UNIT

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NUCLEAR POWER
STATION
4 SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTiONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. What do you understand by nuclear power
plant?
Answer

In nuclear power plant, nuclear energy is used to

produce electricity, but this nuclear energy is not directly used to produCe
electricity. but the heat released during the fission reaction is used to convert water into steam, which in turn runs a turbine. 1ne
turbine turns the alternator, which produces electricity to be fed into the
power grid. To enable fusion of the material, a minimum
amount of mass is required and this amount is known as the critical mass. Most
where the nuclear reactions takes place. In this, uranium is used important part of the plant is nuclear reactor,
for fusion process.
Q2. Write the main components of nuclear power plant and draw a neat
sketch.
Answer

Hot cooant
Steam Steam
Reactor core turbine HIHL
Steam Generator

Steam
Reactor
generator Cooling
water
water water
Cooant tL
Cooant pump Feed pump

Figure: Nuclear Power Plant

The main components of a nuclear
power plant are,
Nuclear reactor
2. Heat exchanger or steam generator
3. Steam turbine
Condenser
5. Electric generator.
Q3. Write short notes on working of nuclear power
plant?
Answer:
The nuclear power plant works Model Paper-i, Q1(g)
mainly on the principle of fission
fission of fuel. This heat energy is reaction. The heat IS
exchanger,. absorbed
the hot coolant passes its heat the
by the
c0olant, which
circulates through the reactor
in
generated
the reactor, by nuclear
to water, Then,
generation of steam. Thus, fthebysteam of a means
Over the turhine blades, which in thereby resulting
in the heat
turn operates the
generator coupled
leaving the turbine is condensed in a condenser, provided below to it, leading
to the is exnanded.
the turbine generation of electricity The .

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4.2 control rods.
Q6. State the properties of
Q4. Write the classification of nuclear reactorsS.
May/June-13. (R09), Q7(a) Answer:
Answer Rods
Properties of Control
Types of Reactors
must have better heat transfa.
The control rods
There are several ways of classifying nuclear reactors. The characteristics.
various types of nuclear reactors are listed below.
When subjected to large heat and strong radiations, tha
2 e
Classification based on neutron theory. rods must be stable.
control
(a) Thermal reactors They must be non-corrosive. Under continuous operation

(b) Fast reactors. of the reactor, no corrosion should occur in the control

Classification based on the type of fuel used, rods.

2
4. They must be robust (strong) in structure.
(a) Natural uranium
. Under all operating conditions the control rods must
(b) Enriched uranium.
possess the property to shut down instantaneously.
Classification based on the state of fuel,
6. The cross-sectional area of the control rods must be sueh
(a) Solid
that, it helps in better absorption of excess neutrons.
b) Liquid. These control rods made with cadmium and boron
1.
4 Classification based on the material used for moderator, materials.
(a) Heavy water reactors Give the functions and materials used for controi
Q7.
(b) Ordinary water reactors rods.
(c) Graphite reactors Answer
(d) Beryllium reactors. Control Rods

Classification based on coolant used. These elements are generally made

ofneutron
absorbing
materials in the core to control the chain reaction. To maintain
(a) Water cooled reactors
the balance in the rate of chain reaction these control elements
(b) Gas cooled reactors are inserted into the core
through special channels. Cadmium i
(c) Organic liquid cooled reactors strong neutron absorber and thus, regulates the supply of neutrons
for fission. When control rods are
(d) Liquid metal cooled reactors. pushed in deep enough they
absorb most of fission neutrons and hence chain reaction
6. Classification based on the arrangement of fuel and stops.
moderator (i.e., reactor core), The control elements are classified as,
(a) Homogeneous reactors Fine control rods used to balance surges in reaction
(b) Heterogeneous reactors. 2 Course control rods
1. Classification based 3 Shut control rods used for
on the employment of emergency
cooling
system, The material
employed should have high absorption
(a) Direct reactors cross-sections such as boron,
cadmium, hafnium, silver and
indium.
(b) Indirect reactors.
Q5. What are the different fuels Q8. What are the
used in nuclear desirable properties of goou
power plants? moderator.
Answer: Answer:

The different types of fuels used in The substance used to

slow down the neutrons
are as follows,
nuclear power plants nuclear reactor is called as a m
moderator.
(1) Natural Uranium with Us contents The moderator must satisfy the
following properties
ii) Uranium oxide (UO,) Moderator must be able to slow down the neutrons
quick time without
(ii) Enriched uranium with more than 0.71 of U3 2. it
absorbing
them.
must be very light because the ons

very etfective with light elementsslowing

(iv) Uranium Carbide (UC) and down actiou

(v) Pu2, Pu24 Pu23 of Plutonium group

or Litbium and Boron are also low in(inelastic collis
atomic weig
they have strong afinity for neutrons.
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UNIT 4 Nuclear Power Station 4.3

Moderator should be corrösion resistant with coolant. is not required in breeder
ont Q11. Why the moderator
moderator *

4 Thermal conductivity should be high. reactors?

. Moderator must have high

melting point. Answer :
. High chemical stability is required, because be slowed down easily
more heat h e neutrons in the reactor can
is produced during operation.
the fuel element the chain reaction proceeds
Dy capturing as
will be
Q9. What are the functions of Stowly. Some of the neutrons produced during fission
moderator?
reflector in a
absorbed by the fuel elements, moderator, coolant and
partly
other materials. The remaining neutrons will try to escape
Answer trom the reactor and will be lost. Such losses are minimized
breeder reactor,
Functions of Reflector in a Moderator Dy surrounding (lining) the reactor core. In fast
he core containing U235 is surrounded by a blanket (a layer of
The chief function of a fertile material is placed outside the core) of fertile material U
reflect the neutrons,
retlector in a moderator is to
which escape from the fuel core. The fast moving neutrons liberated due to fission of U are

It acts as a thermal shield in a moderator. absorbed by Ut3H which gets converted into fissionable material
P,which is capable of sustaining chain reaction. Thus no
The scattering property and a small
tendency to absorb moderator is required for breeder reactors.
neutrons, helps in determining the speed of the neutrons.
It enhances the neutrons economy 012. Explain the functions of cladding.
4. of the reactor.
Q10. What do you understand by breeding? What Answer: Model Paper-li, Q1(g)
factors control the breeding?
Functions of Cladding
Answer Dec.-11, Set-1, Q7(a) In a nuclear reactor, the fuel elements are enclosed in
Breeding cladding. The materials most commonly used for cladding are
Aluminium, Magnesium alloy (Magnox) stainless steel and
A nuclear reactor which is designed so as to obtain a alloys of Zirconium (Zircaloy).
conversion ratio greater than one is known as "Breeder reactor".
and the process is known as breeding. The main purpose of The cladding consists of three functions,
breeding is not only to replace the amount of fuel burnt, but
1. It should prevent the fuel elements (usually in the form
also to produce more fuel than consumed. So, the extra fuel can
be considered as a profitable value.
of long cylindrical rods of rectangular plates) from
distortion by providing them structural support and
Practicalily, in breeder reactor, the amount of Plutonium strength.
obtained in the reactor is less than the amount of Uranium-235
consumed. Hence, due to this kind of losses, the reactors are It has to prevent radioactive fission
products from
used to produce Pu3" as it is easier to extract from U238 rather entering into the coolant stream.
than U235.
. In certain types of reactors,
especially in gas-cooled type
The nuclear reaction it should provide extended surfaces like fins to
in the following manner
of fissionable 9,U433 is produced the heat transfer to the coolant.
increase

Q13. Write short notes on

Shielding.
9Th+ 0n Th+Y
23min Answer:
90
Th3 9 Pu2 + e Model Paper-i, Q1(h)
In a nuclear reactor various
9 Pu 28days
92U" +je" types of rays are emitted.
These rays may harm the operators
The above is known
working near the reactor.
process as
"breeding". Hence, thick walls of cement and concrete are
around the reactor which are known as constructed
Factors Responsible to Control Breeding shields.
shielding is done with the steel lining. The steel Thermal
(a) Number of thermal neutrons emitted as fuel provided over a thick concrete (usually 1.8 to 2.5m lining is
or iron oxide additives are used thick). Iron
(b) Conversion factor apart firom elements such as
Cadmium, Boron or Hafnium.
(c) Doubling time of the system
Thermal shielding Surrounds the entire
(d) Type of reactor and absorbs radiations in the form of reactor core
a-rays,
escaping neutrons produced by tission. In B-particles and
(e) Type of fuel used enriched in either uranium
or heated. Coolant flows over the this manner, it gets
plutonium. thermal shielding reduces the
hightemperatures
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4.4
reaction.
w14, Explain the difference between chemical and nuclear

Answer
Differences between Chemical and Nuclear Reaction
Nuclear Reaction
Chemical Reaction
the reaction takes place between
In nuclear reaction,
1.In chemicalreaction, the reaction takes place radioactive elements.
between different elements.
is irreversible.
2. Chemical reaction can be reversible
2. Nuclear reaction
Control of this nuclear reaction is quite difficult and
and is 3.
3. Control of chemical reaction is very easy
is very dangerous.
not dangerous.
It does not follow the chain reaction. 4. Nuclear reaction follows a chain reaction.

gamma rays are emitted in

the reaction.
Emission of alpha (), Beta (B). gamma (7) and 5. Alpha, beta,
other rays do not occur in this reaction.

rate depend?
Q15. On what factor does the nuclear reaction
Answer:
Anuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide to produce different products than the initial
products. During reaction, the change in mass of the particle represents the release or an absorption of energy.

The rate at which reaction occur depends on the particle flux and the reaction cross-section. The cross-section is used to
express the nature of interaction between particles. It can, therefore, characterize the probability that a particular nuclear reaction
will take place or the statistical nature of scattering events. Apart from this, nuclear reaction rate depends on the binding energy
of two nucleons, reaction neutrons etc.
a16. Why pressurized water reactor (PWR) is preferred over boiling water reactor (BWR) and BWR over
PWR?
Answer: Model Paper-li, Q1h)

Preferene of PWR to BWR and Vice Versa

The two reactors PWR and BWR differ in the way of removing the heat from the core. PWR is used when boiling of
water in the reactor is not allowed. The heat in PWR is removed by liquid water under pressure and the steam is generated fronm
the hot water in a separate device outside the reactor vessel. In BWR, the water is allowed to boil in the core and the producecd
steam is directly led to the turbines.

Operating pressure of BWR is about 70 atm at which, the water boils at 285°C with a Carnot efficiency of 42%, while
PWR operates at higher pressure and temperature of 160 atm and 315°C respectively, providing a higher Carnot
the BWR. efficiency than
Q17. Why boiling water reactor is only useful for base load plants?
Answer:

Whenever there is sudden increase in the load on turbine, then the

a
volume increases. As pressure in the reactor decreases and the specihe
result, the steam bubbles inside the reactor will expand and
a
the reactor. Therefore, unless it is expel the moderator and tend to shutdown
properly designed, the boiling water reactor will have negative coefficient of
i.., whenever the power is demanded from boiling water power demand
reactor, it may produce less output power. Therefore, the boiling waet
reactor cannot meet sudden increase in load demand.
Thus, it is best suitable for base load plants.

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 UNIT-4 Nuclear Power Station
AA
PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
4.1 NUCLEAR PoWER
STATION: NUCLEAR FUEL BREEDING AND FERTILE MATERI
NUCLEAR REACTOR REACTOR OPERATIODN
Q18. Explain the following terms,
Nuclear energy
(ii) Fission reaction
(ii) Fusion reaction.

Answer:

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the
energy released by the
fission of nuclei of heavy isotopes like uranium-235 or
isotopes undergo chain reaction and
produces
large amount of energy in the form of heat. The
plutonium-239. 1 hese
or Pu-239 produces energy in the form of heat
and radiation which is difficult to control. If
rapid occurance of fission U-43
it is used to produce electric power and if it is these reactions are controllabie, tnen
uncontrollable, they are employed in atomic bombs.
(ii) Fission Reaction

Fission reaction occurs when a neutron blasts the nucleus

of heavy isotopes like U-235, resulting in the
nucleus into small fragments. These small nuclei carries splitting of the
large amount of energy.

OEnergy released
Neutron

O Small fragments
Figure
(ii) Fusion Reaction

Fusion reaction occurs when two or more nuclei combines to

form a heavy nucleus
release of energy is due to the smaller mass of nucleus releasing vast amount of energy. The
when compared to the masses of two nuclei.
Q19. Compare fission process with fusion process.
Answer
Fission
Fusion
It is the process of
splitting up of heavy It is the process of
combining two
nucleons into small fragments, when bombarded lighter nuclei to
form heavy nucleus which releases
with neutrons moreenergy
2.
The energy released per nucleon is 200 MeV The energy per nucleon is 6.75 Me
Residue formed is more
3Residue formed is less
Easy to construct self-sustained fission reactors. Dificult to construct
Availability of fissionable material is less. controlled fusion reactors.
Process is started by neutrons
Availability of fusion elements like deuterium is
more
6. Process is started with protons
Process can be carried out at room
temperatures Process is carried at
8. High amounts of radioactive material. 8.
hightemperatures
Less amounts of
Health risks are more radioactive material
Health risks are less
10. Energy is released by converting about one
10 Energy is released by
thousandth of mass.
thousandth of masS
converting about four
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in selecting economical site for nuclear power plant
. what factors are considered an
Model Paper-1, CRla
Answerr
economical site for nuclear power piant.
Foliowig are the factors to be considered, when selecting an

Availability of Cooling Water

A nuclear power plant requires huge quantity of cooling water i.e., about two times the water required for the same capacit.
fossil fuel plant. Therefore, the plant must be situated nearer to a river, lake or sea, to enable enough water availability

Distance from the Load Centre

distance from the load centfe. This reduces the transmissin Sion
A nuclear power plant should be located at nearest possible
losses and also the cost of erecting long transmission lines. When compared to a hydro electric power station, nuclea
a
suitable location as the former requires a sufficient availability
of head and water
power plant has a wider choice of

Transportation Facilities
The erection of a nuclear power plant requires the transportation of heavy equipments to the site. Therefore, the plant
must be located near to the transport mediums.

Safety
Safety is one of the important factors to be considered, while selecting the site. The safety of the population should be
ensured. during operation or in a nuclear accident. Therefore, the power plant should be situated at a safer distance from
the towns or cities, to avoid the radiation hazards.

Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility

Radioactive material is formed during the fission process in a nuclear power plant, whose radioactivity is very large
Therefore, a sufficient space must be available at the site for disposal of the radioactive waste.

Foundation Requirements
The site being selected for the plant must be strong enough, to support the heavy reactors which can weigh upto 100,000 tons

andimpose bearing pressures of around 50 tons per square meter.

021. Draw the neat diagram of nuclear reactor and explain the functions of various components.
Answer: [Nov./Dec-12. (R09), Q6(a) | Model Paper-l, 0E)
Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactor is a device which releases massive heat

energy under continuous and controlled conditions. It controls the chain
reaction that starts once the fission is done. If the chain reaction is not
controlled, it results in explosion due to the rapid increase
in the energy released.
U is common nuclear fuel, which participates in fission reaction liberating 2 to 3 neutrons with along
fission fragments like strontium and xenonand liberates massive heat
energy. These fission fragments also participate in fission
reaction, leading to chain reaction. The heat energy mainly
depends on acceleration of the neutrons i.e., greater the acceleration
greater the energy release. Generally, moderate acceleration is used in
is used in nuclear bomb.
power production and instantaneous acceleration concep

Control rods

Fuel rods Control

shielding
Reflectors
Coolant
outlet

Moderator

Concrete Coolant
shielding nlet

Figure: Nuclear Reactor

 A.7
uNT
in
he main components of nuclear reactor are,
22. What are the problems faced by engineers
Explain each in
(a) Fuel the design of nuciear reactor?
(b Moderatoor detail.
(c) Coolant
Answer :
(d) Control rods construction and
Some of the problems faced during the
(e) Refiector and below.
operation of nuclear reactor are given
() Shicld. and thus, to
G) Uranium has great abrasion property
(a) Fuel cutting tools
machine it into required shape, standard
Fuel is present at the core of nuclear reactor. It constitutes
are used.
fissile materials such as U, Uor PU239 and fertile
materials like Th- or U, A typical fast reactor fuel (ii) Uranium burns into flames when subjected to high
water. Thus,
contains 15% to 20% U2s or PU:*° and remaining temperatures and hydrolyses when mixed in
U238 which serves as a fertile material. Fuel elements precautions should be taken while handling.
will be used in the form of rods of 3 cm diameter and
(iii) Fuelling and disposal of wastes include special
I m long. Generally, Uranium is clad in Magnesium
alloy(Magnox). The main function of this cladding is process. In somecases, the fission fragments acquire
the chain
to prevent the corrOSion between fission material and high intensity radioactivity and due to which
with
coolant. U235 is mostly used in neculear power plant. reaction stops. Thus, the fuel must be replaced
fresh fuel. The radioactivity supports this process by
(b) Moderator
protecting the operators.
Moderator slow down the high sped neutrons released
by fission, before they bombard the-fuel rods. When The blowers used for supplying large quantities of gas
(vi)
the neutrons escape from the fuel, they collide with or air require high power of 5000 kW.
and bounce back among the constituent atoms of the
(v) Because of their low heat carrying capacity, operat1ng
moderator. thereby losing their velocity. Graphite, gas cooled reactors involves complexion when compared
Deuterium, Carbon and Beryllium are the commonly to water cooled and metal cooled reactors.
employed moderators.
(vi) Standard lubricants, which are able to resist the
(c) Coolant
radiations from the reactor should be used.
A coolant is a medium through which heat produced in
the reactor is transmitted. (vii) Separation of fissile products from wastes such as Pu23
Very high temperatures are produced in nuclear reactor, is very expensive, though they can be reused as fuel after
therefore it is essential to remove the heat, that is not the operation.
utilised. Basically, heat is absorbed by means of gaseous (vii) Fissioning of fuel deforms the fuel assembly by
coolant, such as CO,, elc. Hydrogen and Helium can also Wrapping and hardening. The neutrons displacement
be used as gaseous coolants. in the materials used for cladding and supporting
(d) Control Rods also weakens them and creates major problem during
These elenments are generally made of neutron absorbing
materials, to control the chain reaction. To maintain
operation.
the balance in the rate of chain reaction, these control Q23. Explain with the help of the neat diagram the
elements are inserted into the core, through special working of the nuclear power plant.
channels. Cadmiumi_ strong neutron absorber and Answer:
thus regulates the supply of neutrons for fission. When
Hot cooant Steam
control rods are penetrated deeply, they absorb mostof Steam
Reactor core turbine
fission neutrons and hence chain reactíon stops.
Steam Generator
(e) Refector Steam
Reflector is a low neutron cross-sectional material Reactor senerator (ECooling
water
placed around the core, to reflect the leakedout neutrons
Twaler water
back. During process, the colliding neutron changes its Cooantt
direction rather being absorbed. A good moderator can Cooant pump Feed pump
also act as a good reflector in certain condjtions.
Figure: Nuclear Power Plant
Example
Carbon (graphite form), Light water and Beryllium The main components of a nuclear power plant are,
heavy water are reflectors. 1 Nuclearreactor
Shield
Heat exchanger
Shielding is the barrier surrounding the reactor, in order
to protect the walls of reactor vessel and to prevent the Steamturbine
exchange ofradiationswith the surroundings. Lead iron Condenser
or concrete shields are used for this-purpose. Electric generator
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Working
heat through
reactors.
I his heat IS carried by.
nuclear fission reaction takes place by releasing provides its heat to the
a plant,
nuclear power
into the steam generator
tubes and

The hot coolant from the reactor passes condenser. Thus, the work from
a n t hrough reactor core.
work. It is then
condensed in the
1he steam expands in the turbine and develops
warer.
TUurbinehelps to run the generator and thus, producing electrical power station (NPS)?
of nuclear power
Z4. What are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer:
of NPS are listed below,
The advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
economical.
. Nuciear power production is more

2. The quantity of fuel needed is very less

the number of workers requind at nuclear stations is less.
The cost of operation is less as

Nuclear power stations require less space.

4.

. The functioning of plant is not effected by adverse weather conditions.

Disadvantages
Radioactive wastes released from the nuclear power plants are harmful to environment and should be disposed safely.

Nuclear power plants are not suitable for variable load operations, as the nuclear reactors cannot respond quickly to load
variations. They can be used as base load plants
Highly skilled persons are required to run the power plant.

4. Initial cost of nuclear power plants is very high and few countries possess the technology to manufacture nuclear reactors
and nuclear fuel.

Q25. List out the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear plants over thermal power plant.
Answer

Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant Over Thermal Plants

. Nuclear power plants are capable enough to meet large power demands and can achieve better performance of about 80-
90% at high load factors.

Unike thermal plants, these nuclear power plants apart from producing large amount of power, can also produce valuable
fissible material, which is produced after fuel is reutilised again.
3. It possesses more reliable operation than thermal plants.
4. It acquires more capacity and is not affected by adverse weather conditions.
5. The expenditure incurred on metal structures piping, storage mechanism is much lower.

6. Consumption of fuel required is very less. Hence, there is much saving in the cost of the fuel
transportation.
Disadvantages Over Thermal Power Plants

The capital cost of nuclear plant is very high.

2. There is a risk of radioactive disposals.

3. The plant does not operates when the load is varied continuously.
4. Maintenance cost is very high.

. The working conditions of the plantmay adversely afect the workers health

6. There is always danger of disposal of fission products.

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o26. Compare nuclear *
power plants with thermal power plants.
Answer
Dec.-11, Set-2, 01(b)
Comparison Between Nuclear and Thermal
Power Plants
Nuclear Power Plants
In this Thermal Power Plants
1. type of power
plant, there is no fuel and
transp- In thermal plants, fuel transportation, handling
ortation, handling and storage
charges as well as storage charges are applied and there is problem
problems of ash disposal.
of ash disposal.
2. Less number of workers are
ces the cost of operation. required thus, it redu- 2. The cost of operation is high due to more number
of workers.
3. Nuclear power plants are more economical
than 3. Thermal power plants are not economical
thermal power plants.
4. It requires low amount of fuel
4. High amount of fuel is consumed.
. Nuclear power plants occupy less space for co-
Thermal power plants require more space.
nstruction and operation.

6. It is unaffected by adverse weather conditions

6. lts functionality is affected by adverse weather
conditions.
It alsoproduces valuable fissible products along 7. Jt does not produce any fissible materials.
with large amount of power.
Setup cost of nuclear plant is very high.
8. Setup cost of thermal plant is less expensive than
nuclear plant.
9 There is always a danger of radioactivity in nuc- 9. Thermal plants do not emit any radioactive effect.
lear power plants.

10. Its maintenance cost is high as experienced ope- 10. It has maintenance cost lesser than that
of nuclear
rators are required.
plant.
11. Workers health is adversely affected due to rad- 11. Health of workers is not effected.
iations of radioactive materials.
12. Nuclear power plant stations are not suitable for 12. Varying loads be
can
operated for power
varying load effectively.
generation effectively.
027. Why nuclear power is
necessary for developing countries?
Answer:
The Economic Advantages of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power provides competition to other
energy sources. Competition that helps or benefits the consumer
power rates and costs down. Nuclear power costs do not change appreciably with location. by keeping
Also the use of nuclear power would decrease the burden on the nation's
transportation system.
The unit costs of nuclear plants reduce more
rapidly with increased size when compared to unit
Nuclear energy has costs of other plants.
significant potential for improved operating economics.a
Nuclear power has environmental and
conservation advantages in addition to those economic
Nuclear power include the following, advantages.
The nuclear power is produced without
releasing combustion products into the
significantly in the fight for clean air. atmosphere. Hence, it contributes
Nuclear plants have an aesthetic attractive
activities in areas surrounding them. appearance. In many cases, they provide
opportunities for recreational
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Also, the use of nuclear power will help preserve 4.2 TYPES OF REACTORs
fossil fuels for the purposes, for which they are
4.2.1 Pressurized Water Reactor-Boillng
mostly suited.
Water Reactor Sodium Graphite Reacto
Nuclear power is dependable.
-Fast Breeder Reactor Homogeneou
Nuclear energy does not produce carbon dioxide Reactor-Gas Cooled Reactor
or smoke. Thus, it does not contribute to the green
Q29. With the help of a neat diagram, explain different
house effect. Hence, global warning process can components of a pressurized water reactor.
be minimized.
With nuclear power, it is possible to generate a Answer
large amount of electrical energy in one single
plant using small amount of fuel. SlEanm Generator
Thusuclear powerisnecessary for developing countries,
Q28. Explain about 3-stages nuclear programme of Pressurizer
India. Turbine Condenser
Answer Reactor (Seconary
Circut)
The nuclear power generation in India has started and Water in
(Primarycircuit)|
Heat

is steadily increasing. Among the developing countries, India hanger

Water out
is progressing well in accepting the nuclear energy for electric
L
power production. As nuclear resources are concerned, India
water
is one among the other countries. The total Uranium in India Circult ing Feed pumpP
is nearly 32000 tonnes and Thorium 500,000 tonnes, which
pump
would be sufñicient for thousands of years to fulfill the power
needs of the country. Figure: Pressurized Water Reactor
In 1959 for the development of nuclear power plant
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), consists of two
in India, a 3-stage nuclear programme was introduced. The
three stage nuclear power programme in India is as shown in circuits namely, primary circuit and secondary circuit. Primary
circuit consists of a reactor, circulating pump, pressurizer, etc.
following figure.
Secondary circuit, consists of a turbine, generator, condenser,
Natural
thorm PJutonium Addiional
fast feed pump, etc. A common device i.e., heat exchanger is used,
for both circuits.
Plutonium breeder
reactor
CANDU Fast Heat Exchanger
Type Breeder Further
The function of a heat
reactor
Reactor 92 90 Th52 power exchanger is to generate the
growth steam. It is also
referred as 'boiler. The high pressure water is
converted into steam, due to the heating coils of heat
Depkted Thorium exchanger.
uranium breeders
Thorium
Circulating Pump
Figure: India 3-Stage Pragramme for Nuclear Power Development It pumps the cold water into the reactor.
1. In the initial stage, natural uranium
fuelled reactor Pressurizer
yould be established, which would produce a fissionable
It consists of electric
material plutonium (Pu23") heating coils, which enhances the
2. In the next stage, the obtained steam generation process. The function of pressurizer, is to keep
plutonium (Pu23") from the water pressure
the initial stage, would be used as
fuel in fast breeder high, so that the boiling of water takes place
at high pressures.
reactors either to
produce more plutonium than
consumed from U8 or to produce U255 from thorium. Turbine
3. In the last stage, U233 is used
fuel where, thorium
as The function of turbine, is to
would be again converted into
fissible U233. Since U233 into kinetic energy. The steam from thedevelop power. It converts
is best among all fissible fuels for heat exchanger, expands
breeder reactors. over the turbine
blades, to generate power.
Therefore, all reactors in third stage would be fuelled
with U5 and only thorium would have to fed. Condenser
It is observed that, in the
3-stage programme for the The function of condenser, is to
convert steam into wat
development of nuclear power, each stage depends upon the with the help of
cooling coil. The unused steam from the turbit
development of previous stage. To proceed from one stage to enters into the condenser and
gets converted into water.
another needs an adequate installed capacity as well as several Feed Pumnp
years (20 or more) of operation. The cause of requiring number
The low pressure water from the condenser, circula
ofyears to develop such a programme is due to low production through the heat exchanger, with the help of feed pump a
of Pu2 even from large capacity nuclear piants.
thus, cycle is repeated
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 UNIT-4 Nuclear Power Statipn 4.11
Q30 Discuss with the help of a neat sketch the heated up by
the primary circuit gets
working of ne water in and same energy
pressurized water reactor (PWR) absorbing the fission energy in the reactor
core
steam. The water
plant. 1s given in the heat exchanger to generate
the
to
coming out of the heat exchanger
is circulated by the pump
Answerr: 100 bar to
Dec.-14, (R09), Q7(@)
maintain the pressure in the circuit in the range of
Pressurized Water Reactor (WR) 130 bar.
Apressurized water reactor in its simplest form is a light The water becomes radioactive when passed through
water cooled and moderated reactor. It usesenriched uranium the reactor, therefore, the entire primary cire
shielded to protect
clad with zirconium alloy as fuel. Water under pressure is used steam generator (heat exchanger) must be
coolant does not make
as moderator and coolant. In PWR, boiling of water coolant is the operating persons. The radioactive
prevented. The arrangement of a pressurized water reactor is as the steam radioactive in the boiler.
shown in figure (1). As the pressurized water reactor has high negative
operateto in
Pressure equaliær temperature coefficient which makes the reactor
reactor
stable and safe mode and also, self régulation of the
Heater then the
Concrete shield 1S possible. Whenever there is a power
demand
Steam demand
pressurized water reactor supplies the required power
Turbine to the system. Pressurized water reactor has positive power
Water
demand coefficient while boiling water reactor has negative
Generator
less
Fuel a n d Heat
power demand cocefficient and it (BWR) may produce
exchanger be concluded
output power. Hence, due to this reason, it can
moderator
r boiler
Therma be used for variable loads.
shield that pressurized water reactor can

Q31. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of

Water
Water
Reaction Condenser
core pressurized water reactor.

Circukat ing pump Feed pump Answer IMay/June-13. (R09), Q7(6) | Model Paper-I, Q8(b}]

Advantages of PWR
Figure (11: 0utline of Pressurized Water Reactor
Compact in design.

i) Capital cost is less.

Heat
Water exchanger (ii) Steam supplied to turbine is free from contamination.

Steel presure Steam (iv) Water is the cheapest moderator and coolant.
vCSsel

(v) The design can incorporate U2ss blanket for plutonium

breeding.
(vi) Very few control rods are needed.
Disadvantages of PWR
ckments Pressurver
() Fuel costs more since enriched uranium is used.
Pump
i) High pressures create problems to containing vessels, etc.
Concrele* Water
(i) Safety measures are very high.

(iv) Corrosion problems due to high temperature and

pressure.

(v) The thermodynamic efficiency in the secondary circuit

Figure (2)
is very low.
The pressurizing tank included in circuit maintains the Q32. Explain the working of boiling water reactor and
the constant pressure in the ciYcuit throughout the load range.
Electric heating coil in the pressurized boils the water to form
list out its advantages and
disadvantages.
the steam which is coliected in the dome and pressurizes the Answer
entire coolant cîrcuit before siarting thè reactor. To reduce the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
pressure, water spraý is used to conderise the steam.
This is a thermal type reactor. Similar to PWR, it afs
The fuel generally used is UO, The uranium oxide is uses water as moderator and coolant.
highly resistant to radiation damage and is very well adopted to Moreover, it uses wate
as a neutron reflector. The pressures are
the high burn-ups. It is also highly resistant to corrosion by high PWR, so the steam is generated within thenot as high as that o
pressure water in the event of'a breakyp in the fuel cladding.
Luses direct steam cycle. core of the reactos
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of BWR is
steam is fed to turbines directly without intermediate
exchanges. figure, arrangement In
shov
nis high
pressure
raise by 5%. BWR also uses
enriched uranium as fuej
are removed, the power output nay
C e
c rods. Nearly auxiliaries
Torm ofintermediate 180 control rods are distributed throughout the core. They are inserted from the bottom of the core,

the water is pumped to increase the capacity of the plant

Opumps are used to circulate the water in the reactor. In certain cases,

known as forced circulation plant.

Saturated st eam

Steam
Turbine
Saturated separator Load
steam to turbine

Water steam Down corner

mixture
recirculation Cooling
Core water Cond enser
Feed water (saturated)
Core
Feed water
Recirculation OCondensate
water Feed water pump

pump

Internal Recirculation External Recirculation

Figure: Schematic of a BWR System
Advantages of BWR
Gain in thermal efficiency and reduction in cost are realized as the heat exchangers, pumps and auxiliary equipment
requirements are reduced.
Thick vessel is not required because of the lower pressure inside the reactor, which further brings down the cost and
simplifies containment problems.
3. BWR eycle is more efficient than the PWR cycle for a given containment pressure and the outlet temperature ofthe steam.
4. For a given output conditions, the metal temperatures remain low.
. BWR reactor is capable of meeting the fluctuating load requirements quickly.
Disadvantages of BWVR
. Radioactive contamination in the turbine mechanism may get carried to steam
equipment leading to the failure of equipments.
2 Itrequires more safety requirements, which are costly.
3. Part load operation of the reactor can cause wastage of steam
leading to low thermal efficiency.
4. There is a possibility of 'burn-out' of fuel as
boiling of water on the surface of the fuel is allowed
Q33. Explain the working of fast breeder reactor with a neat sketch.
Answer
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) Nov.-13, (R09), a7(0)

Iffission is initiated with U235, it not only gives off heat but also free neutrons.
in the reactor, these free neutrons Under certain conditions, ifU238 is placed
may convert U258 into Plutonium (Pu23") which is also a
as
breeding. These reactors are, therefore, known for their better fuel utilization. fissile material. This process is known
Schematic layout is shown in figure below.
Small core
Cont rols U5 (Fissi ble material)

Na (Radioa ctiv e) Na (Non-radioa ctiv e)

Steam
Primary loop Second ary turbinel Generator
low pressure sod ium loop highH,O Steam
pressu re
generator
Cond enser
Cool ant pump
Cool ant pump
Feed pum
U238 blanket
(fertilematerial
Figure: Fast Breeder Reactor System (FBR
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 UNIT-4 Nuclear Power Station 4.13

This reactor uses

highly.enriched fuel and liquid metal
No moderator is used in | Q35. What is
its
cooled. FBR. U35 core is
a
homogeneous reactorr Exp
surrounded by U and thus, absorbs excess neutrons completely working.
and
therefore, it is
'converted
into plutonium. Answer Modet Paper-1, Q93
The reactor iscooled by
converted liquid metal and U238 isHomogeneous Reactor (OR) eous
to Pu-"
or Th into U255 which can be used as fuel Reactor (HAR)
Homogen eo
in the same reactor.

9 5+n' It is a thermal homogeneous reactor of breeding type."

U 259 +Y
Since U59 is unstable the reaction
continues further as,
The fuel is enriched solution of uranyl sulphate n water,
contains Zinc alloy.
210
U NP 23e A
Neptunium half life is about 20 slurry of Thorium is placed around the core-vesse as
particles. days and emits B a blanket. Thorium slurry is a mixture of thorium powder ana,
heavy water. Heavy water is used as coolañt and moderator.
uNP 25 Pu239 +B Boiler
The coolant Heat exchanger Steam
is possibly drum
liquid Sodium
or an
alloy of Stean
Sodium or Potassium. Hence, Plutonium Thorium heavy water
and other isotopes slurry
produced in such nuclear reactions can further be used.
Q34. List out advantages and
breeder reactor. Why only sodium disadvantagesof
is used as
Circulating pump
coolant
in (Condenser
breeder reactors?
ater
Answer: Feed pumnp
Breeder Reactor Reactor Uranium heavy Water
water solution
Breeder reactors are Feed pumpP
designed to produce or breed new
fissible materials such as fissible Toffuel
plutonium and fertile uranium processing
(U258) during generation of electricity.
Advantages Figure: Homogeneous Reactor
(i) No moderator is
required. The circulating fluid is fuel moderated
circulates this fluid between vessel and heat
mixture. Pump
(ii) High power density. exchanger. The
heated solution enters the boiler to transfer its
(iii) Fuel burn up is high, since there is no energy to the
absorption risk. circulating water. Thus, produced steam is expanded in turbines.
iv) Low absorption of neutrons. In this, fuel element
problems are not present although fuel
(v) Small core is sufficient to solution is radioactive and corrosive.
produce high power density
than any other reactor.
Advantages
Disadvantages The breeding potential is high and refuelling is easy.
Control becomes difficult at extreme
there is no moderator.
temperatures, since2 No control rods are needed, except for safety.
(i) Power (specific power) is not high as that of thermal 3. Solid fuel
reactors.
as
problems are removed.
4. Neutron economy is
(ii) Liquid sodium is corrosive. good.
(iv) Enriched fuel is needed. Disadvantages
(v) Safety is needed during melt-down process 1. Circulation of large quantities of radioactive
(Fluids) may become dangerous sometimees. materials
(vi) At the centre of core, high neutron flux is obtained which
is undesirable. 2. High amount of fuel required. is
(vii) Handling of sodium is difficult, as it becomes radioactive.
Q36. Explain organic liquid cooled and
Coolant in Breeder Reactor reactor plant with neat moderated
The best coolants for breeder reactors are diagram.
such
liquid metals Answer:
sodium. It is employed. as a coolant in breeder reactor
as

because it possesses high heat transferring Organic Liquid Cooled and Moderated
properties as wel
as it is
non-moderating. In addition to this, it also possesses Reactor
higher boiling point at atmospheric pressure. The organic liquid cooled and
shown in following figure. moderated reactor is as
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Construetion
Controlrods Steam
urrbine
As shown in figure, gas cooled reactor consist of a
Pressure moderator made up of graphite. Heat exchanger (to exchange
vessel the heat), through which water is circulated, by means of a feed
Generator
pump, is provided with fins on their surfaces.

Working
The reactor is cooled by the gas and the heat carried t
the gas is used to produce steam, which can be used directhy
TTTT| Heat
exchanger
Condenser
to generate power. The gases are circulated in the reactor at a

MPa to 1.40 MPa.

pressure range of 1.05
The coolant gases used in this type of reactor are air,
Fuel moderator used in reactors is
rods Circulatng Feed mp hydrogen, helium or CO. The
hence the problem
pump graphite, which is less effective than water,
of erosion is reduced in reactors. In case of failure of feed pump
Reactor reactors are more safer.
Figure: Organic Liquid Cooled and Moderated or accidents, these type of

orthometa
It uses enriched uranium as fuel, a mixture of Advantages
moderator and boron
erhenyB and paratherphenyl as coolant and The material used for moderator is graphite. Thus, the
are powerful moderators, as
s control rods. These substances problem of corrosion is reduced.
they contain only hydrogen and carbon. Thus, the
use
of separate The use of carbondioxide as coolant, prevents the
moderator is not necessary. The steam at high pressure and
as the steam
leakage of gas and possibility of explosion in reactor is'
temperature can be produced in the heat exchanger,
eliminated.
generated in the system is subjected to a very small amount of
3. The use of graphite and uranium carbide can resist
radioactivity.
Advantages high temperature, therefore controlling of fuel element
temperature is easy.
1. Generation of steam at high pressure and temperature
4. The use of graphite moderator in a gas cooled reactor
IS possible.
can retain its mechanical strength and purity at high
2. A wide variety of fuels can be used with organic coolant.
temperatures.
3 Use of separate moderator is not necessary. Disadvantages
Vapour pressure is low at high useful temperatures and 1. The specific power of reactor is low, therefore large
no heavy pressure is required in the reactor vessel. vessel is required.
5. Reduces corrosion problems. The cost of a vessel is more, as it has to withstand high
pressure and temperatures.
Disadvantages
. Low neutron economy Compared to other reactors, more power is required for
coolant circulation.
2. Enriched fuel is required
The maintenance cost for gas cooled reactor is high.
3. The organic fluids are inflammable, therefore, special
precautions must be taken to avoid the accidents. 5. Fuel loading is costly, as more amount of fuel is required,

4. Maintenance and initial cost is high. due to high critical mass.

Q38. What are the features of advanced gas cooled
Q37. Explain the construction and working of a gas reactors over other reactors? When these
cooled reactor. What are its advantages and reactors are preferred?
disadvantages? Answer
Answer
In addition to the features of basic Gas Cooled Reactors,

Turbine -Generator (GCR) the Advanced Gas Cooled Reactors (AGR) exhibit the
following features. They are,
Condenser 1. The operation of the Advanced Gas cooled Reactors
Heat Cooling
(AGR) occur at 825°C ofclad surface temperatures and
exchanger Water
at 665°C of gas outlet temperature.
These reactors possess maximum range of prestresse
R values.
Design and construction of concrete pressure vesses
Feedpump more eficient than basic GCR.

Figure These reactors use highly rich ceramic fuels.

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 UNIT-4 Nuclear Power Station 4.15
There are tour
twin-reactor stations oI 10ta1 pOwer
and one four-reactor stations in the for the production
of 4750 MW the ÁGR
AGR program
Slduons n
prograi
There areprovisions for refueling for high availability of load.
In these reactors, ali the access
AGR is
penetrations are kept under control.
preferred in the
construction of nuclear steam
fossil fueled power station. The use of AGR increases the supply system where, the steam cod m
degree of integrity in nuclear steam suppiy sy* and permits
to stay
nearer the centers of populated areas.
Q39. Explain the working of a moderated
type nuclear power station with a block diagira
Answer:
Depending upon the type of moderator, nuclear reactors are classified as the
1. Water moderated followin
2. Heavy water moderated
3. Graphite moderated
4 Beryllium moderated.
Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) Reactor
histypeofreactor uses natural uraniun as fuel and heavy water as coolant and moderator. In the primary circuit, pressure
tubes ofreactorand heat exchanger are filled with heavy water similar to
that ofpressurized water reactor. In secondary
takes place from heavy water to the water present in the heat
circuit
steam 15 generated
is controlled by the and heat transfer
moderator, i.e., heavy water, control rods are not necessary in this reactor. exchanger Since the reactor

CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) Reactor

CANDU IS One type of a thermal muclear power reactor which makes use of heavy water as moderator (i.e., with 99.8%
deuterium oxide),coolantand also a neutron retlector. The countries which do not produce enriched uranium make use of CANDU
reactors as the enrichment of uranium is very costly.
Working Principle of CANDU Type Reactor
CANDU reactor was first developed in Canada. The different components and their arrangements are shown in the figure below,
Steam
turbine

Feed water

Steam
generator

Controls Reactor vessel

Heavy water
cooant

Fuel
charging
machine

Pressure
tubes Moderator heat exchanger
Figure
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wwietas
n this reactor, natural uranium is used as fuel. The reactors
accidents in
heavy The planet has witnessed two major
water used in the station. near Harrisburg,
moderator and coolant are kept One at the three mile island power
he reactor separately
vessel is made up of steel with 6 Pennsylvania, U.S on March 28,
1979. Some amouni of
m length the air, when the coolant escaped
nd a m
diameter is arranged in horizontal. This vessel radioactivity was released into
carries accident was at the nuclear
S horizontal from the reactor core. The other
pressure tubes which are designed to withstand Ukraine, former Soviet Union on
hgh nternal pressures. These tubes carry fuel elements and a power plant in Chernobyl, the roof of the
reactor blew up, ripped
pressurized coolant flowing in opposite direction is allowed April 26, 1986. The
to building causing radioactive poisoning to a good number of

tow through the channels and around fuel elements to absorb people and polluting the
terrestrial environment.
the heat generated by fission. The coolant with high pressure Hiroshima, Japan, on August
of 10 MPa and high temperature of 370°C leaves the reactor Since, the bombing on
about the environmental
through6th, 1945, there is a growing concern
COre taking up the heat and entersinto steam generator
nuclear weapons and radioactive materials.
Outlet header. As the steam is ofinverted u-tube type, threat posed by
generator Pollution
the coolant which is entered will be sent back to reactor core Measures to Control Radioactive
in such a
The nuclear power plants should be designed
through inlet header. When the temperature is about 265°C, the manner that there is no leakage of radioactive materia.
steam is generated and thercfore it is supplied to the turbine.
The radioactive wastes should be stored in deep
4.2.2 Radiation Hazards and Shielding 2.
underground facilities or underground caverns called
Radioactive Waste Disposal
nuclear waste repositories.
Q40. What is function of shield? What are the
The burial site of the radioactive wastes should be
different types of shields? 3
carefully selected, so that it doesn't get leaked into
Answer Model Paper-1l, 09(a) underground water and drinking water supplies.
Functions of Shields The gaseous wastes of nuclear ower plants particularly
4.
1. It should protect the walls of the reactor vessel from the isotopes of krypton, xenon and iodine are firsi filtered,
damage due to radiation. then passed through adsorption system and dispersed
2. It should protect the person who is operating from through a chimney stack.
exposure to radiation. Q42. Discuss the safety measures for nuclear power
Types of Shields plants.
There are two types of shields, Answer : Model Paper-l, Q9(b)

Inner shield or thermai shield The three important sources of air contamination through
2. Outer shield or biological shield. radioactive materials, which can cause health issues to workers.
The nuclear radiations produced in a reactor consists of
surrounding community and impart negative effect on the
alpha and beta particles, slow and fast neutrons and gamma rays. environment are,
Shielding must be done against them. Alpha and beta particles Fission of nuclei of nuclear fuels.
can be stopped by even a very thin solid substance and thermal 2. The fluxes of neutron affects the heat, which is carried in
(slow) neutrons are taken care by the shielding provided to stop
primary cooling system and on the ambient air.
gamma rays and fast neutrons. A concrete wall of approximate
thickness 3 m is constructed around the steel lining of several 3. Damage of shells of fuel elements.
centimeters. Concrete is used as it is casily available and of low Due to the contamination of air by nuclear power plants,
COst. safety measures has to followed to reduce the pollution, which are,
Factors that influence the actual design of shielding are:() A nuclear power plant should be constructed, such that
(a) Total amount of radiation produced. there is no population (or) human habitation arounda
(b) Amount of radiation that can be permitted to leak radius of 106 km.
through the shield. (ii) A nuclear power plant should be constructed, by using
(c) Shielding properties of material. high quality of materials.
Q41. What is radioactive pollution and explain the 111) Proper purification of waste water should be done, so
measures to control it. that it can be reused (or)
recycled
Answer (iv) It requires a safety system, which can
safely shutdow
Radioactive Pollution the plants when the
necessity arises.
Pollution of the environment with radioactive materials Plant should incorporate a deviee, which controls h
is called radioactive pollution. Radioactive clements are radioactivity in the environment.
released into the environment during nuclear energy production.ViProper care should be taken, whiie discharging the
These nuclear radiations have high penetralioa power causing wastes from the nuclear power plant. It should not
ireparable damage to tissues, when exposedto them mixed with river o sca wate.

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043. Give the classitication of
detait. nuclear wastes in | 1. Disposal of High Levei Nuclear
Wastte

i000 curie. They are

Answer: The radioactivity level is above
Model Paper-1, Q9(b) them in inert solid matrices,
The nuclear wastes are
classificd on the basis of Benerally managed by incorporating under till coolng
half-life which kept
placed in canisters (small box)
are
ime as well as on the basis
and
of the intensity of radiation as low, radioactivity comes to desiredI evel and finally
these canisters
medium high level radioactive wastes. The wastes view 1s shown 1n
produced stored in deep geological media. Typical
from reactor operations include fission are
(like elements called products and plutonium figure (1).
actinides). Plutonium and other
which are not initially dominant, become actinides.
dominant after 1000 Ventilation Systems Charging
years.
The different types of wastes Controi
stages are as follows,
coming out at different Level Panel Shielding
Container
Fresh uranium trom mine
Vehicle,
Low level
Fuel solids (U-fuel)
tabrication
Phtonium contaminated solids
(U/Pu) TV camera

Reactors Low and medium active

gases liquids and solids
Disposal room
Iron-hooped
drum
Fuel element Active pond water Radiation
cooling pond Protection wall
Level
Lead glass
Decan and Gaseous waste
Winad
dissolved fiuel Waste drums
Fucl element cladding

Extract uranium Highly active liquid waste (99%

of fusion producis)
plutonium Figure: High Level Waste Disposal
The special advantage of this method is that the
Puriiy uranium Medium active liquid some plutonium contaminated deposition in salt provides strong capability of absorbing
pluionium
radioactive emissions and also, good thermal conductivity.
Figure These wastes are also incorporated under intermediate
storages viz.
The waste coming out from reactor are classified as,
1. Fission Products (i) Geological storage (Rocksalt. Hard Rocks etc.)
(ii) Ocean storage
Most of the fission products are initially radioactive and
ii) New methods (Harvest process, AVM Process).
decay with the emission of B and y-rays, until a stable isotope
is produced. 2 Intermediate Level Waste Disposal
Actually, these wastes are incorporated into cement
2. Actinides
cylinders. The advantage is cement acts as shielding
Elements in this group are produced in nuclear reactor and resistant to beaches by ground water.
as a result of neutron capture by uranium. The other actinides Low Level Waste
3. Disposal
are neptunium, americium and cirium which do not have any Nuclear waste of this type is cast into steel drum with
use and are considered as wastes
only. The actinides decay cement. Thereafter, these drums are buried on land as
mainly by emission of o-particles until a stable isotope of lead
is formed. However, these a-particles are very energetic and in the sea bed.
Q45. What the main difficulties in
are
toxic if inhaled. handling
radioactive
waste and explain the methods to
3. The Neutron Activation Produets
overcome these difficulties.
These are
produced when fast neutrons are absorbed
Answer
by structural materials in the reactors as coolant, fuel cladding Nov./Dec-12, (RO9), Q6 (b)
ge, They decay with the emission of Band y-radiations. Main Dificulties in Handling Radioactive Waste
a44. Describe how nuclear wastes are disposed.g Problems of Nuclear Waste Disposal
The fission products serve no
Answer: purpose and therefore,
they should be removed and dumped into a safe
Waste Disposal remove 10 kg of impurities from 50 tons of place. To
Nuclear waste disposal can be classified as, uranium is not a
difficult problem. What is difficult is that, the fission
1. High level waste disposal of uraniunm atom are many and diverse. More fragments
than
areformed ranging from Zn30 to rare eleient 200 isotopes
2. Intermediate level waste disposal
Low level waste disposal. the regeneration of uranium irom the spent gadolinium. Thus
3.
complicated. fuel is chemically
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active isotopes
any radioactive harmless and the intensely
disa isotopes have their own rate of decay. The weak isotopes are
water until they
cooled. The
are
liminat to store the
spent fuel under 6 m deep
t,
t
merely necessary
is short-lived isotopes and their
as 100 days. During the cooling period, the
intensely active and
Tadiations disappear. ng difficulty in the processing.
About half of the tive elements that remain after
cooling offer no
radio
gaseous, liquids and
solids are formed in the various phases of nuclear
i i n d s of radioactive wastes in the form of there is no hazard to human, animal orpa
C. These must be disposed off in such a manner that wastes are discharged
to the atmosphere
oderate selected sites. Gaseous
are buried at depths of few metres at carefully
L
throno are often given preliminary
a treatment to remOve
gnhigh stacks. Liquids havinglow or intermediate levels radioactivity or
of treated liquids are kept
discharged in dry wells deep pits. Sometimes,
then
n e activity in form of solid
precipitate and
radioactivity to decay.
1 d - u p tanks before discharge for a period to allow part of the real problem.
from waste fuel poses a
wastes after recovery of uranium and plutonium then stored in a stainless
n e disposal
of theradioactive
is concentrated by evaporation
under vacuum and
Th solution which is rich in fission products The radioactivity of this waste solution
vault and buried under the earth (nearly 1 km below). coil to keep
C t a n k , enclosed in a concrete tanks are provided with cooling
so that submerged
from corrosion or even boiling,
heat to cause trouble
ECerates
the temperature at 50°C.