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Modern Physics Laboratory Manual

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 COMPILED EXPERIMENTS FOR
MODERN PHYSICS

Physics Department, De La Salle University, Manila

Last Revised on August 2015 for the DLSU Physics Department by: Gwen Castillon and Gil Nonato Santos
 Table of Contents
Teaching Laboratory Policies ...................................................................................................... iii
I. General Policies .............................................................................................................. iii
II. Borrowing Procedures and Use of Equipment................................................................. iii
III. Lab Safety ....................................................................................................................... iv
IV. Special Lab Experiments ................................................................................................. iv
V. Breakage, Loss, and Damage to Lab Equipment ............................................................... v
Experiment No. 1 Measurement of the Diameter of a Hair Strand..............................................6
I. OBJECTIVES .....................................................................................................................6
II. BACKGROUND [1] ............................................................................................................6
III. PROCEDURES [1] ..............................................................................................................8
IV. EVALUATION ...................................................................................................................9
Experiment No. 2 Introduction to Interferometry .....................................................................10
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................10
II. BACKGROUND ...............................................................................................................10
III. PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................16
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................23
Experiment No. 3 The Index of Refraction of Air .......................................................................24
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................24
II. BACKGROUND ...............................................................................................................24
III. PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................27
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................30
Experiment No. 4 The Index of Refraction of Glass ...................................................................31
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................31
II. BACKGROUND ...............................................................................................................31
III. PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................32
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................35
Experiment No. 5 Atomic Line Spectra of Noble Gases and Metallic Vapors .............................36
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................36
II. BACKGROUND [7] ..........................................................................................................36

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 III. PROCEDURES [7] ............................................................................................................38
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................40
Experiment No. 6 Determining the Wavelengths 𝐻𝛼, 𝐻𝛽, and 𝐻𝛾 of the Hydrogen Atom ......42
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................42
II. BACKGROUND [8] ..........................................................................................................42
III. PROCEDURES [8] ............................................................................................................44
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................45
Experiment No. 7 Electron Diffraction in a Polycrystalline Crystal .............................................46
(Debeye-Scherrer Diffraction) ...................................................................................................46
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................46
II. BACKGROUND [10] ........................................................................................................46
III. PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................49
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................52
Experiment No. 8 Determination of Planck’s Constant .............................................................53
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................53
II. BACKGROUND [16] ........................................................................................................53
III. PROCEDURES .................................................................................................................54
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................58
Experiment No. 9 Determination of Specific Charge (e/m) of an Electron .................................59
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................59
II. BACKGROUND [18] ........................................................................................................59
III. PROCEDURES [18] ..........................................................................................................62
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................63
Experiment No. 10 Absorption of Beta Particles and Gamma Rays ...........................................64
I. OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................64
II. BACKGROUND [20] ........................................................................................................64
III. PROCEDURES [20] ..........................................................................................................65
IV. EVALUATION .................................................................................................................67
REFERENCES: .........................................................................................................................68

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 Teaching Laboratory Policies

I. General Policies
1. Refrain from smoking, eating, drinking, and littering in all physics laboratories.
2. Stay inside the laboratory only during lab classes. Only officially enrolled students
are permitted inside the lab.
3. Use all laboratory fixtures properly. Do not sit on tables and do not open cabinets or
lockers unless there is an instruction to do so.
4. Turn off all electrical appliances in the laboratory if they are not being used. If you
are the last person to leave the laboratory, turn off the lights and fans/aircon, lock
the doors, and close the windows.
5. Use only the computers in the physics lab for purposes related to experiments
performed.
6. Maintain the cleanliness of the lab at all times. Always observe proper safety
procedures in the lab.

II. Borrowing Procedures and Use of Equipment

1. All pieces of equipment necessary for physics experiments may be borrowed from
the Physics Stockroom.
2. Students must present an accomplished equipment borrowing form and an ID
before any lab equipment is loaned. Equipment- borrowing forms are available at
the Physics Stockroom.
3. Borrow only the pieces of equipment which are specified in your experiment or are
required by the lab instructor.
4. The borrower and his/her group are held responsible for all pieces of equipment
borrowed from the Physics Stockroom.
5. Pieces of equipment borrowed must be returned upon completion of the
experiment.
6. DLSU Students from other Departments who wish to use Physics Lab equipment are
to write a letter addressed to the Physics Department Chairman. The letter should
state the purpose for which they are going to use the equipment. Also, the letter
should indicate that they will take responsibility for any damage or loss of the
borrowed equipment. Aside from the letter, they must present an ID and 2 copies of
an accomplished Borrower’s Form downloadable at:
http://www.dlsu.edu.ph/academics/colleges/cos/physics/_pdf/borrowers-form.pdf.

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III. Lab Safety
1. Students are advised to read all precautionary notes on all pieces of equipment
before using them. All questions about safety precautions on the equipment being
used must be addressed to the lab instructor.
2. The lab instructor must first check the set-up for experiments requiring the use of
electrical components before any of these are plugged in or turned on. In case of
faulty equipment, the instructor must be informed immediately so that a
replacement can be secured from the Physics Stockroom.
3. Experiments involving the use of boiling water, heaters, and the like must be
performed close to the water sinks in the lab. Proper safety procedures must be
employed when performing such experiments.
4. Chemicals used in some experiments must be handled with utmost care. Used and
unused chemicals must be returned to the Physics Stockroom as soon as the
experiment is finished. Chemicals should never be thrown into the water sinks or the
trash bins.
5. All injuries, however minor, must be reported to the lab instructor.
6. In case of a minor injury, the instructor and/or the lab technicians may administer
first aid. The student may be sent by the instructor to the university clinic
accompanied by a person designated by the instructor.
7. If the instructor and/or the lab technicians feel they cannot administer the proper
first-aid treatment, the student must be brought to the clinic immediately, if possible
accompanied by a lab technician.

IV. Special Lab Experiments

1. Special or make-up experiments outside of regular class hours are discouraged.
2. In case of a special or make-up experiment outside the regular class hours, the
student has to confirm the availability of the technicians, the equipment, and the lab
room before scheduling one with his/her instructor. Special or make-up
experiments must only be performed in a lab room.
3. Special or make-up experiments outside the regular class hours are allowed only
upon the approval of the lab instructor. No special or make-up experiments are
allowed if the lab instructor cannot be present during the special or make-up
experiment.
4. Lab technicians are not required to assist the student during the special or make- up
experiment.

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V. Breakage, Loss, and Damage to Lab Equipment
1. Any incident of breakage, loss, or damage to any lab equipment must be reported
immediately to the lab instructor.
2. The borrower and his/her group members are responsible for the replacement or
payment of the broken, lost, or damaged equipment.
3. The cost of the damage to the equipment is assessed by the lab coordinator and
technicians and a billing statement is forwarded to the borrower.
4. Students must pay for, repair, or replace the broken, lost, or damaged equipment on
or before the 12th week of the trimester; otherwise, they would not be cleared from
the lab and not be allowed to enroll in the following trimester. Furthermore, they
would not be given their final grade for that lab subject.
5. Once the equipment has been paid for, replaced or repaired, students would be
issued a clearance by the lab coordinator.

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Experiment No. 1
Measurement of the Diameter of a Hair Strand

I. OBJECTIVES
• To measure the diameter of a hair strand by diffraction using a gas laser

II. BACKGROUND [1]

When a traveling wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of dimensions
comparable to its wavelength, the wave will flare out into the region beyond the barrier. This
bending of light phenomenon is called diffraction. According to Huygen’s Principle, a traveling
wave such as light, when it is incident on a barrier having slit openings, spreads out from this
barrier with the slit openings serving as sources of secondary wavelets as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Diagram showing how waves spread out in a spherical manner from the slits in an
opaque barrier [2]

These wavelets then combine, and the resultant intensity of their interference at a
nearby point away from the barrier can be calculated by adding the contributions from the
individual wavelets, taking proper account of their various phases and amplitudes. These
wavelets will interfere constructively if their phase difference is equal to an integral multiple of
their wavelength, and the intensity at the point of interference is amplified (corresponding to a
bright spot in the case of light, a maximum). On the other hand, zero intensity (hence dark spot
will be observed, a minimum) results when the wavelets that combined are out of phase. When
interference is observed at a point far away from the barrier so that the outgoing rays from the
slits are parallel, the resulting diffraction is called Fraunhofer diffraction. In particular, for a
double-slit diffraction, a bright spot occurs whenever

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 𝒏𝝀 = 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 for 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … (1)

i.e., when the path length difference 𝑑 sin 𝜃 of the two wavelets is equal to an integral multiple
of their wavelength 𝜆, where 𝑛 also denotes the order of diffraction (see Figure 2 below).

Figure 2. Geometrical analysis of the “double slit” set-up [3]

Note that in deriving the equation above, the light source in consideration is
monochromatic and the light waves coming from the two slits are coherent since they came
from a single source. Also, it is assumed that 𝐿 ≫ 𝑑 (the distance from the screen is far
greater than the distance between the slits) and that 𝑑 ≫ 𝜆 (the distance between the slits is
far greater than the wavelength of light). The said assumptions make it possible to treat the
paths 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 as parallel. Thus, the yellow triangle in the figure may be treated as a right
triangle and the path difference, 𝛿, of the light waves form 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 is just given by 𝑑 sin 𝜃.
Measurement of small objects using the principle of diffraction may be more accurately
achieved by the use of laser. The term laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Thus, laser is a device which produces and amplifies light. This is
accomplished by induced or stimulated emission of radiation combining with and having the
same phase and wavelength as the original light resulting into a highly directional, coherent,
very bright and monochromatic light.
When laser light strikes a very thin object, like a hair strand, it is as if the laser light is
striking a double-slit barrier, with the double slit replaced by the hair strand so that the slit
width (distance between two slits) becomes the diameter of the strand. Thus, when laser light
strikes a hair strand, an interference pattern similar to the double slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern will be seen on a screen placed a certain distance away from the hair.

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 Assuming that the vertical displacements of a maximum (bright spot) from the
origin, 𝑦’s, of the interference fringes are small compared to the horizontal distance 𝐿 of the
screen from the hair so that the angle 𝜃 is very small, and again that 𝐿 ≫ 𝑑, then we have

𝒚
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 ≈ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ≈ (2)
𝑳

Equation (1) therefore becomes

𝒚𝒅
𝒏𝝀 = (3)
𝑳

so that

𝒏𝝀𝑳
𝒅= . (4)
𝒚

Thus, the diameter 𝑑 of the hair strand can be determined by measuring the vertical
displacements, 𝑦’s, since 𝜆, 𝑛, and 𝐿 are known.

III. PROCEDURES [1]

1. Take a hair strand and mount it onto a bangle or cardboard tube (or any rigid object
with a hole at the center that can serve as a mounting bracket for the hair strand) so
that it bisects the bangle or cardboard tube. Make sure that the hair strand is taut
and straight. Clamp it to the iron stand. Position the iron stand about 2 to 3 m from
the viewing screen. Tape a white bond paper on the screen.
2. Using a meterstick, measure the horizontal distance 𝐿 from the hair strand to the
paper.
3. Position the He-Ne gas laser at the opposite side of the hair, and let the laser beam
strike the hair strand. Adjust the position of the laser so that a clear and defined (not
scattered) interference pattern is observed on the paper. (CAUTION: Never look
directly into the laser beam.)
4. Mark six bright fringes on the paper including the brightest fringe which is at the
center of the diffraction pattern. Remove the paper and measure the vertical
displacements, 𝑦’s , from the brightest fringe going upward using a vernier caliper.
5. Tabulate your results following the table below.
6. Plot 𝑦 against 𝑛 and determine the slope of the graph.
7. Calculate the diameter of the hair strand from the obtained value for the slope using
𝜆𝐿
the formula: 𝑑 =
slope

with the wavelength of the laser 𝜆 = 632.8 nm.

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 8. Measure the diameter of the hair using a micrometer caliper and compare it with
the result in step 7. Get the percentage difference.

DATA
Table 1. Diffraction Order and Vertical Displacement of Bright Fringes
Vertical Displacement, y
Diffraction Order, n
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5

𝐿 = __________ mm
λ = __________ nm
slope = __________ mm
Calculated Value of 𝑑 (from the graph) = ____________ mm
Measured Value of 𝑑 (from caliper measurement) = ____________ mm
Percentage Difference = ____________ %

IV. EVALUATION
1. Explain why a LASER is needed in the experiment.
2. In the experiment, you were asked to mark bright fringes. What does a bright and a
dark fringe mean physically? Explain.
3. When you plot 𝑦 vs. 𝑛, what does the slope represent? Explain.

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Experiment No. 2
Introduction to Interferometry
Adapted from: Experiment 1: Introduction to Interferometry in “The PASCO scientific 012-05187C Precision
Interferometer manual” [4]

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the wavelength of light using interferometry techniques
• To determine the role that polarization plays in producing an interference pattern

II. BACKGROUND
Interferometry is the process of combining waves and studying their interference
patterns in order to gain information about the characteristic of the waves themselves or the
materials that interact with the waves.
Interference, on the other hand, is defined as the combination of two waves in the same
region of space in order to produce a resultant wave. For light waves, the interference is due to
the oscillating electric and magnetic fields that constitute the individual waves. When two or
more beams of light waves meet at a point in space, the electric and magnetic fields of the
individual waves add up according to the principle of superposition. This simply means that the
electric and magnetic fields at each point in space are determined by the vector sum of the
fields of the separate beams.
The interference of two waves may be constructive or destructive. Constructive
interference is when the amplitude of the resultant wave is greater than the amplitudes of the
individual waves. Destructive interference, on the other hand, is when the amplitude of the
resultant wave is less than the amplitudes of the individual waves.
If two light beams from different light sources meet in space, interference patterns are
not really observed. This is because of the lack of a constant phase relationship between the
individual light waves. This means that at one instant, there will be points in space where the
light waves interfere constructively. At the next instant though, light at these points may
interfere destructively. Such transition between constructive, destructive, or any intermediate
state is not observable to the naked eye since they occur about once every 10−8 second.
In order to observe a sustained interference of light waves, the individual light waves
must be monochromatic. The individual light waves must also maintain a constant phase
relationship with respect to each other – that is, they should be coherent. This makes it
possible for the light waves at one point in space to interfere constructively at all times thereby
producing a bright spot that will be visible to an observer. At another point in space, the light

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waves will interfere destructively at all times thereby producing a dark spot that will be
noticeable to an observer.
The first to demonstrate the interference of light waves from two sources was Thomas
Young. In 1801, Young demonstrated that when a narrow light beam hits two closely spaced
narrow slits, the light emanating from the slits interfered and created a regular pattern of light
and dark fringes on a viewing screen placed some distance away from the slits.
Young’s double slit set-up is a simple interferometer. It gives an observer a way of
determining the wavelength of light incident on the narrow slits if the spacing between the slits
is known and if spacing between the minima and maxima in the interference pattern are
known. Or, if the wavelength of light is known, the interference pattern may be used to
determine the spacing between the slits.
Since Young demonstrated the interference of light, several interferometers have
already been developed and among their applications are the measurement of very small
thickness and distances, the study of spectrum lines, the determination of refractive indices of
transparent materials, and the measurement of the distances between stars and the diameters
of stars. [4]
In this experiment, The PASCO Precision Interferometer shown in Figure 3 will be used to
explore the basics of Interferometry. In particular, the interferometer will be used to measure the
wavelength of the light source. It will also be used to determine the role that polarization plays in
producing an interference pattern.

The complete PASCO Precision Interferometer set is shown in Figure 4. The Three
modes of interferometry that may be explored using the said set of equipment are the
following: The Michelson Interferometer, the Twyman-Green Interferometer, and the Fabry-
Perot Interferometer.

Figure 3. The PASCO Precision Interferometer

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 Figure 4. The complete PASCO Precision Interferometer Set

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The Michelson Interferometer
In 1881, A. A. Michelson invented an interferometer based on the same principle as
Young’s simple interferometer. The said interferometer was used to test for the existence of
the “ether”, a hypothetical substance that was thought to be the medium through which light
propagated. Due in part to Michelson’s interferometry studies, this “ether” is no longer
believed to be in existence.
Basically, a Michelson Interferometer splits a light beam into two parts and then recombines the
parts to form an interference pattern. The set-up is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Michelson Interferometer

The beam of light from the laser strikes the beam splitter, an angled “half silvered”
mirror, which splits the beam into two: half the beam is transmitted straight through the beam
splitter and hits the Movable Mirror M1 while the other half enters the beam splitter but is
reflected by the silvered back surface of the beam splitter and thus goes out of the beam
splitter and heads to the Adjustable Mirror M2.
The light that reaches both mirrors M1 and M2 are reflected back to the beam splitter.
Half the intensity of the light beam coming from M1 is reflected to the viewing screen while half
the intensity of the light beam from M2 is transmitted through the beam splitter to the viewing
screen. In this way, we see that portions of the original beam from the Laser are brought back
together in the viewing screen. An interference pattern like that in Figure 6 can then be
observed on the viewing screen.

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 Figure 6. Fringes

Since the two interfering beams came from one source, they were initially in phase.
When they meet at any point on the viewing screen, their relative phase will depend on the
difference in their optical path lengths in reaching that point.
Note that in Figure 5, one of the interfering beams passes though the beam splitter
thrice, while the other beam passes through the beam splitter only once. To compensate for
this this difference, a compensator plate is placed between the beam splitter and M1. The
beam splitter is identical in size and shape to the beam splitter, and is made up of the same
material as the beam splitter. It is, however, not “half-silvered”.
Moving the “movable” mirror M1 varies the optical path length of one of the beams.
Since the light beam traverses the path between M1 and the beam splitter twice, moving M1 a
distance of one-fourth the wavelength closer to the beam splitter causes a reduction in the
optical path length of the beam by one half the wavelength. The interference pattern will
therefore change such that the radii of a maxima is reduced and will now occupy the position of
a former minima in the interference pattern. If M1 is moved again moved by an additional of
one-fourth the wavelength closer to the beam splitter, the radii of the maxima is further
reduced so that maxima and minima trade position, but this new arrangement will be
indistinguishable from the original pattern.
By slowly moving the mirror a measured distance (𝑑𝑚 ) and taking note of the number of
times the fringe pattern is restored to its original state (𝑁), the wavelength of light (𝜆) can be
2𝑑𝑚
computed as 𝜆 = .
𝑁

On the other hand, if the wavelength of light is known, the same procedure may be used
to measure 𝑑𝑚 .

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The Twyman-Green Interferometer
A variant of the Michelson interferometer that is primarily used to test optical
components is the Twyman-Green Interferometer. The set-up is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. The Twyman-Green Interferometer

In the Twyman-Green Interferometer, a lens can be tested by placing it between the

beam splitter and moving lens so that one of the interfering beams passes through the lens to
be tested. Any irregularities in the lens can be detected in the resulting interference pattern.
Spherical aberration, coma, and astigmatism show up as specific variations in the fringe pattern
as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Fringe patterns of abberated lenses [5]

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The Fabry-Perot Interferometer
The Fabry-Perot interferometer represents significant improvement over the Michelson
Interferometer. As such, it has become a valuable tool in high resolution spectrometry.
The basic set-up of a Fabry-Perot interferometer includes two mirrors that are aligned parallel
to one another to form a reflective cavity. As is shown in Figure 9, two light rays entering such a
cavity and being reflected back and forth inside. At each reflection, part of the beam is
transmitted. Since the transmitted rays came from a single coherent light source, they
maintain a constant phase relationship.
The phase relationship between the transmitted rays that interfere on the viewing
screen depends on the angle at which the rays enter the cavity and the distance between the
two mirrors. The expected result is a circular fringe pattern that are thinner, brighter, and
more widely spaced compared to the interference pattern formed using a Michelson
Interferometer.
Similar to the Michelson Interferometer, as the movable mirror is moved, the fringe
pattern shifts. When the movable mirror is moved to a distance of ½ the wavelength towards
or away from the fixed mirror, the new fringe pattern is identical to the original fringe pattern.

Figure 9. The Fabry-Perot Interferometer

III. PROCEDURES
A. Aligning the Laser
1. Set the interferometer base on a lab table with the micrometer knob pointing
toward you.

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 2. Position the laser alignment bench to the left of the base approximately
perpendicular to the interferometer base and place the laser on the bench.
3. Secure the movable mirror in the recessed hole in the interferometer base.
Note: Avoid touching all mirror surfaces. Minute scratches and dirt can impair
the clarity of interference images.
4. Turn the laser on. Using the leveling screws on the laser bench, adjust its height until
the laser beam is approximately parallel with the top of the interferometer base and
strikes the movable mirror in the center. (To check that the beam is parallel with the
base, place a piece of paper in the beam path, with the edge of the paper flush
against the base. Mark the height of the beam on the paper. Using the piece of
paper, check that the beam height is the same at both ends of the bench.)
5. Adjust the X-Y position of the laser until the beam is reflected from the movable
mirror right back into the laser aperture. This is most easily done by gently sliding
the rear end of the laser transverse to the axis of the alignment bench, as shown in
Figure 10.

Figure 10. Aligning the Laser

B. Determining the Wavelength using the Michelson Interferometer Set-up

1. Align the laser and interferometer base as previously described. The laser beam
should be approximately parallel with the top of the base, should strike the center of
the movable mirror, and should be reflected directly back into the laser aperture.
2. Mount the adjustable mirror on the interferometer base. Position one component
holder in front of the laser. Place the other component holder opposite the
adjustable mirror and attach the viewing screen to its magnetic backing. See Figure
11.

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 Figure 11. Michelson Mode Set-up using a PASCO Precision Interferometer

3. Position the beam-splitter at a 45 degree angle to the laser beam, within the crop
marks, so that the beam is reflected to the fixed mirror. Adjust the angle of the
beam-splitter as needed so that the reflected beam hits the fixed mirror near its
center.
4. There should now be two sets of bright dots on the viewing screen; one set comes
from the fixed mirror and the other comes from the movable mirror. Each set of
dots should include a bright dot with two or more dots of lesser brightness (due to
multiple reflections). Adjust the angle of the beam-splitter again until the two sets
of dots are as close together as possible, then tighten the thumbscrew to secure the
beam-splitter.
5. Using the thumbscrews on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror’s tilt
until the two sets of dots on the viewing screen coincide.

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 6. The compensator is not needed for producing interference fringes when using a
laser light source. However, if you wish to use the compensator, it mounts
perpendicular to the beam-splitter, as shown in Figure 11.
7. Attach the 18 mm FL lens to the magnetic backing of the component holder in front
of the laser, as shown, and adjust its position until the diverging beam is centered on
the beam-splitter. You should now see circular fringes on the viewing screen. If not,
carefully adjust the tilt of the adjustable mirror until the fringes appear. The
Michelson Interferometer Set-up is now ready.
NOTE: It's not necessary that your interference pattern be perfectly
symmetrical or sharp. As long as you can clearly distinguish the maxima and minima,
you can make accurate measurements.
8. Adjust the micrometer knob to a medium reading (approximately 50 μm). In this
position, the relationship between the micrometer reading and the mirror
movement is most nearly linear.
9. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue turning
counterclockwise until the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark. Record
the micrometer reading.
NOTE: When you reverse the direction in which you turn the micrometer
knob, there is a small amount of give before the mirror begins to move. This is called
mechanical backlash, and is present in all mechanical systems involving reversals in
direction of movement. By beginning with a full counterclockwise turn, and then
turning only counterclockwise when counting fringes, you can eliminate errors due
to backlash.
10. Adjust the position of the viewing screen so that one of the marks on the millimeter
scale is aligned with one of the fringes in your interference pattern. You will find it
easier to count the fringes if the reference mark is one or two fringes out from the
center of the pattern.
11. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counterclockwise. Count the fringes as they pass
your reference mark. Continue until some predetermined number of fringes have
passed your mark (count at least 20 fringes). As you finish your count, the fringes
should be in the same position with respect to your reference mark as they were
when you started to count. Record the final reading of the micrometer dial.
12. Record 𝑑𝑚 , the distance that the movable mirror moved toward the beam-splitter
according to your readings of the micrometer knob. Remember, each small division
on the micrometer knob corresponds to one μm (10-6 meters) of mirror movement.
13. Record 𝑁, the number of fringe transitions that you counted.

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 14. Repeat steps 9 through 13 several times, recording your results each time in a well-
constructed data table.
15. Calculate the wavelength of the light (𝜆 = 2𝑑𝑚 /𝑁) for each trial and average your
results.
C. Polarization (using the Michelson Interferometer Set-up)
1. Place the Calibrated Polarizer (part of OS-9256A Interferometer Accessories)
between the laser and the beam-splitter. Try several polarization angles. How does
this affect the brightness and clarity of the fringe pattern? Can you determine the
polarization characteristics of your light source? Does it vary with time?
2. Remove that polarizer and place a polarizer in front of the fixed or movable mirror.
Try several polarization angles. How does this affect the fringe pattern?
3. Now try two polarizers, one in front of the fixed mirror, and one in front of the
movable mirror. First rotate one polarizer, then the other. Again, note the effects.
Do cross-polarized beams interfere?

D. Determining the wavelength using the Fabry-Perot Set-up

1. Align the laser and interferometer base as described in Laser Alignment at the
beginning of this section. The laser beam should be approximately parallel with the
top of the base, should strike the center of the movable mirror, and should be
reflected directly back into the laser aperture.
2. Mount the adjustable mirror where indicated on the interferometer base and one
component holder in front of the movable mirror. See Figure 12.

Figure 12. The Fabry Perot Set-up using a PASCO Precision Interferometer

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 3. Place the other component holder behind the movable mirror and attach the
viewing screen to its magnetic backing. You should see several images of the laser
beam on the viewing screen.
4. Using the thumbscrews, adjust the tilt of the adjustable mirror until there is only one
bright dot on the screen.
5. Now mount the 18 mm FL lens on the front component holder. A clear sharp
interference pattern should be visible on the viewing screen. If you use light with
two component wavelengths, instead of a laser, two sets of fringes can be
distinguished on the viewing screen. The Fabry-Perot Interferometer Set-up is now
ready.
6. Adjust the micrometer knob to a medium reading (approximately 50 μm). In this
position, the relationship between the micrometer reading and the mirror
movement is most nearly linear.
7. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue turning
counterclockwise until the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark. Record
the micrometer reading.
NOTE: When you reverse the direction in which you turn the micrometer
knob, there is a small amount of give before the mirror begins to move. This is called
mechanical backlash, and is present in all mechanical systems involving reversals in
direction of movement. By beginning with a full counterclockwise turn, and then
turning only counterclockwise when counting fringes, you can eliminate errors due
to backlash.
8. Adjust the position of the viewing screen so that one of the marks on the millimeter
scale is aligned with one of the fringes in your interference pattern. You will find it
easier to count the fringes if the reference mark is one or two fringes out from the
center of the pattern.
9. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counterclockwise. Count the fringes as they pass
your reference mark. Continue until some predetermined number of fringes have
passed your mark (count at least 20 fringes). As you finish your count, the fringes
should be in the same position with respect to your reference mark as they were
when you started to count. Record the final reading of the micrometer dial.
10. Record 𝑑𝑚 , the distance that the movable mirror moved toward the beam-splitter
according to your readings of the micrometer knob. Remember, each small division
on the micrometer knob corresponds to one μm (10-6 meters) of mirror movement.
11. Record 𝑁, the number of fringe transitions that you counted.
12. Repeat steps 7 through 11 several times, recording your results each time in a well-
constructed data table.

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 13. Calculate the wavelength of the light (𝜆 = 2𝑑𝑚 /𝑁) for each trial and average your
results.

TIPS ON USING THE INTERFEROMETER

1. It's easy to lose track when counting fringes. The following technique can help.
Center the interference pattern on the viewing screen using the thumbscrews on the
back of the fixed mirror. Select a reference line on the millimeter scale and line it up
with the boundary between a maxima and a minima (see Figure 13). Move the
micrometer dial until the boundary between the next maximum and minimum
reaches the same position as the original boundary. (The fringe pattern should look
the same as in the original position.) One fringe has gone by.

Figure 13. Counting Fringes

2. When turning the micrometer dial to count fringes, always turn it one complete
revolution before you start counting, then continue turning it in the same direction
while counting. This will almost entirely eliminate errors due to backlash in the
micrometer movement. Backlash is a slight slippage that always occurs when you
reverse the direction of motion in a mechanical instrument. Turning the micrometer
dial clockwise moves the movable mirror toward the right. Turning the dial counter-
clockwise moves the mirror toward the left.) The PASCO micrometer is designed to
minimize backlash. However, by using the technique described above, you can
practically eliminate all effects of backlash in your measurements.

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 3. Always take several readings and average them for greater accuracy.
4. The slip ring at the base of the micrometer knob adjusts the tension in the dial.
Before making a measurement, be sure the tension is adjusted to give you the best
possible control over the mirror movement.
5. Slight movements like a slight breeze can affect fringe patterns. Set up your
experiment in a room that is free from perceptible air currents or other sources of
vibrations that may cause problems in producing a clear set of interference fringes.

IV. EVALUATION
1. In the calculation to determine the value of 𝜆 based on the micrometer movement,
why was 𝑑𝑚 multiplied by two?
2. Why move the mirror through many fringe transitions instead of just one? Why take
several measurements and average the results?
3. Was your measured λ the same for the Michelson Interferometer and the Fabry-
Perot Interferometer? If not, can you speculate about possible reasons for the
difference? Do you have more confidence in one value as opposed to the other?
4. If the wavelength of your light source is accurately known, compare your results
with the known value by solving for the percent errors. If there is a difference, to
what do you attribute it?
5. When measuring mirror movement using the micrometer dial on the
interferometer, what factors limit the accuracy of your measurement?
6. When measuring mirror movement by counting fringes using a light source of known
wavelength, what factors might limit the accuracy of your measurement?
7. What role does polarization play in producing an interference pattern?

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Experiment No. 3
The Index of Refraction of Air
Adapted from: Experiment 2: The Index of Refraction of Air in “The PASCO scientific 012-05187C Precision
Interferometer manual”[4]

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the index of refraction of air.

II. BACKGROUND
Basically, a Michelson interferometer splits into two a light beam that came from one
source, then lets the two beams interfere after taking different optical path lengths. A
schematic diagram of the Michelson interferometer is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. The Michelson Interferometer [6]

From the figure, we see that light from a light source is allowed to hit a beam splitter
(the half-silvered mirror). Half the light beam from the beam splitter is transmitted and hits
Mirror 2 while the other half is reflected by the beam splitter and goes to Mirror 1. Half the
light that reaches Mirror 1 is reflected back by the mirror and goes through the beam splitter to
the viewing screen. Half the light that reaches Mirror 2 is reflected by the mirror, hits the
silvered surface of the beam splitter, and then is reflected by the beam splitter to the viewing
screen. So here we see that two light beams which have travelled different optical path lengths
are to meet at the viewing screen.

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 The characteristic fringe patterns formed by the two interfering beams on the viewing
depend on their phase relationships. To change the phase relationships between the
interfering beams, one can change the distance traversed by one or two of the light beams.
This is done by moving Mirror 2. There is, however, another way of changing the phase
relationship between the two interfering beams and that is by changing the medium through
which one or both beams pass.
In this experiment, the phase relationship of the interfering beams will be changed by
manipulating the medium through which one of the beams is allowed to pass. This will be done
by putting a vacuum cell between the beam splitter and the movable mirror (Mirror 2 in Figure
14) so that one of the beams passes through it twice before reaching the viewing screen.
Outside the vacuum cell, the light beams have the same wavelength throughout the
experiment. However, inside the vacuum cell, the wavelength of light gets longer as the air
pressure is reduced.
Suppose that originally the cell length, 𝑑, was 10 wavelengths long (of course, it's much
longer. For this set-up, the cell length is 3.0 centimeters). As you pump out the cell, the
wavelength increases until, at some point, the cell is only 9-1/2 wavelengths long. Since the
laser beam passes through the vacuum cell twice, the light now goes through one less
oscillation within the cell. This has the same effect on the interference pattern as when the
movable mirror is moved toward the beam-splitter by 1/2 wavelength. A single fringe
transition will have occurred.
Originally there are 𝑁𝑖 = 2𝑑/𝜆𝑖 wavelengths of light within the vacuum cell (counting
both passes of the laser beam). At the final pressure there are 𝑁𝑓 = 2𝑑/𝜆𝑓 wavelengths
within the cell. The difference between these values, 𝑁𝑖 – 𝑁𝑓 , is just 𝑁, the number of fringes
you counted as you evacuated the cell. Therefore:

𝟐𝒅 𝟐𝒅
𝑵 = − (1)
𝝀𝒊 𝝀𝒇

For light of a specific frequency, the wavelength 𝜆 varies according to the formula:

𝝀 = 𝝀𝟎 /𝒏; (2)

where 𝜆0 is the wavelength of the light in a vacuum, and 𝑛 is the index of refraction for the material in
which the light is propagating. The index of refraction for a gas varies linearly with the gas pressure (for
reasonably low pressures) as shown in the graph of index of refraction (𝑛) versus gas pressure (𝑃) in
Figure 15. (Note: index of refraction is 1 where pressure is zero, as in vacuum).

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 Figure 15. Index of Refraction vs. Gas Pressure

From equation (2) we see that , 𝜆𝑖 = 𝜆0 /𝑛i and 𝜆𝑓 = 𝜆0 /𝑛𝑓 ; where 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑛𝑓 are the
initial and final values for the index of refraction of the air inside the cell. Therefore, equation
(1) can be rearranged to get

𝟐𝒅 𝟐𝒅 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒅
𝑵 = − = 𝟐𝒅 � 𝝀𝟎 − 𝝀𝟎 �= �𝒏𝒊 − 𝒏𝒇 � (3)
𝝀𝒊 𝝀𝒇 𝝀𝟎
𝒏𝐢 𝒏𝒇

Rearranging equation (3), we get

𝑵𝝀𝟎
𝒏𝒊 − 𝒏𝒇 = (4)
𝟐𝒅

From the linear graph in Figure 15, we see that the slope (change in y vs change in x) is
given by:

change in index of refraction 𝚫𝒏 𝒏𝒊 −𝒏𝒇

= = 𝑷 −𝑷 (5)
change in gas pressure 𝚫𝑷 𝒊 𝒇

where 𝑃𝑖 is the initial pressure and 𝑃𝑓 is the final air pressure.

Combining equations (4) and (5) we get

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 𝒏𝒊 −𝒏𝒇 𝑵𝝀 𝟎
= 𝟐𝒅�𝑷 −𝑷 (6)
𝑷𝒊 −𝑷𝒇 𝒊 𝒇�

In this experiment, the slope of the graph index of refraction versus gas pressure (right
hand side of equation (6)) will be determined and from there, the index of refraction of air will
be determined for various pressures.

III. PROCEDURES
1. Set the interferometer base on a lab table with the micrometer knob pointing
toward you.
2. Position the laser alignment bench to the left of the base approximately
perpendicular to the interferometer base and place the laser on the bench.
3. Secure the movable mirror in the recessed hole in the interferometer base.
4. Turn the laser on. Using the leveling screws on the laser bench, adjust its height until
the laser beam is approximately parallel with the top of the interferometer base and
strikes the movable mirror in the center. (To check that the beam is parallel with the
base, place a piece of paper in the beam path, with the edge of the paper flush
against the base. Mark the height of the beam on the paper. Using the piece of
paper, check that the beam height is the same at both ends of the bench.)
5. Adjust the X-Y position of the laser until the beam is reflected from the movable
mirror right back into the laser aperture. This is most easily done by gently sliding
the rear end of the laser transverse to the axis of the alignment bench, as shown in
Figure 16

Figure 16. Aligning the Laser

6. Mount the adjustable mirror on the interferometer base. Position one component
holder in front of the laser. Place the other component holder opposite the

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 adjustable mirror and attach the viewing screen to its magnetic backing. See Figure
17.

Figure 17. Michelson Mode Set-up using a PASCO Precision Interferometer

7. Position the beam-splitter at a 45 degree angle to the laser beam, within the crop
marks, so that the beam is reflected to the fixed mirror. Adjust the angle of the
beam-splitter as needed so that the reflected beam hits the fixed mirror near its
center.
8. There should now be two sets of bright dots on the viewing screen; one set comes
from the fixed mirror and the other comes from the movable mirror. Each set of
dots should include a bright dot with two or more dots of lesser brightness (due to

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 multiple reflections). Adjust the angle of the beam-splitter again until the two sets
of dots are as close together as possible, then tighten the thumbscrew to secure the
beam-splitter.
9. Using the thumbscrews on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror’s tilt
until the two sets of dots on the viewing screen coincide.
10. Attach the 18 mm FL lens to the magnetic backing of the component holder in front
of the laser, as shown, and adjust its position until the diverging beam is centered on
the beam-splitter. You should now see circular fringes on the viewing screen. If not,
carefully adjust the tilt of the adjustable mirror until the fringes appear. The
Michelson Interferometer Set-up is now ready for this particular experiment.
NOTE: It's not necessary that your interference pattern be perfectly
symmetrical or sharp. As long as you can clearly distinguish the maxima and minima,
you can make accurate measurements.
11. Place the rotating pointer between the movable mirror and the beam-splitter (see
Figure 17). Attach the vacuum cell to its magnetic backing and push the air hose of
the vacuum pump over the air outlet hole of the cell. Adjust the alignment of the
fixed mirror as needed so the center of the interference pattern is clearly visible on
the viewing screen. (The fringe pattern will be somewhat distorted by irregularities
in the glass end-plates of the vacuum cell. This is not a problem.)
12. For accurate measurements, the end-plates of the vacuum cell must be
perpendicular to the laser beam. Rotate the cell and observe the fringes. Based on
your observations, how can you be sure that the vacuum cell is properly aligned?
13. Be sure that the air in the vacuum cell is at atmospheric pressure. If you are using
the OS-8502 Hand-Held Vacuum Pump, this is accomplished by flipping the vacuum
release toggle switch.
14. Record 𝑃𝑖 , the initial reading on the vacuum pump gauge. Slowly pump out the air in
the vacuum cell. As you do this, count 𝑁, the number of fringe transitions that occur.
When you're done, record 𝑁 and also 𝑃𝑓 , the final reading on the vacuum gauge.
(Some people prefer to begin with the vacuum cell evacuated, then count fringes as
they let the air slowly out. Use whichever method is easier for you.)

Note: Most vacuum gauges measure pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure
(i.e., 34 cm Hg means that the pressure is 34 cm Hg below atmospheric pressure,
which is ~ 76 cm Hg). The actual pressure inside the cell is
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 − 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

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IV. EVALUATION
1. From your graph, what is 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑚 , the index of refraction for air at a pressure of 1
atmosphere (76 cm Hg).
2. In this experiment, a linear relationship between pressure and index of refraction
was assumed. How might you test that assumption?
3. The index of refraction for a gas depends on temperature as well as pressure.
Describe an experiment that would determine the temperature dependence of the
index of refraction for air.

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Experiment No. 4
The Index of Refraction of Glass
Adapted from: Experiment 3: The Index of Refraction of Glass in “The PASCO scientific 012-05187C Precision
Interferometer manual” [4]

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the index of refraction of Glass.

II. BACKGROUND
In a Michelson interferometer a beam of light is split into two and allowed to travel
different optical path lengths. As shown in Figure 18 the light beam hits a beam splitter (half-
silvered mirror) which splits the light beam into two. One beam reflects from the beam splitter,
goes to Mirror 1, and reflects from Mirror 1 to pass through the beam splitter to hit the
observation screen. The other beam passes through the beam splitter, hits Mirror 2, reflects
from Mirror 2 to hit the beam splitter, reflects from the beam splitter, then goes to the viewing
screen where it interferes with the other beam.

Figure 18. The Michelson Interferometer [6]

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 The characteristic fringe patterns formed by the two interfering beams depend on their
phase relationships. To change the phase relationships between the two beams, one can
change the distance traversed by one or two of the light beams. This may be done by moving
Mirror 2 or by changing the medium through which one or both beams pass.
In this experiment, the phase relationship of the interfering beams will be changed by
letting one of the beams pass through different lengths of glass. This will be done by putting a
glass plate between the beam splitter and Mirror 2. The length of the glass through which the
light beam passes will be varied by changing the orientation of the glass plate. The index of
refraction of glass will then be determined.
Carrying out this analysis for the glass plate is rather complicated, so we'll leave you
with the equation shown below for calculating the index of refraction based on your
measurements. Nevertheless, we encourage you to attempt the analysis for yourself. It will
greatly increase your understanding of the measurement and also of the complications
inherent in the analysis.

(2𝑡 − 𝑁𝜆0 )(1 − cos 𝜃 )

𝑛=
2𝑡(1 − cos 𝜃) − 𝑁𝜆0

III. PROCEDURES
1. Set the interferometer base on a lab table with the micrometer knob pointing
toward you.
2. Position the laser alignment bench to the left of the base approximately
perpendicular to the interferometer base and place the laser on the bench.
3. Secure the movable mirror in the recessed hole in the interferometer base.
4. Turn the laser on. Using the leveling screws on the laser bench, adjust its height until
the laser beam is approximately parallel with the top of the interferometer base and
strikes the movable mirror in the center. (To check that the beam is parallel with the
base, place a piece of paper in the beam path, with the edge of the paper flush
against the base. Mark the height of the beam on the paper. Using the piece of
paper, check that the beam height is the same at both ends of the bench.)
5. Adjust the X-Y position of the laser until the beam is reflected from the movable
mirror right back into the laser aperture. This is most easily done by gently sliding
the rear end of the laser transverse to the axis of the alignment bench, as shown in
Figure 19.

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 Figure 19. Aligning the Laser

6. Mount the adjustable mirror on the interferometer base. Position one component
holder in front of the laser. Place the other component holder opposite the
adjustable mirror and attach the viewing screen to its magnetic backing. See Figure
20.

Figure 20. Michelson Mode Set-up using a PASCO Precision Interferometer

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 7. Position the beam-splitter at a 45 degree angle to the laser beam, within the crop
marks, so that the beam is reflected to the fixed mirror. Adjust the angle of the
beam-splitter as needed so that the reflected beam hits the fixed mirror near its
center.
8. There should now be two sets of bright dots on the viewing screen; one set comes
from the fixed mirror and the other comes from the movable mirror. Each set of
dots should include a bright dot with two or more dots of lesser brightness (due to
multiple reflections). Adjust the angle of the beam-splitter again until the two sets
of dots are as close together as possible, then tighten the thumbscrew to secure the
beam-splitter.
9. Using the thumbscrews on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror’s tilt
until the two sets of dots on the viewing screen coincide.
10. Attach the 18 mm FL lens to the magnetic backing of the component holder in front
of the laser, as shown, and adjust its position until the diverging beam is centered on
the beam-splitter. You should now see circular fringes on the viewing screen. If not,
carefully adjust the tilt of the adjustable mirror until the fringes appear. The
Michelson Interferometer Set-up is now ready for this particular experiment.
NOTE: It's not necessary that your interference pattern be perfectly
symmetrical or sharp. As long as you can clearly distinguish the maxima and minima,
you can make accurate measurements.
11. Place the rotating table between the beam-splitter and movable mirror,
perpendicular to the optical path.
NOTE: if the movable mirror is too far forward, the rotating table won't fit.
You may need to loosen the thumbscrew and slide the mirror farther back.
12. Mount the glass plate on the magnetic backing of the rotational pointer.
13. Position the pointer so that its “0” edge on the Vernier scale is lined up with the zero
on the degree scale on the interferometer base.
14. Remove the lens from in front of the laser. Hold the viewing screen between the
glass plate and the movable mirror. If there is one bright dot and some secondary
dots on the viewing screen, adjust the angle of the rotating table until there is one
bright dot. Then realign the pointer scale. The plate should now be perpendicular to
the optical path.
15. Replace the viewing screen and the lens and make any minor adjustments that are
necessary to get a clear set of fringes on the viewing screen.
16. Slowly rotate the table by moving the lever arm. Count the number of fringe
transitions that occur as you rotate the table from 0 degrees to an angle θ (at least
10 degrees).

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IV. EVALUATION
1. Determine the path length of the light beam as the glass plate is rotated. Determine
how much of the change in path length is through glass, 𝑑𝑔 (𝜃), and how much is
through air, 𝑑𝑎 (𝜃).
2. Relate the change in path length to your measured fringe transitions with the
following equation:

2𝑛𝑎 𝑑𝑎 (𝜃) + 2𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑔 (𝜃)

𝜆0

where 𝑛𝑎 is the index of refraction of air (see Experiment 3), 𝑛𝑔 is the index of
refraction of the glass plate (as yet unknown), 𝜆0 is the wavelength of your light
source in vacuum, and 𝑁 is the number of fringe transitions that you counted.

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Experiment No. 5
Atomic Line Spectra of Noble Gases and Metallic Vapors

I. OBJECTIVES
• To study the atomic spectra of certain noble gases and metallic vapors using
diffraction grating and spectrometer

II. BACKGROUND [7]

At any temperature, the molecules of a substance at a temperature above absolute zero
(0 Kelvin) emit radiation in which a continuous band of wavelengths are present, though with
different intensities. The spectrum of an incandescent solid, such as lamp filament for example,
consists of a continuous band of wavelengths in the visible light spectrum -from the short
wavelength violet to the long wavelength red. Such a spectrum is called a continuous spectrum.
The relative intensities of the colors depend on the filament temperature. The composite effect
is “white light” only when all visible wavelengths are present in the relative intensity found in
sunlight.
In a gas, the atoms or molecules are far apart on the average that their only mutual
interactions occur during occasional collisions. Under these circumstances any emitted
radiation would be characteristic of the individual atoms or molecules present. When an atomic
gas or vapor at somewhat less than atmospheric pressure is suitably excited, usually by the
passage of an electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains
certain specific wavelengths only that correspond to a transition from a higher energy state
where the atoms were brought upon excitation to lower and more stable energy states. This
spectrum is called the emission line spectrum. Every element displays a unique line spectrum
when a sample of it in the vapor phase is excited. The atomic line spectrum of an element is
somewhat the “fingerprints” of that element. It uniquely characterizes the element. Therefore,
by studying the line spectrum, we can analyze the composition of an unknown substance. In
fact, when studying the spectrum of stars, results would reveal not only the composition of
stars but also their physical state and whether the said stars are receding from us or
approaching us.
When light from a lamp consisting of noble gas or metallic vapor is made to pass
through a diffraction grating, the emission spectrum created by the diffraction of light can be
viewed using a diffraction grating spectrometer as shown in Figure 21.

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 Figure 21. Diagram of a diffraction grating spectrometer [3]

A vital component of the diffraction grating spectrometer is the diffraction grating. A

diffraction grating basically consists of equally spaced parallel slits which are very close to each
other. One type of diffraction grating is a transmission grating. Such a grating is manufactured
by cutting parallel lines on a glass plate. A reflection grating, on the other hand, is
manufactured by cutting parallel lines on a reflective material.
Figure 22 below shows a portion of the diffraction grating. As can be seen from the said
figure, light is incident on the grating from the left, perpendicular to the plane of the diffraction
grating, and a converging lens is used to focus the light rays at point P on the viewing screen.
The pattern observed in the viewing screen results from the combined effects of diffraction of
light from each individual slit of the diffraction grating and from the interference of the
diffracted light beams.

Figure 22. Side view of a diffraction grating [3]

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 Figure 22 also shows that the waves from the slits are in phase as they leave the slits.
For some arbitrary angle 𝜃, however, the waves are seen to travel at different path lengths
before reaching point P. The path difference 𝛿 between any two adjacent slits is equal to
𝑑 sin 𝜃. If this 𝛿 is equal to one wavelength or an integral multiple of a wavelength, then light
waves from all the slits of the diffraction grating would arrive at point P with the same phase
(that is, they are in phase) and hence a bright fringe will be observed at the viewing screen. In
other words, the condition for the maxima in the interference pattern at the angle 𝜃 is

𝒏𝝀 = 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 for 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, . .. (1)

where 𝑛 refers to the order of diffraction, 𝑑 is the distance between slits (note that 𝑑 = 1 / 𝑁
if 𝑁, called the grating constant, is the number of lines per unit length), 𝜆 is the wavelength of
the component of light diffracted at 𝜃 with respect to the normal position.
Equation (1) may be used to calculate the wavelength 𝜆 of the incident light the grating
spacing and angle 𝜃 are known. If the incident light is made up of several component
wavelengths, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ -order maximum for each wavelength occurs at a specific angle.
By calculating the wavelength 𝜆 of each of the component color of the light source and
comparing it with the emission spectrum chart of known gases, one can determine what gas is
present in the source.

III. PROCEDURES [7]

1. Focus the viewing telescope of the spectrometer without the diffraction grating
material so that the cross-hair in the telescope coincides with the collimated light
coming from the lamp. Make sure that the zero mark in the movable telescope
coincides with the zero mark of the fixed part of the spectrometer.
2. Place the diffraction grating material with its plane perpendicular to the viewing
telescope.

Determination of the grating constant d of the diffraction grating

3. Use the sodium light source. Locate the angular position of the first order (𝑛 = 1)
spectrum on each side of the direct image. The angular displacement θ will be
nearly the same in both directions when the plane of the grating is perpendicular to
the incident light.
4. Compute for the mean value of θ measured in #3 and calculate 𝑑 using the
diffraction formula with λ = 589 nm. Determine also the number of lines per inch,
𝑁, on the grating.
5. Repeat steps #3-#4 for the second order (𝑛 = 2).

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 6. Get the average of 𝑑 found in #3 and #5. This value will be used for the remainder of
the experiment. Solve also for the mean number of lines per inch 𝑁 and compare it
with the value specified on the grating material. Tabulate your results using Table 1.

Determination of the wavelengths of the lines in a known source

7. Replace the sodium lamp with a mercury lamp. Measure the angular position of
each of the visible bright lines in the first order on both sides of the direct image. Get
the mean value of θ for each line.
8. Calculate the corresponding wavelength for each of the lines using the diffraction
formula with the value of 𝑑 as calculated in #6 and compare it with the known
standard value. Tabulate your results using Table 2.

Spectral identification of an unknown source

9. Have the technician place an unknown light source in the lamp holder.
10. Carefully measure the angular positions of the bright lines on both sides of the direct
image in the first order. Get the mean value of θ for each line.
11. Compute for the wavelengths of the spectral lines using the diffraction formula and
compare with the values expressed for different sources in the spectrum chart. Try
to identify the substance in the unknown source. Tabulate your results using Table 3.

DATA

Table 1 Determination of the grating constant d of the diffraction grating

Light source = Sodium
Wavelength of light source = 589 nm
1st Order 2nd Order
Angular Displacement θ CW CCW CW CCW

Average θ
Grating Constant 𝑑
Average 𝑑
No. of lines/inch 𝑁
Standard value of 𝑁
Percentage Error

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Table 2 Determination of the wavelengths of the lines in a known source
Light source = Mercury
Spectrum Order (𝑛) = 1
Angular Displacement Standard
θ Wavelength λ Percentage
Value of λ
Color (nm) Error (%)
CW CCW Ave (nm)

Yellow 579.1, 577.0

Green 546.1
Blue 453.8
Violet 404.7

Table 3 Spectral identification of an unknown source

Unknown light source = __________
Spectrum Order (𝑛) = 1

Angular Displacement Standard

Color Wavelength λ Percentage
θ Value of λ
(nm) Error (%)
CW CCW Ave (nm)

IV. EVALUATION
1. What would happen if the grating were not placed exactly perpendicular to the light
beam? Would there be any experimental advantage to doing this? Any
disadvantages?
2. What if the grating were, say 1 cm displaced from the center of the table, toward
the collimator? Would this introduce an error in the experiment? If so, how much
error would you get?

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 3. What would happen if the upper half of the grating is covered with opaque paper?
How would this affect your measurements?
4. What would happen if a large portion of the sides of the grating is covered with
opaque paper so that its effective area is reduced? How would this affect your
measurements?
5. If a grating with smaller grating space (larger grating constant) is used, how will the
observed angles or spread of the spectra be affected?

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Experiment No. 6
Determining the Wavelengths 𝑯𝜶 , 𝑯𝜷 , and 𝑯𝜸 of the
Hydrogen Atom

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the wavelengths 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 of the Balmer series of hydrogen by
spectral decomposition of the light from a Balmer lamp

II. BACKGROUND [8]

N. Bohr postulated in 1913 that an electron can circle an atomic nucleus indefinitely
without radiating energy only in orbits whose angular momentum are multiples of ℎ/2𝜋 where
ℎ is the Planck’s constant. Accordingly, when an electron in an excited state goes down to a
lower energy state, it emits a single photon whose frequency is proportional to the energy
difference between the two energy states involved in the transition, i.e.
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝜈
where ℎ is Planck’s constant, 𝜈 is the frequency of the emitted photon , 𝐸𝑖 is the initial energy
and 𝐸𝑓 is the final energy. This assumption implies that the radiation emitted by an excited
atom should be of certain colors at definite wavelengths only. These wavelengths,
furthermore, fall into definite sequences that depend upon the quantum number 𝑛 𝑓 of the
final energy level of the electron. This definite sequence of lines in an atom’s spectrum is called
the spectral series. The first such spectral series was found by Johann Balmer in 1885 in the
course of a study of the visible part of the hydrogen spectrum. Balmer came up with an
empirical equation that can predict the wavelength of the emitted photon as an electron drops
from a higher excited state ( 𝑛𝑖 > 2) to the first excited state (𝑛𝑓 = 2). In 1888, a physicist by
the name of Johannes Rydberg generalized the Balmer equation so that it may be used to
determine the wavelengths of any line in the hydrogen emission spectrum. The Rydberg
equation is given as follows:

1 1 1
= 𝑅 � − 2�
𝜆 4 𝑛

for 𝑛 = 3, 4, 5, … and where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the emitted photon, 𝑛 is the quantum
number of initial state, and 𝑅 = 1.097 x 107 m-1 is the Rydberg constant. For 𝑛 = 3, the
line with the longest wavelength is obtained, 656.3 nm, and is designated by 𝑯𝜶 . The next line

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(𝑛 = 4) corresponds to 𝑯𝜷 and has a wavelength of 486.3 nm, then 𝑯𝜸 having a wavelength
of 434.1 nm (𝑛 = 5), and so on. As the wavelength decreases, the lines are found closer
together and weaker in intensity until the series limit at 364.6 nm is reached, beyond which
there are no further separate lines but only a faint continuous spectrum.
If light from a hydrogen lamp is allowed to pass through a grating, an interference
pattern is observed showing the different spectral lines. The wavelength of each spectral line is
determined by considering the diffraction formula given by

𝒏𝝀 = 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 (1)

for 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … and where 𝑛 is the order of diffraction, 𝜃 is the angular displacement of

𝑛𝑡ℎ order diffraction image, 𝑑 is the grating constant, and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the
component color of the light. For 𝑛 = 1, the first-order diffraction image is observed and
equation (1) becomes

𝝀 = 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 (2)

A screen positioned at a distance 𝑥 away from the grating will display the diffraction
pattern of light coming out from the grating as shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23. Geometry of Diffraction grating experiment [9]

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If the vertical displacement, 𝑦, of the image is small so that

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ≈ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒚⁄𝒙, (3)

then equation (2) becomes

𝒚𝒅
𝝀= . (4)
𝒙

So we can calculate the wavelength of the spectral lines of hydrogen by measuring the
horizontal distance 𝑥 and vertical displacement 𝑦 of the diffraction image.

III. PROCEDURES [8]

1. Place the Balmer lamp in front of the optical bench. Fasten the 𝑓 = +50 mm lens,
the adjustable slit, 𝑓 = +100 mm lens, and the screen (in this order) to the optical
bench.
2. Align the Balmer lamp by vertical displacement along the optical axis. Focus an
image of the slit onto the screen by moving the 𝑓 = +100 mm lens.
3. Fasten the grating in the optical bench between the 𝑓 = +100 mm lens and the
screen.
4. Narrow the adjustable slit until separate lines are seen on the screen.
5. Determine the distance 𝑥 between the grating and the screen.
6. Mark the spectral lines on the screen with pencil; measure the distance 𝑦 from the
direct image (zeroth order) to the spectral line of the first diffraction order. Observe
the lines by looking at line 𝐻𝛼 (red), line 𝐻𝛽 (turquoise), and line 𝐻𝛾 (blue).
7. Solve for the angular displacements of the lines using equation (3). Calculate the
corresponding wavelengths for 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 by using equation (4). Tabulate
your results on Table 1.
8. Observe the spectral series using the spectrometer with the diffraction grating.
Measure the clockwise and the counterclockwise angular displacements from the
direct image of each of the spectral line. Get the average angle and solve for the
wavelength 𝜆 using equation (2). Tabulate your results using Table 2.

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DATA

d = 1.67 x10 -3 mm
x = ______

Line y θ λ EXP λTHEO % Error

(mm) (deg) (nm) (nm)
Hα 656.28
Hβ 486.13
Hγ 434.05
Table 1

Table 2
θ λ EXP λTHEO % Error
Line (nm) (nm)
(deg)
CW CCW AVE.
Hα 656.28
Hβ 486.13
Hγ 434.05

IV. EVALUATION
1. Plot the graph of 1⁄𝜆 vs (1⁄4 − 1⁄𝑛2 ). Is it a straight line? What is the slope of
the line?
2. Compare your value for the slope and R with the accepted value of the Rydberg
constant.
3. What are the possible sources of errors in this experiment? How do they cause
errors?

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Experiment No. 7
Electron Diffraction in a Polycrystalline Crystal
(Debeye-Scherrer Diffraction)

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the de Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron beam

II. BACKGROUND [10]

The photoelectric effect experiment demonstrates that under certain conditions
electromagnetic waves have particle-like properties. To explain the phenomenon,
electromagnetic waves must be viewed as particles, called photons, with very specific and
discrete amounts of energy and momentum, just like other particles [11].
On the other hand, particles might also show wavelike properties under certain
conditions. This was suggested by L. de Broglie
Under certain conditions, on the other hand, L. de Broglie suggested that particles might
also show wavelike properties as they too could be considered to have a wavelength described
by the relation
𝒉
𝝀= (1)
𝒑

where 𝑝 is the momentum of the particle and 𝜆 is the associated de Broglie wavelength. Only
small particles, however, such as electrons moving near the speed of light would have
wavelength large enough to show appreciable wave characteristics.
The wave nature of the electrons is convincingly demonstrated using the electron
diffraction tube as is shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24. Schematic diagram of a diffraction tube [photocredit: CERN [12]

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 In this evacuated tube, streams of electrons are produced though thermionic emission
by a heated cathode and is focused into a tiny beam by the control grid. The electrons are then
accelerated by a potential difference (~10 kV!) between the cathode and the anode.
Afterwards, the electrons hit a thin polycrystalline graphite foil which acts a diffraction grating
and causes the electrons to be diffracted and fly towards the fluorescent screen at different
angles. As the accelerated electrons hit the fluorescent screen, light is emitted so a visible
diffraction pattern is observed.
The diffraction pattern as it appears on a fluorescent screen shows two concentric rings
centered around the undiffracted electron beam. The diameter of the concentric rings changes
with the wavelength, determined by the acceleration voltage, whereby each of the two rings
corresponds to a Bragg reflection at the atoms forming a plane of the graphite.
For interference reflection of electron beams at lattice atoms, Bragg’s law for
constructive interference as illustrated in Figure 25 and given by

𝟐𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀 (2)

applies as for other waves too. Here, 𝑑 is the interplanar spacing of space lattice in the graphite
foil, 𝜃 is the reflection angle and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the electron beam. Interference
reflection occurs when the path difference 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 equal an integral multiple of the
wavelength.

Figure 25. Bragg’s Law of Diffraction [13]

When the electron beam strikes the polycrystalline graphite foil, there will always be
some angles with the incident radiation that fit the Bragg’s equation due to the arbitrary
arrangement of the micro-crystals. All reflections from such crystallites lie on cone-shaped
shells with a common axis. The fluorescent screen of the tube represents a section through

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these cones so that the diffracted electron beams appear as concentric circles round the non-
diffracted electron beam.
The scattering crystal used in this experiment is graphite which has a hexagonal crystal
structure. There are many possible sets of reflecting planes that can be drawn from the
graphite lattice but the two prominent set of planes that play an important role in this
experiment are the two planes (in red and blue broken lines and with interplanar spacing 𝑑1
and 𝑑2 respectively) shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26. Bragg planes in graphite [14]

Figure 27 below is a schematic representation of Debye-Scherrer diffraction. The incident

electron beam makes an angle 𝜃 with a Bragg plane in the graphite foil and is reflected towards
the Fluorescent screen to make the fluorescent material glow with a greenish light. The
reflected beam is seen to make an angle of 2𝜃 with the x-axis.

Figure 27. The Geometry of Debeye Scherrer Diffraction [15]

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From the figure, it is seen that

𝒓
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = . (3)
𝒍

It follows that for small angles,

𝒓
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = . (4)
𝒍

Substituting equation (4) into equation (2), we get (for 𝑛 = 1)

𝒓
𝝀 = 𝒅. (5)
𝒍

From the energy conservation equation, the momentum of the electron is related to the anode
voltage (accelerating) voltage , 𝑉𝑎 , by the equation:

𝒑𝟐
= 𝒆𝑽𝒂 (6)
𝟐𝒎

Substituting equation (6) into equation (1), the wavelength, 𝜆, may also be determined as

𝒉
𝝀= . (7)
�𝟐𝒆𝒎𝑽𝒂

From this value of 𝜆, it is also possible to determine the interplanar spacings of graphite from
the radii of the two diffraction rings by rearranging equation (5) to get:

𝝀⋅𝒍
𝒅= . (8)
𝒓

III. PROCEDURES
(The set-up has been pre-arranged by the lab technician)
Important advise: Arrange the power supply units so that their transformers do not exert any
magnetic influence on the electron beams; keep then at a distance. Carry out the experiment in
a darkened room.

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 1. Switch on filament voltage and limit the heater current to 0.3 A.
2. Gradually increase the anode voltage from 0 to 4 kV max. It is important to check
the emission current (max. 200 μA) and graphite foil continuously. If the emission
current is higher than 200 μA or the foil glows up, immediately interrupt the
connection to the voltage source via the double-pole cut-out switch, reset the
anode voltage to 0 V and discharge power supply unit by shorting.
3. Position the adjusting magnet on the tube neck (e.g. fix it with adhesive tape) so that
when applying the anode voltage again (increase gradually) the electron beams fall
onto another spot on the foil.
4. Observe the diffraction rings on the foil. If they are not satisfactory, change the
direction of the electron beams by means of the adjusting magnet so that they are
incident on a spot of the graphite grating which is free of defects and two rings (1st
order on grate planes with 𝑑1 = 2.13 𝑥 10−10 m and 𝑑2 = 1.23 𝑥 10−10 m) are
clearly visible.
5. Determine the diameters of the diffraction rings at anode voltage, 𝑉𝑎 , equal to 4 kV.
6. Use 13.5 cm as the approximate distance 𝑙 between the graphite grating and
fluorescent screen.

Determination of Wavelength
7. Compute for the wavelengths 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 corresponding to the two interplanar
spacings 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 using equation (5).

Comparison of λ𝑬𝑿 with the theoretical value from the de Broglie equation
8. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength using equation (6). Compare this with the
average of the wavelengths determined in #7. Get the percentage difference.

Determination of 𝒉 from the de Broglie equation

9. Using the average of the wavelengths found in #7, compute for the value of Planck’s
constant by solving equation (7) for ℎ. Compare with the standard value of
6.626 𝑥 10−34 J·s . Get the percentage error.

Determination of the Interplanar Spacings of Graphite:

10. From the measured values of 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 and 𝑙 as well as the wavelength λ which is
calculated after equation (7), determine the interplanar spacings 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 using
equation (8).

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DATA

Determination of wavelength using equation (5)

𝑙 = 13.5 cm
Radius Wavelength
𝑟1 = λ1 =
𝑟2 = λ2 =
Average Wavelength λ𝐸𝑋 =

Comparison of λ𝑬𝑿 with the theoretical value from the de Broglie Equation
𝑉𝑎 = 4 kV
de Broglie Wavelength using
equation (6)
Percentage Difference

Determination of h from the de Broglie Equation (equation (7))

Planck’s Constant = 6.626 𝑥 10−34 J.s
𝒉 using equation (7)
Percentage Difference

Determination of the Interplanar Spacing of Graphite

de Broglie Wavelength using equation (7) =
𝑙 = 13.5 cm
Radius Interplanar Spacing using equation (8)
𝑟1 = 𝑑1 =
𝑟2 = 𝑑2 =

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IV. EVALUATION
1. If light were used instead of a stream of accelerated electrons in this experiment,
how would the results of the experiment vary?
2. The graphite foil used in the experiment is protected by a metal mesh. Why do we
not see a diffraction pattern caused by this metal?
3. Why are electron microscopes rather than optical microscopes used to examine
objects smaller than 1 micrometer?
4. Explain the importance of the accidental discovery of electron diffraction.
5. Explain the de Broglie hypothesis.

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Experiment No. 8
Determination of Planck’s Constant

I. OBJECTIVES
• To confirm the quantum theory of light, that photoelectrons depends only on the
frequency of the incident light and is independent of the intensity, and calculate the
Planck’s constant ℎ

II. BACKGROUND [16]

The photoelectric effect experiment was able to show that electrons may be knocked
out from a metal surface due to irradiation with light. Classical wave model of light predicted
that the energy of these photoelectrons would depend on light intensity. In other words, the
brighter the light, the greater energy. But according to the quantum theory of light, the energy
of the photoelectrons depends only on the frequency of the incident light but is independent of
the intensity. This situation may be clarified if light is considered as a stream of “photons” and it
is assumed that each photoelectron is released by an individual photon possessing the energy
ℎ𝜈, where ℎ is the Planck’s constant and 𝜈 is the frequency of the photon. Any excess energy of
the impinging photons may be imparted to the electrons as kinetic energy upon leaving the
surface, and the maximum kinetic energy a photoelectron can have follows from Einstein’s
Photoelectric Equation:

𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝝓 (1)

where 𝜙 is the work function of the metal, the minimum energy required by an electron to
escape from the metal surface.
Figure 28 illustrates the set-up for the observation of the photoelectric effect. As can be
seen in the figure, light of varying wavelength is shone on a clean metal plate inside an
evacuated tube. If the frequency of the incident light is high enough, photoelectrons are
emitted from the surface of the metal plate and propagate across a short gap to the collector
plate. As the electrons travel through the tube, they are retarded by a reverse potential. When
𝑉 is increased further, less electrons reach the cathode of the tube until a stopping potential 𝑉0
is reached and no more electrons reach the collecting cathode and the ammeter registers a
zero reading. The maximum kinetic energy 𝐾𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑥 of the photoelectrons is just then equal to
𝑒𝑉0 and equation (1) can be written as
𝒉𝝂 = 𝝓 + 𝒆𝑽𝟎 (2)

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 Figure 28. Experimental set up to study photoelectric effect [16]

If the frequency of the incident light is increased by Δ𝜈, the electron energy increases by
ℎΔ𝜈, so that the stopping potential is increased by Δ𝑉0 in order to bring the photoelectric
current back to zero. An equation similar to equation (2) may also be applied:

𝒉𝚫𝝂 = 𝒆𝚫𝑽𝟎 (3)

i.e., the energy increase ℎΔ𝜈 is just compensated by the energy loss 𝑒Δ𝑉0 .
Therefore, if the stopping potential 𝑉0 is plotted against ν, a straight line is obtained
whose slope is just equal to the 𝒉/𝒆 ratio:

𝚫𝑽𝟎 𝒉
= (4)
𝚫𝝂 𝒆

and whose 𝑦-intercept is equal to 𝜙/𝑒 (as can be seen from equation (2)).

III. PROCEDURES

Determining the Dependence of the Energy of Photoelectrons on the Intensity of Light

1. With the equipment (shown in Figure 29) already set up, focus the light from the
mercury vapor light source onto the slot in the white reflective mask on the h/e
apparatus. (The white reflective mask in the h/e apparatus is made of a special
fluorescent material. This allows you to see the ultaviolet line as a blue line, and it

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 also makes the violet line appear as more blue. You can see the actual colors of the
light if you hold a piece of white non-fluorescent material in front of the mask.)

Figure 29. Equipment Set-up [17]

2. Tilt the light shield of the apparatus (shown in Figure 30) out of the way to reveal
the white photodiode mask inside the Apparatus.

Figure 30. 𝒉/𝒆 Light Shield [17]

3. Slide the lens/grating assembly forward and back on its support rods until you
achieve the sharpest image of the aperture centered on the hole in the photodiode
mask. Secure the lens/grating by tightening the thumbscrew.

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 4. Adjust the ℎ/𝑒 apparatus so that only one of the colors falls upon the mask of the
photodiode. There must be no overlap from adjacent spectral maxima. If you select
the green or yellow line, place the corresponding colored filter over the white
reflective mask on the ℎ/𝑒 apparatus. (These filters limit the frequencies of light
from entering the ℎ/𝑒 apparatus by preventing ambient room light from interfering
with lower energy yellow and green light and masking the true result. They also block
the higher frequency ultraviolet light from the higher order spectra which may
overlap with lower orders of yellow and green.)
5. Place the variable transmission filter in front of the white reflective mask (and over
the colored filter, if one is used) so that light passes through the section marked 100
% and reaches the photodiode. Record the digital voltage meter reading which
corresponds to the stopping potential for the photoelectrons emitted from the
photodiode using Table 1 below. (The variable transmission filter consists of
computer-generated patterns of dots and lines that vary the intensity (but not the
frequency) of the incident light.) Press the instrument discharge button, release it,
and observe how much time is required to recharge the instrument to the maximum
voltage.
6. Move the variable transmission filter so that the next section is directly in front of
the incoming light. Record the new voltage reading and approximate the time to
recharge after the discharge button has been pressed and released.
7. Repeat step 6 until you have tested all five sections of the filter.
8. Repeat the procedure using a second color from the spectrum.
9. Describe the effect that passing different amounts of the same colored light through
the variable transmission filter has on the stopping potential and thus the maximum
energy of the photoelectrons, as well as the charging time after pressing the
discharge button.
10. Describe the effect that different colors of light had on the stopping potential and
thus the maximum energy of the photoelectrons. Tabulate your results using Table
2.

Determining the Planck’s Constant and the Work Function of the Photodiode
11. Determine the wavelength and frequency of each spectral line. Plot a graph of the
stopping potential vs. frequency, using the value of the stopping potential for the
100 % transmission for each color.
12. Draw the best-fit line and determine the slope of this line. From this value, calculate
the Planck’s constant, ℎ, using equation (4) with 𝑒 = 1.609 𝑥 10−19 C. Determine
also the work function, 𝜙, of the photodiode by getting the 𝑦-intercept of the line.

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DATA

Table 1
Color % Transmission Stopping Potential Approx. Charge Time
100 80 60 40 20 (V) (s)
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Ultraviolet

Table 2
Color Wavelength Frequency Stopping Potential
(nm) (x 1014 Hz) (V)
Yellow 578 5.18672
Green 546.074 5.48996
Blue 435.835 6.87858
Violet 404.656 7.40858
Ultraviolet 365.483 8.20264

Planck’s Constant (h)

ℎ (theoretical) = 6.626 x 10-34 J⋅s
ℎ (experimental) =
% error =
Work Function (𝜙) =

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IV. EVALUATION
1. Explain the dependence of the stopping potential on the light frequency. How does
this relate to the quantum (photon) model of light?
2. Explain why there is a slight drop in the measured stopping potential as the light
intensity is decreased.
3. Defend whether this experiment supports a wave or a quantum model of light based
on your lab results.
4. Explain the correct analysis of the photoelectric effect developed by Albert Einstein.

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Experiment No. 9
Determination of Specific Charge (e/m) of an Electron

I. OBJECTIVES
• To determine the order of magnitude of charge-to-mass ratio of an electron

II. BACKGROUND [18]

The experiment of J. J. Thomson in 1897 on the measurement of the charge-to-mass
ratio (e/m) of an electron provided the best experimental evidence available at that time of the
existence of electrons. He showed that electrons, which he called corpuscles, follow well-
defined paths, have a well-defined charge-to-mass ratio, and have mass, momentum, and
energy that can be localized in space; that is, electrons show the attributes of a particle. He
demonstrated that an electron beam can be deflected by an electric field and magnetic field.
Thomson’s experiment consists basically of what we will find in a television picture tube:
an evacuated tube where electrons are emitted from a hot filament and accelerated by an
applied potential difference.
Passing through the slit in a screen, the electrons then enter a region in which they
move perpendicular to an electric field and magnetic field; these two fields are perpendicular to
each other, in an arrangement called crossed fields, whose effect is to deflect the electrons in
opposite directions. The beam striking the fluorescent screen at the other end produces a
bright spot. By measuring the displacement of the electron on the screen when only electric
field is applied (magnetic field is turned off) and by calculating the electron speed when the
magnetic force and electric force on the electron cancel each other out, Thomson was able to
arrive at a formula for determining the charge-to-mass ratio. Thomson then put forward a very
daring and important claim - which turned out to be correct - that electrons are a constituent of
matter. He further concluded that electrons were lighter than the lightest known atom
(hydrogen) by a factor of more than 1000 (the exact ratio proved later to be 1836.15).
The mass of the electron is difficult to determine experimentally. It is easier to
determine the specific charge of the electron 𝑒/𝑚 from which the mass of the electron can be
calculated if the elementary charge is known.
If a particle carrying an electric charge 𝑞 moves with a velocity 𝑣 in a magnetic field 𝐵
that is at a right angle to the direction of motion, it will experience the Lorentz force given by
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵. This force, because of the vector product, is always perpendicular to both the
magnetic field and the direction of motion. A constant force that is always perpendicular to the
direction of motion will cause a particle to move in a circle. This fact will be used in this

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experiment to determine the charge to mass ratio of the electron by measuring the radius of
that circle.
In this experiment, an electron will be allowed to travel in a region where there is a
uniform magnetic field that runs perpendicular to its direction of motion. The electron’s path
will be deflected and thus it would travel in a circular path with constant speed. This deflecting
force which is the net centripetal force on the electron, given by

𝒗𝟐
𝑭=𝒎 (1)
𝒓

is due to the magnetic field providing a magnetic force with magnitude 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵. Combining
these two equations, the electron then moves uniformly in a circle with radius

𝒎𝒗
𝒓= (2)
𝒆𝑩

This equation contains two assertions which are capable of experimental verification:
the radius of the path increases in proportion to the velocity 𝑣 of the electrons and in inverse
proportion to the magnetic flux density 𝐵.
If the electron is accelerated by thermionic emission from a filament by an accelerating
voltage 𝑉𝑎 , its speed is determined from the relation:

𝟏
𝒆𝑽𝒂 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 (3)
𝟐

Therefore the radius of curvature of the electron’s path must increase in proportion to
the square root of 𝑉𝑎 . When the magnetic field is provided by a pair of Helmholtz coils, the
magnetic field strength is determined by measuring the current through the coils given by:

𝟒 𝟑⁄𝟐 𝒏𝑰𝒄
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 � � (4)
𝟓 𝒅𝒄 ⁄𝟐

where 𝑛 is the number of turns, 𝑑𝑐 the diameter of the coils and 𝜇0 is the permeability for
vacuum. The radius of the path must then be inversely proportional to the coil current 𝐼𝑐 . And
the charge-to mass ratio (𝑒/𝑚) may then be calculated using equations (2), (3), and (4):

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 𝒆 𝑽𝒂 𝒅 𝒄 𝟐 𝟏
= 𝟒 𝟑⁄𝟐
� 𝟐� (5)
𝒎 𝒓
𝟐� � 𝝁𝟎 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑰𝒄 𝟐
𝟓

The apparatus to be used in this experiment is shown in Figure 31. The main
components of the set-up are the fine beam tube and the Helmholtz coils.

Figure 31. Apparatus used to determine the e/m ratio [19]

The fine beam tube is a spherical glass tube containing some noble gas under low
pressure. An electron beam inside the glass tube produces a beam of electrons. As the
electrons collide with the gas molecules, the gas molecules are stimulated to emit light which
makes it possible for us to see the path that the electrons traverse within the glass tube. The
Helmholtz coils supply the magnetic field that forces the electrons to move in a circular path.
Note that the tube is extremely fragile, and the wires sticking out from the tube have
current and voltage, so be very careful.

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III. PROCEDURES [18]
(The set-up has been pre-arranged by the lab technician)
1. Switch on the 𝑒/𝑚 apparatus. Start the magnetic field in the coil by turning on the
power supply for the coil. Note that there is a ten minute warm-up time before you
should take final measurements. Get the current reading as registered in the meter
in the power supply.
2. Bring the anode potential in the tube to 100 V. Observe the circle formed by the
electron beam. Using the mirror placed at the back of the tube, measure the
diameter of the circle formed by the electron beam. (Note: A masking tape with
several marks is pasted on the mirror. To measure the diameter of the circle,
position the mirror in such a way that the luminous beam, its image and the
corresponding marks coincide without parallax)
3. Repeat #2 but with the anode potential increased by 25 V. Repeat this until you
reach an anode voltage of 250 V.
4. Tabulate your results using the table below. Make a graph of 𝑉𝑎 vs. 𝑟 2 . Estimate the
best-fit line for your data points and solve for charge-to-mass ratio, 𝑒/𝑚, using the
slope for your line and equation (5).

DATA
Table:

Anode Voltage Radius, 𝒓 Radius2 , 𝒓𝟐

(V) (cm) (cm2)

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

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µ0 = 1.26 x 10- 6 Vs/Am
𝐼𝑐 = _____________
𝑑𝑐 = _____________
𝑛 = _____________

slope = ____________

(𝑒/𝑚) 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑂 = 1.758 x 1011 C/kg

(𝑒/𝑚)𝐸𝑋𝑃 = ____________

IV. EVALUATION
1. The Earth’s magnetic field is approximately 0.1 mT and is pointing into the ground at
an angle of about 66 degrees with respect to the horizontal. Discuss how much
difficulty the Earth’s magnetic field will cause in your experiment.
2. If it were possible to arbitrarily orient the apparatus, in what direction (parallel, anti-
parallel, perpendicular, other) should it be aligned in order to minimize the effects of
the Earth’s magnetic field? Explain your reasoning
3. If the tube were turned so that the velocity of the electrons is no longer
perpendicular to the external magnetic field provided by the Helmholtz coils, how
would the results of your experiment vary? How would the path of the electrons
vary?

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Experiment No. 10
Absorption of Beta Particles and Gamma Rays

I. OBJECTIVES
• To investigate the absorption of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays

II. BACKGROUND [20]

Many nuclides of atoms are unstable and spontaneously alter themselves through
radioactive decay to attain a stable configuration despite the strong nuclear forces that bind
the nucleons together. Unlike the case of atomic radiation, there is no external excitation
needed for the decay process to occur. The energy liberated during the radioactive decay
comes from within individual nuclei. And this could be explained by the equivalence of mass
and energy, a concept contained in Einstein’s famous equation, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .
Experimental measurements on the activity (decay per unit time) of radioactive nuclides
indicate that the phenomena is a statistical process that obeys the laws of chance. No cause-
effect relationship is involved in the decay of a particular nucleus, only probability per unit time.
And the decay process is found to follow a very orderly exponential mode, that is, the number
of nuclei decreases exponentially with time.
There are basically three kinds of radioactive decay that a nucleus may undergo. These
are the alpha (𝛼) , beta (𝛽), or gamma (𝛾) decay.
Alpha radiation occurs when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, a particle that is similar
to a Helium nucleus – that is, it consists of two protons and neutrons. Alpha decay occurs
whenever the nucleus is too large.
Beta decay, on the other hand, is the emission of high energy electrons or positrons. 𝛽 +
decay occurs when there are plenty of protons compared to the number of neutrons in a nuclei.
In a 𝛽 + decay, a proton in the nucleus of an atom transforms into a neutron and in the process
emits a positron and a neutrino. A 𝛽 − decay occurs when the nucleus has too many neutrons
relative to the number of protons. During a 𝛽 − decay, a neutron in the nucleus of an atom
turns into a proton and in the process emits an electron and a neutrino.
The last kind of decay does not involve emission of matter particle but electromagnetic
radiation. This is called gamma decay. Here a nucleus has excess energy and therefore to attain
a more stable (lower energy) configuration, an intense radiation in the form of gamma rays is
emitted. Gamma decay, unlike the two previous decays, leaves the nucleus intact.

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 The three kinds of particle/radiation emitted vary in their penetrating strength in
matter, with the gamma ray being the most penetrating, followed by beta particle, the alpha
particle being the least penetrating.

III. PROCEDURES [20]

1. Set up the Geiger-Müller (G-M) counter. Adjust the operating voltage to 400 V and
set the count rate at 60 s. Also press the memory button to store the counts made
by the counter.
2. Place the beta source (204Tl) in the sample holder, and insert in the second or third
shelf of the tube stand. Place the empty absorber slide in the shelf immediately
above the sample.
3. Get 3 readings and determine the activity of the sample with no absorber by getting
the average of the 3 readings. Note: The reading in the G-M counter includes the
background activity (without radioactive source) which is negligible compared to the
activity of the sample.
4. Insert the thinnest absorber slide and determine the activity again. Record. The
radioactive material should not be removed throughout these measurements.
5. Repeat with the other absorbers, going from thinnest to the heaviest. Again get 3
readings and determine the activity of the sample with no absorber by getting the
average of the 3 readings. Remember to record all data. Use the table below.
6. Replace the beta source with a gamma source and follow steps 3 to 5. Do this also
for the alpha source.
7. Make three graphs one for each radioactive source with the natural logarithm of
activity on the y-axis against absorber thickness on the x-axis. Draw a trendline for
each graph. Which line has a steeper slope? Compare the penetrating ability of each
source.

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DATA
Sample = Alpha Source Activity (cpm)
Absorber Thickness (mg/cm2) 1st 2nd 3rd Average
0
4.5
6.5
14.1
28.1
59.1
102
129

Sample = Beta Source Activity (cpm)

Absorber Thickness (mg/cm2) 1st 2nd 3rd Average
0
4.5
6.5
14.1
28.1
59.1
102
129

Sample = Gamma Source Activity (cpm)

Absorber Thickness (mg/cm2) 1st 2nd 3rd Average
0
4.5
6.5
14.1
28.1
59.1
102
129

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IV. EVALUATION
1. Account for the differences of alpha, beta and gamma absorption.
2. What are some ways in which alpha rays react with matter? Beta? Gamma?
3. Recommend a type of shielding for alpha, beta and gamma.

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REFERENCES:
[1] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). EXPERIMENT #1 Measurement of the Diameter of a
Hair Strand.
[2] constructive interference. (n.d.). Retrieved July 7, 2015, from
http://www.britannica.com/science/constructive-interference/images-videos
[3] Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. (2002). Principles of physics: a calculus-based text.
Australia; United States: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.
[4] PASCO Scientific. (n.d.). The PASCO scientific 012-05187C Precision Interferometer
manual. Retrieved from ftp://ftp.pasco.com/Support/Documents/English/OS/OS-
9257A/012-07137B.pdf.
[5] Michelson Interferometer. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.physics.umanitoba.ca/undergraduate/phys2260/Lectures/Intro%20Optics%
20-%20PPT%20v2part%2004.pdf
[6] optical interferometer | instrument. (n.d.). Retrieved July 7, 2015, from
http://www.britannica.com/technology/optical-interferometer
[7] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). EXPERIMENT #5 Atomic Line Spectra of Noble Gases
and Metallic Vapors.
[8] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). EXPERIMENT #6 Determining the Wavelengths 𝐻𝛼 ,
𝐻𝛽 , and 𝐻𝛾 of the Hydrogen Atom.
[9] Chegg.com. (n.d.). Retrieved August 3, 2015, from http://www.chegg.com/homework-
help/questions-and-answers/diffraction-experiment-setup-shown-diagram--
distancedbetween-grating-screen-310mm-laser-wa-q4631606
[10] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). EXPERIMENT #7 Electron Diffraction.
[11] Singh, J. (1999). Modern physics for engineers. New York: J. Wiley.
[12] CERN. (n.d.). Electron Diffraction Tube - CERN Teaching Materials. Retrieved from
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physicsteaching/english/experiments/electron-diffraction-tube.pdf
[13] Boundless. (2015). X-Ray Spectra: Origins, Diffraction by Crystals, and Importance.
Boundless. Retrieved from https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-
physics-textbook/atomic-physics-29/the-early-atom-185/x-ray-spectra-origins-
diffraction-by-crystals-and-importance-694-6348/
[14] Werner U. Boeglin. (2011). Electron Diffraction. Retrieved from
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[15] LD Didactic GmbH. (n.d.). P6.1.5.1 Diffraction of Electrons in a Polycrystalline Lattice
(Debeye-Scherrer Diffraction). LD Didactic GmbH.
[16] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). Experiment #8 Determination of Planck’s Constant.

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 [17] PASCO Scientific. (1989). Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO
scientific Model AP-9368 and AP-9369. Retrieved from
http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~c173_608/photoelectric/he9370.pdf
[18] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). Experiment #9 Determination of Specific Charge (e/m)
of an Electron.
[19] Nuffield Foundation. (2015). Fine Beam Tube. Retrieved from
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/fine-beam-tube
[20] DLSU Physics Department. (n.d.). Experiment #10 Absorption of Beta Particles and
Gamma Rays (e/m) of an Electron.

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