FIRST YEAR HIGHER SECONDARY EXAMINATION

FOCUS AREA Notes for +1 CHEMISTRY (All Chapters)

1. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
Laws of Chemical Combination
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the some basic laws:
1. Law of Definite Proportions (Law of definite composition): This law was proposed by Joseph
Proust. It states that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.
Or, the same compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed ratio by mass.
Illustration: Carbon dioxide can be formed in the atmosphere by various methods like respiration, burning of
fuels, reaction of metal carbonates and bicarbonates with acid etc. All these samples of CO 2 contain only two
elements Carbon and Oxygen combined in a mass ratio 3:8.
2. Law of Multiple Proportions: This law was proposed by John Dalton. It states that if two elements
can combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one of the elements that combine
with a fixed mass of the other element, are in small whole number ratio.
Illustration: Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds – water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide
2g 32g 34g
Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) bear a
simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.
Atomic mass
Atomic mass of an element is a number that expresses how many times the mass of an atom of the element
is greater than 1/12th the mass of a C12 atom.
For e.g. atomic mass of Nitrogen is 14, which means that mass of one N atom is 14 times greater than 1/12 th
the mass of a C12 atom.
Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12th the mass of a C12 atom is called atomic mass unit (amu).
i.e. 1 amu = 1/12 x mass of a C12 atom
= 1.66 x 10-24 g
= 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Today, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.
Average atomic mass: Almost all the elements have isotopes. So we can calculate an average atomic mass of
an element by considering the atomic mass of the isotopes and their relative abundance.
For e.g. chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl in the ratio 3:1.
So the average atomic mass Cl =(3x35 + 1x37)/4 =35.5
Molecular mass:
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is obtained by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together.
For e.g. molecular mass of H2SO4 is calculated as: 2 x 1 + 32 + 4 x 16 = 98 u.
Formula mass:
In the case of ionic compounds (like NaCl), there is no discrete (separate) molecules. Here the positive ions
and the negative ions are arranged in a three-dimensional structure. So we can calculate only formula mass
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by taking molecular formula of the compound.
Mole concept
Mole is the unit of amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many
particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g C12 isotope. 1 mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 1023
atoms. This number is known as Avogadro number or Avogadro constant (NA or N0).
1 mol of hydrogen atoms = 6.022×1023 atoms
1 mol of water molecules = 6.022×1023 water molecules
1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 × 1023 formula units of sodium chloride
Molar mass: The mass of one mole of a substance in gram is called its molar mass (gram molecular mass).
The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to molecular mass in u.
Molar mass of oxygen = 32g
Molar mass of hydrogen = 2g etc.
Limiting reagent (Limiting reactant)
It is the reagent that limits a reaction. Or, the reagent which is completely consumed in a chemical reaction
is called limiting reagent or limiting reactant.
For e.g. in the reaction 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g), 2 moles of SO2 reacts completely with 1 mole of
O2 to form 2 moles of SO3. If we take 10 moles each of SO2 and O2, we get only 10 moles of SO3 because 10
moles of SO2 requires only 5 moles of O2 for the complete reaction. So here SO2 is the limiting reagent and 5
moles of O2 remains unreacted.

Q) A reaction mixture for the production of NH3 gas contains 250 g of N2 gas and 50 g of H2 gas under
suitable conditions. Identify the limiting reactant if any and calculate the mass of NH 3 gas produced. (3)

Ans: Nitrogen reacts with Hydrogen to form ammonia according to the equation,
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
28g 6g 34g
i.e. 28g N2 requires 6g H2 for the complete reaction.
So 250g N2 requires, 6x 250/28 = 53.57g H2.
But here there is only 50g H2.
So we have to consider the reverse case.
i.e. 6g H2 requires 28g N2.
So 50g H2 requires 28 x 50/6 = 233.33g N2
Here H2 is completely consumed. So it is the limiting reagent.
Amount of ammonia formed = 50+ 233.33 = 283.33 g

2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
Rutherford proposed an atom model based on his α–particle scattering experiment. He bombarded a very
thin gold foil with α–particles.
The Experiment: A stream of high energy α–particles from a radioactive source was directed at a thin gold
foil. The thin gold foil was surrounded by a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen. Whenever α–particles
struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.

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Observations: The important observations made by Rutherford are:
1. Most of the α– particles passed through the gold foil without any deviation.
2. A small fraction of the α–particles was deflected by small angles.
3. A very few α– particles (∼1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°.
Conclusions: From the above observations, Rutherford made the following conclusions:
1. Since most of the α–particles passed through the foil without any deviation, most space in the atom
is empty.
2. A few positively charged α– particles were deflected. This is because the positive charge of the atom
is concentrated in a very small volume at the centre called nucleus.
3. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
The radius of the atom is about 10–10 m, while that of nucleus is 10–15 m.
On the basis of above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model (Planetary
model) of atom. According to this model:
1. All the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in an extremely small
region called nucleus.
2. Electrons are revolving round the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits.
3. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Drawbacks or Limitations of Rutherford’s atom model
1. Rutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of the atom.
2. He could not explain the electronic structure of atom.
Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation:
Planck’s Quantum Theory
The important postulates of quantum theory proposed by Max Planck are:
1. Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy not in a continuous manner, but discontinuously
in small packets of energy called quanta or photons.
2. The energy (E ) of each quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (ν).
It is expressed by the equation, E = hν
Where ‘h’ is known as Planck’s constant and its value is 6.626×10 –34 J s.
Photoelectric effect
It is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons by certain metals (like potassium, rubidium, caesium
etc.) when light of suitable frequency incident on them. The electrons ejected are called photoelectrons.
This phenomenon was first observed by H Hertz. The important characteristics of photoelectric effect are:
1. The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface. i.e.,
there is no time lag between the striking of light beam and the ejection of electrons from the metal
surface.
2. The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
3. For each metal, there is a minimum frequency known as threshold frequency *ν0], below which
photoelectric effect is not observed.
4. The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident
light.
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Explanation of photoelectric effect
A satisfactory explanation to photoelectric effect was first given by Albert Einstein using Planck’s
Quantum theory. According to him, when a photon of sufficient energy strikes the metal surface, it transfers
its energy to the electron of the atom of the metal instantaneously and the electron is ejected without any
time lag. A part of the energy is used to eject the electron from the metal surface (i.e. to overcome the
attractive force of the nucleus *work function, hν0]) and the other part is given to the ejected electron in the
form of kinetic energy. Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater will be transfer of energy to the
electron and greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
Since the striking photon has energy equal to hν and the minimum energy required to eject the electron
is hν0 (also called work function, W0) then the difference in energy (hν – hν0) is transferred as the kinetic
energy of the photoelectron.
According to law of conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the ejected electron is given by
K.E = hν - hν0
Or, hν = hν0 + ½ mev2
Where me is the mass of the electron and v is the velocity of the ejected electron.
A more intense beam of light contains larger number of photons, so the number of electrons ejected is also
larger.
Atomic spectrum
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2 molecules dissociate and the
energetically excited hydrogen atoms produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies. The
hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their discoverers. The first five series of
lines are Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series. Among these lines, the Balmer series is the
only series that we can be visible (since it lies in the visible region).
Johannes Rydberg proposed an equation for finding the wave number of the different lines in
Hydrogen spectrum. The expression is:
ῡ = 1/ λ = 109677 (1/n12 -1/n22) cm-1
Where n1 = 1, 2, 3,….. and n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2, ……
The different spectral lines, their n1 and n2 values and their spectral region are:

Series Spectral n1 n2
region
Lyman Ultra violet 1 2,3,4….
Balmer Visible 2 3,4,5….
Paschen Infra red 3 4,5,6…..
Brackett Infra red 4 5,6,7….
Pfund Infra red 5 6,7,8…..

BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM

The general features of the structure of hydrogen atom and its spectrum was first explained by Niels
Bohr. The important postulates of his theory are:
1. The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in circular paths of fixed radius and
energy. These paths are called orbits or stationary states or allowed energy states. These energy
levels are numbered as 1,2,3 etc or as K, L, M, N, etc. These numbers are known as Principal
quantum numbers.

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 2. The energy of an electron in an orbit does not change with time. However, when an electron absorbs
energy, it will move away from the nucleus (i.e. to a higher energy level) and when it loses energy, it
will move towards the nucleus (i.e. to a lower energy level).
3. The radius of orbits can be given by the equation: rn = a0 n2 where a0 = 52.9 pm.
Thus the radius of the first stationary state is 52.9 pm (called the Bohr radius). As n increases, the
value of r will increase.
4. The energy of electron in an orbit is given by the expression: En = -RH (1/n2), where n = 1,2,3…… and
RH is a constant called Rydberg constant. Its value is 2.18x10-18 J. The energy of the lowest state (the
ground state) is given by E1 = –2.18×10–18J. As the value of n increases, the energy of the electron
also increases.
5. The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary
states that differ in energy by ΔE, is given by:
ν = ΔE = E2 – E1
h h
Where E1 and E2 are the energies of lower and higher energy levels respectively. This expression is
commonly known as Bohr’s frequency rule.
6. The angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of h/2π. i.e. m evr = nh
2π
Where me is the mass of electron, v is the velocity of electron and r is the radius of Bohr orbit.
n = 1,2,3.... … Thus an electron can move only in those orbits whose angular momentum is an integral
multiple of h/2π. So only certain fixed orbits are allowed.
Significance of negative energy of electron
When the electron is free from the influence of nucleus, its energy is taken as zero. In this situation,
the electron is at the orbit with n = ∞. When the electron is attracted by the nucleus and is present in orbit
n, the energy is emitted and its energy is lowered. That is the reason for the presence of negative sign in
equation.

Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

According to Bohr atom model, radiation is absorbed if the electron moves from lower energy to
higher energy level and radiation is emitted if the electron moves from higher orbit to lower orbit. The
energy gap between the two orbits is given by equation:
ΔE = E2 – E1
But E1 = -RH and E2 = -RH
n 12 n 22
Therefore, ΔE = RH [1/n12 – 1/n22]
= 2.18 x 10-18 [1/n12 – 1/n22]
The frequency associated with the absorption and emission of the photon can be given as
ν = ΔE = RH 1 – 1
h h n12 n22
= 2.18 x 10-18 1 - 1
6.626 x 10-34 n12 n22

= 3.29 x 1015 [1/n12 – 1/n22]

The wave number (ῡ) = 1/ λ = ν = RH 1 - 1

c hc n 12 n 22

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 = 3.29 x 1015 1 - 1
3 x 108 n 12 n 22

= 1.09677 x 107 1 - 1 m-1 = 109677 1 - 1 cm-1

n 12 n 22 n12 n22

In case of absorption spectrum, n2 > n1 and the term in the bracket is positive and energy is absorbed.
On the other hand, in case of emission spectrum n1 > n2, ΔE is negative and energy is released.
Limitations of Bohr Atom Model: Bohr atom model could explain the stability and line spectra of hydrogen
atom and hydrogen like ions (e.g. He+, Li2+, Be3+ etc). But it has the following limitations:
1. It could not explain the fine spectrum of hydrogen atom.
2. It could not explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen.
3. It was unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of electric field (Stark effect)
and in magnetic field (Zeeman effect).
4. It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
5. It did not consider the wave character of matter and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Dual Behaviour of Matter – de Broglie’s equation
de Broglie proposed that like radiation, matter also show both particle and wave nature. This is
known as dual behaviour of matter. i.e. electrons should have momentum as well as wavelength. He gave
the following relation between wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) for material particles.
λ= h = h
mv p
Where m is the mass of the particle, v is the velocity and p is the momentum. The above equation is known
as de Broglie’s equation.
Just like electromagnetic radiations, an electron beam also undergoes diffraction. This is an evidence
for the wave nature of electrons. An electron microscope works on the principle of wave nature of electron.
According to de Broglie, every moving object has a wave character. The wavelengths associated with
ordinary objects are so short (because of their large masses) that their wave properties cannot be detected.
The wavelengths associated with electrons and other subatomic particles (with very small mass) can be
detected experimentally.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle which is the consequence of dual behaviour
of matter and radiation. It states that “it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and
momentum (or velocity) of a moving microscopic particle like electron”.
Mathematically, it can be given as in equation:
Δx. Δp ≥ h
4π
Or, Δx.mΔv ≥ h
4π

Or, Δx.Δv ≥ h
4πm
Where Δx is the uncertainty in position and Δp is the uncertainty in momentum and Δv is the uncertainty in
velocity of the particle.
If the position of the electron is known with high degree of accuracy (Δx is small), then the velocity of the
electron will be uncertain *Δv is large+ and vice versa.

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Significance of Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for motion of microscopic objects and is not
applicable to macroscopic objects. According to this Principle, we cannot determine the exact position and
momentum of an electron. Thus it rules out the existance of definite paths or orbits of electrons. We can
only say the probability of finding an electron at a given point.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
These are certain numbers used to explain the size, shape and orientation of orbitals. Or, Quantum numbers
are the address of an electron. There are four quantum numbers which describe the electron in an atom.
They are Principal Quantum number (n), Azimuthal Quantum number (Ɩ), Magnetic Quantum number (m or
mƖ) and Spin Quantum number (s).

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

The following informations are obtained from n.
1. It gives the size the orbit.
2. It gives the energy of electron in an orbit.
3. It gives the shell in which the electron is found.
4. It also gives the average distance between the electron and the nucleus. As the value of n increases,
the distance between the electron and the nucleus also increases.
The possible values of n are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.
If n = 1 the electron is in K shell
n = 2 the electron is in L shell
n = 3 the electron is in M shell and so on.
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number [Subsidiary or orbital angular momentum Quantum number] (Ɩ)
The following informations are obtained from Ɩ.
1. It gives the shape of the orbital.
2. It gives the sub shell or sub level in which the electron is located.
3. It also gives the orbital angular momentum of the electron.
For a given value of n, Ɩ can have n values ranging from 0 to n – 1. That is, for a given value of n, the possible
value of Ɩ are : Ɩ = 0, 1, 2, .......... (n-1).
For example, when n = 1, value of Ɩ is only 0. For n = 2, the possible value of Ɩ can be 0 and 1. For n =
3, the possible Ɩ values are 0,1 and 2.
Ɩ= 0 represents s orbital, Ɩ = 1 represents p orbital, Ɩ = 2 represents d orbital and Ɩ = 3 represents f
orbital
The number of sub shells in a principal shell is equal to the value of n. For example,
When n = 1, Ɩ= 0. i.e. K shell contains only one sub shell - s sub shell
when n = 2, Ɩ = 0 and1. i.e. L shell contains two sub shells - s and p sub shells
when n = 3, Ɩ = 0, 1 and 2. i.e. M shell contains three sub shells – s, p and d sub shells
when n = 4, Ɩ = 0, 1, 2 and 3. i.e. N shell contains four sub shells – s, p,d and f sub shells
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m or mƖ)
It gives information about the orientation of orbitals in space. For a given ‘Ɩ’ value, there are 2Ɩ+1
possible values for m and these values are given by :
m = – Ɩ to 0 to + Ɩ
Thus for Ɩ = 0, mƖ = 0 [2(0)+1 = 1].. i.e. s sub shell contains only one orbital called s orbital.
For Ɩ = 1, mƖ = –1, 0 and +1 [2(1)+1 = 3]. i.e. p subshell contains three orbitals called p orbitals (p x, py and pz).
For Ɩ = 2, mƖ = –2, –1, 0, +1 and +2, [2(2)+1 = 5]. i.e. d subshell contains five orbitals called d orbitals (d xy, dxz,
dyz, dx2- y2 and dz2)
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4. Spin Quantum Number (s or ms)
It is the only experimental Quantum number and it gives the spin orientation of electrons. This spin
may be either clockwise or anticlockwise. So the values for s may be +½ or -½. +½ represents clock-wise spin
and-½ represents anticlock-wise spin.

Rules for Filling of electrons in various orbitals

The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place according to the 3 rules -
aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and the Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
1. Aufbau principle:
The German word aufbau means ‘build up’. The building up of orbitals means the filling up of orbitals
with electrons. It states that the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies. In other words,
electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital and then to higher energy orbitals.
This rule has two sub rules:
a) The various orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their (n+Ɩ) value.
b) If two orbitals have the same (n+Ɩ) values, the orbital with the lower n value is filled first.
The increasing order of orbitals is as follows:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s...
2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
It states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. i.e. an
orbital can accommodate a maximum of only 2 electrons with opposite spin.
If 2 electrons have same values for n, Ɩ and m, they should have different values for s. i.e. if s = +½ for
the first electron, it should be -½ for the second electron.
3. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
It states that electron pairing takes place only after partially filling all the degenerate orbitals.
Orbitals having same energies are called degenerate orbitals. For example the electronic configuration of N
is 1s2 2s2 2px1py1pz1 and not 1s2 2s2 2px2py1.
Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into various orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration.
The electrons in the completely filled shells are known as core electrons and the electrons in the outer most
shell are called valence electrons.
Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
For atoms having half filled or completely filled electronic configurations have extra stability
compared to other atoms. This is due to their symmetrical distribution of electrons and greater exchange
energy.
For example, the electronic configuration of Cr is [Ar] 3d54s1 and not 3d44s2. This is due to the extra
stability of half filled d5 configuration. Similarly, for Cu the electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d104s1 and not
3d94s2. This is due to the extra stability of fully filled d10 configuration.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

Modern Periodic table
Henry Moseley’s work on the atomic spectra of elements proved that atomic number is the most
fundamental property. Based on this observation, he proposed a periodic law, which states that “the
properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers”. This is known as Modern Periodic
law.
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 Based on modern periodic law, numerous forms of periodic tables have been proposed. The most
commonly used is the long form of periodic table.
In this periodic table, the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic number. It
contains 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical columns called groups. Elements having similar
outer electronic configurations are arranged in same group or family. The groups are numbered from 1 to
18. Due to the similar outer electronic configuration and same valency, the elements present in the same
group have similar properties.
There are 7 periods in Modern periodic table. The period number corresponds to the highest
principal quantum number of the elements. The first period contains 2 elements (H and He). Here the
subshell filled is 1s. This period is called very short period.
The second period contains 8 elements (Li to Ne). Here the subshells filled are 2s and 2p. The third
period also contains 8 elements (Na to Ar). Here the subshells filled are 3s and 3p. These 2 periods are called
short periods.
The fourth period contains 18 elements (K to Kr). Here the subshells filled are 4s, 3d and 4p. The fifth
period also contains 18 elements (Rb to Xe). Here the subshells filled are 5s, 4d and 5p. These 2 periods are
called long periods.
The sixth period contains 32 elements (Cs to Rn). Here the subshells filled are 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p. This
period is the longest period in the periodic table and is called the Monster period. The seventh period is an
incomplete period. It can also accommodate 32 elements. Here the subshells filled are 7s, 5f, 6d and 7p.
The 14 elements each of sixth and seventh periods are placed in separate rows below the main body
of the periodic table. These are together called inner transition elements. The 14 elements of sixth period
(from cerium to lutetium) are called Lanthanides or Lanthanones or Lanthanoids or rare earths. The 14
elements of seventh period (from thorium to lawrencium) are called Actinides or Actinones or Actinoids.
The Modern periodic table is divided into 4 blocks based on the subshell in which the last electron
enters. They are s block, p block, d block and f block.

Periodic properties of Elements

The properties which repeat after a regular interval are called periodic properties. Some of the important
periodic properties of elements are atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy,
electronegativity etc.
1. Atomic Radius
It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell having electrons. Atomic
radius of individual atoms cannot be determined. So it is expressed in any of the following methods:
a) Covalent radius: It is half of the inter nuclear distance between two covalently bonded (single
bonded) atoms. It is used to express the atomic radius of non-metal atoms.
For e.g. the distance between 2 Cl atoms in Cl2 molecule is 198 pm. So its covalent radius is 99 pm.
b) Metallic radius: It is the half of the inter nuclear distance between two metallic ions in a metal
crystal.
c) van der Waal’s radius: It is defined as the half of the inter nuclear distance between two non bonded
atoms of separate molecules in the solid state.
Atomic radius is commonly expressed in picometre (pm) or angstrom (A 0) unit. It is measured by x-ray
diffraction method or by spectroscopic method.
Variation of atomic radius along a group and a period
The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. This is because in a period, the electrons are
added to the same valence shell. Thus the number of shells remains same, but the effective nuclear charge

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increases. So the atomic radius decreases. In a given period, alkali metals (group 1) have the maximum size
and halogens (group 17) have the minimum size.
In a group, the atomic radius increases from top to bottom. This is because of the increase in no. of
shells and shielding effect. (In atoms with higher atomic number, the inner electrons partially shield the
attractive force of the nucleus. So the outer electrons do not experience the full attraction of the nucleus
and this is known as shielding effect or screening effect).
Atomic radius of noble gases is larger than that of halogens. This is because noble gases are monoatomic.
So van der Waal’s radius is used to express the atomic radius which is greater than covalent radius.
Ionic radius
It is defined as the half of the inter nuclear distance between cations and anions of an ionic crystal. The
variation of ionic radius is same as that of atomic radius.
Generally a cation is smaller than its parent atom (e.g. Na+ is smaller than Na atom). This is because a
cation has fewer electrons, but its nuclear charge remains the same as that of the parent atom.
An anion is larger than its parent atom (e.g. Cl- is larger than Cl atom). This is because the addition of
one or more electrons would result in an increased electronic repulsion and a decrease in effective nuclear
charge.
Isoelectronic species:
Atoms and ions having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
E.g. O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+ etc. (All these contain 10 electrons)
Among isoelectronic species, the cation with greater positive charge will have the smaller radius. This is
because of their greater effective nuclear charge. The anion with greater negative charge will have the larger
radius. Here the effective nuclear charge is less and the repulsion between electrons is greater. So the ion
will expand in size.
2. Ionisation enthalpy (∆iH)
It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from the outer most shell of an isolated
gaseous atom in its ground state.
It may be represented as: X(g) + ∆iH → X+(g) + e–
Its unit is kJ/mol.
The energy required to remove the first electron from the outer most shell of a neutral atom is called
first ionisation enthalpy (∆iH1) X(g) + ∆iH1 → X+(g) + e–
Second Ionisation enthalpy (∆iH2) is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a unipositive
ion.
X+(g) + ∆iH2 → X2+(g) + e–
Energy is always required to remove an electron from an atom or ion. So ∆iH is always positive.
The second ionisation enthalpy is always higher than first ionization enthalpy. This is because it is
more difficult to remove an electron from a positive charged ion than from a neutral atom.
Similarly third ionisation enthalpy is higher than second ionisation enthalpy and so on.
i.e. ∆iH1 < ∆iH2 < ∆iH3…………
As the ease of removal of electron increases, the ionisation enthalpy decreases.
Factors affecting ionisation enthalpy
The important factors which affect ionisation enthalpy are:
a) Atomic size: Greater the atomic size (atomic radius), smaller will be the ionisation enthalpy.
b) Nuclear charge: The value of ionisation enthalpy increases with nuclear charge.
c) Shielding effect: As the shielding effect increases, the electrons can easily be removed and so the
ionisation enthalpy decreases.
d) Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals increases ionisation enthalpy.

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Variation of ∆iH along a period and a group
Along a period, ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right. This is because of the decrease in
atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge. Thus alkali metals have the least ∆iH and noble gases have the
most.
Down a group, ∆iH decreases due to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect. Thus among alkali
metals, lithium has the least ∆iH and francium has the most.
In the second period of modern periodic table, the first ionisation enthalpy of Boron is slightly less
than that of Beryllium. This is because of the completely filled orbitals in Be (1s 22s2).
Similarly the first ionisation enthalpy of N is greater than that of Oxygen. This is because N has half
filled electronic configuration (1s22s22p3), which is more stable and so more energy is required to remove an
electron.
3. Electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)
It is the heat change (enthalpy change) when an electron is added to the outer most shell of an isolated
gaseous atom. It can be represented as X(g) + e– → X-(g)
Its unit is kJ/mol. It may be positive or negative depending on the nature of the element. For most of
the elements, energy is released when electron is added to their atoms. So ∆ egH is negative. Noble gases
have large positive electron gain enthalpy because of their completely filled (stable) electronic configuration.
As the ease of addition of electron increases, electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative.
The factors affecting Electron gain enthalpy are atomic size, nuclear charge, shielding effect and
electronic configuration. As the atomic size increases ∆egH decreases. When nuclear charge increases,
electron gain enthalpy increases and become more negative. As the shielding effect increases, ∆egH
decreases (or, becomes less negative). Presence of half filled or completely filled orbitals makes ∆egH less
negative.
Periodic variation of ∆egH
From left to right across a period, ∆egH become more negative. This is because of decrease in atomic
radius and increase in nuclear charge. So the ease of addition of electron increases and hence the ∆egH.
Down a group, ∆egH becomes less negative due to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect.
Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than chlorine. This is because, when an electron is
added to F, it enters into the smaller 2nd shell. Due to the smaller size, the electron suffers more repulsion
from the other electrons. But for Cl, the incoming electron goes to the larger 3 rd shell. So the electronic
repulsion is low and hence Cl adds electron more easily than F. Due to the same reason ∆egH of Oxygen is
less negative than S.
Thus in modern periodic table, alkali metals have the least –ve ∆egH and halogens have the most –ve
∆egH. Among halogens, the negative ∆egH decreases as follows.
Cl > F > Br > I
The negative electron gain enthalpy is also called electron affinity.
4. Electronegativity
Electronegativity of an atom in a compound is the ability of the atom to attract shared pair of electron of
electrons. It is not a measurable quantity and so it has no unit. There are different scales for measuring the
Electronegativity of elements. Some of them are Pauling scale, Mulliken – Jaffe scale, Allred-Rochow scale
etc. The most commonly used is the Pauling Electronegativity scale proposed by Linus Pauling.
Electronegativity depends on atomic size and nuclear charge. As the atomic radius increases,
electronegativity decreases. Greater the nuclear charge, greater will be the electronegativity. Generally
electronegativity increases across a period and decreases along a group. So in modern periodic table, F has
the maximum electronegativity and Fr has the minimum electronegativity. In Pauling Scale, electronegativity
of F is 4.0 and that of Oxygen is 3.5.

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 The electronegativity of an element is not constant. It varies depending on the element to which it is
bound. It is directly related to the non-metallic character of elements. An increase in electronegativity across
a period indicates an increase in non-metallic character and decrease in metallic character.

4. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

The attractive force that binds the atoms together in a molecule is called a chemical bond. . It is
formed either by the transfer of electrons or by the sharing of electrons.
Covalent bond
A bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between two or more atoms is called
covalent bond. It may be a single bond, double bond or triple bond. A covalent bond formed by the sharing
of one pair of electron is called a single bond. A double bond is formed when 2 pairs of electrons are shared
between 2 atoms and a triple bond is formed when 3 pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. The
double and triple bonds are together called multiple bonds.
The shapes of molecules
Covalent bonds are directional in nature. i.e. they are directed to some specified positions in space.
So covalent compounds have definite shapes.
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion [VSEPR] Theory
This theory was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell and later modified by Nyholm and Gillespie. The
important postulates of this theory are:
1) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence shell electron pairs (VSEPRs) around
the central atom.
2) The valence shell electron pairs repel each other.
3) In order to reduce the repulsion, the electron pairs stay at maximum distance.
4) Presence of lone pairs of electron causes distortion in the expected geometry of the molecule.
5) The repulsion between two lone pairs of electrons is different from those between two bond pairs or
between a lone pair and bond pair. The repulsion decreases in the order lone pair - lone pair > lone
pair - bond pair > bond pair - bond pair.
6) As the angle between the electron pairs increases, the repulsion decreases.
Prediction of geometry of molecules using VSEPR theory
I) Molecules containing only bond pairs of electrons
No. of VSEPs
Type of Molecule Structure Bond angle Examples
(bond pairs only)
AB2 type 2 1800 BeCl2, HgCl2

AB3 type 3 1200 BF3, BCl3

AB4 type 4 109028l CH4, NH4+

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 Trigonal bipyramid

AB5 type 5 1200 and 900 PCl5

Octahedral

AB6 type 6 900 SF6

II) Molecules containing both bond pairs and lone pairs

The presence of lone pairs of electron causes distortion in the shape of the molecules.
Type of Total no. No. of No. Shape e.g.
molecule of VSEPs b.ps of l.ps
AB2E 3 2 1 Bent SO2, O3
Trigonal Pyramid NH3
AB3E 4 3 1

AB2E2 4 2 2 Bent H2O

AB4E 5 4 1 See-saw SF4

AB3E2 5 3 2 T-Shape ClF3

AB5E 6 5 1 Square Pyramid BrF5

Square Planar XeF4
AB4E2 6 4 2
Explanation of shapes of ammonia and water molecules by VSEPR theory
1. NH3
In ammonia, the central atom N has 5 valence electrons (7N – 2,5). Among these electrons, three are
used for the formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining 2 electrons stay as lone pairs. So
there are 4 VSEPs. Hence the expected shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due to the presence of
lone pairs, the shape is distorted to triangular pyramid and the bond angle changes from 109 028l to 1070.

2. H2O
In water, the central atom O has 6 valence electrons (8O – 2,6). Two of them are used for the
formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining 4 electrons stay as lone pairs. So there are 4
VSEPs. Hence the expected shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due to the presence of 2 lone pairs, the
shape is distorted bent or angular or inverted v shape and the bond angle changes from 109028l to 104.50.

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Valence Bond Theory (VB Theory)
This theory was introduced by Heitler and London and later developed by Linus Pauling in order to explain
the shape of molecules theoretically. VBT can be explained by considering the formation of H2 molecule.
Consider 2 hydrogen atoms A and B with nuclei NA and NB and electrons eA and eB respectively. When
the two atoms are at large distance from each other, there is no interaction between them. So their
potential energy is zero. When the two atoms approach each other, new attractive and repulsive forces
begin to operate.
Attractive forces arise between nucleus of one atom and electron of other atom i.e., N A– eB and NB– eA.
Similarly repulsive forces arise between electrons of two atoms (eA – eB) and nuclei of two atoms NA – NB.
Attractive forces bring the two atoms close to each other whereas repulsive forces push them away.
Experimentally it has been found that the magnitude of new attractive force is more than the new
repulsive forces. So the two atoms approach each other and potential energy decreases. At a particular
stage, the net attractive force balances the net repulsive forces and the energy becomes minimum. At this
stage, the 2 hydrogen atoms are bonded together to form a stable molecule. The distance between the two
atoms at this stage is called bond length (74 pm). The amount of energy liberated at this stage is called bond
enthalpy(435.8kJ/mol)
The potential energy diagram for the formation of H2 molecule is as shown below:

Orbital overlap concept

Orbital overlapping is the process of partial interpenetration of atomic orbitals. The important
characteristics of orbital overlapping are:
1. A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals present in the valence shell
of atoms.
2. The overlapping orbitals should contain electron with opposite spin.
3. As a result of overlapping, the electrons get paired and a stable covalent bond is formed.
4. The strength of a covalent bond depends on the extent of overlapping. The greater the extent of
overlapping, the stronger will be the covalent bond formed.
Types of overlapping
There are two types of orbital overlapping.
1. Axial overlapping:
If the overlapping of atomic orbitals take place along inter nuclear axis, it is called axial
overlapping or end to end overlapping. A bond formed by axial overlapping is called sigma (σ) bond.
The electrons present in sigma bond are called sigma electrons. All single bonds are sigma bonds. A
sigma bond can be formed by the following ways:

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 i) s-s overlapping: Here the overlapping of two half filled s-orbitals take place along the inter
nuclear axis.

ii) s-p overlapping: It occurs with the overlapping of one half filled s-orbital and one half filled p-
orbital.

iii) p-p overlapping: Here two half filled p- orbitals of two atoms overlap.

2. Lateral overlapping:
Here the overlapping take place perpendicular to the inter nuclear axis. The bond formed as a
result of lateral overlapping is called pi (π) bond. The electrons in pi bond are called π electrons.

A π bond is always present along with σ bonds. A double bond contains one σ bond and one π bond.
A triple bond contains one sigma bond and two pi bonds.
A sigma bond is stronger than a pi bond. This is because the extent of overlapping is greater in a
sigma bond.
Hybridisation
It is the process of inter mixing atomic orbitals having slightly different energies to form new orbitals
having equivalent energy and identical shape. The new orbitals formed are called hybrid orbitals.
Types of hybridisation
1. sp3 hybridisation (Tetrahedral Hybridisation) : It is the process of inter mixing of one s-orbital and
three p-orbitals to form four new orbitals having equivalent energy and shape. The 4 new orbitals formed
are called sp3 hybrid orbitals. They are directed to the four corners of a regular tetrahedron with bond angle
109028l. Each sp3 hybrid orbitals has 25% s-character and 75% p-character.
e.g. i) . Formation of methane (CH4)
In CH4, the central atom C has the electronic configuration
2 2 2
6C – 1s 2s 2p

C (ground state) –
In order to explain the tetra valency of C, it is suggested that one of the electrons of 2s orbital is
promoted to 2p orbital.

C (excited state) –
Now, one s-orbital and three p-orbitals undergo sp3 hybridisation. These sp3 hybrid orbitals are
directed to the four corners of a regular tetrahedron with bond angle 109 028l. Each of these sp3 hybrid
orbitals overlap with 1s orbital of H to form four C-H σ bonds.
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 ii) Formation of ethane (C2H6)
In ethane, each C atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation. Out of the 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals, one of
each C atom overlaps axially to form a C-C σ bond. The remaining 3 sp3 hybrid orbitals of each C atom
overlap with 1s orbital of H atom to form 6 C-H σ bonds.

iii) Formation of Ammonia (NH3) molecule

In NH3, the central atom N has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p3.

The one s-orbital and three p-orbitals of N undergo sp3 hybridisation to form 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals.
One of this sp3 hybrid orbitals is occupied by a lone pair and the other three sp 3 hybrid orbitals overlap with
1s orbital of hydrogen to form 3 N-H bonds. Due to the greater repulsion between lone pair and bond pairs,
the shape is distorted to pyramidal and the bond angle becomes 1070.

iv) Formation of water (H2O) molecule

In H2O, the central atom O has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p4.

Now the one s-orbital and three p-orbitals of O undergo sp3 hybridisation to form 4 sp3 hybrid
orbitals. Two of these sp3 hybrid orbitals are occupied by lone pairs and the other two sp 3 hybrid orbitals
overlap with 1s orbital of hydrogen to form 2 O-H bonds. Due to the greater repulsion between lone pairs,
the shape is distorted to angular shape or bent structure or inverted ‘v’ shape and the bond angle becomes
104.50.

2. sp2 hybridisation (Trigonal planar hybridisation): It is the process of inter mixing of one s-orbital and
two p-orbitals to form three new orbitals having equivalent energy and shape. The 3 new orbitals formed
are called sp2 hybrid orbitals. They are directed to the three corners of an equilateral triangle. So the shape

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of the molecule is planar triangular or trigonal planar with bond angle 1200. Each sp2 hybrid orbitals has 33%
s-character and 66% p-character.
e.g. i) Formation of BCl3
Here the central atom B has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p1. In the excited state, one of the 2s
electrons is promoted to vacant 2p orbital. So the configuration becomes 2s12p2.
Now one s-orbital and two p-orbitals undergo hybridisation. The 3 hybrid orbitals formed overlap with 2p
orbitals of Cl to form 3 B-Cl σ bonds. Since the hybridisation is sp2, the shape of the molecule is planar
triangular with bond angle 1200.

ii) Formation of ethene or ethylene (C2H4)

In ethane, each C atom undergoes sp2 hybridisation. Out of the 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals, one of each C
overlaps axially to form a C-C σ bond. The remaining two sp2 hybrid orbitals of each C overlap with the 1s
orbital of H to form 4 C-H σ bonds.
Now each C atom has one unhybridized p-orbital, which overlaps laterally to form a π bond. Thus
there are 5 σ bonds and one π bond in ethane.

3. sp hybridisation (Linear Hybridisation): It is the process of inter mixing of one s-orbital and one p-
orbital to form two new orbitals having equivalent energy and shape. The 2 new orbitals formed are called
sp hybrid orbitals. They are directed in a line. So the shape is linear with bond angle 1800. Each sp hybrid
orbitals has 50% s-character and 50% p-character.
e.g. i) Formation of BeCl2
in BeCl2, the central atom Be has the electronic configuration 1s22s2. In the excited state, one of the 2s
electrons is promoted to 2p level. So the configuration becomes 1s22s12p1.
Now one s-orbital and one p-orbital undergo sp hybridisation to form 2 new sp hybrid orbitals. Each
of these hybrid orbitals overlaps with the 2p orbitals of Cl to form 2 Be-Cl bonds. So the shape of the
molecule is linear with bond angle 1800.

ii) Formation of ethyne or acetylene (C2H2)

In acetylene, each C atom undergoes sp hybridisation. Out of the 2 sp hybrid orbitals, one of each C
overlaps axially to form a C-C σ bond. The remaining two sp hybrid orbitals of each C overlap with the 1s
orbital of H to form 2 C-H σ bonds.

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 Now each C atom has 2 unhybridized p-orbitals, which overlap laterally to form 2 π bonds. Thus the
molecule has linear shape with bond angle 1800. Here there are 3 σ bonds and 2 π bonds in ethyne.

Molecular Orbital Theory

This theory was developed by F.Hund and R.S Mulliken. The important postulates of this theory are:
1) In molecules, the electrons are present in some special type of orbitals called molecular orbitals
(M.Os).
2) The atomic orbitals (A.Os) of comparable energy and proper symmetry combine to form molecular
orbitals.
3) Atomic orbitals are monocentric, while molecular orbitals are polycentric. i.e. electrons present in
atomic orbitals are attracted by only one nucleus. While the electrons present in molecular orbitals
are attracted by more than one nuclei.
4) The number of molecular orbitals formed = the number of atomic orbitals combined. i.e. if 2 atomic
orbitals combined, 2 molecular orbitals are formed. One is called bonding molecular orbital (BMO)
and the other is called anti-bonding molecular orbitals (ABMO)
5) The BMO has lower energy and greater stability than the corresponding ABMO.
6) The molecular orbitals give the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei.
7) The molecular orbitals are filled according to 3 rules – Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle
and Hund’s rule.
Formation of molecular orbitals – Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) method
Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals by an approximate method
known as Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO). According to this theory, the combinations of
atomic orbitals take place by addition and subtraction of wave functions of atomic orbitals. The M.O
formed by the addition of A.Os is called the bonding molecular orbital (BMO) and by the subtraction of
A.Os is called the anti-bonding molecular orbitals (ABMO).
The electron density in a BMO is located between the nuclei of the bonded atoms. So the repulsion
between the nuclei is very low. Therefore a BMO always possess lower energy than the combining A.Os.
While in the case of an ABMO, most of the electron density is located away from the space between the
nuclei. There is a nodal plane between the nuclei and hence the repulsion between the nuclei is high. So
an ABMO possess higher energy than the combining A.Os. ABMO is denoted by using an asteric (*) mark.
Conditions for the combination of atomic orbitals
The combination of A.Os to form M.Os takes place only if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The combining A.Os must have the same or nearly the same energy.
2. The combining A.Os must have the same symmetry about the molecular axis.
3. The combining A.Os must overlap to the maximum extent.
Types of molecular orbitals
M.Os of diatomic molecules are designated as σ (sigma), π (Pi), δ (delta) etc. the sigma M.Os are
symmetrical about the bond axis, while the pi M.Os are not symmetrical.
Linear combination of two 1s atomic orbitals produces two M.Os – a BMO σ1s and an ABMO σ*1s.
Similarly linear combination of two 2s atomic orbitals produces two M.Os – σ2s and σ*2s.
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If z-axis is taken as the inter nuclear axis, linear combination of two 2p z orbitals produces two sigma M.Os
σ2pz and σ*2pz.
While the combination of 2px and 2py orbitals produce M.Os which are not symmetrical about the
bond axis. So two 2px orbitals produces 2 sigma M.Os – π2px and π*2px and two 2py orbitals produce 2 M.Os
– π2py and π*2py.
Energies of various M.Os
The various M.Os are filled in the increasing order of their energies (Aufbau Principle). The increasing order
of energy is:
σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < (π2px = π2py) <σ2pz < (π*2px= π*2py) < σ*2pz
For O2, F2 and Ne2, the order is:
σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < σ2pz < (π2px = π2py) < (π*2px= π*2py) < σ*2pz
Bond Order
It is defined as the half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons (Nb) and the number
of anti-bonding electrons (Na).
i.e. Bond order (B.O) = ½ [Nb –Na]
A molecule is stable only if the bond order is positive. (i.e. Nb >Na). a negative bond order (i.e. Nb < Na or
Nb = Na) means an unstable molecule.
For a single bond, B.O = 1, for a double bond B.O = 2 and so on. Bond order gives an approximate
measure of the bond length. In general, as the bond order increases, bond length decreases and bond
enthalpy increases.
For molecules like He2, Be2, and Ne2, bond order = 0. So these molecules do not exist.
Magnetic nature
If all the M.Os in a molecule are doubly occupied, the substance is diamagnetic. i.e. that substance is
repelled by an external magnetic field. If one or more M.Os are singly occupied, it is paramagnetic. i.e. it is
attracted by an external magnetic field. E.g. O2 molecule.
Molecular orbital Diagram
The representation of various M.Os in the increasing order of energy is called M.O diagram.
Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
1. Hydrogen Molecule (H2)
H2 molecule is formed by the combination of two Hydrogen atoms.
i.e. 1H + 1H H2
1 1
1s 1s
Total no. of electrons in H2 molecule = 2
So its M.O configuration is σ1s2
Bond order of H2 molecule = ½ [Nb –Na] = ½ [2 – 0] = 1
i.e. in H2 molecule, two hydrogen atoms are bonded together by a single bond.
M.O diagram for H2 molecule is:

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 Due to the absence of unpaired electrons in M.Os, H2 molecule is diamagnetic.
2. Helium Molecule (He2) Molecule
He2 molecule is formed by the combination of two Helium atoms.
i.e. 2He + 2He He2
1s2 1s2
Total no. of electrons in He2 molecule = 4
So its M.O configuration is = σ1s2 σ*1s2
Bond order of He2 molecule = ½ [Nb –Na] = ½ [2 – 2] = 0
Since B.O is zero, He2 molecule does not exist.
Its M.O diagram is:

3. Oxygen (O2) molecule

O2 molecule is formed by the combination of two Oxygen atoms.
i.e. 8O + 8O O2
2 2 4 2 2 4
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
Total no. of electrons in O2 molecule = 16
So its M.O configuration is = σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 π2py2 π*2px1 π*2py1
Bond order of O2 molecule = ½ [Nb –Na] = ½ [10 – 6] = ½ x 4 = 2
i.e. in O2 molecule, two Oxygen atoms are bonded together by a double bond.
Its M.O diagram is:

Due to the presence of unpaired electrons, O2 molecule is paramagnetic.

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 5. STATES OF MATTER
Gas Laws
These are some relationships connecting the measurable properties of gases like pressure (P), temperature
(T), volume (V) and number of moles (n). These are:

1) Boyle’s Law (Pressure – Volume Relationship)

It states that at constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure. Mathematically,
P α 1/V
P = k x 1/V, where k is the proportionality constant.
Or, PV = k, a constant
Consider a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature T. Let V 1 & P1 are its initial volume and
pressure respectively. Let the gas undergoes expansion, so that its final volume and pressure becomes V 2
and P2.
Then according to Boyle’s law,
P1V1 = P2V2
If we plot graphs between pressure against volume, pressure against 1/volume and PV against P at
constant temperature, the graphs obtained are as follows:

These graphs are obtained at constant temperature and so they are called isotherms.
We know that density = mass/volume
i.e., d = m/V
If we put value of V in this equation from Boyle’s law equation, we get the relationship,
d = (m/k) x p
i.e. At constant temperature, pressure is directly proportional to the density of a fixed mass of the gas.

2) Charles’ Law (Temperature – Volume Relationship)

It states that at constant pressure, volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature.
Mathematically, V α T
Or, V=kxT
Or, V/T = k, a constant
Consider a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure P. Let V1 be its volume at a temperature T1 and
V2 be its volume at a temperature T2.
Then according to Charle’s law:
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Graphical Representation of Charle’s law

If volume is plotted against temperature at constant pressure, the graph obtained is as follows.

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 -273.150C
Since the graph is obtained at constant pressure, it is called isobar.
If we extend the graph to temperature axis (X-axis), the graph will meet at -273.150C. At this
temperature, the volume of the gas becomes zero. This lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature at
which gases are supposed to occupy zero volume is called Absolute zero of temperature and the scale of
temperature based on absolute zero is called Absolute scale of temperature. All gases become solid or liquid
before reaching this temperature.
3) Avogadro Law (Volume – no. of moles or Amount Relationship)
It states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of moles or molecules. This means that at constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to its number of moles (n) or molecules (N).
i.e., V α n, the number of moles
or, V = k x n, where k is a constant
We know that number of moles (n) = mass in gram (w)/molar mass (M)
i.e., n = w/M
So the above equation becomes:
V = k x w/M
Or, M = k x w/V
Or, M= k x d
Or, Mαd
i.e., the density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass.
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
Standard temperature and pressure (also called NTP, the normal temperature and pressure) means
273.15 K (0°C) temperature and 1 bar pressure. These values approximate freezing temperature of water
and atmospheric pressure at sea level. At STP, molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.71 L mol–1.
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
The combination of the three gas laws (Boyle’s law, Charles’ and Avogadro law) give a single equation which
is known as ideal gas equation.
According to Boyle’s law: V α 1/P (At constant T and n)
According to Charles’ Law: V ∝ T (At constant p and n)
According to Avogadro Law: V ∝ n (At constant p and T)
On combining these three laws we get:
V ∝ n x T x 1/P
Or, V = R x n x T x 1/P (where R is a constant called universal gas constant)
Or, PV = nRT ………………….. (1)
This equation is known as ideal gas equation.
From equation (1), R = PV
nT

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The value of R depends upon units in which P, V and T are measured.
Values of R in different units
1. L atm/K/mol 0.0821
2. L bar/K/mol 0.08314 (8.314x10-2)
3. Pa m3/K/mol 8.314
4. J/K/mol 8.314
Ideal gas equation is a relation between four variables and it describes the state of any gas, therefore, it is
also called equation of state.
Relation between density and Molar mass
The ideal gas equation is PV = nRT
But n = w/M
So, PV = wRT/M
Or, P = wRT/MV
Or, P= dRT/M
Or, M = dRT/P
Combined Gas Law
From ideal gas equation PV = nRT, PV = nR
T
If temperature, volume and pressure of a fixed amount of gas vary from T1, V1 and P1 to T2, V2 and P2 then
we can write, P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

This equation is known as combined gas law. By knowing the values of any 5 parameters, we can determine
the sixth one.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

In order to explain the gas laws theoretically Maxwell, Boltzmann, Claussius etc. put forward a theory
called kinetic molecular theory of gases or microscopic model of gases. The important postulates of this
theory are:
1. Every gas contains a large number of minute and elastic particles (atoms or molecules). The actual
volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the gas.
2. There is no force of attraction between the gas particles.
3. The particles of a gas are in constant and random motion in straight line. During this motion they
collide with each other and also with the walls of the container.
4. The pressure of a gas is due to the wall collisions of the particles.
5. All collisions are perfectly elastic. i.e. the total energy of particles before and after collisions remains
the same.
6. At any particular time, different particles of a gas have different speed and hence different kinetic
energy.
7. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

Behavior of real gases – Deviation of real gases from ideal behavior

Real gases do not obey ideal gas equation at all conditions of temperature and pressure. This can be
understood from the PV against P graphs for different gases.

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 For ideal gases, PV is constant for any pressure. So the graph obtained is a straight line parallel to the
pressure axis (X – axis). For H2 and He, PV increases with increase of pressure. But for CO and CH4, the value
of PV first decreases, reaches a minimum value and then increases.
The deviation from ideal behaviour can be measured in terms of compressibility factor Z, which is the
ratio of product PV and nRT. Mathematically, Z = PV
nRT
For ideal gas Z = 1 at all temperature and pressures. So the graph of Z vs P will be a straight line parallel to
pressure axis. For real gases value of Z deviates from unity.

PV vs P graph Z vs P graph for real & ideal gases

From the graph it is clear that all gases behave ideally at low pressure. As the pressure increases the
deviation from ideal behaviour also increases.
The deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour is due to two wrong assumptions of kinetic
molecular theory of gases. They are:
1. The actual volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the gas.
2. There is no force of attraction between the gas particles.
These two assumptions become wrong at high pressure and low temperature. When the pressure
increases, the volume of the gas decreases. Then the volume of the gas molecule is also considered.
At this condition, there arises inter molecular forces of attraction.
Thus real gases obey ideal gas equation at low pressure and high temperature. Or, real gases
deviate from ideal behaviour at high pressure and low temperature.
By considering the above two assumptions, van der Waal proposed an equation, which is applicable
to real gases. The equation is known as van der Waal’s equation and is given as:
(P + n2a/V2) (V- nb) = nRT
Where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute
temperature, n is the no. of moles, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are called van der Wall’s constants. ‘a’ is a measure of
magnitude of inter molecular attractive forces within the gas and ‘b’ is related to the volume of the particles.
The unit of ‘a’ is L2atm mol-2 and that of ‘b’ is L mol-1. The term n2a/V2 is related to pressure correction and
term ‘nb’ is related to volume correction.
Boyle Temperature or Boyle Point
The temperature at which real gases obey ideal gas equation over an appreciable range of pressure is
called Boyle temperature or Boyle point. It depends on the nature of the gas.

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 6. THERMODYNAMICS
It is a branch of science that deals with the relationship between heat and work. Chemical
thermodynamics is a branch of chemistry that deals with the heat changes associated with chemical
reactions.
Some definitions:
System and Surroundings
System is the part of the universe which is under observation or investigation. The part of the
universe except system is called surroundings. The system and surroundings are separated by a boundary
which may be real or imaginary.
System + surroundings → Universe
Types of systems
Depending on the ability to exchange energy and matter with the surroundings, systems are
classified into three types:
1. Open system: It is a system that can exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings.
E.g.: Hot water taken in an open vessel.
2. Closed system: It is a system that can exchange only energy and not matter with the surroundings.
E.g.: Hot water taken in a closed vessel.
3. Isolated system: It is a system that cannot exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings.
E.g.: Hot water taken in a thermo flask.
Extensive and Intensive Properties
Extensive properties are properties which depend on the amount of matter present in the system. Or,
these are the properties which change when a system is divided.
E.g.: Volume (V), length (l), breadth (b), height (h), internal energy (U), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), Gibb’s
energy (G), heat capacity etc.
Intensive properties are properties which are independent of the amount of matter present in the
system. Or, these are the properties which do not change when a system is divided.
E.g. : Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Molar volume (Vm), density, refractive index, molar heat capacity,
viscosity, surface tension etc.
State and Path functions
A function or a property that depends only on the initial and final state of a system and not on the path
followed is called a state function.
E.g. for state functions: T, P, V, U, H, S, G etc.
Path functions: These are properties which depend on the path followed also.
E.g. heat (q) and work (w)
Thermodynamic process
A process is the method (path) by which a state change occurs in a system. The different types of
thermodynamic process are:
1. Isothermal process: It is a process that occurs at constant temperature. For this process ΔT = 0 but
Δq ≠ 0
2. Isobaric process: It is a process that occurs at constant Pressure. For such a process ΔP = 0
3. Isochoric process: It is a process that occurs at constant volume. For such a process ΔV = 0
4. Adiabatic process: It is a process that occurs at constant heat energy. Here no heat enters into or
leaves from the system. For such a process Δq= 0 but ΔT ≠ 0
5. Cyclic process: It is a process that takes place in a cyclic manner. Here the system undergoes a series
of changes and finally returns to its initial state. For such a process ΔU=0 and ΔH = 0

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 6. Reversible process: Every process is associated with two types of forces – driving force and opposing
force. Driving force favours the process while opposing force opposes it. If the driving and opposing
forces are differed by an infinitesimally small quantity the process takes place in both directions. Such
a process is called reversible process. For a reversible process, the system and surroundings are
always nearly in equilibrium with each other.
7. Irreversible process: If the driving and opposing forces are differed by a large quantity, then the
process takes place in only one direction. Such a process is called irreversible process.
Heat and Work
Heat: It is a form of energy. Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body, when there is a thermal contact
between the two. When a body absorbs heat, its energy increases and when it evolves heat, its energy
decreases. Thus by international convention, when heat is absorbed by a system, q becomes +ve and when
heat is evolved by a system q becomes –ve.
Work: Thermodynamics mainly deal with expansion work which is the product of pressure (P) and change in
volume (ΔV). i.e., expansion work (w) = -PΔV
For irreversible process, w = -PΔV and
For reversible process, w = -2.303nRT log(V2/V1).
Where V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the system respectively.
By international convention, w becomes +ve, when work is done on the system and w becomes –ve, when
work is done by the system.
Free expansion: Expansion of a gas into vacuum (external pressure = 0) is called free expansion. No work is
done during free expansion of an ideal gas whether the process is reversible or irreversible.
Internal Energy or Intrinsic Energy (U)
It is the energy possessed by a body. It is the sum of different types of molecular energies like
translational kinetic energy, rotational kinetic energy, vibrational kinetic energy, electronic energy, nuclear
energy etc.
Internal energy of a body is an extensive property and state function. We cannot calculate the exact
value of internal energy, but we can calculate the change in internal energy (ΔU) during a process by using
an apparatus called Bomb Calorimeter.
The change in internal energy (ΔU) = U2-U1, where U1 and U2 are the initial and final internal energies
respectively. The unit of internal energy is kJ/mol.
The internal energy of a system can change mainly by two ways:
1. By the transfer of heat
2. By doing work
First law of thermodynamics: It is same as law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can neither
be created nor be destroyed. Or, the total energy in the universe is always a constant. Or, the total energy of
an isolated system is always a constant.
Mathematically ΔU = q + w ………………. (1)
Where q is the amount of heat absorbed by the system and w is the amount of work done on the system.
If there is only expansion work, the above equation becomes ΔU = q – PΔV ………… (2) (since, w = -PΔV).\
Significance of ΔU
We know that ΔU = q – PΔV
For a process taking place at constant volume, ΔV = 0. So ΔU = q v
i.e., ΔU gives the amount of heat absorbed or evolved by a system at constant volume.
Enthalpy (H)
It is the total heat content of a system. It is the sum of internal energy and pressure-volume energy
of a system. i.e. H = U + PV

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 It is a state function and an extensive property. i.e, whenever there is a change in enthalpy, it
depends only on the initial and final values and not the path followed. If H 1 is the enthalpy of a system in the
initial state and H2 is that in the final state, then the change in enthalpy, ΔH = H2 – H1.
The unit of enthalpy is kJ/mol. ΔH is determined by using an apparatus called calorimeter.
∆H is negative for exothermic reactions, (reactions in which heat is evolved to the surroundings) and ∆H is
positive for endothermic reactions (reactions in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings).
Relation between ΔH and ΔU
Consider a gaseous reaction taking place at constant pressure (P) and temperature (T). Let H 1, U1 and
V1 be the initial enthalpy, internal energy and volume respectively. Let these values changes to H 2, U2 and V2
respectively. Then,
H1 = U1 + PV1 ……………… (1)
And H2 = U2 + PV2 ……………… (2)
(2) – (1) gives: H2 –H1 = (U2 + PV2) – (U1 + PV1)
Or, ΔH = (U2 - U1) + (PV2 - PV1)
Or, ΔH = ΔU + P (V2 - V1)
Or, ΔH = ΔU + PΔV …… (3)
From ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
If n1 and n2 are the total no. of moles of reactants and products respectively, then
PV1 = n1RT and PV2 = n2 RT
PV2 – PV1 = n2 RT - n1RT
Or, P(V2 –V1) = (n2 - n1)RT
Or, PΔV = ΔngRT
So equation (3) becomes, ΔH = ΔU + ΔngRT
Where Δng = np(g) – nR(g)
i.e., Δng = no. of moles of gaseous products – no. of moles of gaseous reactants
If Δng =0, then ΔH = ΔU
If Δng > 0, then ΔH > ΔU
And if Δng < 0, then ΔH < ΔU.
Significance of ΔH
We know that ΔH = ΔU + PΔV (at constant pressure) ………….. (I)
From first law of thermodynamics, ΔU = q – PΔV
So, q = ΔU + PΔV ………………… (II)
From the equations (I) and (II), we can write, ΔH = qp
i.e. enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is equal to the amount of heat evolved or absorbed at constant
pressure. This is the significance of ΔH.

ENTHALPY CHANGE OF A REACTION – REACTION ENTHALPY (ΔrH)

In a chemical reaction, reactants are converted into products and is represented by,
Reactants → Products
The enthalpy change during a chemical reaction is called the reaction enthalpy. It is given by the symbol ΔrH.
ΔrH = (sum of enthalpies of products) – (sum of enthalpies of reactants)
i.e. ΔrH = ∑ ai .HProducts - ∑ bi.HReactants
Where, ai and bi are the stoichiometric coefficients of the products and reactants respectively in the
balanced chemical equation.
For the reaction:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

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ΔrH = ∑ ai .HProducts - ∑ bi.HReactants
= [Hm(CO2) + 2 x Hm(H2O)]– [Hm(CH4) + 2 x Hm(O2)]
Where Hm is the molar enthalpy.
Standard enthalpy of reactions (ΔrH0)
The standard enthalpy of reaction is the enthalpy change for a reaction when all the substances are
in their standard states. In thermodynamics, the standard state of a substance at a specified temperature is
its pure form at 1 bar pressure. Usually data are taken at 298 K temperature.

Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation

The law states that the total enthalpy change for a physical or chemical process is the same whether
the reaction taking place in a single step or in several steps. Or, the total enthalpy change for a process is
independent of the path followed.
Thus according to Hess’s law, if a reaction takes place in several steps then its standard reaction
enthalpy is the sum of the standard enthalpies of the intermediate reactions.
Illustration
Consider a process in which the reactant A is converted to product B A ∆H B
in a single step by involving heat change ΔH. Let the same reactant A
is first converted to C, then to D and finally to B involving heat changes ∆H1 ∆H3
ΔH1, ΔH2 and ΔH3 respectively.
Then according to Hess’s law: ΔH = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 C ∆H2 D
Thermochemical equations
A balanced chemical equation together with the value of enthalpy of reaction is called a
thermochemical equation. Here the physical state of the each of the reactants and products is also shown in
bracket.
e.g. H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(g), ΔrH0 = -285.83 kJ/mol
or, H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(g) + 285.83 kJ/mol

Spontaneous Process
It is a process that takes place without the help of any external agency. All natural processes are
spontaneous. E.g. flow of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body, inter
mixing of gases, burning of fuels, melting of ice, evaporation of water etc. A spontaneous process cannot
reverse its direction by its own.
Spontaneous chemical reactions are also called feasible or probable or irreversible reactions.
e.g. N2 + 3H2 2NH3; ΔrH0 = - 46.1kJ/mol
2H2 + O2 2H2O; ΔrH0 = - 285.8 kJ/mol
A process that takes place with the help of an external agency is called non-spontaneous process.
E.g. flow of water from low level to high level.

Criteria for spontaneity

During spontaneous processes like burning of fuels, flow of heat from hot body to cold body, flow of
water from high level to low level etc, energy of the system decreases. So one of the criteria for spontaneity
is decrease in energy.
But for some spontaneous processes like melting of ice, evaporation of water etc, heat is absorbed.
i.e. the energy of the system increases during the process. The above processes are accompanied with
increase in disorder (entropy) of the system. Thus another criterion for spontaneity is increase in
disorderness or randomness of the system.

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Entropy (S)
It is a measure of degree of disorderness or randomness of a system. As the disorderness increases,
entropy also increases. It is an extensive property and state function.
If S1 is the initial entropy of a system and S2 is its final value, then the change in entropy ∆S = S2 –S1.
For a given substance, the solid state has the least entropy and the gaseous state has the most.
When temperature increases entropy also increases. The unit of entropy and entropy change is J/K/mol.
If a system absorbs ‘q’ amount of heat reversibly at a temperature T, then the change in entropy,
∆S = qrev.
T Where qrev. is the amount of heat absorbed reversibly.
Entropy and spontaneity
During a spontaneous process, disorderness of the system increases. Thus entropy increases and
hence ∆S becomes positive.
The total entropy change for the system and surroundings is given by ∆S Total = ∆Ssyst. + ∆Ssurr.
For a spontaneous process, ∆STotal > 0
When a system attains equilibrium, the entropy becomes maximum and there is no further change in
entropy. So ∆S Total = 0
If ∆S Total < 0, the process is non-spontaneous.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

It can be stated as the entropy of the universe always increases during every spontaneous process.
The second law of thermodynamics explains why spontaneous reactions are so common. In exothermic
reactions, heat released by the reaction increases the disorder of the surroundings. So the overall entropy
change (∆STotal) is positive and hence the reaction becomes spontaneous.

Third law of Thermodynamics:

It states that the entropy of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. The importance of this law is that we can calculate the absolute value of entropy
of pure substances from thermal data alone.

Gibb’s energy (G)

It is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work. It is a
measure of free energy and hence it is also known as free energy of the reaction.
It is given by the equation, G = H – TS
It is an extensive property and a state function. If G1 is the initial Gibb’s energy and G2 is its final value, then
the change in Gibb’s energy (∆G) = G2 – G1
The unit of Gibb’s energy is kJ/mol.
Relation between ∆G, ∆H and ∆S (Gibb’s Equation)
We know that G = H- TS
So ∆G = ∆H - ∆(TS)
= ∆H – (T∆S + S∆T)
At constant temperature, ∆T = 0.
So, ∆G = ∆H - T∆S
The change in Gibb’s energy for a system can be written as ∆Gsyst. = ∆Hsyst. - T∆Ssyst. This equation is known
as Gibb’s equation.

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Gibb’s energy and Spontaneity of a reaction
We know that ∆STotal = ∆Ssyst. + ∆Ssurr. ……….. (1)
Consider a system which absorbs ‘q’ amount of heat reversibly at a constant temperature T and constant
pressure P.
Then, ∆Ssurr. = qp
T
But qp = ∆Hsurr. and ∆Hsurr. = -∆Hsyst. (Since, heat absorbed by the surroundings = heat evolved by the system)
So, ∆Ssurr. = -∆Hsyst.
T
So equation (1) becomes, ∆STotal = ∆Ssyst. - ∆Hsyst.
T
On multiplying by –T, we get
-T∆STotal = -T∆Ssyst. + ∆Hsyst.
Or, -T∆STotal = ∆Gsyst. (Since, ∆H syst. - T∆Ssyst. = ∆Gsyst.)
For a spontaneous process, ∆STotal is positive. So ∆Gsyst. is negative. (or, ∆Gsyst. < 0)
For a non-spontaneous process, ∆STotal is negative, so ∆Gsyst. is positive. (or, ∆Gsyst. > 0)
For a process at equilibrium, ∆STotal = 0. So, ∆Gsyst. = 0
Conditions for ∆G to be negative
We know that for a spontaneous process, ∆Gsyst. is negative. Also ∆G = ∆H - T∆S.
1) If ∆H is negative and ∆S is +ve, ∆G is always –ve and the process is always spontaneous.
2) If both ∆H and ∆S are positive, ∆G will be –ve when T∆S > ∆H. This is possible at high temperature.
3) If both ∆H and ∆S are negative, ∆G will be –ve when T∆S < ∆H. This is possible at low temperature.
Note: If ∆H is +ve and ∆S -ve, then ∆G will be always +ve and the process will be always non- spontaneous.
7. EQUILIBRIUM
Reversible and irreversible reactions
A reaction that takes place in only one direction is called an irreversible reaction.
e.g. Reaction between NaOH and HCl
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Reversible reactions are those which take place in both directions. i.e. here reactants combined to form
products and the products recombine to form reactants.
E.g. Haber process for the preparation of ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
The process by which reactants are converted to products is called forward reaction and the process
by which products recombine to form reactants is called backward reaction. After sometimes, the rate of
forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of backward reaction and the reaction attains equilibrium. Thus
equilibrium is a state in which the rates of forward and backward reactions are equal.
Equilibrium is dynamic in nature. i.e. at equilibrium the reaction does not stop. The reactant
molecules collide to form products and the product molecules collide to form the reactants and the rates of
these reactions are equal.

Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant

This law was proposed by C.M. Guldberg and Peter Waage. It states that at constant temperature,
the product of concentration of the products to that of the reactants, in which each concentration terms is
raised to a power which is equal to the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation, has a
constant value.

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For a general reversible reaction:
A+B C+D
According to the equilibrium law, [C][D] = Kc
[A][B]
Where Kc is called the equilibrium constant.
For a general reaction, aA + bB cC + dD,
c d
Kc = [C] [D]
[A]a[B]b
For the reaction H2 + I2 2HI; Kc = [HI]2
[H2][I2]
For the reaction N2 + 3H2 2NH3; Kc = [NH3]2
[N2][H2]3
Equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is the inverse of that for the forward reaction. i.e. if the
equilibrium constant for the reaction H2 + I2 2HI is Kc, then that for the reverse reaction 2HI H2 + I2 is
1/Kc.
Equilibrium constant for gaseous reactions
For a reaction involving gases, the concentration terms are replaced by partial pressures.
For example, H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g); Kp = P2HI
PH2.PI2
Where Kp is called equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure, PHI, PH2 and PI2 are the partial pressures
of HI, H2 and I2 respectively.
Relation between Kp and Kc

Consider a general reaction, aA + bB cC + dD

The equilibrium constant in terms of concentration for this reaction is Kc = [C] c[D]d
[A]a[B]b ……… (1)
c d
And the equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressures is Kp = P C .PD
PAa.PBb …………(2)
From ideal gas equation, PV = nRT, P = nRT/V = CRT (since n/V = C, the concentration)
Therefore, PA = CART, PB = CBRT, PC = CCRT and PD= CDRT
Substitute these values in equation (2), we get
Kp = [CCRT]c.[CDRT]d
[CART]a[CBRT]b
Or, Kp = CCc.CDd (RT)c+d
CAa.CBb (RT)a+b

Or, Kp = CCc.CDd. [RT](c+d)-(a+b)

CAa.CBb
Or, Kp = Kc.(RT)∆n, where Kc = CCc.CDd
CAa.CBb
And ∆n is the change in no. of moles of gaseous species. i.e. ∆n = no. of moles of gaseous products – no. of
moles of gaseous reactants.
Special cases:
i) If ∆n = 0, then Kp = Kc
ii) If ∆n > 0, then Kp > Kc and
iii) If ∆n < 0, then Kp < Kc
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 Acids, Bases and Salts
Acid – base concepts:
1. Arrhenius concept: According to this concept acids are substances which give hydrogen ion (H+) or
hydronium ion (H3O+) in aqueous solution and bases are substances which give hydroxyl ion (OH-) in
aqueous solution.
e.g. HCl is an acid since it produces H3O+ in aqueous solution.
HCl(l) + H2O(l) H3O +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
e.g. for base is NaOH
NaOH(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Note: H+ ions exist in water as hydronium ions (H3O+)
H+ + H2O H3O+
Limitations: this concept is applicable only to aqueous solutions. Also it could not account for the basicity of
substances like NH3 which do not possess OH- ion.
2. The Bronsted – Lowry concept:
According to this concept acids are proton (H+) donors and bases are (H+) acceptors.
For example in the reaction NH3(l) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Here NH3 is a base since it accepts an H+ ion to form NH4+ and H2O is an acid since it donates an H+ ion
to form OH- . In the reverse reaction, NH4+ is an acid and OH- is a base.
The acid base pair that differs by only one proton is called a conjugate acid – base pair.
An acid formed from a base is called conjugate acid and a base formed from an acid is called conjugate base.
e.g. NH3(l) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
base acid conj. acid conj. base

In general, Acid – H+ → Conjugate base

Base + H+ → Conjugate acid
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
Acid base conj. acid conj. Base

If the acid is strong, its conjugate base is weak and vice versa. So in the above example Cl- is a weak
conjugate base of the strong acid HCl.
Water can act both as acid and base. So it is an amphoteric substance.
e.g. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
Acid
HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3-
Base
3. Lewis concept:
According to this concept acids are electron pair acceptors and bases are electron pair donors.
Substances which donate electron pair are called Lewis bases and substances which accept electron pair are
called Lewis acids.
Example for Lewis acids are BF3, AlCl3, H+, Co3+, Mg2+ etc.
Example for Lewis bases are NH3, H2O, OH-, Cl-, Br- etc.
For a substance to act as Lewis acid, it should contain vacant orbitals and for a substance to act as
Lewis base, it should contain lone pairs of electrons.
e.g. for acid – base reaction is BF3 + NH3 → BF3 NH3
All cations are Lewis acids and all anions are Lewis bases.

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The ionization constant of water (The ionic product of water)
Water is a weak electrolyte and hence it ionizes only partially as:
H2O H+ + OH-
Or, H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-
The dissociation constant, K = [H+][OH-] or, K = [H3O+][OH-]
[H2O] [H2O]
+ - + -
Or, Kw = [H ][OH ] or, Kw = [H3O ][OH ]
Where Kw is called ionization constant of water or ionic product of water. It is defined as the product of the
molar concentration of hydrogen ion (hydronium ion) and hydroxyl ion in water or in any aqueous solution.
For pure water at 298K, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7M.
Therefore, Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-7 x 10-7 = 10-14M2
The value of Kw is temperature dependent.
By knowing the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- ions, we can predict the nature of an aqueous solution.
If [H3O+] > [OH-], the solution is acidic
If [H3O+] < [OH-], the solution is basic
If [H3O+] = [OH-], the solution is neutral

The pH scale
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration or hydronium ion
concentration in moles per litre (i.e. molarity). i.e. pH = - log[H+] or pH = - log[H3O+]
Negative logarithm of hydroxyl ion concentration in mol/L is called p OH.
i.e. pOH = -log[OH-]
For pure water, at 298K (250c), [H+] = 10-7. Therefore pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale was introduced by Sorensen. It contains numbers from 0 to 14. If the pH is less than 7,
the solution is acidic, if it is greater than 7, it is basic and if it is 7, the solution is neutral.
If the pH is 0, 1, 2 etc., the solution is a strongly acidic and if it is 12, 13, 14 etc, it is strongly basic. The
pH of our blood is 7.4 and that of our saliva is 6.4. So blood is slightly basic and saliva is slightly acidic.

Relation between pH and pOH

We know that Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-14 at 298K
Taking negative logarithm on both sides:
-logKw = -log[H+] + -log[OH-] = -log 10-14
Or, pKw = pH + pOH = 14
Thus by knowing the pH, we can calculate pOH as pOH = 14 - pH

Buffer Solutions
Solution which resists the change in pH on dilution or with the addition of small amount of acid or
alkali is called Buffer solution. There are two types of buffer solutions – acidic buffer and basic buffer.
Acidic buffer is a mixture of a weak acid and its salt with a strong base. E.g. a mixture of acetic acid
and sodium acetate acts as an acidic buffer around pH 4.75.
Basic buffer is a mixture of a weak base and its salt with a strong acid. E.g. a mixture of NH 4OH and
NH4Cl acts as a basic buffer around pH 9.25.

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 8. REDOX REACTIONS
These are reactions involving both oxidation and reduction.
Oxidation number (Oxidation state)
Oxidation number of an element in a compound is the residual charge on the element when all the
other atoms are removed from it as ions. For example oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4 is the residual
charge on Mn when one K atom and four O atoms removed from it as K + and O2- ions respectively.

Rules used for the calculation of oxidation number

1. The oxidation number of all elements in the free or the uncombined state is zero. For e.g. oxidation
number of H2, O2, Cl2, O3, P4, S8, Na, Mg, Al etc. is zero.
2. For simple ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion. Thus Na + ion has an
oxidation number of +1, Mg2+ ion +2, Fe3+ ion +3, Cl– ion –1, O2– ion –2 and so on.
3. All alkali metals have oxidation number of +1 and all alkaline earth metals have an oxidation number
of +2. Aluminium shows an oxidation number of +3 in all of its compounds.
4. The common oxidation number of oxygen is –2. But in peroxides (e.g., H2O2, Na2O2), oxidation
number of oxygen is –1 and in superoxides (e.g., KO2, RbO2), it is –½. In oxygen difluoride (OF2) and
dioxygen difluoride (O2F2), the oxygen is assigned an oxidation number of +2 and +1 respectively.
5. The common oxidation number of hydrogen is +1. But in hydrides, H shows -1 oxidation number.
6. The common oxidation number of halogens is -1. Fluorine shows only -1 oxidation number in all of its
compounds. But other halogens show positive oxidation numbers also in their oxides and oxoacids.
7. The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a compound is zero.
8. In polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms is equal to the charge on the
ion.
Oxidation number Concept: According to this concept, oxidation is the process of increase in the
oxidation number of an element and reduction is the process of decrease in the oxidation number of an
element.
A reagent that can increase the oxidation number of an element in a given substance is called
oxidising agent or oxidant and a reagent which lowers the oxidation number of an element in a given
substance is called reducing agent or reductant. Oxidising agent is always reduced and reducing agent is
always oxidised.
0 +2 +6 -2 +2 +6 -2 0
For e.g. in the reaction Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu, the oxidation number of Zn increases from 0 to +2
and that of Cu in CuSO4 decreases from +2 to 0. So Zn is oxidised and Cu in CuSO4 is reduced.
Types of redox reactions
1. Combination reactions: A combination reaction may be denoted as A + B → C
Here either A or B or both A and B must be in the elemental form. All combustion reactions are combination
redox reactions, since here one of the reactants is O2. Examples are:

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 2. Decomposition reactions
Decomposition reactions are the opposite of combination reactions. It involves the breakdown of a
compound into two or more components, in which at least one must be in the elemental state. It may be
denoted as: C → A + B. Examples are:

All decomposition reactions are not redox reactions. For example, decomposition of calcium
carbonate is not a redox reaction, since it does not involve any change in the oxidation number.

3. Displacement reactions: Here an ion (or an atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or an atom)
of another element. It may be denoted as: X + YZ → XZ + Y
Displacement reactions are divided into two - metal displacement and non-metal displacement.
a) Metal displacement reactions: Here a metal in a compound is displaced by another metal in the
uncombined state. These reactions find many applications in metallurgical processes in which pure metals
are obtained from their compounds in ores. Some examples are:
0 +2 +6 -2 +2 +6 -2 0
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

b) Non-metal displacement reactions: The non-metal displacement redox reactions mainly include
hydrogen displacement. All alkali metals and some alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba) will displace
hydrogen from cold water. Less active metals such as magnesium and iron react with steam and produce
hydrogen gas.

Most of the metals react with acids and liberate Hydrogen.

Another example is Fluorine displaces O2 from water.

4. Disproportionation reactions: These are a special type of redox reaction. In a disproportionation

reaction, an element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. One of the reacting
substances always contains an element that can exist in at least three oxidation states. The element in the
reactant is in the intermediate oxidation state and both higher and lower oxidation states of that element
are formed in the reaction.
E.g. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

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Here the oxygen of peroxide is in –1 state and it is converted to zero oxidation state in O2 and –2 oxidation
state in H2O.
Another e.g. is:

Balancing of Redox Reactions by Half reaction method:

In this method, the redox equation is divided into 2 half reactions – oxidation half reaction and reduction
half reaction. Then they are balanced separately and added together to get the net balanced equation.
The different steps involved in this method are:
Step 1: Produce unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic form. Assign the oxidation number of each
element and find out the substance oxidised and reduced.
Step 2: Separate the equation into half reactions - oxidation half reaction and reduction half reaction.
Step 3: Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half reaction individually.
Step 4: For reactions occurring in acidic medium, add H2O to balance O atoms and H+ to balance H atoms. In
basic medium also add equal number of OH- ions on both sides of the equation.
Step 5: Now balance the ionic charges. For this add electrons to one side of the half reaction. Make the
number of electrons equal in the two half reactions by multiplying one or both half reactions by appropriate
coefficients.
Step 6: Now add the two half reactions to get the overall reaction and cancel the electrons on each side.
Step 7: Verify that the equation contains the same type and number of atoms and the same charges on both
sides.
Example: Balance the following equation by the half reaction method.

Fe2+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) + H+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l)

Solution
Step-1: Assign the oxidation number of each element and find out the substance oxidised and reduced.
+2 +6 +3 +3
2+ 2- +
Fe + Cr2O7 + H Fe + Cr3+ + H2O
3+

Here Fe is oxidised and Cr is reduced.

Step-2: Separate the equation into 2 half reactions -oxidation half reaction and reduction half reaction.
Oxidation half: Fe2+ Fe3+ Reduction half: Cr2O72- Cr3+
Step-3: Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half reaction individually.
Oxidation half: Fe2+ Fe3+ Reduction half: Cr2O72- 2 Cr3+
Step-4: Now balance O and H atoms. Add H2O to balance O atoms and H+ to balance H atoms since the
reaction occurs in acidic medium.
Oxidation half: Fe2+ Fe3+ Reduction half: Cr2O72-+ 14H+ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Step -5: Now balance the ionic charges. For this add electrons to one side of the half reaction.
Oxidation half: Fe2+ Fe3+ + e– Reduction half: Cr2O72-+ 14H++ 6 e– 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
Step-6: Now add the two half reactions after equating the electrons.
Oxidation half: (Fe2+ Fe3+ + e–) x 6
Reduction half: (Cr2O72-+ 14H++ 6 e– 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O) x 1
Overall reaction is: 6 Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ 6 Fe3+ + 2 Cr3+ +7 H2O
Now the equation is balanced.

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 9. HYDROGEN
Commercial production of Hydrogen
Commercially Hydrogen is prepared by the following methods:
1. Electrolysis of acidified water using platinum electrodes
2H2O(l) electrolysis 2H2(g) + O2(g)
2. High purity dihydrogen is obtained by the electrolysis of warm aqueous Ba(OH)2 solution using nickel
electrodes.
3. By the electrolysis of brine solution (NaCl solution). Here H2 gas is obtained at the cathode.
At anode: 2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
At cathode: 2H2O (l) + 2e- –→ H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
Overall reaction is: 2Na+ (aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
4. By the reaction of steam on hydrocarbons or coke at high temperature in the presence of catalyst.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas. Since it is used for the synthesis of methanol and large number
hydrocarbons, it is also called synthesis gas or syn gas.
Now syngas is also produced from sewage, saw-dust, scrap wood, newspapers etc. The process of
producing 'syngas' from coal is called 'coal gasification'.
C(s) + H2O(g) 1270K CO(g) + H2(g)
The production of dihydrogen can be increased by reacting carbon monoxide of syngas mixtures with
steam in the presence of iron chromate as catalyst. This is called water-gas shift reaction.
CO(g) + H2O(g) 673K, catalyst CO2(g) + H2(g)
HYDRIDES
The binary compounds of hydrogen with other elements are called Hydrides. They are classified into three:
1. Ionic or saline or salt-like hydrides:
These are hydrides formed by s-block elements. They are crystalline, non-volatile and stoichiometric
solids. They are non-conductors in the solid state but conduct electricity in the molten state or in aqueous
solution state.
e.g. NaH, KH, CaH2, BaH2 etc.
2. Covalent or Molecular Hydrides:
These are the hydrides of p-block elements. Examples are CH4, NH3, H2O and HF. Being covalent, they
are volatile compounds. Molecular hydrides are further classified into three.
(i) electron-deficient,
(ii) electron-precise and
(iii) electron-rich hydrides.
An electron-deficient hydride has very few electrons for writing its Lewis structure. E.g. Diborane (B 2H6).
All elements of group 13 will form electron-deficient compounds. They act as Lewis acids (i.e. they accept
electron pairs).
Electron-precise compounds have the required number of electrons to write their Lewis structures. All
elements of group 14 form such compounds (e.g., CH4, SiH4 etc.)
Electron-rich hydrides have excess electrons which are present as lone pairs. Elements of group 15 to 17
form such compounds. They behave as Lewis bases (i.e., electron donors).
3. Metallic Hydrides:
These are formed by d and f-block elements [Except the elements of group 7, 8 and 9]. Being deficient in
hydrogen, they are almost non-stoichiometric. They conduct heat and electricity.
e.g. LaH2.87, YbH2.55, TiH1.5–1.8, ZrH1.3–1.75, VH0.56, NiH0.6–0.7, PdH0.6–0.8 etc.

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 In these hydrides the hydrogen atom is occupied in the interstitial sites of the metal lattice. So they are
also called interstitial hydrides. Due to the property of absorption of hydrogen on interstitial sites, they are
widely used as hydrogenation catalysts.
Hard and soft water
Water which does not easily form lather with soap is called hard water. It is due to the presence of
calcium and magnesium salts in the form chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates. Water free from soluble
salts of calcium and magnesium is called soft water. It easily forms lather with soap.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids like palmitic acid, stearic acid oleic acid etc. They
react with calcium or magnesium salts presenting in hard water and form precipitates. There are two types
of hardness of water – temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
Disadvantages of Hardness of water:
1. It results in wastage of soap.
2. It results in scale formation in boilers which ultimately results in boiler explosion.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2)
Hydrogen peroxide is an important chemical used in pollution control treatment.
Storage
H2O2 decomposes slowly on exposure to light.
2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
In the presence of metal surfaces or traces of alkali (present in glass containers), the above reaction is
catalysed. It is, therefore, stored in wax-lined glass or plastic vessels in dark. Urea can be added as a
stabiliser. It is kept away from dust because dust can induce explosive decomposition of the compound.
10. The s-Block Elements
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outermost s-orbital. They include elements of
group I and II. Group I elements are Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Caesium (Cs)
and Francium (Fr). They are collectively called alkali metals because they dissolve in water to form strong
alkalies.
Group II elements are Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and
Radium (Ra). They are collectively called alkaline earth metals (except Be) because their oxides and
hydroxides (except Beryllium) are alkaline in nature and are found in the earth’s crust.
The general electronic configuration of s-block elements is [noble gas] ns1 for alkali metals and [noble gas]
ns2 for alkaline earth metals.
Chemical properties of Alkali metals
Solution in liquid ammonia:
The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue solutions which are good conductors.
M + (x+y)NH3 [M(NH3)x]+ + e[(NH3)y]-
(Alkali (Ammoniated (Ammoniated
metal) metal ion) electron)
The blue colour of the solution is due to the ammoniated electron, which absorbs energy in the visible
region and gives blue colour to the solution. The solution is paramagnetic and on standing slowly liberates
hydrogen resulting in the formation of amide (MNH2).
[M(NH3)x]+ → MNH2 + ½ H2
In concentrated solution, the blue colour changes to bronze colour and become diamagnetic.
Anomalous Properties of Lithium
Due to its small size and high polarizing power, Lithium shows some properties different from that of other
alkali metals. Some of these are:

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 i) Li is much harder and has higher melting point and boiling point than other alkali metals.
ii) Li is the least reactive but the strongest reducing agent among all the alkali metals.
iii) It forms only monoxide with oxygen.
iv) LiCl is deliquescent and crystallizes as a hydrate (LiCl.2H2O). But the other alkali metal chlorides
do not form hydrates.
v) Lithium bicarbonate (LiHCO3) is stable only in solution.
vi) Lithium nitrate on heating gives Li2O, while other alkali metal nitrates decompose to form nitrite.
4 LiNO3 → 2Li2O + 4NO2 +O2
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2
vii) LiF and Li2O are comparatively much less soluble in water than the corresponding compounds of
other alkali metals.
Diagonal relationship: The similarity in properties shown by diagonally placed elements of second and third
periods in modern periodic table is called diagonal relationship.
Diagonal relationship between Li and Mg
Li shows the following similarities in properties with Mg of the second group.
i) Both Li and Mg are harder but lighter than other elements of the respective group.
ii) Both react slowly with water. Their oxides and hydroxides are much less soluble and their
hydroxides decompose on heating.
iii) They do not form superoxides.
iv) Their carbonates decompose easily on heating to form oxides and CO2.
v) Their chlorides are soluble in ethanol and are deliquescent.
vi) Their bicarbonates are stable only in solution.

Some important compounds of Sodium

1. Sodium Carbonate [Na2CO3.10H2O] (Washing Soda)
Preparation: Solvay process
In this process, CO2 gas is passed through concentrated NaCl solution saturated with ammonia.
Ammonium carbonate first formed is converted to ammonium bicarbonate and finally reacts with NaCl to
form NaHCO3.
2NH3 + H2O + CO2 → (NH4)2CO3
(NH4)2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NH4HCO3
NH4HCO3 + NaCl → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Sodium bicarbonate crystals are separated and heated to get sodium carbonate.
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
In this process, NH3 is recovered when the solution containing NH4Cl is treated with Ca(OH)2.
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
Note: Solvay process cannot be used for the preparation of K2CO3 because potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) is
so much soluble in water that it does not get precipitated by the addition of NH 4HCO3 to a saturated solution
of KCl.
Properties:
Action of Heat: On heating, the decahydrate ( Na2CO3.10H2O) loses its water of crystallisation to form a
monohydrate. Above 373K the monohydrate becomes completely anhydrous and changes to a white
powder called “soda ash”.
Na2CO3.10H2O → Na2CO3.H2O + 9H2O
Na2CO3.H2O → Na2CO3 + H2O

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Uses of washing soda
i) It is used in water softening, laundering and cleaning.
ii) It is used in the manufacture of soap, glass, borax and caustic soda.
iii) It is used in paper, paints and textile industries.
iv) It is used as a laboratory reagent.
2. Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 (Baking Soda)
It is prepared by saturating a solution of Sodium carbonate with CO2.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO3
Uses: i) It is a mild antiseptic for skin infection ii) It is used as a fire extinguisher.

Some Important Compounds of Calcium

1. Calcium Oxide, CaO [Quick lime]
It is prepared commercially by heating lime stone (CaCO3) in a rotary kiln (furnace) at 1070 – 1270K.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The CO2 is removed as soon as it is formed to enable the reaction to proceed completion.
Properties:
On exposure to air, it absorbs moisture and CO2.
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
The addition of limited amount of water breaks the big pieces of lime. This process is called slaking of lime.
The product obtained is called slaked lime. Quick lime slaked with soda (NaOH) gives solid soda lime (NaOH +
CaO).
Because of the basic nature of CaO, it combines with acidic oxides at high temperature to form salts.
So it is used as a flux in metallurgy.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
6CaO + P4O10 → 2Ca3(PO4)2
Uses:
1. It is an important primary material for the manufacture of cement and is the cheapest form of alkali.
2. It is used in the manufacture of Na2CO3 from caustic soda.
3. It is used in the purification of sugar and in the manufacture of dye stuffs.
2. Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 [Slaked lime]
Preparation: It is prepared by adding water to quick lime.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
An aqueous solution of slaked lime is known as lime water and a suspension of slaked lime in water is known
as milk of lime.
Properties:
When CO2 is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the formation of CaCO 3. On passing CO2
continuously, the solution becomes clear due to the formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO 3)2]
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 +H2O
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
When dry chlorine gas is passed through dry slaked lime, we get bleaching powder (a mixture of CaCl 2 &
calcium hypochlorite)
2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 → CaCl2 + Ca(OCl)2 + 2H2O
Uses:
i) It is used in the preparation of mortar, a building material.
ii) It is used in white washing due to its disinfectant nature.

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 iii) It is used in glass making, in tanning, for the preparation of bleaching powder and for purification
of sugar.
3. Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3 [Lime stone]
Calcium carbonate occurs in nature in several forms like limestone, chalk, marble etc. It can be prepared
by passing carbon dioxide through slaked lime or by the addition of sodium carbonate to calcium chloride.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Properties
When heated to 1200 K, it decomposes to evolve carbon dioxide.
2 CaCO3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→CaO + CO2
It reacts with dilute acid to liberate carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
Uses: 1. It is used as a building material in the form of marble and in the manufacture of quick lime.
2. Calcium carbonate along with magnesium carbonate is used as a flux in the extraction of metals such as
iron.
3. Specially precipitated CaCO3 is extensively used in the manufacture of high quality paper.
4. It is also used as an antacid, mild abrasive in tooth paste, a constituent of chewing gum, and filler in
cosmetics.
4. Calcium Sulphate (Plaster of Paris), CaSO4·½ H2O
It is a hemihydrate of calcium sulphate. It is obtained when gypsum [CaSO 4·2H2O] is heated to 393 K.
CaSO4.2H2O 393K CaSO4. ½ H2O + 3/2 H2O
Above 393 K, no water of crystallisation is left and anhydrous calcium sulphate (CaSO 4) is formed. This is
known as ‘dead burnt plaster’.
It has a remarkable property of setting with water. On mixing with an adequate quantity of water it forms a
plastic mass that gets into a hard solid in 5 to 15 minutes. During this process its volume increases. So it is
used for the preparation of statues.
Uses: 1. The largest use of Plaster of Paris is in the building industry as well as plasters.
2. It is used for immoblising the affected part of organ where there is a bone fracture or sprain.
3. It is also employed in dentistry, in ornamental work and for making casts of statues and busts.
Cement
Cement was first introduced by Joseph Aspidine. It is a product obtained by combining lime (CaO)
with clay which contains silica, SiO2 along with the oxides of aluminium, iron and magnesium.
The raw materials for the manufacture of cement are limestone and clay. When clay and lime are strongly
heated together they fuse and react to form ‘cement clinker’. This clinker is mixed with 2-3% by weight of
gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) to form cement. The purpose of adding gypsum is to slow down the process of setting
of the cement so that it gets sufficiently hardened.
Setting of Cement: When mixed with water, the setting of cement takes place to give a hard mass. During
this process the hydration of the silicates and aluminates occurs and a large amount of heat is evolved.

11. The p-Block Elements

These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outer most p-subshell. They include elements of
groups 13 to 18. Their general outer electronic configuration is ns2np1-6 (except for He). They include metals,
non-metals and metalloids.

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Compounds of Boron
Diborane (B2H6): The simplest boron hydride is borane (BH3), which exists as a dimer called Diborane (B2H6). It
is prepared by treating BF3 with Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) in ether.
4BF3 + 3 LiAlH4 → 2B2H6 + 3LiF + 3AlF3
In the laboratory, it is prepared by the oxidation of sodium borohydride with iodine.
2NaBH4 + I2 → B2H6 + 2NaI + H2
Diborane is prepared industrially by the reaction of BF3 with sodium hydride.
2BF3 + 6NaH 450K 2B2H6 +6NaF
Diborane is a colourless, highly toxic gas. It catches fire spontaneously on exposure to air. It burns in oxygen
to form B2O3 and evolve large amount of heat.
B2H6 +3O2 → B2O3 + 3H2O: ∆H = -1976 kJ/mol
It readily hydrolysed by water to give boric acid.
B2H6(g) + 6H2O(l) B(OH)3(aq) + 6H2(g)
Diborane react with ammonia to form B2H6.2NH3 which on further heating gives Borazine (B3N3H6) which is
commonly known as inorganic benzene. Its structure is similar to benzene with alternate BH and NH groups.
3B2H6 + 6NH3 → 3 B2H6.2NH3 → 2 B3N3H6 + 12H2

Structure of Diborane
In diborane, each boron atoms is in sp3 hybridisation. The two boron atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms lie
in one plane. These four H atoms are called terminal hydrogen atoms. The other two hydrogen atoms lie one
above and one below this plane. These H atoms are called bridging hydrogen atoms. The four terminal B-H
bonds are regular two centre-two electron bonds while the two bridge (B-H-B) bonds are three centre- two
electron (3c-2e) bonds or banana bonds. Thus diborane is an electron deficient compound.

Allotropes of Carbon

The existance of an element in two or more forms with same chemical properties but different
physical properties is known as allotropy. Carbon exists in crystalline and amorphous allotropes. The
important crystalline allotropes of Carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerene.
a) Diamond: In diamond, each carbon atom is in sp3 hybridisation and linked to four other carbon
atoms in a tetrahedral manner. So it has a a rigid three dimensional network of carbon atoms. It is very
difficult to break covalent bonds and, therefore, diamond is a hardest substance on the earth. It is used as
an abrasive for sharpening hard tools, in making dies and in the manufacture of tungsten filaments for
electric light bulbs.

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 b) Graphite: Graphite has a layered structure. Different layers are held by weak van der Waals
forces of attraction. Each layer contains planar hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. Here each carbon atom is
in sp2 hybridisation and makes three C-C sigma bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms. Fourth
electron forms a π bond. These electrons are delocalised and are mobile. Therefore graphite conducts
electricity. Due to layered structure, it is very soft and slippery. For this reason graphite is used as a dry
lubricant in machines running at high temperature.
c) Fullerenes: These are the cage like spherical molecules of formula C60, C70, C76, C84 etc. These are
prepared by heating of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert gases like helium or argon.
The most commonly known fullerene is C60, which is known as Buckminster fullerene. It contains
twenty six- membered rings and twelve five membered rings. A six membered ring is fused with six or five
membered rings but a five membered ring can only fuse with six membered rings. All the carbon atoms are
equal and they undergo sp2 hybridisation. Each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other three
carbon atoms. The remaining electron at each carbon is delocalised in molecular orbitals. This gives an
aromatic character to the molecule.
Thermodynamically, graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon.

Structure of Diamond
Structure of Graphite

Structure of Fullerene

Amorphous forms of carbon are charcoal, coke and carbon black. Carbon black is obtained by burning
hydrocarbons in limited supply of air. Charcoal and coke are obtained by heating wood or coal respectively
at high temperature in the absence of air.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Preparation:
Carbon burns in limited supply of air to give CO.
2C(s) + O2(g) ∆ 2CO(g)
By the dehydration of formic acid with conc. H2SO4 at 373 K.
HCOOH Conc. H2SO4/∆ CO + H2O
Commercially, it is prepared by passing steam over red hot coke.
C(s) + H2O(g) 473K – 1273K CO(g) + H2(g)
The mixture of CO and H2 is known as water gas or Syn gas.
If instead of steam, air is passed over red hot coke, we get a mixture of CO and nitrogen commonly known
as producer gas.
C(s) + O2(g) + 4N2(g) 1273K 2CO(g) + N2(g)
Both water gas and producer gas are used as industrial fuels.

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Properties: CO is a colourless, odourless toxic gas and is insoluble in water. It is a powerful reducing agent. It
reduces almost all metal oxides.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Structure: In CO, there are one sigma and two pi bonds between carbon and oxygen (:C ≡ O:). Because of the
presence of lone pair on carbon, CO molecule acts as an electron donor and reacts with metals to form
metal carbonyls.
CO is highly poisonous in nature because it forms a highly stable complex with haemoglobin (carboxy
haemoglobin). This prevents haemoglobin in RBC from carrying oxygen round the body. This will results in
headache, weak eyesight, nervousness and even death.
Silicones
Silicones are a group of organosilicon polymers, which have (-R2SiO-) as a repeating unit. (Where
R is alkyl or aryl group).
Manufacture:
When methyl chloride reacts with silicon in the presence of copper as a catalyst at a temperature
573K, dimethyl dichlorosilane [(CH3)2SiCl2] and other methyl substituted chlorosilanes are formed. Hydrolysis
of dichlorosilane followed by condensation gives straight chain polymers.
2CH3Cl + Si Cu; 573K (CH3)2SiCl2 2H2O (CH3)2Si(OH)2

n(CH3)2Si(OH)2 polymerisation
The chain length of the polymer can be controlled by adding (CH3)3SiCl (Trimethyl chlorosilane).
Properties:
They are water repelling in nature. They have high thermal stability, high dielectric strength and
resistance to oxidation and chemicals. So they are used as sealant, greases, electrical insulators and for
water proofing of fabrics. Being biocompatible they are also used in surgical and cosmetic plants.

12. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with carbon compounds. But all carbon
compounds are not considered as organic compounds. (E.g. CO2, CO, metal carbonates, bicarbonates etc.).
So organic chemistry can be defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with hydrocarbons and their
derivatives. Hydrocarbons are the major class of organic compounds and they contain only carbon and
hydrogen atoms. All other organic compounds are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of
hydrocarbons by other atoms or groups (They are called hydrocarbon derivatives).
Nomenclature of organic compounds
An organic compound has two types of names – Common name and IUPAC name. The common
name is based on the source or some properties. For e.g. citric acid is named so because it is found in citrus
fruits and the acid found in red ant is named formic acid since the Latin word for ant is formica.
IUPAC Nomenclature of organic compounds
A systematic name of an organic compound is generally derived by identifying the parent
hydrocarbon and the functional group(s) attached to it. This name is called IUPAC name. It contains two
parts – word root and suffix or prefix. The word root indicates the number of carbon atoms in the
compound. The word roots for compounds containing 1 -12 carbon atoms are as follows:

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 No. of C atoms Word root No. of C atoms Word root
C1 Meth- C7 Hept-
C2 Eth- C8 Oct-
C3 Prop- C9 Non-
C4 But- C10 Dec-
C5 Pent- C11 Undec-
C6 Hex- C12 Dodec-
There are two types of suffixes – primary suffix and secondary suffix. Primary suffix indicates saturation or
unsaturation [for alkane the primary suffix is –ane, alkene –ene and for alkyne –yne]. Secondary suffix
indicates the type of functional group. Some functional groups are also indicated as prefixes.

Nomenclature of branched chain alkanes:

A branch (side chain or substituent) is obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane. The
resulting group is called an alkyl group [alkane – H = alkyl (i.e. word root + yl)]. The names of some common
branches are as follows:

Branch Name
-CH3 Methyl
-CH2-CH3 Ethyl
-CH2-CH2-CH3 n-propyl (normal propyl)
(CH3)2CH- isopropyl
-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 n-butyl
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 sec-butyl (secondary butyl)

(CH3)2CH-CH2- isobutyl
(CH3)3C- tert-butyl (tertiary butyl)
(CH3)3C-CH2- neopentyl
Rules for naming branched chain alkanes:
IUPAC recommenced the following rules for naming a branched chain alkane.
1. Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. This chain is called parent chain or root chain. If
there is more than one such chain, the chain that contains maximum number of branches is selected
as the parent chain. Also identify all the branches or substituents.
2. Number the carbon atoms of the parent chain in such a way that the branched carbon atoms get the
lowest possible numbers.
3. The names of alkyl groups attached as branches are then prefixed to the name of the parent alkane
and position of the substituents is indicated by the appropriate numbers.
4. If different alkyl groups are present, they are listed in alphabetical order. In alphabetical order, the
prefixes iso- and neo- are considered to be the part of the fundamental name of alkyl group. The
prefixes sec- and tert- are not considered to be the part of the fundamental name.
5. If two or more identical substituent groups are present then their numbers are indicated by prefixes
like di (for 2), tri (for 3), tetra (for 4), penta (for 5) etc and the numbers are separated by commas.
The number and word are separated by a hyphen. (The IUPAC name is written as a single word).
For example:

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 3-Ethyl-4,4-dimethylheptane
6. If the two substituents are found in equivalent positions, the lower number is given to the one
coming first in the alphabetical listing.
For example:

The above compound is 3-ethyl-6-methyloctane and not 6-ethyl-3-methyloctane.

7. While naming the branched alkyl groups, the carbon atom of the branch that attaches to the root
alkane is numbered 1.
For example:

1,3-dimethyl butyl-
IUPAC nomenclature of compounds containing functional groups
For naming organic compounds containing functional group, the following rules are used:
1. Select the longest continuous chain containing the functional group.
2. Number the carbon atoms in such a way that the carbon to which the functional group is attached
should get the lowest possible number. In the case of functional groups containing carbon atom like
–CHO, -CN, -COOH, -CONH2, -COX. -COOR etc. the numbering should start from the carbon atom of
the functional group. (i.e. carbon atom of these groups should be numbered as 1). (But for ketones,
the functional group –CO- should get the lowest possible number).
3. The name of the functional group is indicated by the following suffix or prefix.
Functional group Name of compound Suffix/Prefix IUPAC name
-OH Alcohol -ol Alkanol
-NH2 Amine -amine Alkanamine
-X Halo compound Halo- Haloalkane
-CHO Aldehyde -al Alkanal
>CO Ketone -one Alkanone
-COOH Carboxylic acid -oic acid Alkanoic acid
-O- Ether Alkoxy- Alkoxy alkane
-CN Nitrile -nitrile Alkane ntrile
-NO2 Nitro compound Nitro- Nitroalkane
-C=C- Alkene -ene Alkene
-C≡C- Alkyne -yne Alkyne
-COOR Ester -oate Alkyl alkanoate
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 -CONH2 Acid amide -amide Alkanamide
-COX Acid halide -oyl halide Alkanoyl halide
-SO3H Sulphonic acid -sulphonic acid Alkanesulphonic acid
In the case of suffixes, the ending –e of the corresponding alkane is replaced. E.g. IUPAC name of the
alcohol CH3-OH is methanol (methane + ol). But for nitriles, the –e of the corresponding alkane is retained.
E.g. IUPAC name of CH3-CH2-CN is propanenitrile.
In the case of alkenes and alkynes, the suffix –ane of the alkane is replaced by –ene and –yne
respectively. (i.e. word root + ene or yne). For naming alkenes or alkynes, the numbering is done in such
a way that the double or triple bond should get the lowest possible number.
Some examples are:

Compound IUPAC Name

CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 1-Butene or, But-1-ene
CH3-CH=CH-CH3 2-Butene or, But-2-ene
CH3-CH2-C≡C-CH3 2-Pentyne or Pent-2-yne
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C≡CH 1-Heptyne or Hept-1-yne
CH3-CH2-OH Ethanol
CH3-CH2-CHOH-CH2-CH2-CH3 3-Hexanol or Hexan-3-ol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO 1-Butanal or Butanal
HCHO Methanal
CH3-CO-CH3 Propanone
CH3-CO-CH2-CH2-CH3 2-Pentanone or Pentan-2-one
CH3-CH2-CH2-CO-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 4-Octanone or Octan-4-one
HCOOH Methanoic acid
CH3-COOH Ethanoic acid
CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH 1-Butanoic acid or butanoic acid
CH3-CH2-Cl 1-Chloroethane or Chloroethane
CH3-CH2-CHBr-CH3 2-Bromobutane
CH2Cl-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 1-Chloropentane
CH3-CH2-CH2-NO2 1-Nitropropane
CH3-CH2-CH2-CN Butanenitrile
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CN Hexanenitrile
CH3-O-CH3 Methoxymethane
CH3-CH2-O-CH3 Methoxyethane
CH3-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 1-Ethoxypropane
CH3-CH2-NH2 Ethanamine
CH3-CH2-CH(NH2)-CH3 2-Butanamine or Butan-2-amine
CH3-CH2-COOCH3 Methylpropanoate
CH3-CH2-COOCH2-CH3 Ethylpropanoate
CH3-CH2-COCl Propanoylchloride
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-COBr Pentanoylbromide
CH3-CH2-CH2-CONH2 Butanamide
CH3-CONH2 Ethanamide

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Nomenclature of organic compounds containing more than one functional groups (Poly functional
compounds)
Here one of the functional groups is chosen as the principal functional group and the compound is
named on that basis. The remaining functional groups (called subordinate functional groups) are named as
substituents using the appropriate prefixes. The choice of principal functional group is made on the basis of
order of preference. The order of decreasing priority for some functional groups is:
-COOH, –SO3H, -COOR (R=alkyl group), -COCl, -CONH2, -CN,-CHO, >CO, -OH, -NH2, >C=C<, -C≡C-
The groups like alkyl (–R), phenyl (C6H5-), halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), nitro (–NO2), alkoxy (–OR) etc. are always
prefix substituents.
For example if a compound contains both alcoholic and aldehydic groups, it is named as
hydroxyalkanal, since here aldehydic group is the principal functional group and –OH group is the
subordinate functional group.
The prefix names of some functional groups are as follows:
Functional group Prefix name
-OH Hydroxyl-
-NH2 Amino-
-X Halo-
-CHO Formyl-
>CO Oxo-
-COOH Carboxy-
-O- Alkoxy-
-CN Cyano-
-NO2 Nitro-
-COOR Alkoxy carbonyl-
-CONH2 Carbamoyl-
-COX Halocarbonyl-

While numbering the carbon chain, the principal functional group should get the lowest possible number.
Some examples are:
Compound IUPAC Name
CH3-CHOH-CH2-CO-CH3 4-Hydroxypentan-2-one
CH2Cl-CH2-CHBr- CH2-CH2OH 3-Bromo-5-chloropentan-1-ol or, 3-Bromo-5-chloro-1-pentanol
CH3-CH2-CO-CH2-CH2-CHO 4-Oxohexanal
CH3-CHNH2-CH2-COOH 3-Aminobutanoic acid
CH3-CH2-CHCl-CH2-CO-CH2-COOH 5-Chloro-3-oxo-heptanoic acid

If a compound contains more than one same functional group, their number is indicated by adding
the numeral prefixes di, tri, etc. before the suffix. In such cases the full name of the parent alkane is written
before the suffix. However, the ending – ne of the parent alkane is dropped in the case of compounds having
more than one double or triple bonds.
When both double and triple bonds are present, first give the suffix of the double bond (-en) and then
that of the triple bond (-yne) [the ending –e of the suffix –ene is avoided]. While numbering the carbon chain,
the lowest number is given to the multiple bonds (double and triple bonds). This may sometimes give "-yne" a
lower number than "-ene". When there is a choice in numbering, the double bonds are given the lowest
numbers.

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Examples:
Compound IUPAC Name
CH2OH-CH2OH Ethane-1,2-diol (Ethylene glycol)
CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH Propane-1,2,3-triol (Glycerol)
CHO-CHO Ethane-1,2-dial (Glyoxal)
COOH-COOH Ethane-1,2-dioic acid (Oxalic acid)
CH3-CO-CH2-CO-CH3 Pentane-2,4-dione
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 1,3-Butadiene or Buta-1,3-diene
CH≡C-CH2-C≡CH 1,4-Pentadiyne or Penta-1,4-diyne
CH2=CH-CH2-C≡ CH Pent-1-en-4-yne
CH≡C-CH=CH-C=CH2 Hexa-1,3-dien-5-yne
HC≡C-CH=CH-CH3 Pent-3-en-1-yne
(The names given in the brackette are the common names)
Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds
For IUPAC nomenclature of substituted benzene compounds, the substituent is placed as prefix to
the word benzene. But common names of some compounds are accepted by IUPAC.
NO2 Cl Br CHO COOH OH

Nitrobenzene Chlorobenzene Bromobenzene Benzaldehyde Benzoic acid Phenol

Nomenclatrue of di or polysubstituted benzene

If benzene ring is disubstituted, the position of substituents is indicated by numbering the carbon
atoms of the ring such that the substituents get the lowest possible numbers.
Example – Dibromobenzene

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 In the common system of nomenclature the terms ortho (o), meta (m) and para (p) are used as
prefixes to indicate the relative positions 1,2- 1,3- and 1,4- respectively. So 1,2-dibromobenzene is named as
ortho (or just o-) dibromobenzene, 1,3-dibromobenzene as meta (or just m-) dibromobenzene and 1,4-
dibromobenzene as para (or just p-)-dibromobenzene.
For tri - or higher substituted benzene derivatives, these prefixes cannot be used and the compounds
are named by identifying substituent positions on the ring by following the lowest locant rule. In some cases,
common name of benzene derivatives is taken as the base compound. Substituent of the base compound is
assigned number1 and then the direction of numbering is chosen such that the next substituent gets the
lowest number. The substituents are named in alphabetical order.
Some examples are:

When a benzene ring is attached to an alkane with a functional group, it is considered as substituent,
instead of a parent. The name for benzene as substituent is phenyl (C6H5-, also abbreviated as Ph).
Example:
CH2-CHCl-CH2-CH2OH Br

Br
3-Chloro-4-phenyl-1-butanol 2,3-Dibromo-1-phenylpentane
Isomerism
The phenomenon of existence of two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but
different structural formula or spatial arrangement of atoms is known as isomerism. Such compounds are
called as isomers. Isomers have different physical and chemical properties. Isomerism can be broadly
classified into two –structural isomerism and stereo isomerism.
1. Structural isomerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formula (arrangement of atoms) are
called structural isomers and the phenomenon is called structural isomerism. There are mainly four types of
structural isomerism:
a) Chain Isomerism: Isomers differ in carbon chain or skeleton are called chain isomers and the
phenomenon is called chain isomerism.

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 E.g.: Pentane (C5H12)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 CH3

n-pentane
CH3 CH3 C CH3

isopentane CH3
(2-Methylbutane) neopentane (2,2-Dimethylpropane)
b) Position isomerism: Isomers which differ in the position of the substituent or side chain are called
position isomers and the phenomenon is called position isomerism.
E.g. : Alcohol with molecular formula C4H10O may be 1-butanol or 2-butanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH CH3-CHOH-CH2-CH3
1-Butanol 2-Butanol
c) Functional group isomerism: Isomers which differ in the functional group are called functional group
isomers and the phenomenon is called functional group isomerism. This isomerism is shown by
alcohols and ethers and aldehydes and ketones.
E.g. compound with the molecular formula C2H6O may be an alcohol ethanol (CH3-CH2OH) or an
ether methoxy methane (CH3-O-CH3).
d) Metamerism: Isomers which differ in the carbon chain (alkyl groups) around the functional group are
called metamers and the phenomenon is called metamerism. It is commonly shown by ethers.
E.g.: Ether with molecular formula C5H12O may be methoxybutane (CH3-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3) or
ethoxypropane (CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-CH3).
2. Stereo isomerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different spatial arrangement of atoms are
called stereoisomers and the phenomenon is called stereoisomerism. They have same atom to atom
bond. There are two types of stereo isomerism – Geometrical isomerism and Optical isomerism.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
An organic compound mainly contains carbon and hydrogen. Some compounds may also contain
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus.
Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen
Organic compound is heated with copper (II) oxide [CuO]. Carbon present in the compound is oxidised
to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water. CO2 can be tested by passing through lime-water, which turns
milky and water can be tested with anhydrous copper sulphate, which turns blue.
C + 2CuO ⎯⎯Δ → 2Cu + CO2
2H + CuO ⎯⎯Δ → Cu + H2O
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCO3↓ + H2O
Detection of Nitrogen
Nitrogen present in an organic compound is detected by “Lassaigne’s test”. Here the organic
compound is fused with metallic sodium in a fusion tube, so that N in the compound is converted to cyanide.
Na + C + N ⎯⎯Δ → NaCN
It is then extracted by boiling with distilled water and then filtered. The filtrate is known as sodium fusion
extract.
To a little of the sodium fusion extract, add freshly prepared ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) solution, heated to
boiling, cooled and acidified with dil. H2SO4. If Nitrogen is present, a blue or green coloration or precipitate
(ppt) is formed.

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QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The percentage composition of elements present in an organic compound is determined by the following
methods:
1. Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen
Carbon and hydrogen are estimated by Liebig’s combustion method. In this method, a known mass of an
organic compound is burnt in the presence of excess of oxygen and copper(II) oxide. Then carbon is oxidised
to CO2 and hydrogen is oxidised to H2O.
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 ⎯→ x CO2 + (y/2) H2O
The water so produced is absorbed in a weighed U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride and carbon
dioxide is absorbed in another U-tube containing concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide. These tubes
are connected in series. The increase in masses of calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide gives the
amounts of water and carbon dioxide from which the percentages of carbon and hydrogen are calculated.
Calculations:
Let the mass of organic compound be m g, mass of water and carbon dioxide produced be m1 and m2 g
respectively.Then,
Percentage of hydrogen = 2 x m1 x 100
18 x m
Percentage of carbon = 12 x m2 x 100 %
44 x m

13. Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms only are called hydrocarbons. Depending on
the types of C-C bond, they can be classified into three – saturated, unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes. They contain only C-C single bonds. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons contain atleast one carbon-carbon double bond (alkene) or carbon-carbon triple bond
(alkyne). Aromatic hydrocarbons are a special type of cyclic compounds. They are also called arenes.
ALKANES
Alkanes are saturated open chain hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon single bonds. They form a
homologous series. Their general molecular formula is CnH2n+2. In alkanes, all the C atoms are sp3 hybridised.
So each C atom has a regular tetrahedral shape.

Preparation of alkanes
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons: Alkenes and alkynes add Hydrogen in presence of finely divided
catalysts like Ni, Pd or Pt to form alkanes. This process is called hydrogenation.

2. From alkyl halides

Wurtz reaction:
Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes. This reaction is known as
Wurtz reaction.
2 R-X + 2Na dry ether R-R + 2NaX

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 Here the alkane formed contains double the number of C atoms than that present in the alkyl halide.
So this method is used for the preparation of alkanes with even number of carbon atoms.

When two different alkyl halides are used, we get a mixture of alkanes.

Chemical Properties of alkanes

1. Isomerisation: n-Alkanes on heating in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride and hydrogen
chloride gas isomerise to branched chain alkanes.
CH3-(CH2)4-CH3 Anhydrous AlCl3/HCl CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3 + CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
n-Hexane
CH3 CH3
2-Methylpentane 3-Methyl pentane
2. Aromatization: n-Alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on heating to 773K at 10-20 atmospheric
pressure in the presence of oxides of vanadium, molybdenum or chromium supported over alumina,
we get aromatic compounds. This reaction is known as aromatization or reforming.
CH3-(CH2)4-CH3 Cr2O3 or V2O5 or Mo2O3
n-hexane 773K, 10-20 atm
Benzene
Conformations of Alkanes
Alkanes contain carbon-carbon sigma (σ) bonds. Since, electron distribution of the sigma bonds is
symmetrical around the bond axis, rotation around C–C bond is allowed. This rotation changes the spatial
arrangements of atoms attached to the C atoms. These different spatial arrangements of atoms arising due
to free rotation around a C-C single bond are called conformations or conformers or rotamers.
Conformations of ethane
Ethane contains a C-C σ bond and each carbon atom contains three hydrogen atoms. Due to free
rotation of C atoms around the single bond, the spatial arrangement of hydrogen atoms attached to the C
atoms change. Thus ethane can show an infinite number of conformational isomers.
If we fix one carbon atom and rotate the other, there arise two extreme cases called eclipsed and
staggered conformations.
In eclipsed conformation, the hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon atoms are closed together as
possible. Or, here the hydrogen atoms of the 2nd carbon atoms are exactly behind that of the first.
In staggered conformation, the hydrogen atoms are far apart as possible. Any conformations
between eclipsed and staggered conformations are called skew conformations.
Staggered conformation is stabler than eclipsed form. This is because in staggered form, the electron
clouds of carbon-hydrogen bonds are very far apart. So there is minimum repulsive forces, minimum energy
and maximum stability. But in eclipsed form, the electron clouds are close to each other. So the repulsion is
maximum and the stability is minimum.
Eclipsed and staggered conformations can be represented by Sawhorse and Newman projection formulas.
1. Sawhorse projections:
Here the molecule is viewed along the molecular axis. C–C bond is denoted by a longer straight line.
The front carbon is shown at the lower end of the line and the back carbon is shown at the upper end. Each
carbon has three lines attached to it corresponding to three hydrogen atoms.
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Sawhorse projections of eclipsed and staggered conformations of ethane are as follows:

2. Newman projections:
Here the molecule is viewed at the C–C bond head on (i.e. from the front side). The front carbon atom is
represented by a point. Three hydrogen atoms attached to this carbon atom are shown by three lines drawn
at an angle of 120° to each other. The back carbon atom is represented by a circle and the three hydrogen
atoms are shown attached to it are denoted by shorter lines drawn at an angle of 120° to each other.
The Newman’s projections for eclipsed and staggered conformations of ethane are as follows:

ALKENES
PREPARATION OF ALKENES
From Alkyl halides:
Alkyl halides (R-X) on heating with alcoholic potash, eliminate one molecule of hydrogen halide to
form alkenes. This reaction is known as dehydrohalogenation i.e., removal of hydrogen halide. Since
hydrogen
atom is eliminated from the β carbon atom, the reaction is also known as β-elimination reaction.
CH3-CH2X alc. KOH CH2 = CH2 + HX
CH3-CH2-CH2Br alc. KOH CH3-CH = CH2 + HBr
Chemical Properties of Alkenes
Addition of hydrogen halides:
Alkenes add hydrogen halide to form alkyl halides.
CH2 = CH2 + HX → CH3-CH2X
CH2 = CH2 + HBr → CH3-CH2Br
CH3-CH= CH-CH3 + HBr → CH3-CH2-CHBr-CH3
But-2-ene 2-Bromobutane
In the case of unsymmetrical alkenes, the addition takes place according to Markovnokov’s Rule
(Markownikoff’s rule). The rule states that “when an unsymmetrical reagent is added to an unsymmetrical
alkene, the negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing
lesser number of hydrogen atoms” (less hydrogenated C atom).
For e.g. when HBr is added to propene, we get 2 products – 1-bromopropane and 2-bromopropane.

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 Here the major product is 2-bromopropane according to Markovnikov rule.
In presence of peroxide, addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes takes place against Markovnikov rule. This
is known as peroxide or Kharash effect or anti-Markovnikov addition reaction. i.e. here the negative part
goes to more hydrogenated carbon atom.
e.g. CH3-CH= CH2 + HBr Org. peroxide CH3-CH2-CH2Br
Propene 1-bromopropane
ALKYNES
They are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one C=C bond. Their general formula is CnH 2n-
2. The first member of alkyne series is ethyne commonly called acetylene (C 2H2). Other members are
considered as the derivatives of acetylene and so alkynes are also called Acetylenes. In alkynes, the triple
bonded carbon atoms are sp hybridized and hence are linear.
PREPARATION
1. From Calcium carbide (CaC2):
On large scale, ethyne is prepared by treating calcium carbide with water. Calcium carbide is
prepared by heating quick lime (CaO) with coke.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(lime stone) (quick lime)
CaO + 3C → CaC2 + CO
CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
(Calcium carbide) (acetylene)
2. From vicinal dihalides:
Vicinal dihalides undergo dehydrohalogenation on treatment with alcoholic KOH to form alkenes.
CH2Br-CH2Br KOH (alc.) CH2 = CHBr NaNH2 CH≡ CH
1,2-dibromoetane ethylene bromide ethyne (acetylene)
Chemical Properties of Alkynes
1. Addition of water:
On warming with water, alkynes add one molecule of water in presence of dil. H2SO4 and mercuric
sulphate at 333K to form carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones).
CH≡CH + H2O dil. H2SO4/HgSO4 & 333K CH2=CH-OH isomerisation CH3-CHO
Acetylene Ethanal
(acetaldehyde)
2. Cyclic polymerisation: Ethyne (acetylene) on passing through red hot iron tube at 873K, undergoes
cyclic polymerisation to form benzene (C6H6).

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 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (ARENES)
Most of the aromatic compounds have pleasant smell (aroma means pleasant smelling) and most of
them contain benzene ring. Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are called benzenoid compounds
and those which do not contain benzene ring are called non-benzenoid compounds.
Preparation of Benzene
1. Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne (acetylene):
3 C2H2 Red hot iron tube & 873K C6H6
2. Decarboxylation of aromatic acids: Sodium salt of benzoic acid on heating with sodalime gives
benzene.

3. Reduction of phenol: Phenol is reduced to benzene by passing its vapours over heated zinc dust.

Chemical Properties
Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
These are reactions in which a weak electrophile is replaced by a strong electrophile. The important
electrophilic substitution reactions are Nitration, Sulphonation, Halogenation and Friedel-Crafts alkylation
and acylation.
1. Nitration: It is the introduction of nitro (-NO2) group to a benzene ring. For this benzene is heated
with a mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4 (nitrating mixture).

2. Friedel-Craft’s Alkylation reaction: It is the introduction of alkyl (-R) group to a benzene ring. Here
the reagents used are alkyl halide in presence of anhydrous AlCl3.

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 14. Environmental Chemistry
Environmental chemistry deals with the study of the origin, transport, reactions, effects and fates of
chemical species in the environment.
Tropospheric pollution
The presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the lower layer of atmosphere (Troposphere) is
called tropospheric pollution.
Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is above the normal level (0.03%), it
absorbs more infra-red radiation from the solar energy and hence the temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere increases. This is known as Green house effect. It results in global warming.
The gases responsible for green house effect are called green house gases. They are CO2, methane,
water -vapour, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), nitrous oxide and ozone.
The adverse effects of global warming and green house effect
Due to global warming, the average global temperature will increase. This will lead to the melting of
polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas all over the earth. Increase in the global temperature results in
the infectious diseases like dengue, malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness etc.

Measures to reduce global warming

Global warming can be reduced by the following methods:
a) Reduce the burning of fossil fuels by minimizing the use of automobiles.
b) Plant trees and encourage afforestation.
c) Avoid burning of dry leaves, wood etc.
d) Aware the public about the bad effects of global warming.
Acid rain:
When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called acid rain. Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
(e.g. SO2 and NO2) are mainly responsible for acid rain.

Harmful effects of acid rain

a) Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants.
b) It causes respiratory ailments and skin cancer in human beings and animals.
c) It affects plants and animal life in aquatic ecosystem.
d) It corrodes water pipes resulting in the dissolution of heavy metals into the drinking water.
e) Acid rain damages buildings and other structures made of stone or metal (e.g. The Taj Mahal).
Measures to reduce acid rain
Acid rain can be reduced by the following methods:
a) Reduce the use of automobiles.
b) Encourage the use of natural gas instead of coal.
c) Catalytic converters must be used in motor vehicles to reduce the emission of CO and oxides of
Nitrogen to the atmosphere.
d) Acidity of the soil can be reduced by adding powdered limestone.
e) Aware the public about acid rain.
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Water Pollution
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the organic matter present in a certain
volume of a sample of water is called Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). The amount of BOD in the water
is a measure of the amount of organic material in the water. Clean water would have BOD value of less than
5 ppm whereas highly polluted water could have a BOD value of 17 ppm or more.
Green Chemistry
Green chemistry (also called sustainable chemistry) is an area of chemistry focused on the design of
products and processes that minimize the use and generation of dangerous substances.
Applications of Green Chemistry in day-to-day life

(i) Dry Cleaning of Clothes: Liquefied carbondioxide, with a suitable detergent is used for dry cleaning
clothes.
(ii) Bleaching of Paper: Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) with suitable catalyst is used for bleaching paper.
(iii) Synthesis of Chemicals: Ethanal (CH3CHO) is now commercially prepared by one step oxidation of
ethene in the presence of ionic catalyst in aqueous medium.

Ethene Ethanal (Acetaldehyde)

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