NATURAL DOMAIN SHIKSHAN

A GEOGRAPHY TEXTBOOK

MAIN RIVER

DISTRIBUTARY
 Contents

Number Name of the Chapter Page Numbers

1. Our Environment 1-8

2. The Interior of the Earth 9-18 T

The Earth
19-30 T1
3 Dynamic
Gradational Processes and Landforms 31-44
4.

5. Composition and Structure ofthe Atmosphere

45-53 T-1

Elements of Weather and Climate

54-64 T
6.
65-75 T-2
7. The Hydrosphere

Natural Vegetation and Wildlife T2 76-87 T2

(8
88-94
Human Settlements
9
Transport and Communication 95-105X
10
T2 106-118
11 Tropical and Subtropical Regions
119-129T2
12. Life in the Desert Region

Disaster Management - Earthquakes and Cyclones T- 130-140-2

13
 Our Environment

Let's Learn

Natural environment lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere

Interaction between components of environment
Human environment
Causes of environmental degradation

Tune In
List ten items from your surroundings and categorise them under the following heads and
complete the table.

Products from Nature Human-made Products

Introduction
The word environment is derived from the
Did You Know
French word 'environer'meaning surrounding.
World Environment Day is celebrated on
The environment encompasses all living and the 5th of June every year.
non-living components of man's surroundings.
Thus, the environment is everything that surrounds and influences a
living organism. It includes
the place (where we live), the flora, the fauna, the
people, as well as human-made things.
The environment can be broadly classified into natural environment and human or
man-made environment.
Natural environment includes the physical and
biological components of the earth.
Physical environment comprises of the non-living components like air, water, land.
Biological environment comprises of living components such as plants, animals
including human beings and even microbes (microorganism).
The human environment includes all human-made creations, their activities
and relationships
Ps
that are guided by socio-cultural, economic as well as
political conditions.
Thus, the social, cultural, economic and political environment have a
deep impact on individuals
as well as on the community and country.

Parks
Water (Hydrosphere)

Air (Atmosphere)
Buildings
Roads

Natural Human-
made
Land (Lithosphere)
Monuments
Components of
Environment

Industries
Living Things Human
(Biosphere)

Individual
Political Situation

Family Community Religion Educational

Fig.1.1: Components of Environment
Natural Environmnent
Natural environment comprises of abiotic and biotic components that form the four domains
or realms of the earth, namely, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. In

your previous class, you have already learnt about the meaning of the terms lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Let us learn some more facts about these domains.

Lithosphere
The word lithosphere is derived from the Greek word 'lithos meaning stone. It is the outer
solid crust or the outermost solid layer of the earth. It is composed of rocks and minerals
and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is uneven due to the presence of landforms such as
mountains, hills, valeys and plateaus, etc. It extends over both, continents and water bodies.

Importance: This domain provides us forests, land for agriculture and other human activities
as well as for building human settlements. It also an important source of minerals and power
resources.

Activity Time
Prepare a list of all the different ways in which the land in your locality has been used.

Hydrosphere
The word 'hydro' in Greek means water. Thus, hydrosphere refers to the total water found on
our planet in the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, as well as underground. Water, which is essential
for supporting life on earth, is found in different states liquid, gaseous and solid. Water
circulates through different realms of the earth through the water cycle.

source of food and minerals.

Importance: Water supports all forms of life. Oceans are a
the climate of coastal
Oceans facilitate trade and transportation. They also help in moderating
and industrial uses.
regions. Freshwater is used for many domestic, agricultural
Atmosphere
'atmos meaning vapour. The
The word atmosphere has been derived from the Greek word
make up the weather
atmospheric conditions such as wind, humidity, precipitation, collectively
and other gases (1%).
of a place. The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%6), oxygen (21%)
It also consists of dust particles and water vapour.

are useful to us in many ways such as:

Importance: The various gases present in the atmosphere
nitrogen is required to maintain the fertility of the soil.
oxygen is essential for sustaining all forms of life on earth.

carbon dioxide is essential for plants to produce food in the presence ofsunlight.

ozone present in the atmosphere protects us from the ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
Biosphere
is
large variety of life,
a
a
that supports
Biosphere,
interaction among three UTHOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE
narrow
zone formed by
air. The term
namely, land, water and
spheres, BIOSPHERE
c o m e s from the
Greek word 'bios meaning
biosphere
which m e a n s the total
life and Latin word 'sphaera' animal
consists of the plant and HYDROSPHERE
range. The biosphere
which makes
It is this domain of the earth
kingdom.
our planet-a unique planet. Fig. 1.2: Biosphere

Rapid Round
State true or false.

1. The biological environment comprises of living organisms.

animal kingdom.
2. biosphere consists of the plant and
The
that surround the earth.
3. The hydrosphere is a mixture of gases

Environment
Interaction between the Components of the
Have you ever wondered why a only in Kashmir and not in the Gangetic
Chinar tree grows
This is because all organisms grow in
Valley or why are giraffes not found in colder regions?
have adapted themselves, which is largely
their distinctive environment to which they
influenced by the physical environment. In fact, organisms
live like a community and are
each other as well as their natural environment for survival. This relation
dependent on
environment forms an
between the living organisms, with one another and with their physical
ecosystem.
The branch of science that studies the interaction between the living organisms and their
surroundings is called An ecosystem can be as small as a puddle or as large as
ecology.
a tropical rainforest. Life in an ecosystem is dependent upon abiotic elements such as
sunlight (the source of energy), rainfall, soil, etc. An ecosystem can be natural such as deserts,
mangroves and even artificial such as aquariums, terrariums, etc.
The ecosystem comprises of distinct geographical zones called biomes wherein each zone
has its physical
own environment and distinctive assemblage of flora and fauna. Deserts
forests, grasslands, tundra and several types of aquatic environments are all examples of
different kinds of biomes.
In every ecosystem, there is a perfect balance or equilibrium in the transfer of energy and
matter among the different
components. This equilibrium is known as ecological balance.
Any change in one part of the environment causes a ripple effect of
change throughout other
parts of the environment due to which this balance gets
function properly.
disrupted and the ecosystem fails to
Human Environment
sOcio-cultural,
well as his
refers to everything created by man as
The Human environment

political and economic situation.

and livedd
themselves to their environment
Primitive people had limited needs. They adjusted
the requirements of humans have
nature. But with the passage of time,
in harmony with their natural environment.
increased and changed. As a result, humans have started modifying
activities
and examples of human
construction are some
Farming, grazing, mining, industry
environment. This has resulted
in the disruption of the ecological
that have changed the natural
balance and has led to environmental degradation.
the number
to the loss of biodiversity (reduction in
Environmental degradation refers due to
degradation of natural
resources
and
of plant and animal species), depletion of the causes of

pollution, overexploitation and

obliteration. Let us now briefly look at some

environmental degradation.

Fig. 1.2: Environmental degradation

Causes of Environmental Degradation Activity Time

Draw a picture depicting the ideal

Inappropriate land use, such as poor
farming techniques, over-cultivation, environment where you would like to live.

deforestation leads too

Overgrazing and
soil erosion (removal of the top layer of the soil).
both from households as well as
Inappropriate disposal of waste products and pollutants
industries harm the natural environment.
on the limited natural resources, which leads
Rapidly increasing population puts pressure
to loss of biodiversity.
to the deterioration of air and water
Rapid and unplanned urban development has led
quality and generation of wastes.
Increasing transport networks also have negative impact on the environment.
a

sensitive ecosystem of the

For instance, construction of ports and harbours disturbs the
coastal areas.
Rapid Round
,
Fill in the blanks.
matter among the
equilibrium in the transfer of energy and
.The perfect balance or

different components is known as.

and
interaction between the living organisms
2. The branch of science that studies the

their surroundings is called.

another and with their physical
living organisms, with one
3. The relation between the
environment forms an .

Word Galaxy
assemblage a collection or gathering of things or people
deterioration the process of becoming progressively worse
either by destroying it or by
obliteration the action of removing all signs of something,
Covering it so that it cannot be seen

of rainwater on the ground

puddle-a small pool of liquid especially

Concept Map
environment encompasses all

living and non-living components

of man'ssurrounding

physical environment
natural environment

the relation between

biological environment
the living organisms,
with one another,
and with their physical environment Our
forms an ecosystem interaction Environment everything created by
between man as well as his
the branch of science that the components socio-cultural, political
studies the interaction and economic situation
of the environment
between living organisms, human
and their surrounding
is called ecology
environment inappropriate land use

causes of
the ecosystem comprises
inappropriate disposal of waste
environmental
of distinct geographical
degradation
zones called biomes
rapidly increasing population
rapid and unplanned
urban development

increasing transport networks

 Let's Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a)Which of these is the outermost solid layer of the earth?

i)lithosphere i) hydrosphere
i) atmosphere iv) biosphere
b) Which of these is a part of the biological environment?

i) air i) water
ii) land iv) animals

c)Which of these is nota part of the natural ecosystem

) forest i) desert

in) grasslands iv) aquarium

d) Which of these is a human-made environment?
) mountain in) ocean

in) sea iv) road

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) Theword environmentis derived fromthe Frenchword'environer' meaning-
and their
b) The branch of science that studies the interaction between living organisms
surrounding is called
is a narrow zone formed by interaction among three spheres, namely,
C)
land, water and air.
called
d) The ecosystem comprises of distinct geographical
zones

3. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What do you understand by the term 'environmental degradation ?

b) Name the four realms of the earth.

c) State the importance of hydrosphere as one of the domains of the earth.

d) What is a natural environment?

e)'Biosphere is important for the survival of human life. Explain.

4. Answer the following questions in 50-70 words.

a) Briefly describe the abiotic components of the natural environment.

b) Briefly explain what is lithosphere and why it is important.

 )Why is the atmosphere an important domain ofthe earth?
d) What are the causes of environmental degradation?
changes in
5. How does change in one component of the environment bring
others? Support your answer with examples.

Do it to know it!

6. Group Activity
and air. Work in groups
There is an increasingconcern over the rising pollution of water
awareness effectively.
Share your idea with
and list five ways that will enable you to spread
the class.

7. Survey
Conduct a survey in your locality and find out how
humans have impacted the environment
around you.

8. Role Play
Divide students into four groups. Allot one domain to each group. Each group to present
a role play stating the importance of the domain they have been given.

People Who Changed the World

Wangari Maathai
Wangari Maathai was an environmental activist in Kenya. Maathai
started the Green Belt Movement in Africa and helped to plant over 30
million trees. She and the Green Belt Movement have received numerous
awards, most notably the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004. Wangari Maathai
Wangari Maathai
is internationally recognised for her persistent struggle for democracy,
man rights and environmental conservation.

WEB LINKS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kz1X6OnAWNT4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIDatp51hMw
As on 30/04/2019

8
2 The Interior of the Earth

Let's Learn
Structure of the earth Rocks-its types and uses
Rock cycle

Tune In

This activity is to be performed under adult supervision.

Material required: Milk (half a litre), vessel to boil the milk, lid to cover the vessel

Procedure:
Boil half a litre of milk. Switch off the qgas when the milk comes to a boil. Keep a cover on

the vessel.
Observe what happens.
After ten minutes, the cover, take it to a side and tilt it.
remove
on the milk?
see the layer of matter
What can you see on the milk? In what form do you
matter and
difference in temperature of this
Remove this layer of matter. Note down the
answer the questions given
below:
the milk. Based on your observations,

What was the state of the milk when it was kept for boiling?

What did you observe when the milk was boiling?

on the milk?
What had accumulated

matter accumulated on the milk? It is solid or liquid?

What is the state of
hotter or cooler than the milk below?
matter accumulated
Is the state of the
state. After the milk
before boiling the milk, it was in the liquid
that
You must have noticed a thick layer of cream is
started coming out from it. After some time,
came to boil, steam

visible over the milk.

below. Thus, it can be inferred that the
the cream is lesser than the milk
The temperature of which remained hot and in a liquid
state.
cooled faster than the milk below it,
layerof cream
ocCurred when the
earth cooled.
A similar process
Scientists believe that initially, the
be formed out of the solar system itself.
The earth is said to
itself. The process of
balloon. It cooled down as it rotated around
hot
earth was a gaseous surface towards the earth's center. So, the
outer
took place from the outer
cooling of the earth the
is cooler and solid but as we move towards the inner layer (core),
layer of the earth (crust) earth is in a semi-liquid state.
increases and at
certain depths, the interior of the
heat
In this chapter, we will learn about the three concentric layers of the earth - the crust, the

mantle and the core.

Crust
T h e uppermost layer of the earth's surface is in
-Crust
layer
Solid state and is called the crust. This is the
-Mantle
thinnest and is made up of hard crystalline rocks -Outer Core
Inner Core
crust that forms the
Ihe upper part of the earth's
landmasses is known as the continental
large
crust is primarily made up
crust. The continental
it is
of silica (Si) and aluminium (Al) and therefore
known as sial. Fig. 2.1: Structure of the earth
The relatively thin layer of the crust that lies under the ocean basin is known as the
oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is primarily made up of silica (S) and magnesium (Mg)
and therefore it is known as sima.

Continental crust is thicker as compared to the oceanic crust. The average thickness of
continental crust is around 35 km whereas that of the oceanic crust is around 5 km. The
continental crust is thicker in the areas of mountain systems. It is as much as 70 km thick
in the Himalayan region.

Mantle
.This layer lies below the crust. The average thickness of this layer is 2900 km.
I t is made up of two layers, the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The upper mantle
extends from the Moho Discontinuity to a depth of 700 km. It is cooler and composed of
solid rocks.
The lower mantle extends from 700 km to 2900 km. It is hotter and denser than the upper
mantle.

A t the depth of around 100 km to 410 km, the mantle is partially molten and is known as
the asthenosphere, derived from Greek word 'asthenes' which means weak. The lower
mantle is solid due to high
pressure. As the pressure increases towards the interior of the
earth, the density also increases.
Did You Know
There is a
discontinuity between crust and mantle. This discontinuity was deduced by
ascientist called Mohorovicic. It has been named after him
as Moho discontinuity.
There is a discontinuity between mantle and
core too. It has been named after
Gutenberg, a scientist, who discovered it.

10
Core
This is the innermost ATMOSPHERE
layer ofthe earth. CRUST
This layer is also known as Gutenberg9
(barus in Greek means heavy).
Barysphere (Lithosphere) MANTLE Discontinuity

The CORE
average radius of this layer is about
3500 km. Moho
The outer core is about Discontinuity
2,200 km thick. OCEAN
It is mostly
composed of liquid nickel (Hydrosphere)
(Ni) and iron (Fe) and therefore is also Fig. 2.2: Layers of the earth
known as nife. The
temperature in this layer ranges between 4500'C and 5500'C and
therefore it is always in a molten state.
The inner core has a radius of about 1220 km. Though the temperature is very
about 5,200' C, the inner
high at
core is solid due to extreme
pressure exerted on it by the other
layers and the atmosphere of the earth.
Activity Time
Model Making -

Interior of the earth

Carry out the fol owing activity to make a 3D model of the earth.
Materials required: clay (red, yellow and blue), sparkle glue, cutter/scissor
Procedure:

| LU.

11.

Rapid Round

1 is the innermost layer of the earth.

2. The upper part of the earth's crust that forms the large landmasses is known as the

3. moMOMOTLCElayer of the earth is also known as Barysphere.

11
 Rocks
The earth's crust is primarily made up of rocks and minerals.
Rocks are solid masses of minerals which are obtained from the earth's crust. The term rock
refers both hard solid matter like granite as
to well as soft and loose particles like sand, silt and
clay obtained from the earth. The rocks differ in colour, texture, sizes and structures.
Minerals are inorganic substances occurring naturally. These are solid substances which have
a definite chemical composition.
Table. 2.1 Difference between rocks and minerals

cks Mineraa
Rocks are solid masses of minerals which Minerals are solid
inorganic substances
are obtained from the earth's crust.
occurring naturally.
Arock has no definite chemical
composition. Minerals have a definite chemical
composition.
Examples: Basalt, granite, sandstone, quartz | Examples: Iron, silicon, magnesium, sodium

Types of Rocks
On the basis of their
origin, rocks are classified into three types igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.
gneous rocks
The word igneous is derived from the Latin word ignis which means fire. These rocks are
formed by the cooling of molten materials known as
magma that flow out from the earth's
crust during a volcanic
eruption. The magma cools down and solidifies to form igneous rocks.
Since these rocks were first to be formed, they are also known as
primary rocks.
Based on their mode of existence,
igneous rocks are classified as- intrusive igneous rocks and
extrusive igneous rocks.
Intrusive igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when
magma solidifies below the surface of the earth.
Since the rate of cooling is very slow,
large mineral crystals are formed on the rocks. Granite
and dolerite are
examples of these of rocks.
types
Extrusive igneous rocks
Unlike intrusive rocks, extrusive
igneous rocks are formed by the rapid cooling of molten lava
on the earth's surface. These rocks
may contain small crystals. Some of the
rocks are basalt and examples of these
gabbro.

12
 Granite Dolerite Basalt Gabbro
Fig. 2.3: Intrusive igneous rocks Fig. 2.4: Extrusive igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks
The word sedimentary is derived from Latin word 'sedimentum' which means matter which
has settled down at the bottom of a liquid. These rocks are formed by the deposition and
consolidation of the sediments. Sediments are small fragments of rocks, which are formed
by the breaking of pre-existing bigger rocks. These sediments are transported and deposited
by the action of wind, river and ice. These sediments are deposited in layers. The lowest
layer is the oldest layer and the topmost layer is the youngest layer. Over a period of time,
these sediments continuously accumulate in layers, are compressed and hardened to form
sedimentary rocks.
These rocks are also known as secondary rocks as they are formed by the solidification of
sediments of original igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic parent rocks.

On the basis of their formation, sedimentary rockS are classified into three types
of
Mechanically formed rocks: These rocks contain fragments from the breaking up
other rocks. Some of the examples of mechanically formed rock are sandstone, clay,
etc.

Chemically formed rocks: These rocks are

formed from the deposition of chemicals, like
salts, through evaporation. Rock salt is an example
of a chemically formed sedimentary
rock.

Organically formed rocks: These rocks contain remains of dead plants and animals
Limestone and coal are examples of organically formed rocks.

Rock salt Limestone

Sandstone
Fig. 2.5: Sedimentary rocks

13
 Metamorphic rocks
The word metamorphic is derived from the Greek word Activity Time
'metamorphosis which means a change of form. These Survey the rocks in your area
and then
rocks were onceigneous or sedimentary and note your observations.
chemical
underwent changes through physical and
processes.
and pressure or both. Since rocks are
The factors responsible for this process are temperature
made up of minerals, they may change their composition and texture under great pressure

and temperature.

Table. 2.2 Parent rock and their metamorphic rock

Name ofthe rocks Parent rock Name of the Metamorphic.rock

Limestone Sedimentary Marble

Sandstone Sedimentary Quartzite

Granite Igneous Gneiss

Coal Sedimentary Graphite

Shale Sedimentary Slate

Slate Metamorphic Phyllite

Rapid Round
Give two examples of each of the following:
a) Mechanically formed rocks b) Chemically formed rocks c) Organically formed rocks

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a continuous geological process that describes the formation, alteration and
recycling of rocks. In this process, the liquid magma gets transformed into solid rocks which
in turn gets altered into another
type and finally may get liquefied into molten magma again.
Magma, through the process of volcanism and cooling, gets transformed into igneous rocks,
which by weathering and erosion gets broken into the sediment. After
years of accumulation
and compression, get transformed into
sedimentary rock.
Both igneous and sedimentary
rocks may alter their form through heat and
pressure into
metamorphic rock. All types of rock can get eroded to form sedimentary rock. Ultimately, au
rocks may melt into liquid magma.

14
 Magma

Metamorphic Rock

Igneous Rock

Sedimentary Rock
Sediments
Fig. 2.6: Rock Cycle
Uses of Rocks
Many household utility items are made from rocks.

Fig. 2.7: Mortar and pestle of granite Fig. 2.8: Rolling board of marble

Buildings and monuments are also made from various rocks.

Fig. 2.9: Agra Fort (Sandstone) Fig. 2.10: Brihadeshvara Temple (Granite)

Rocks give us fossil fuels like coal and petroleum.

Rocks like limestone is used in the cement industry.
Rocks such as marble and granite are used for construction purposes.

15
Word Galaxy
Concentric- having a common center such as circles or spheres

Tragments- a small part broken off or separated from something

solidification - when the liquid rock cools, it may crystallise and harden

Concept Map
continental crust

Crust (SIAL)
household utility items Oceanic crust

three
mantle (SIMA)
buildings and monuments
concentric
Upper mantle
fossil fuels like coal layersofthe earth
and petroleum Core Lower mantle

imestone are used in uses of rocks

outer core
cement industry
rocks rocks are solid
marble and granite used inner core
masses of minerals
forconstruction industry which are obtained
from the earth's crust.
a continuous geological process, intrusive igneous
where liquid magma gets The Interior of
rock cycle the Earth
1gneous extrusive igneous
transformed into solid rocks,
types of rocks
gets altered into
another type and finally
sedimentary
may get liquefied into mechanically formed
molten magma again metamorphic

chemically formed

organically formed

Let's Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Granite is an example of r t type of rock.
intrusive igneous i) sedimentary
ii) metamorphic iv) extrusive igneous
b) Limestone is an example of SLamirosèdimentary rock.
i)mechanicallyformed i) chemicaly formed
organically formed iv) none of the above
C) AMMN_is the thinnest layer of the earth.
Crust i) Upper mantle
ii) Lower mantle iv) Core
d) Marble is an example
ofanmaia type of rock.
i) igneous
ii) sedimentary
iji metamorphic iv) extrusive igneous
16
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) The relatively thin layer of the crust that is the base
of the ocean basin is known as
the Co.ongcAJ
b)unMalgare solid inorganic substances ocurring naturally.
)The rocks that are formed from molten magma are known JaUnaow
d)
as
UDC
O L rocks are known as primary rocks.
3. ocP
Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) How are
metamorphic rocks formed?
b) Name the main types of rocks. Give an
example of each.
c) State a point of difference between SIAL and
SIMA.
4. Answer the
following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) How are igneous rocks formed? Based their formation,
on
explain the two types of
igneous rocks.
b) Distinguish between a rock and a mineral.
c)How are rocks useful to us?
d) Explain the concept of the rock cycle with the help of a well-labelled
diagram.
e) Distinguish between the inner core and outer core.
With the help of a diagram, explain the interior of the earth.
5. Give reason.

a) The inner core is in firm and solid in state.

b) Igneous rocks are known as primary rocks.

c)Sedimentary rocks are known as secondary rocks.
6. Look at the figure given below and label the parts (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5).

(1)
(2)
()
(A)

(5)
7. Why is the interior of the earth inaccessible to us?
 Do it to know it!

8. Activity: Replicated sedimentary rock

Materials:
sand, water
Empty water bottle, gravel, topsoil, dead plant,
Procedure
Pour a layer of sand into the empty bottle and
add a layer of topsoil.
and fill the bottle of a full of water
Insert a dead plant material and add a layer of gravel
Screw on the cap and shake the bottle until all the contents are mixed together and let it

Sit.
Observe and record the results over time. Observe the ingredients settle to the bottom of

the bottle in different layers.

Focus on the dead plant matter and describe what happened.
Hypothesise what happens when pressure is exerted for a long period of time on the rock.
After the experiment, compare and contrast the sedimentary rocks formed in the
experiment with sedimentary rocks formed million years ago.
9. Research work

Sedimentary rocks are of great importance to human beings. With the help of the internet,
find out some of the uses of sedimentary rocks.

People Who Changed the World

Inge Lehmann
Inge Lehmann was a
seismologist and
geophysicist. In the year 1936,
shediscovered that the earth has a solid inner core inside a
molten outer
core. Before this,
many seismologists believed that the earth's core was a
single molten sphere. Lehmann proposed how seismic waves behaved as
they moved through the interior of the earth and
published a paper based on her research and finally in the year 1936, Inge Lehmann
model of the interior of the findings. Her paper proposed a three-shelled
Her findings were
earth's, which consisted of inner core, outer core
-

later verified in the and mantle.

year 1970 with advances in
seismagraphy.
WEB LINKS

https:/ www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrN7jygu4cQ
https://geology.com/rocks/
https:/ www.youtube.com/watch?v=7m8tevimgco
As on 30/04/2019
18