. They make their food from inorganic
substances through a process called photosynthesis. Autotrophs are green plants,
phytoplankton and blue green algae.
Consumers are the organisms which cannot produce food but depend directly or indirectly on
producers for the same. These are also known as heterotrophs. Consumers can be classified
into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites. Eg: Humans, Snake, Eagle
Decomposers are the organisms which feed on dead and decaying matter. They break down
the complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances that go into the soil and are
sued up once more by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi

2.1 Food chains and Webs:

The series of organisms taking part at various biotic levels form a food chain. Food chains
describe the feeding relationship between the organisms of an ecosystem. The flow of energy
from one species to another at various biotic levels forms a food chain. A food chain always
starts with producers.

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The successive levels in the food chains of a community are called as trophic levels. From
autotrophs the energy goes to the heterotrophs and decomposers. When one form of energy is
change to another, some energy is lost to the environment in forms which cannot be used
again. Some common food chains are mentioned below.
Plants Deer Lion
Plants Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk
Algae Small animal Small fish Big fish Bird
Food chains generally consist of only three or four steps. The loss of energy at each step is so
great that very little usable energy remains after four trophic levels. There are generally a
greater number of individuals at the lower trophic levels of an ecosystem; the greatest number
is of the producers.
The length and complexity of food chains vary greatly. Each organism is generally eaten by
two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other organisms. The
relationship can be shown as a series of branching lines called a food web. Food web is a
web of cross-linked food chains.
There is a flow of energy in the form of food within an ecosystem. The flow of energy is
unidirectional. The energy that is captured by the autotrophs does not revert back to the solar
input and the energy which passes to the herbivores does not come back to autotrophs.
Also, some harmful chemicals enter our bodies through the food chain. One of the reasons is
the use of several pesticides and other chemicals to protect the crops from diseases and pests
through which they enter the food chain.

Biological magnification is a phenomenon by which toxic substances accumulate from one

trophic level to another. As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the
maximum concentration of these toxic chemicals gets accumulated in our body which
becomes toxic to us.

3 How do our activities affect the environment?

3.1 Ozone layer and how it is getting depleted.
Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three oxygen atoms. There is a layer of ozone in the
stratosphere. It is a deadly poison. It is known to cause skin cancer in human beings.
However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere, it acts as a natural sun-block and shields us
from UV radiations of the sun which are dangerous to living organisms. Ozone depletion is
the sharp reduction of ozone in the stratosphere due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) used as
refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
O2 ------U.V-------------O+O
O+O2 --------- O3 (ozone)
To limit the damage to the ozone layer the release of CFC s into the atmosphere must be
reduced. These CFCs should be replaced with environmentally safe alternatives.

3.2 Managing the garbage we produce:

Improvements in our lifestyle have resulted in greater amounts of waste material generation.
Changes in packaging have resulted in much of our waste becoming non biodegradable.
Increased use of non-biodegradable items have left the environment polluted with them.

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Chapter 5 - Periodic Classification of Elements

Introduction

Initially scientists had classified elements into metal and non-metals. However, some elements
possessed properties which could neither be classified as metals nor non-metals called
metalloids. This classification was found to be insufficient for scientific study. Later on, a
number of chemists attempted to make a rational and systematic classification of the physical
and chemical properties of elements and tabulate the results in the form of a table.

Periodic table – The table giving the arrangement of the known elements according to their
properties so that similar elements fall within the same vertical column and dissimilar elements
are separated.

Dobereiner's Triads
In the year 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, a German scientist, was the first to classify
elements into groups based on John Dalton's assertions. He grouped the elements with similar
chemical properties into clusters of three called 'Triads'. The distinctive feature of a triad was the
atomic mass of the middle element. When elements were arranged in order of their increasing
atomic mass, the atomic mass of the middle element was approximately the arithmetic mean of
the other two elements of the triad.

Examples of Dobereiner's Triads

Element Lithium Beryllium Potassium Arithmetic mean

Atomic mass 7.0 9.0 11.0 9.0
Element Lithium Beryllium Boron Arithmetic mean

Atomic mass 7.0 9.0 11.0 9.0

Element Lithium Sodium Potassium Arithmetic mean
Atomic mass 7.0 23.0 39.0 23.0
Element Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Arithmetic mean
Atomic mass 12.0 14.0 16.0 14.0
Element Calcium Strontium Barium Arithmetic mean
Atomic mass 40.0 87.5 137 88.1
Element Chlorine Bromine Iodine Arithmetic mean
Atomic mass 35.0 80.0 127.0 80.6

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Defects of Triad Classification

• A large number of similar elements could not be grouped into triads e.g., iron, manganese,
nickel, cobalt, zinc and copper are similar elements but could not be placed in the triads.
• It was possible that quite dissimilar elements could be grouped into triads.
• Dobereiner could only classify 3 triads successfully (highlighted in the table).
Since he failed to arrange the then known elements in the form of triads his attempt at
classification was not very successful.

Newlands' Law of Octaves

Newland arranged many of the known elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses.
He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended at thorium
which was the 56th element.
He arranged many of the known elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. It was
noticed that the eighth element was similar in properties to the first element, just like the eighth
note in music - Western as well as Indian.

Western Indian
Re Re Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium
Do Sa Lithium, Sodium, Potassium
Me Ga Boron, Aluminium
Fa Ma Carbon, Silicon
So Pa Nitrogen, Phosphorus
La Da Oxygen, Sulphur
Ti Ni Fluorine, Chlorine
Do Sa - -

Groups of the 8th elements

The eighth element after lithium is sodium. In many of its chemical properties it is similar to
lithium. Similarly, the eighth element after sodium is potassium, whose properties are similar to
sodium. The eighth element from fluorine is chlorine both of which are similar in their
properties. The eighth element from nitrogen is phosphorus and both these elements are similar
in properties.
Based on this observation, Newland stated his law of octaves thus 'when elements are arranged
in increasing order of their atomic mass, the eighth element resembles the first in physical and
chemical properties just like the eighth note on a musical scale resembles the first note'. As a
result a very important conclusion was made that there is some systematic relationship between
the order of atomic masses and the repetition of properties of elements. This gave rise to a new
term called 'periodicity' which signifies the recurrence of characteristic properties of elements
arranged in a table, at regular intervals of a period.

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Achievements of the Law of Octaves

• The law of octaves was the first logical attempt to classify elements on the basis of atomic
weights.
• Periodicity of elements was recognized for the first time.
In 1860, there was a conference of chemists in Karl Sruhe, Germany. A young Russian chemist,
Dmitri Mendeleev, attending this conference, was deeply influenced by a thesis presented by
Stanislao Cannizaro, which described Cannizaro's method of determining atomic mass of
elements. Mendeleev then started working on this aspect of atomic mass and periodicity. He
later on stated the law of chemical periodicity.

Defects of Law of Octaves

• This law could be best applied, only up to the element calcium.
• Newly discovered elements could not fit into the octave structure.
• The feature of resemblance of the 8th element when arranged in increasing order of their
atomic mass was not successful with heavier elements.

Lothar Meyer’s Curves: In 1870,the German chemist plotted the atomic volumes of the
elements against their atomic masses.From this graph he was able to produce a table showing
periodic arrangement of elements.

Mendeleev's Periodic Table

In 1869, Mendeleev classified the then known 56 elements on the basis of their physical and
chemical properties in the increasing order of the atomic masses, in the form of a table.
Mendeleev had observed that properties of the elements orderly recur in a cyclic fashion. He
found that the elements with similar properties recur at regular intervals when the elements are
arranged in the order of their increasing atomic masses. He concluded that 'the physical and
chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses'. This came to
be known as the law of chemical periodicity and stated: that the physical and chemical properties
of elements are periodic function of their atomic weights.

Based on this law all the known elements were arranged in the form of a table called the
'Periodic Table'. Elements with similar properties recurred at regular intervals and fell in certain
groups or families. The elements in each group were similar to each other in many properties.
The elements with dissimilar properties from one another were separated. Mendeleev's periodic
table contains eight vertical columns of elements called 'groups' and seven horizontal rows called
'periods', Each group has two sub-groups A and B. The properties of elements of a sub-group
resemble each other more markedly than the properties of those between the elements of the two
sub-groups.

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Achievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Mendeleev's periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in chemistry with some of its
important contributions as follows:

Systematic Study of Elements

Mendeleev's Periodic table simplified the study of elements. As the arrangements of elements
showing similar properties were classified into groups, it was very useful in studying and
remembering the properties of a large number of elements in a systematic way.

Prediction of New Elements

Based on the positions in the periodic table, Mendeleev could predict the properties of some
undiscovered elements. He left three blanks for elements that were not discovered at that time.
He was able to predict the properties of these unknown elements more or less accurately. He
named them eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon. He named them so, as they were just
below boron, aluminium and silicon in the respective sub-groups. Eka-boron was later named as
scandium, eka-aluminium as gallium and eka-silicon as germanium. A Comparative Study of the
Properties of Elements Predicted and later Discovered
Property Eka-boron Scandium
Atomic weight 44 43.79
Oxide Eb2O3 Sc2O3
Specific gravity 3.5 3.864
Sulphate Eb2(SO4)3 Sc2(SO4)3
Property Eka-aluminium Gallium
Atomic weight 68 69.9
Specific gravity 5.9 5.94
Melting point Low 303.15°K
Formula of oxide Ea2O3 Ga2O3
Solubility in acid and Dissolves slowly in both Dissolves slowly in both
alkali acid and alkali acid and alkali

Correction of Atomic Masses

Mendeleev's periodic table helped in correcting the atomic masses of some of the elements,
based on their positions in the periodic table. For example, atomic mass of beryllium was
corrected from 13.5 to 9.0. Atomic masses of indium, gold and platinum were also corrected.

Limitations of Mendeleev's Classification

Position of Hydrogen
The position of hydrogen was not correctly defined. It was placed in Group I although its
properties resembled both the Group I elements (the alkali metals) and the group VII elements
(the halogens).

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Grouping of Some Elements

In some cases Mendeleev placed elements according to their similarities in properties and not in
increasing order of their atomic masses, while some dissimilar elements were grouped together.
Thus, the position of these elements was not justified. For example, cobalt (at. mass 58.9) was
placed before nickel (at. mass 58.6); copper and mercury are similar in their properties but were
placed separately. Copper was placed in group I although it did not resemble the elements of this
group.

Anomalous Pair
In certain pairs of elements like, Ar (40) and K (39); Co (58.9) and Ni (58.6); Te (127.6) and I
(126.9) the arrangement was not justified. For example, argon was placed before potassium
whereas its atomic mass is more than potassium.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different atomic mass but same atomic number.
For e.g., there are three isotopes of hydrogen with atomic mass 1, 2, and 3. According to
Mendeleev's periodic table these should be placed at three separate places. However isotopes
have not been given separate places in the periodic table.

Lanthanides and Actinides

Fourteen elements that follow lanthanum called lanthanides and fourteen elements following
actinium called actinides were not given proper places in Mendeleev's periodic table.

Long Form of the Periodic Table or Modern Periodic Table

Modern Periodic Law

The modern periodic law states that "the physical and chemical properties of the elements are
periodic function of their atomic numbers". Thus, when the elements were arranged in the order
of their increasing atomic numbers, the elements of similar properties recur at regular intervals.

Cause of Periodicity of Elements

The modern periodic table is based on the electronic configuration of the elements. The
properties of an element are determined largely by the electrons in its outermost or valence shell.
Valence electrons interact with other atoms and take part in all chemical reactions, while inner
shell electrons have little influence on the properties of elements. When elements are placed in
the order of their increasing atomic number, the elements having the same number of valence
shell electrons is repeated in such a way, so as to fall under the same group. Since, the electronic
configuration of the valence shell electrons is same they show similar properties. Members of the
same group have similar electronic configuration of the valence shell and thus show same
valency.

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Magic Numbers – When the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number, it
is observed that the elements with similar properties recur after intervals of either 2 or 8 or 18 or
32 elements. These numbers(2,8,18,32) are called magic numbers.

The Modern Periodic Table

It is based on modern periodic law.

Structural Features of the Modern Periodic Table

This table consists of horizontal rows called as 'periods' and vertical columns called as 'groups'.

Periods
There are seven periods in the periodic table and each period starts with a different principal
quantum number.
The first period corresponding to 'n' = 1 consists of only two elements hydrogen and helium
.This is because the first energy shell can accommodate only two electrons.
In the second period corresponding to 'n' = 2, with a capacity of eight electrons and so contains
eight elements. This period starts with lithium (Z = 3) ends with neon (Z = 10) where the second
shell is complete.
In the third period corresponding to 'n' = 3, contains eight elements. It starts with sodium (Z =
11) and ends with argon (Z = 18) where the third shell is partially complete.
The fourth period corresponding to 'n' = 4, consists of eighteen elements in this period starting
from potassium (Z = 19) to krypton (Z = 36) where the third shell gets completed.

In the fifth period there are 18 elements like the fourth period. It begins with rubidium (Z = 37)
and ends with xenon (Z = 54).
The sixth period contains 32 elements (Z=55 to 86) .It starts with caesium and ends with radon.
The seventh period, though expected to have 32 elements is incomplete and contains only 19
elements at present.
The first three periods are called short periods while the other three periods are called long
periods.

Groups
The vertical column in the periodic table is called as group. There are 18 groups in the long form
of the periodic table and they are numbered from 1 to 18 in the IUPAC system. In the old system
of naming they are numbered as I to VIII with A and B groups. This convention is followed in
many places.

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The number of elements present in each period is given in the following table.

Period Valence shell Type of period No of elements Atomic No of the

elements
1st Period n=1 Short period 2 Atomic number 1
and 2
2nd Period n=2 Short period 8 Atomic number 3 to
10
3rd Period n=3 Long period 8 Atomic number 11
to 18
4th Period n=4 Long period 18 Atomic number 19
to 36
5th Period n=5 Long period 18 Atomic number 37
to 54
6th Period n=6 Long period 32 Atomic number 55
to 86
7th Period n=7 Incomplete 23 Atomic number 87
to 109

The number of elements in these periods is based on the way electrons are filled into various
shells. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell depends on the
formula 2n2 where 'n' is the number of the given shell from the nucleus.
For example,
K Shell - 2 x (1)2 = 2, 1st period = 2 elements.
L Shell - 2 x (2)2 = 8, 2nd period = 8 elements.
M Shell - 2 x (3)2 = 18, but the outermost shell can have only 8 electrons, so the third period also
has only 8 elements.
The position of an element in the Periodic table tells us about its chemical reactivity.

Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table

Types of Elements
On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements of the periodic table are classified into:
• Noble gases
• Normal elements
• Transition elements
• Inner-transition elements
• Alkali metals
• Halogens

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Noble Gases
Noble gases are also known as inert gases and do not take part in chemical reactions. They have
their outermost shell complete and thus remain stable. They do not generally combine with other
substances, nor are they affected by oxidising agents or by reducing agents. They are placed in
the 18 or VIIIA group. Since, the outermost shell is complete, the valency is zero, hence VIIIA
group is also referred to as zero group.

Normal Elements
In the case of these elements, all shells except the outermost shell are completely filled. Elements
belonging to 1 (IA), 2 (IIA), 3 (IIIA), 4 (IVA), 5 (VA), 6 (VIA) and 7 (VIIA) are normal
elements. Elements of the second period are known as typical elements [Li (Z = 3) to Ne (Z =
10)] because each element is placed in a group whose number matches with the number of
valence electrons. The elements of the III rd period are representative elements [Na (Z = 11) to Ar
(Z = 18)] as each of them is a representative of its group. Groups 1 (IA) and 2 (IIA) are strongly
metallic and are called group of 'alkali metals and alkaline earth metals', while group 7 (VIIA)
are halogens.

Alkali Metals
Elements of group I A of the periodic table constitute a family of very reactive metals called
alkali metals. They are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. All of them
have one electron in the valence shell. They are called alkali metals because their hydroxides are
strong alkalis. These metals are soft, light and easily fusible. In fact, sodium and potassium are
lighter than water. At room temperature they readily get oxidised in air and so are preserved
under kerosene in the laboratory.

Halogens
The elements placed in group 7 (VIIA) of the periodic table are called halogens or salt producers.
All these elements form salts called halides, e.g. NaCl, NaI, KCl, KI etc. Halogen is an ancient
Greek word meaning 'salt producer'. Halogens have seven electrons in their valence shell and so
are monovalent.

Bromine is the only Liquid non-metal. Iodine when heated undergoes sublimation.

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Transition Elements
All the elements belonging to 3 to 12 groups are called transition elements. They resemble each
other in several physical and chemical properties. They are all metals. They are called transition
elements because they are placed between the most reactive metals on the left and non-metals on
the right. Their compounds are coloured. They exhibit variable valency.

Inner-transition Elements
The 6th period consists of elements that have atomic numbers 58 to 71. They are called
Lanthanides. The 7th period consists of elements that have atomic numbers 90 to 105. They are
called Actinides. Both of them are called inner transition elements. Lanthanides and actinides are
not accommodated in the main body of the periodic table but are placed in separate rows in form
of two series at the bottom of the modern periodic table. The 7 th period is an incomplete period
as it has only 23 elements.

Position of an Element
In a period, the number of valence shell remains the same for all elements. However, the number
of electrons in the valence shell increases from left to right.
The position of an element in the periodic table is determined by its electronic
configuration e.g. electronic configuration of sodium is 2, 8, 1 i.e., it has three shells and
one electron in the outermost shell. Hence, it is placed in period number 3 and group number 1.
However, in the case of transition elements this pattern is not followed.

Merits of the Long Form of the Periodic Table

• This classification is based on the most fundamental property of the
• Elements - the atomic number, so it is more accurate.
• With the atomic number as the basis of this classification, the position of isotopes in one
place is justified.
• The electronic configuration determines the properties of the elements. The position of
elements governed by this feature is useful in studying the properties of elements.
• The position of the elements, which were misfit on the basis of atomic mass is now justified
on the basis of atomic number.
• The lanthanides and actinides have been placed separately due to their properties being
different from other groups.
• The whole table is easy to remember and reproduce in terms of electronic configuration and
properties of the elements.

Demerits of the Long Form of the Periodic Table

Although the long form of the period table has been able to help in systematic studying the
elements to a great extent, it has some minor defects:

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• Hydrogen resembles both the alkali metals and halogens. But it has been placed with the
alkalis and with the halogens.
• The lanthanides and actinides have not been placed in the main body of the table.

Periodic Properties

1. Valency
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. For metals it is the number of electrons lost
during chemical combination while for nonmetals it is the number of electrons gained during
chemical combination.
When metals combine with hydrogen, they show a valency corresponding to group number, &
nonmetals show a valency equal to (8 – group number).
Thus, valency of an element with respect to hydrogen increases from 1 to 4 and then falls from 4
to 1 across a period.
All elements when combining with oxygen can show a valency corresponding to group number.
For example, phosphorus forms phosphorus pentoxide (P 2O5), where the valency of P is 5 &
corresponds to its group number (V A). While combining with hydrogen, phosphorus forms
phosphine (PH3) where it shows a valency of 3 (8- group number)
Thus, valency of an element with respect to oxygen increases from 1 to 7 along a period.

2. Atomic Volume
It is defined as the volume occupied by one mole atoms of the element at its melting point, in
solid state.
Variation along the Group – increases on moving down the group.
Variation along the period – decreases along the period, reaches a minimum in the middle and
then starts increasing. Alkali metals have maximum atomic volume in a period.

3. Atomic Size and Atomic Radius

Atomic Radius – The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an
isolated atom.

Covalent radius of an element – half the internuclear distance between the two atoms of the
element held by a single covalent bond.
Metallic radius of an element – half the internuclear distance between the two nearest metal
atoms in a metallic crystal.
Atomic radii increases down the group and increases across the period.

4. Ionisation Energy
The minimum energy needed to remove the outermost electron from the neutral atom in the
gaseous state.

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It increases across a period in general and decreases down the group.

Factors affecting ionization Energy

1. Size of the atom
2. Magnitude of Nuclear Charge
3. Screening Effect of the inner electrons
4. Electronic Configuration

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to an isolated
gaseous atom.

Element Electron affinity

Fluorine 3.62eV
Chlorine 3.79eV
Bromine 3.56eV
Iodine 3.28eV

Atom (g) + electron (g) Anion (g) + energy

Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to hold an additional electron. If the atom has more
tendency to accept an electron then the energy released will be large and consequently the
electron affinity will be high. Electron affinities can be positive or negative. It is taken as
positive when an electron is added to an atom. It is expressed as electron volts per atom (eV per
atom) or kilo joules per mole.
Electron affinity depends on:
• Extent of nuclear charge
• Size of the atom
• Electronic configuration
As a result of the gain in electrons, the atom gains one negative charge. In the case of halogens,
all the elements have a high electron affinity, as they need one electron to complete the octect
of their outermost shell.

Electron Affinity of the Halogens

From chlorine to iodine, which ionize by accepting one electron there is a decrease in the
electron affinity or the energy released. The lower electron affinity of fluorine when compared to
chlorine is not fully understood.
If the electron affinity is low, the electron is weakly bound; if the electron affinity is high, the
electron is strongly bonded, e.g., electron affinity of chlorine is 3.79 which is higher than that of
iodine i.e., 3.28. Hence, chlorine accepts the electrons more easily than iodine.

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• Electron affinity increases from left to right across the period because of increase in nuclear
charge and decrease in atomic size. This causes the incoming electron to experience a
greater pull of the nucleus thus giving a higher electron affinity.
• Electron affinity decreases down the group because the number of shells increases i.e., the
atomic size increases and the effective nuclear charge decreases. This causes the incoming
electron not to experience much attraction of the nucleus thus giving a lower electron
affinity.
• The electron affinity of completely filled atoms is almost zero. An atom does not accept an
electron in its outermost shell if it already has a stable configuration i.e. a duplet or octet, as
in the case of inert gases.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a molecule of a
compound. The value of electronegativity of an element describes the ability of its atom to
compete for electrons with the other atom to which it is bonded. Electronegativity is however not
the property of an isolated atom.
Electronegativity increases from left to right in each period ending at group 17.
In the 3rd period, electronegativity increases from sodium to chlorine i.e., chlorine can accept
electrons most easily in that period followed backwards by sulphur, phosphorus, silicon,
aluminium, magnesium and sodium. All the atoms of the above mentioned elements have three
shells but chlorine has the smallest atomic radii. Hence chlorine experiences more positive
charge from the nucleus than all other atoms in that period. So, if one electron is available,
chlorine can attract it most easily.

Types of Electronegativity
When the molecule is formed by transfer of electrons (ionic bonding) the transfer takes place
from electropositive atom to electronegative atom. In the example below, Na is electropositive
and Cl is electronegative.

If the molecule is formed by sharing of electrons (covalent bond) the bonded pair of electrons
shifts towards more electronegative atom resulting in the formation of polar molecule. In the
example below, chlorine atom is more electronegative as compared to hydrogen atom, resulting
in a covalent bond where the shared pair of electron shifts towards the more electronegative
atom. This results in polar molecules.

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The electron pair is closer to the chlorine atom and so the molecule gets polarized i.e., the
chlorine atom gets a negative charge while the hydrogen atom gets a positive charge.

A summary of periodic properties and their variation in groups and periods is given below:

Metallic and Non-metallic Character

The tendency of an element to lose electrons and form positive ions (cations) is called
electropositive or metallic character. For example, alkali metals are the most electropositive
elements.
"The tendency of an element to accept electrons to form an anion is called its non-metallic or
electronegative character." For example, chlorine, oxygen and phosphorous show greater
electronegative or non-metallic character.
In each period, metallic character of elements decreases as we move to the right. Elements to the
left of the periodic table have a pronounced metallic character while those to the right have a
non-metallic character. Conversely, non-metallic character increases from left to right.
In the third period, sodium on the extreme left is most metallic. The metallic character decreases
towards magnesium and aluminium, which are to the right. Silicon is midway between metals
and non-metals. From phosphorus to sulphur to chlorine, non-metallic character gradually
increases, chlorine being the most non-metallic in behaviour. In the 18 or zero group, argon does
not exhibit either metallic or non-metallic character.
The elements to the left of the periodic table have a tendency of losing electrons easily as
compared to those to the right. As we move from left to right of the period, the electrons of the
outer shell experience greater pull of the nucleus. This greater force of attraction is because the
nuclear charge increases and the size of the atom decreases from left to right. Thus, electrons of
the elements to the right of the table do not lose electrons easily so are non-metallic in nature.

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Metals usually have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the outermost shell and ionize by giving out these
electrons. Thus they gain positive charges equal to the number of electrons lost. Germanium, tin
and lead with four electrons each in the valence shell are also included among the metals.
Non-metals usually have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell and ionize by accepting
electrons. Thus they gain a negative charge equal to the number of electrons gained. Although
carbon and silicon have four electrons each in the valence shell, they are included in the non-
metals. Boron is an exception; it has three electrons in the outermost shell but is still included
among non-metals.
As we move down the group the number of shells increases. This causes the effective nuclear
charge to decrease due to the outer shells being further away: in effect the atomic size increases.
The electrons of the outermost shell experience less nuclear attraction and so can lose electrons
easily thus showing increased metallic character.

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Chapter 14 - Sources of Energy

❖ Characteristics of a good fuel:

(i) High calorific value
(ii) Less smoke
(iii) Less residue after burning
(iv) Easy availability
(v) Inexpensive
(vi) Easy to store and transport

❖ Fossil fuels:
Were formed millions of years ago, when plants and animal remains got buried under the earth
and were subjected to high temperature and pressure conditions. E.g.: Coal, Petroleum, etc.
These fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy and cause environmental problems due
to pollution.

❖ Thermal power plants:

(i) Use coal, petroleum and natural gas to produce thermal electricity.
(ii) Electricity transmission is very efficient.
(iii) The steam produced by burning the fossil fuels runs the turbine to produce electricity

❖ Hydro power plant:

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(i) It is the most conventional renewable energy source obtained from water falling from a
great height.
(ii) It is clean & nonpolluting source of energy.
(iii) Dams are constructed to collect water flowing in high altitude rivers. The stored water
has a lot of potential energy.
(iv) When water is allowed to fall from a height, potential energy to kinetic energy, which
rotates the turbines to produce electricity.

❖ Disadvantages of Hydro power plant:

(i) Highly expensive to construct.
(ii) Dams cannot be constructed on all river sites.
(iii) Large areas of human habitation and agricultural fields get submerged.
(iv) People face social and environmental problems.

❖ Non-conventional sources:
(1) Bio Mass:

• It is the source of the conventionally used fuels that are used in our country. E.g.: Cow
dung cakes, fire-wood, coal, charcoal
• Bio gas: It is a mixture of gases produced during decomposition of bio mass in the
absence of Oxygen. (Anaerobic Respiration). Methane is the major component of bio
gas.
• Bio gas plants: Animal dung, sewage, crop residues, vegetable wastes, poultry
droppings, etc. are used to produce Bio gas in Bio gas plants.

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(2) Wind Energy:

• It can be converted into mechanical and electrical energy.

• Kinetic energy of the wind is used in running of wind mills, which are used to lift water,
grind grains, etc.
• Advantages: (i) Eco friendly
(ii) Renewable
• Disadvantages: (i) Wind speed not uniform always.
(ii) Needs a large area to erect series of wind mills.
(iii) Big amount of investment is needed.
(iv) Output is less as compared to investment

(3) Solar Energy:

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• Solar radiations can be converted electricity through solar cells (photovoltaic cells).
• Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiations directly into electricity through silicon solar
cells.
• Solar cells arrange on a large flat sheets form a solar panel.
• Solar cookers are painted black from outside and a large glass plate to trap solar
radiations by green house effect.
• Advantage of Solar cookers:
(i) Eco friendly
(ii) Renewable
(iii) Used in rural areas.
(iv) Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking.
• Disadvantages of solar cooker:
(i) Silicon cells are expensive.
(ii) Solar radiations are not uniform over earth’s surface.
(iii) Cannot be used at night or on cloudy days.
(iv) Cannot be used to make chapattis for frying as these require a temperature of
140°C or more.
(Maximum temperature of 100°C only can be achieved in a solar cooker)
• Other solar devices- Solar water heater, Solar furnace

(4) Geo Thermal Energy:

(i) Energy harnessed from the heat of the sun is called Geo thermal energy.
(ii) Magma is formed when this heat melts the rocks. The molten rocks and hot gases are
called magma
(iii) The magma gets collected at some depths below the earth’s surfaces. These places
are called “Hot spots”
(iv) When underground water comes in contact these hot spots, it changes into steam,
which can be used to generate electricity.
• Advantages of Geo thermal energy:
(i) Renewable
(ii) Inexpensive
• Disadvantages of Geo thermal energy:
(i) Only few sites available for harnessing energy.
(ii) Expensive

(5) Nuclear Energy:

(i) Energy released when some changes take place in the nucleus of the atom of a
substance, is called Nuclear energy.
(ii) It is used for heat generation, fuel for marine vessels.

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• Advantages or Nuclear Energy:

(i) Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels.
(ii) From a small amount of fuel, a large amount of energy is released.

• Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:

(i) Risk of nuclear waste leakage
(ii) High cost of setting up of nuclear plant
(iii) Pollution of environment.

(6) Energy from the sea-

• Tidal Energy: Locations in India – Gulf of Kutch, Gujrat & W. Bengal
(i) Depends upon harnessing the rise and fall of sea level due to tidal action.
(ii) Dams are constructed across a narrow part of sea and turbine converts tidal energy
into electrical energy.
Disadvantages: Uniform tidal action is not seen
• Wave Energy:
(i) Kinetic energy of the waves of sea are used to rotate turbines.
(ii) These turbines generate electrical energy

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