Synchronous Machines

Construction
1. Stator - Armature (Same as the stator of an Induction
Machine)
2. Rotor - Field Winding ( DC Field)

Generator
I As a generator, this machine is widely used.
I This is the machine which is used in all conventional power
plants.
I A synchronous generator is called as an Alternator.

Motor
I Since it runs only at synchronous speed, it is not widely used
as a motor but for certain applications like electric clocks.
I However, it is used to either produce or absorb reactive power.
Construction

1. Stator
I It is a distributed winding.
I The windings of each phase are distributed over several slots.
I Three phase windings are wound 120◦ (electrical angle) apart
in space
2. Rotor
I It is excited by a DC current.
There are two types.
2.1 Cylindrical Rotor - used where the turbine speed is high
2.2 Salient Pole Rotor - used where the turbine speed is low
Synchronous machine is a doubly excited machine.

We can have field winding placed in stator and armature winding

in rotor. This type is called an inverted synchronous machine.
Synchrnous Generator

2π θe
2π θm

ωt
 B

4π(θe )
2π(θm )

ωt

In general
P
θe = θm
2
Source: A. E. Fitzgerald, et.al., “ Electric Machinery”
 v

ωt

In a 2-pole machine, one revolution makes one cycle of alternating

voltage.
In a P-pole machine,
1 P
1 revolution/min × cycle/sec
60 2
N P
N rpm × cycle/sec
60 2
PN
f = Hz
120
The flux linkage with stator coil a is
λa = Nφf cos ωt
Where N is the number of turns in each pahse and φf is the flux
per pole due to excitation current If . By Faraday’s law, the voltage
induced in phase a is
dλa
ea = − = ωNφf sin ωt
dt
The rms value in voltage is
Ea = 4.44fNφf

φf

E
I The field winding is excited by DC.
I When the rotor rotates, the field will revolve in the air gap.
I The revolving field induces an emf in the armature winding
placed in the stator.
I The speed of the field (N) is determined by the frequency of
induced voltage.
PN
f = Hz
120
I Rotor and field due to field winding rotate at the same speed
called the synchrnous speed.
I When the stator terminals are connected to a load, a three
phase armature current flows out of the machine.
I When a three phase balanced current flows in the three phase
armature winding, a revolving mmf is produced whose speed is

120f
N= rpm
P
I The field due to armature current also rotates at the
synchronous speed in the air gap.
I Finally the net air gap field is the resultant of field due to If
and stator current Ia .

Fr = Ff + Fa

φr = φf + φa
I The resultant and component fluxes rotate in the air gap at
the same speed.
 φf
E
φr

θ E
If
Figure: OCC φa Ia
Figure: Field diagram
Equivalent Circuit

Since the operation is balanced, the per phase equivalent circuit of

a synchronous machine is

Xar Xal Ra

+
E Vt
−

where
Xar is the reactance of armature reaction.
Xal is the leakage reactance.
Ra is the armature resistance.
 Xs Ia Ra

+
E Vt
−

The synchronous reactance

Xs = Xar + Xal

The synchronous impedance

Zs = Ra + Xs

E = Vt + Ia (Ra + Xs )
Determination of Xs
Open Circuit Test :

Field V E
If −
N
Vf
+ −

Vary If and measure E . Repeat till E reaches its rated value.

Short Circuit Test :

Ia R
A

Field
If

Vf
+ −

Vary If and measure Ia . Repeat till Ia reaches its rated value.

The open circuit characteristics is a non linear curve. However, the
short circuit characteristics is a straight line because the flux inside
the machine is low (no saturation).

φf

Xs Ia Ra φr

+ E
E θ
−

φa
Figure: SC Test
Ia
Figure: Field diagram
 E Ia

Eda d

OCC
Vt
c
SCC
Ia
b

a
If
 I Unsaturated synchronous impedance,

Eda
Zs(unsat) =
Ia
If Ra is known, Xs(unsat) can be found.
q
Xs(unsat) = (Zs(unsat) )2 − Ra2

I Saturated synchronous impedance,

Vt
Zs(sat) = == Ra + Xs(sat)
Ia
If Ra is known, Xs(sat) can be found.
q
Xs(sat) = (Zs(sat) )2 − Ra2

Saturated synchronous reactance Xs is normally used in

calculations.
Alternator - Phasor Diagrams

E
Ia Xs
δ
φ Vt
Ia Ra
Ia
Figure: lagging power factor load

E
Ia Xs

δ
Ia Vt Ia Ra
Figure: unity power factor load
 E
Ia Ia Xs
δ
φ
I R
Vt a a
Figure: leading power factor load

In Alternators
I E leads Vt by δ. δ is positive.
I This δ is also the angle between the main field φf and the
resultant field φr .
I φf leads φr by δ.
Let us neglect Ra .

φf
φa
φr

δ
E
Ia Xs
δ
φ Vt
Ia
Figure: Alternator supplies a lagging power factor load - Field diagram
Synchronization of Alternators
R RGrid

L1

Field
Y YGrid
If
L2

Vf L3
+ −

B BGrid
The alternator and the grid must have the same
1. Voltage
2. Frequency
3. Phase Sequence
4. Phase
I When all the above conditions are satisfied, the three lamps
will be dark. It is time to close the switch.
I Once it is synchronized, the terminal voltage and frequency of
the alternator can not be changed.
I By changing the prime mover speed, Real Power (P) can be
controlled.
I By changing the excitation, Reactive Power (Q) and hence
power factor can be controlled.
Power Characteristic
It always works with an infinite bus.

Xs Ia Ra

+
E δ Vt 0◦
−

Figure: Per phase equivalent circuit

To find the power delivered by the alternator,

S = Vt Ia∗

(E δ − Vt 0◦ ) ∗
 
S = Vt 0◦
|Zs | θ
 EVt θ − δ Vt2 θ
S= −
|Zs | |Zs |
By taking Real and Imaginary parts,

EVt cos(θ − δ) Vt2 cos(θ)

P= −
|Zs | |Zs |

EVt sin(θ − δ) Vt2 sin(θ)

Q= −
|Zs | |Zs |
If we neglect Ra , |Zs | = |Xs | and θ = 90◦ .

EVt sin δ
P=
Xs

EVt cos δ Vt2

Q= −
Xs Xs
Three phase real and Reactive power

EVt sin δ
P=3 = Pmax sin δ
Xs

EVt cos δ Vt2

 
Q=3 −
Xs Xs

Pmax

δ
Figure: Power angle curve
V - Curves:
Xs Ia
+
+
E δ Vt 0◦
−
−
Figure: Per phase equivalent circuit

E
Ia Xs
δ
φ Vt
Ia
Figure: Supplying a lagging power factor load
Let us keep the real power delivered constant and change the
excitation.
EVt sin δ
P= = Vt Ia cos φ
Xs
where φ is the angle difference between Vt and Ia .
if If is varied, Ef will vary (linearly if magnetic linearity is
assumed). Since Vt is fixed,

E sin δ = const

Ia cos φ = const
 E2 E E1
Ia2 Xs Ia Xs Ia1 Xs

E sin δ
Ia2
Ia cos φ

Ia
Vt

Ia1
Figure: Different excitation for a constant P

E1 sin δ1 = E sin δ = E2 sin δ2

Ia1 cos φ1 = Ia cos φ = Ia2 cos φ2
1. Over Excitation :
E cos δ > Vt
Alternator supplies lagging current and supplies reactive
power.
2. Normal Excitation :
E cos δ = Vt
Alternator supplies unity power factor current and supplies
zero reactive power.
3. Under Excitation :
E cos δ < Vt
Alternator supplies leading current and draws reactive power.
If we plot Ia Vs If ,

Ia
P2
P1

P2 > P1

Under Excitation Over Excitation

leading pf lagging pf If
Figure: V-Curves of an Alternator
Example 1 : (Example 8.13 : Kothari)
A 3φ, 10 kVA, 400 V, 4-pole, 50 Hz star connected synchronous
machine has synchronous reactance of 16 Ω and negligible
resistance. The machine is operating as generator on 400 V
bus-bars (assumed infinite).
1. Determine the excitation emf (phase) and torque angle when
the machine is delivering rated kVA at 0.8 pf lagging.
2. While supplying the same real power as in part (1), the
machine excitation is raised by 20 %. Find the stator current,
power factor, torque angle and reactive power delivered.
3. With the field current held constant as in part (1), the power
(real) load is increased till the steady state power limit is
reached. Calculate the maximum power and kVAR delivered
and also the stator current and power factor. Draw the phasor
diagram under these conditions.
1.
P = 10 × 0.8 = 8kW (three phase)
8000
Ia = √ = 14.43 A
3 × 400 × 0.8
400
E δ = √ 0◦ + 14.43 −36.87◦ × 16 90◦
3
E = 413.3 V (phase)
δ = 26.5◦
2.
E1 = 1.2 × E = 496 V
E sin δ = E1 sin δ1
δ1 = 21.9◦
The stator current
E1 δ1 − Vt 0◦
Ia1 =
Xs
 Ia1 = 18.4 −50.9◦ A
pf = 0.63 lagging
√
Q = 3Vt Ia sin φ = 9.89 kVAR (3-phase)
Q can also be found by the following formula.

EVt cos δ Vt2

 
Q=3 −
Xs Xs

Q is positive which means the machine is supplying it.

3.
E = 413.3 V
When the real power reaches its maximum value, δ = 90◦ .

EVt 413.3 × 231

Pmax = = = 5.96 kW/phase
Xs 16

Pmax = 17.38 kW (3-phase)

 413.3 90◦ − 231 0◦
Ia = = 29.56 29.2◦ A
16 90◦
pf = 0.873 leading
√
Q= 3 × 400 × 29.56 × sin(−29.2◦ ) = −9.99 kVAR (3-phase)
Since Q is negative, the machine is drawing it.
E Ia Xs

Ia
δ
φ
Vt
Synchronous Motor
I Stator (armature) is connected to a three phase AC supply.
I Rotor (field winding) is connected to a DC supply.

Unlike three phase induction motors and DC motors, synchronous

motors are not self-starting.
let us consider a 4-pole synchronous machine.
I When the three phase armature winding (stator) is supplied
with a three phase balanced supply, It produces a rotating
mmf in the air gap whose speed is the synchronous speed
120f
Ns =
P
For a 4-pole machine and 50 Hz supply, Ns =1500 rpm.
I When the field winding (rotor) is excited by DC, it will
produce a stationary field.
 I When the revolving field rotates, the rotor experiences torque
and is trying rotate in the direction of revolving filed.
I Due to inertia of the rotor, rotor filed poles have hardly
moved. By the time stator poles have moved.
I Therefore, the rotor experiences torque in the opposite
direction.
I Hence there is no net torque and the motor will not develop
any starting torque.

Source: P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics”

Methods of Starting
1. Use a variable frequency supply
I The motor is started with a low frequency supply.
I This will make stator field move slowly so that the rotor can
follow.
I Then the frequency is gradually increased.
2. Start as an induction machine
I Synchronous machines normally have damper or amortisseur
winding mounted on the rotor.
I Do not excite the rotor.
I If the stator is connected to the three phase ac supply, the
machine will start as induction motor.
I After reaching the steady speed (Nr < Ns ), excite the rotor
with the DC supply.
I The rotor will get locked to the revolving field and rotate at
Ns .
I At Ns , damper winding will get no induced emf (no relative
motion).
 Figure: Synchronous Machine Rotor

Source: A. E. Fitzgerald, et. al., “Electric Machinery”

Synchronous Motor - Equivalent Circuit

Ia Xs Ra

+
E Vt
−

E = Vt − Ia (Ra + Xs )
Synchronous Motor - Phasor Diagrams

Ia Ra
φ δ Vt
E
Ia Xs
Ia
Figure: lagging current

δ Ia Ia Ra Vt

E Ia Xs
Figure: unity power factor current
 Ia
φ
Vt
δ
Ia Ra
E
Ia Xs
Figure: leading current

In Syn. Motors
I E lags Vt by δ. δ is negative.
I This δ is also the angle between the main field φf and the
resultant field φr .
I φf lags φr by δ.
Let us neglect Ra .

φr
φa
φf

Vt
φ δ
Ia E
Ia Xs
Figure: Syn. Motor draws a lagging current - Field diagram
Torque Characteristics
P3φ
T =
ωs
2πNs
where ωs is the synchronous speed in rad/sec. ωs =
60
3EVt sin δ
T = = Tmax sin δ Nm
ωs Xs

T T

Tmax
Ns N (rpm)

δ
Figure: Torque angle curve Figure: Torque speed curve
Power Factor Control

Ia Xs
+
+
E −δ Vt 0◦
−
−
Figure: Per phase equivalent circuit

φ δ Vt
Ia E
Ia Xs
Figure: Drawing a lagging current
Let us keep the real power supplied to the motor constant and
change the excitation.

EVt sin δ
P= = Vt Ia cos φ
Xs

if If is varied, Ef will vary (linearly if magnetic linearity is

assumed). Since Vt is fixed,

E sin δ = const

Ia cos φ = const
 Ia1

Vt
Ia

E sin δ
Ia2 E2 E1
Ia cos φ E
Ia2 Xs Ia Xs Ia1 Xs
Figure: Different excitation

E1 sin δ1 = E sin δ = E2 sin δ2

Ia1 cos φ1 = Ia cos φ = Ia2 cos φ2
1. Over Excitation :
E cos δ > Vt
Syn. motor draws leading current and supplies reactive power.
2. Normal Excitation :
E cos δ = Vt
Syn. motor draws unity power factor current and draws zero
reactive power.
3. Under Excitation :
E cos δ < Vt
Syn. motor draws lagging current and draws reactive power.
If we plot Ia Vs If ,

Ia
P2
P1

P2 > P1

Under Excitation Over Excitation

lagging pf leading pf If
Figure: V-Curves of a Syn. Motor
Synchronous Condenser

Xs
+
+
E Vt
−
−

Let us vary the excitation. Since Vt is fixed,

Ia2

E1
E2 E
Vt Ia1 Xs
Ia2 Xs

Ia1
Figure: Phasor diagram - Generator Convention
 Ia1

E1
E2 E
Vt Ia1 Xs
Ia2 Xs

Ia2
Figure: Phasor diagram - Motor Convention

I An overexcited unloaded synchronous machine supplies a pure

lagging current (draws a pure leading current).
I An under excited unloaded synchronous machine supplies a
pure leading current (draws a pure lagging current).
When the synchronous machine is not transferring any real power,
I its power factor is zero.
I the stator current either leads or lags the voltage by 90◦ .
I the magnitude of the stator current can be changed by
changing the excitation.
I it behaves like a variable inductor or capacitor.

An unloaded synchronous machine is called synchronous condenser

and is used to improve the power factor of the system.
Example 2 :
A 3φ, 10 kVA, 400 V, 4-pole, 50 Hz star connected synchronous
machine has synchronous reactance of 16 Ω and negligible
resistance. The machine is operating as a motor on 400 V bus-bars
(assumed infinite). The field excitation is adjusted so that the
power factor is unity when the machine draws 6 kW.
1. Determine the excitation emf and torque angle. Draw the
phasor diagram.
2. If the field excitation is held constant and the shaft load is
suddenly increased, determine the maximum torque that the
motor can deliver.
1.
P3φ = 6 kW; pf = 1
6 × 103
Ia = √ = 8.66 A
3 × 400 × 1
E = Vt − Ia Xs = 231 0◦ − 8.66 0◦ × 16 90◦
 E = 269.37 −30.96◦ V (phase)

δ Ia Vt

E Ia Xs
2. Maximum torque will be developed at δ = 90◦ .

3 × 231 × 269.37
Pmax (3φ) = = 11.67 kW
16

11.67 × 103
Tmax = = 74.28 Nm
2 × π × 1500/60