Draft 2.

S u s t a i n a b l e U r b a n Tr a n s p o r t
Principles and Implementation Guidelines for Indian Cities

Su p p o rted b y

E N V I R O N M E N T A L P L A N N I N G C O L L A B O R A T I V E
FOUR COLOUR LOGO FOR LIGHT BACKGROUNDS FOUR COLOUR LOGO FOR DARK BACKGROUNDS

An initiative supported by:

This work was produced with support & guidance from

the experts of following organisations:

tripp

Centre
for
Green
Mobility

Environmental Planning Collaborative (EPC) is a not-for-profit urban planning and policy research organization
that works closely with government agencies, non-profits and other partners through collaborative interventions to
promote productive, equitable, safe and sustainable living environments.

www.epc.org.in
Sustainable Urban Transport
Principles and Implementation Guidelines for Indian Cities
An initiative supported by: Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation
Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation works to strengthen the energy security of India by aiding the design and
implementation of policies that support energy efficiency and renewable energy.
The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect those of Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation. The
Foundation does not guarantee the accuracy of any data included in this publication and does not accept responsibility
for the consequences of its use.

Draft 2.3 Published 10 June 2013

For Internal Circulation Only. Not to be redistributed without prior permission.

Environmental Planning Collaborative , 2013. “Sustainable Urban Transport Principles, and Implementation Guidelines
for Indian Cities”.Ahmedabad, INDIA
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special
permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of this source is made. EPC would appreciate
receiving a copy of any publication that uses this document as a source. For further information, please write to
[email protected]

Expert Reviews by: Project Team:

CEPT - Rutul Joshi This work was produced in close collaboration with HCP
- Darshini Mahadevia Design Planning & Management Pvt. Ltd. (HCPDPM),
CGM - Anuj Malhotra Ahmedabad.
CH2mHILL - Avanish Pendharkar
Consultant - V K Phatak Lead Authors:
CSE - Anumita Roy Chowdhary
Cstep - Sujaya Rathi Chirayu Bhatt (EPC)
IDS - Rajendra Ravi Jignesh Mehta (HCPDPM)
IISc - Ashish Verma
IMU - G Raghuram Contributing Authors:
IUT - Sonia Arora
- B I Singal Raman Aras (HCPDPM)
PSDA - Pradeep Sachdeva Hardik Gandhi (HCPDPM)
SGA - Sandeep Gandhi Kratvi Seth (EPC)
SPA - Chetan Vaidya Nikunj Shah (EPC)
TERI - Akshima Ghate Tanya Vegad (EPC)
TRIPP, IITD - Geetam Tiwari
UTTIPEC - Ashok Bhattacharjee
- Romi Roy
- Mriganka Saxena
VTPI - Todd Litman

Cover Page Photo Credits:

1 2 3
1. HCPDPM
4 5 6 2. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rishshaw_stand_.jpg
3. thecityfix.com/files/2010/03/At-grade-crossing-for-BRT-commuters.jpg
4. whereisfatboy.blogspot.in/2012/09/sikkim-afternoon-tour-of-gangtok.html
5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmedabad_BRTS
6. Prasad-om @flickr.com
 Preface

The existing pattern of growth of population and physical form of Indian

cities threatens to lead us to an unsustainable future of private vehicle
oriented development. Many developed nations, which took such a
path earlier during their phase of rapid urbanization, are now struggling
to retrofit their auto-centric urban environments to more people friendly
urban design supported by public transportation, walking, and cycling.
Given our rapid growth of urbanization, and the fact that we have an
opportunity to learn from the mistakes and good practices of other cities,
we are uniquely positioned to develop our cities into economically thriving
and socially vibrant places. In order to do this, Indian cities will need to
proactively change their growth patterns and improve transportation
choices for all. This will lead to myriad benefits. Fewer cars and two-
wheelers on urban streets will effectively abate carbon emissions as well,
compared to a business-as-usual scenario.

Compact, well-designed pedestrian and cycle oriented developments

not only improve quality of life and urban health outcomes for users,
but also contribute to a significantly reduced particulate emmission.
Increased availability of cheap and accessible public transportation also
has significant social benefits and leads to an enhanced quality of life for
all.

Starting in 2006, with the National Urban Transport Policy, the Ministry
of Urban Development has taken a number of steps to help cities along
the path of sustainable urban transport. More recently, the Service Level
Benchmarking prepared by MoUD, the twelfth five year plan committee
and national transport development policy committee (NTDPC) have
both recommended a public transport led development of cities. This
report aims to assimilate the principles and concepts introduced in these
documents and to make them implementable by the cities and urban
local bodies.

Purpose

The aim of this report is to help cities and local governments implement
goals of sustainable planning and urban transport. In order to do this, it is
important to identify guidelines and standards and establish an evaluation
mechanism through which the existing conditions can be assessed and
progress can be evaluated and monitored. Also in order to successfully
implement this it is critical to identify institutional framework and equip
them with appropriate tools for implementation.

Who is it for

This document can serve as a useful resource for city governments

and local agencies working on issues related to urban transport at the

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 5
city level. This includes agencies engaged in defining standards and
guidelines for urban transport, agencies taking investment decisions
and those concerned with implementation. This report also provides
a framework to citizens and other professionals to advocate for a
sustainable urban transport planning and implementation, through the
principles, recommendations, relevant case studies and implementation
tools.

Structure

The report is structured in three parts. Part One outlines the definition
and key benefits sustainable urban transport followed by a summary
of existing issues related to urban transport. Part Two provides the key
recommendations based on 10 principles of Sustainable Transport. Each
principle is supported by recommendations, associated benchmarks,
agencies responsible for implementation and case studies. Part Three
includes implementation tools and notes in institutional framework.

While there is a attempt to provide concrete guidance for making the

urban transport sustainable, this report by no means claims to be all-
encompassing nor is it expected to be implemented directly. The purpose
of the document is also to help coordinate and unify the efforts made
by various government and non-government agencies across the cities
/ urban areas for improving urban transport. The recommendations in
this report are accompanied by benchmarks that serve as reference for
improvements. Also, the benchmarks are expected to be reviewed by
the cities and to be updated based on local conditions. Wherever urban
specifications already exist, attempts have been made to reference them
within the principles and guidelines.

If cities are able to use this guide to create their own vision and road
map towards a sustainable future, the report would have accomplished
its mission.

Acknowledgements

At the outset, we are grateful to Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation

for supporting and funding this project. This document integrates and
assimilates efforts of various government and non-government agencies
to provide a holistic picture of the improvement needs for urban transport.
This could not have been possible without the support and advice from
Shreya Gadepalli (ITDP), Chris Kost (ITDP), Mr. V K Phatak (Former Chief
of Planning, MMRDA), Romi Roy (UTTIPEC) and Anumita Roy Chowdhary
(CSE).

After the version 1.0 of the document was published, it was reviewed by
a number of experts and practitioners associated with urban transport
without whose inputs it would not have been complete. For this, we would
like to thank Todd Litman (VTPI), Prof. Geetam Tiwari (TRIPP, IITD), Prof.
K. T. Ravindran (SPA) Dr. Ashish Verma(IISc), Ms Sujaya Rathi(Cstep),

6 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 Akshima Ghate(TERI), G Raghuram (IMU), Dr. Darshini Mahadevia and
Rutul Joshi(Center For Urban Equity), Anuj Malhotra (Center for Green
Mobility), Avanish Pendharkar (CH2mHILL), Pradeep Sachdeva (Pradeep
Sachdeva Design Associates), Rajendra Ravi (Institute for Democracy
and Sustainability), B I Singal (IUT), Sonia Kapoor (IUT), Ashok
Bhattacharjee(UTTIPEC) and Mriganka (UTTIPEC). The current version
incorporates many of the comments and inputs of the above experts. We
are thankful to Institute for Urban Transport (IUT) for their graciousness
in allowing us to use their facilities for the technical working session
on Urban Transport. Finally, we would like to thank Himani Jain (SSEF)
and Aakriti Chaudhari (SSEF) for their continued support throughout the
process.

While we have had the opportunity to discuss and review the contents of
this document with various experts from India and abroad, any mistakes
and/or errors in this document remain ours.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 7
8 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Contents

Preface 05

Part 1: Overview 15

1. Sustainable Urban Transport 15

1.1 Concept 15
1.2 Benefits 16
1.3 Overall goals 17
1.4 Components 17
1.5 Approach 18

2. Overview of existing conditions 21

2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Existing Urban Transport Scenario 21
2.3 Overview of Existing Institutional Framework 26

Part 2: Principles, Recommendations & Case Studies 31

1. Walk 35
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

2. Cycle 55
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

3. Public transport 73
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

4. Connect and Complete 95

Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

5. Integrate 117
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

6. Compact 135
Sub-principles

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 9
 Recommendations
Case-studies

7. Parking 149
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

8. Shift 165

Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

9. Safety 183
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

10. Freight 199
Sub-principles
Recommendations
Case-studies

Part 3: Implementation 209

1. Implementation tools 211

1.1 Introduction 211
1.2 Audits 211
1.2.1 Streets Audit
1.2.2 Development Audit
1.2.3 Comprehensive Mobility Audit
1.3 Comprehensive Mobility Plan 220
1.3.1 Proposed Structure of Comprehensive Mobility Plan
1.3.2 Critical Elements of the Comprehensive Mobility Plan
a. Transit Oriented Development through Station Area Planning
b. Station Design
c. Street Classification and Complete Street Network
d. Pedestrian network and NMT Plan
e. Bicycle network Plan
f. Local Parking Plan and Management policy
g. Freight Movement Plan
h. Signage and Wayfinding
i. Funding for CMP
1.3.3 Implementation programs
a. Local Area Plans
b. Program for Redevelopment of Existing Areas
c. Street Redevelopment Program

10 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 1.4 Capacity Building 228
1.5 Roles and Responsibilities 230
1.6 Financing Urban Transport 233
1.7 Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority 236
1.8 Implementation of 74th Amendment 237

Abbreviations 239

Definitions 241

Bibliography 242

List of Figures 249

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 11
12 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
...
Part 1: Overview
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

14 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

Chapter 1. Sustainable Urban Transport

1.1 Why Sustainable Urban Transport?

Since the past decade India has been growing at a rapid pace, both as
an economy as well as in urban population living its in ever expanding
cities. This growth has led to significant and rapid increase in vehicular
ownership especially in the urban areas, resulting in unprecedented
levels of traffic congestion, severely hampering mobility, deterioration of
environment and quality of life in Indian cities.

Historically, increasing economic prosperity is observed to be associated

with higher ownership (and use of private vehicles (see figure below).
However, many of the developed countries are seeing harmful effects of
car-oriented growth, in terms of congestion and its impact on an individual’s
social and family life, health and productivity. India is in facing a similar
situation. Increasing incomes and expanding cities have had similar effect
on increasing vehicle ownership and usage, deteriorating overall urban
mobility and quality of life. Therefore it is crucial for Indian cities to look
at more sustainable solutions for urban transport that improves mobility
along with ensuring environmental, social and economic sustainability.

1.2 Concept of Sustainable Urban transport

Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
reconciliation of environmental, social and economic demands - the “three
Sustainability pillars” of sustainability. In relation to urban transport, “environment“ can
be addressed as emissions and air quality, “social” can be addressed as
equity and “economic” can be addressed as mobility of the city dwellers.

Sustainable approach to urban transport will improve mobility and

accessibility in urban areas. Such an approach balances the need to
address environmental concerns with the need to provide affordable
mobility choices to rapidly growing urban areas. Thus, Sustainable Urban
Transport aims to provide affordable, accessible, equitable, comfortable,
secure environment-friendly transport services.

Urban transport systems have direct economic impact on cities.

Availability of good and efficient transportation services at affordable
Sustainable Urban Transport costs also enhances the quality of life of residents. Importance of
public transportation has also come under increased focus due to the
Figure 1.a: Sustainable urban
transport aspects contribution of vehicular pollution to climate change and deteriorating

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 15
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

air quality and its impact on health (PricewaterhouseCoopers Pvt. Ltd.,

2008). Hence, a need is felt for a sustainable approach to urban transport.

A sustainable transportation system is one that:

• “allows individuals, companies and societies to meet their basic

mobility needs in a way that preserves human and ecosystem health,
and promotes equity within and between successive generations;

• is affordable, efficient, offers a choice of transport mode, and supports

a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development;
and

• limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them,
uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation , and
uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development
of renewable substitutes, while minimising the impact on the use of
land and the generation of noise” (ECMT, 2004).

1.3 Benefits of Sustainable Urban Transport

Sustainable approach towards the urban transport and current transport S pecific
trends will have number of comprehensive benefits in environmental, social M easurable
and economic aspects. Emphasizing the proposed approach towards A chievable
the reforms will increase efficiency, support economic development and R elevant
create more livable, healthier and equitable cities. It is important because T ime bound
it can help build support from people concerned about other issues
besides environmental risks. SMART Goals
These benefits include:

• Reduced traffic and parking congestion

• Road and parking facility cost savings

• Consumer savings and affordability

• Improved mobility and improved economic opportunity for non-

drivers

• Increased traffic safety

• Energy conservation

• Air and noise emission reductions

• Improved public fitness and health (from more walking and cycling)

• Reduced chauffeuring burdens for drivers

• Support for strategic development objectives (more redevelopment

of existing urban areas, reduced sprawl)

• More attractive and livable urban areas, which increases property

values, development opportunities and business activity within
existing urban areas

16 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

• Support for various industries including tourism, intermediate

transport and public transit providers, and economic development
benefits from reduced dependency on imported vehicles and fuel.

1.4 Overall goals for Sustainable Urban Transport

Each city is varied in terms of its development, population and hence the
needs. These needs help to evaluate what actually is missing and what is
to be provided. Before setting up any goal it is very important for the city
to conclude the objectives for any reform needed.

Considering the set of goal in the context of Sustainable Urban transport,

other than considering the social, economic and environmental aspects
it is necessary to understand the pre-requisite goal would be to move
people- not just cars. (as per NUTP 2006)

SMART goals are the key to the success of any efforts made, as they
are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time bound. SMART
goals can ensure a holistic betterment of the urban transport systems
and services in India. SMART goals for urban transport need to be
implementation oriented.

Since each city is little different than the other city, every city will need to
create its own goals and performance standards in order to provide the
most appropriate solutions to its transport challenges. These goals could
be in the form of those mentioned below, or maybe completely different
Ensure the per capita Vehicle Kilometers Travelled (VKT) in each of the
major cities (Population > 0.5 million) should be below base year levels
(year to be decided by the city/metro)

• Ensure income distribution of potential riders on public transport is

within 10% of actual income distribution of the urban area.

• Ensure per capita travel time is not adversely impacted by increasing

urbanization and shift in travel mode.

• Ensure complete streets all over the city, in all cities.

The key is for each city to understand its unique challenges within its
context and then try to frame goals in a manner that will allow appropriate
and timely implementation. Adopting goals or solutions that have been
successful in other cities may not be a wise strategy.

1.5 Components of Sustainable Urban Transport

In order to accomplish the goals, specific actions need to be undertaken

which will help the cities overcome their unique challenges. The following
principles (also discussed in detail in part 2) provide a framework for
understanding the existing issues and preparing an action plan for

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 17
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

implementing the goals of sustainable transport in each city.

1. Walk: Develop neighbourhoods that promote walking

2. Cycle: Prioritize cycling and other non-motorized transport modes

3. Public Transport: Support access to high-quality public transport

4. Connect and Complete: Create well-connected network of complete

streets

5. Integrate: Integrate land use and transport to create high density, mixed
use transit oriented developments

6. Compact: Encourage compact regions with short commutes

7. Parking: Influence private vehicle usage through parking

8. Shift: Shift from unsustainable mobility to sustainable modes by

regulating road use and other fiscal measures

9. Safety: Ensure safety and security in urban transport

10. Freight: Integrate freight planning with urban transport

Depending on the specific needs, each city can put together a plan that
outlines a comprehensive approach to address their issues and lead
them on a path to sustainable future.

1.5 Approach

The approach adopted for this report helps identify clear implementation
oriented recommendation which will help cities solve their urban transport
issues.

The overall implementation oriented goals help to assess and evaluate

sustainability of improvement efforts for urban transport. The principles
outlined above help address the urban transport issues and to help
achieve the implementation oriented goals (further details in Part 2).
For each of the principles and sub-principles, recommendations and
guidelines are proposed which can be monitored and evaluated using
the indicators and benchmarks. Each principle is also accompanied by
relevant case studies. These are supplemented with recommendations
on appropriate implementation strategies & institutional framework.

18 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

Sustainable Urban Transport

Implementation Oriented Goals

Standards
&
Guidelines

Indicators
Problems &
& issues Principles Benchmarks Implementation
with urban & Strategy
transport in Sub-principles Monitoring
India

Figure 1.b: Approach for Sustainable Urban Transport

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 19
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

20 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

Chapter 2. Overview of existing conditions

2.1 Existing urban transport scenario

This sections highlights the key issues and problems with existing urban
transport services and conditions. Several documents and reports at
the national level, such as the National Urban Transport Policy, Study
on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban areas in
India, Twelfth five year plan, etc. have also identified similar issues and
highlighted the urgent need for addressing the same.

2.1.1 Heavy traffic congestion

Private vehicle population and mode share has grown exponentially over
the last two decades. Share of two-wheelers in the total fleet was 72 per
Figure 2.a: Increase in private cent in 2006 (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of
vehicle ownership and usage
India, 2009). City governments have attempted to solve transport crises
as isolated projects of road widening and grade separated junctions.
This has led to an induced demand for new private motor vehicles.
Hence, despite these road improvement projects, which have dominated
government expenditure, congestion is on the increase. (Tiwari, 2007).
Moreover, the rise in traffic congestion leads to more demand for road
Transport and its infrastructure Chapter 5

Vehicle Ownership/ 1000 Persons

900

800

USA
700

Italy
600 Australia
New Zealand Canada
Japan
500 Switzerland
France Belgium
Spain
Sweden Germany Netherlands
400
Denmark
Czech UK
Portugal
300
Greece
Poland
Hungary
200
Malaysia Argentina
Russia
Korea Saudi Arabia
Mexico South
100 Peru Africa
Brazil
Turkey
0 India Philippines
China
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
GDP per Capita (US$)
Figure
Figure 5.2:2.b: Vehicle
Vehicle ownership
ownership as a functionas a function
of per of per capta income
capita income
Note: plotted years vary by country depending on data availability.
Data source: World Bank, 2004.

Second, the growth rate and shape of economic development,

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T
growing dependence on private cars, but other alternatives21
the primary driver of transport demand, is uncertain. If China exist (as demonstrated by cities such as Curitiba and Bogota
and India as well as other Asian countries continue to rapidly with their rapid bus transit systems). Also, as seen in Figure
industrialize, and if Latin America and Africa fulfil much of 5.2, the intensity of car ownership varies widely around the
OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

space for vehicles and parking and thereby leads to reduction of space
for pedestrians and cyclists. Congestion leads to increase in noise and
pollution, thereby causing reduction in quality of street environment.
One response to congestion is grade separated access way, but this
leads to fast moving vehicular traffic and causes unsafe environment for
pedestrians. Hence it is necessary for cities to manage congestion by
managing street space and parking.

2.1.2 High air pollution and Greenhouse Gas

(GHG) emissions
Per capita emission levels in India’s seven largest cities are at least three
times higher than the World Health Organization standard (Palanivel,
2002). Of a total of 127 cities/towns monitored under the National Air
Quality Monitoring Program, only 3 have low air pollution, and 101 cities
report at least one pollutant exceeding the annual average air quality
standard (Central Pollution Control Board, 2009). At least 40% of ambient
air pollution in cities can be attributed to transportation and related
causes. It is important to understand that this high ambient air pollution
is despite having fewer cars per capita than many countries. As income
rises and India develops this situation could become worse.

Motorized two wheelers (MTWs) and cars (including jeeps, MPVs etc.)
contribute between 60% and 90% of the total GHG emissions (produced
by all modes of transport) in our cities while supporting about 29% of trips.
Bus-based public transport supports about 27% of trips and contributes
between 3% and 21% of GHG emissions depending on the city size.
Non-motorized modes (i.e. pedestrians, cyclists and cycle-rickshaws)
contribute to no emissions at all and support 39% of trips (Ministry of
Urban Development and Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008). A recent study
by CAI-Asia indicated that due to rapid motorization, the CO2 emissions
from road transport is expected to increase at 7.75% per year, which is
higher than many other Asian countries.

2.1.3 Reduced cycling and walking

With population growth cities have tended to sprawl and increased travel
distances have made non-motorized modes impossible to use (NUTP,
2006). Alongside, congestion, increase in purchasing power of people
and totally inadequate facilities combined with deteriorating state of
existing infrastructure for cycling have all contributed to reducing cycling
to less than 11% of the mode share which is down from nearly 30% in
1994 (MouD-WSA, 2008). 40% of today’s trips in the cities are by Non-
Figure 2.c: Private vehicles have
motorized transport and 25% of all fatal accidents involve Non-motorized maximum share of on Indian roads
transport. Similarly, poorly designed footpaths have less acceptance
from the pedestrians whereas encroachment by hawkers make it difficult
for the pedestrians to use the footpaths constructed.

22 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

2.1.4 Increased travel time and reduced quality of

life

Historically Indian cities are relatively high density and mixed land use
cities which are conducive for high public transit use. In addition, most
of the cities have small trip lengths. However, due and lopsided industrial
location poilicies and land markets that are primarily speculative, cities
are beginning to experience rampant urban sprawl greatly increasing trip
lengths for some and in turn forcing excessive reliance on personalized
Figure 2.d: The average time spent
in commuting by an employee in vehicles, mainly cars. Also, increase in car ownership has resulted in
Mumbai is 47.26 minutes people shifting to far off places having affordable housing thereby further
leading to sprawl. There is a need to retain the existing compact form of
Indian cities, else if the trend continues, cities will double in size within the
next 2-3 decades. It will be extremely difficult to retrofit this low density
growth with a viable public transport infrastructure in the future. A MoUD
study in 2010 based on sample of 87 cities estimated than under a
business-as-usual scenario, in about 20 years time, the expected average
journey speeds on major corridors in many cities would fall from 26–17
kmph to 8–6 kmph. This could result in travel time by upto three times and
hence significantly impact quality of life..

2.1.5 Inadequate public transport

Public transport mode share is generally less than 20% (except in the
mega cities) (Agarwal, 2009). A substantial part of the population relies
on private vehicles to meet their daily transport needs. Out of 85 cities
(population greater than 0.5 million) 65 cities (including 6 metro cities) do
not have an organized city bus service (Agarwal, 2009). Public transport
accounts for only 27 per cent of urban transport in India. Share of the
Figure 2.e: Worsening public transport, public transport fleet has decreased from 11 per cent in 1951 to 1.1 per
Mumbai
cent in 2001(Source: Motor Transport Statistics of India, 2001-02, Ministry
of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways). While the number of personal
vehicles per 1000 population has expanded about three times(between
1981 and 2001), the number of buses per 1000 population has increased
only 2.3 times. The preliminary findings of a study commissioned by the
urban development ministry at the Centre has found that the availability
of public transport (buses and Metro) in Delhi per 1,000 people is only
0.504). Despite large push by JNNURM phase 1 for bus procurement in
various cities, most of the cities have not been able to put them to use in
order to improve public transport.

With more than 90 percent of public transport passengers in Indian

cities relying on buses, it is especially important to upgrade bus services
through modern, safe vehicles and priority on the congested roadways.
The heavy, high-floor buses currently in service in most cities are noisy,
polluting, fuel-inefficient, and unsafe. They are built on truck chassis with
such high floors that boarding is slow and difficult. Moreover, they have

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 23
OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

slow acceleration as well as poor fuel economy due to their weight, and
are inappropriate to urban use. Many buses do not even have closable
windows and doors to protect passengers from the weather and from
falling out of the vehicle. It is essential to replace these outdated buses
with modern, safe, clean, and fuel-efficient vehicles. In addition, public
transport users are faced with problems of poor frequency of buses as
well.

In 2009, only 20 out of 85 Indian cities with a population of 0.5 million had
bus services. (Source: As compiled in Isher Ahluwalia HPEC report (2011)
and Census of India and MoUD. For cities, having no or very less public
transport, IPT is the most widely used mode for transportation.

2.1.6 Unregulated & expensive Intermediate

Public Transport

Para transit or Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) modes like rickshaws,

shared tempos, shared cars, taxis and cycle rickshaws are prominent
in India. The lack of Investments and innovative business plans in the
public transport over the years affects the service levels of existing fleet
of public transport and their reliability.. Smaller cities in India are mostly
dependent on IPT ; however, the routes are not found to be regulated
leading to problem of non availability of IPT modes in fringe areas where
public transport too is less frequent. Also, many of the cities do not have Figure 2.f: Delhi, Operations of IPT has
been left to the private operators
meters and regulated fares. Moreover, the city authorities are responsible
for regulation and fixation of fares which are not linked with the fuel
thereby causing conflicts with the operator. A number of these vehicles
have minimal regulations in terms of road worthiness certifications
issued by the transport authorities. Their operations have been left to the
private operator. Often they have been found to cause serious emission
and safety violations. Currently, there is no policy or program that can
improve the operation of Intermediate Public Transport modes. Often
the fare policy stipulated by the government (which may or may not be
aligned with market rates) is not honored by the operators, and the road
infrastructure also does not include facilities for these modes. As a result,
the operators have to violate legal policies to survive (Tiwari, 2007).

2.1.7 Inequity in transport and housing options

With urban expansion, city dwellers are faced with the prospect of choosing
between cheaper housing on the periphery of the city combined with high
transport costs or to live within the city where accommodation is more
expensive. This inequity places the most burdens on people of the lower
income group. For the urban poor this second option often translates into
living in crammed conditions without urban services in a slum within the
city to stay closer to their work places. And the ones that live on a city’s

24 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

fringe where land or housing is cheaper are exposed to high travel costs
(ADB, 2009).

2.1.8 Unsafe travel conditions

Currently, the focus is on moving vehicles instead of moving people.

People travelling via non-motorized modes like cycling and walking have
to share the same right of way as cars and two-wheelers (National Urban
Transport Policy, 2006) leading to unsafe conditions for all. The number of
fatalities has gone up from 28,400 in 1981 to 81,000 in 2001.(Op Agarwal,
2006). Studies show that the number of fatalities are also increasing in
relation to the increasing motorization. One study indicates that cities
Figure 2.g: No distinction for
with higher slow moving vehicles in the traffic stream such levels where
motorized and non-motorized
modes pedestrian involvement on road accidents average 20%. This highlights
the absolute lack of pedestrian facilities in our country.

While progress has been made towards protecting people in cars, the
needs of these vulnerable groups of road users are not being met”.
Pedestrians constitute a significant share of total fatalities and the
magnitude is in fact much higher in cities where the facilities do not
do meet the demand. For example, although the cities like New Delhi,
Bangalore and Kolkata have a pedestrian fatality share greater than 40%.
The problem becomes more severe when we try to access the impact on
most vulnerable section of society. For example, in the case of Bangalore,
every two days, three pedestrians are killed on roads and annually more
than 10,000 are hospitalized. Elderly people and school children carry a
large share of the burden with 23% fatalities and 25% injuries.

The percentage of streets with pedestrian pathways is hardly 30% in

most cities. The main reason behind this is inequitable distribution of
road space that streets are not well-designed and implemented in India
to accommodate all the functions of a street..And furthermore, in most
cases, only part of the right of way is developed (rest being undeveloped)
leading to unorganized and unregulated traffic which is unsafe for
pedestrians and cyclists. Security is also a major problem on public
transport services and within the public realm. Without adequate security,
public transport is vulnerable to vandalism and theft which affects the
quality of service and ridership.

2.1.9 Inadequate investments and allocation

issues

Since transport is a state subject in the Indian constitution, central

government did not have a policy or investment plan for urban transport
infrastructure until 2006. City governments attempted to solve transport
crises through isolated road improvement projects. This has resulted into

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 25
OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

fragmented and irregular network updates.

Investments in road-widening schemes and grade-separated junctions

which primarily benefit personal vehicle users (cars and two wheelers) in
the short term, have dominated government expenditure (Tiwari, 2007).
Attention to public transport has been inadequate. In India, most city bus
services make losses and do not have the resources to renew their fleets.
(Tiwari, 2011).

In the name of promoting public transport, demand for rail-based systems

(metro, light rail (LRTS), monorail) has been pursued by several cities.
Metro systems are capital-intensive systems (Rs.2,000-3,000 million/km, Figure 2.h: Over-loaded public
transport
or US$51–76 million/km). While this may be feasible for large dense cities,
it is not suitable to meet the mobility requirements of majority of the cities.
The cost of a single metro trip is at least Rs.45 (US$1.14) compared to
Rs.15 (US$0.38) for a bus trip. Tickets have to be subsidized at least 10
to 15 times more heavily than a bus ticket for the same journey. Yet they
are being pursued by the city authorities and promoted as investment
projects in which the private sector can participate (Tiwari, 2007) where
as bus based initiatives are not provided enough subsidy in capital cost
of projects.

2.2 Overview of existing institutional

framework

Under the Constitution of India, responsibility for urban development, and

therefore, urban transport, rests with the state government.

City level - At the city level, several agencies are involved in the
management of various components of urban transport. Urban local
bodies, under the Ministry of Urban Development, are responsible for
a range of functions. Construction and repair of smaller streets, street
signage, traffic lights, licensing and control of non-motorized vehicles
and clearing of encroachments come under Urban Local Body’s
purview. The PWD is responsible for state roads. Town and Country
Planning Organization and Housing Board at city or state level (under
the Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation) handle land use related
decisions. In some cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Pune, Kolhapur,
Solapur etc, .bus-based public transport is also in the form of Municipal
Transport Undertakings. In some cases, operations are franchised to
private operators by the city. In Chennai; Panaji, Pondicherry etc private
companies run services. In recent years, urban local bodies have been
asked to set up dedicated agencies to implement and operate ‘bus rapid
transit’ and ordinary bus services.

In some cases even one component may be managed by several different

agencies. For example, Streets and the associated infrastructure, the
main infrastructure for urban transport in a city, could be developed
and maintained by at least 6 agencies, namely the urban development

26 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

authority, the urban local body, State PWD, the Central PWD, the National
Highways Authority and the Central Ministry of Surface Transport.

The Regional or Urban Development Authority handles land use planning.

The existing legal enactments that directly affect planning for urban
transport are the ‘Town and Country Planning acts’ enacted by various
States. The ‘Town and Country planning acts’ enacted by Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu are required to prepare regional plans including transport
requirements. Karnataka Town Planning Act-1961specifies planned
growth of land use and development and for the making and executing
of town planning schemes. There is no mention of including transport
planning in it. Similarly four UD Authority acts i.e. Delhi Development
Authority, Lucknow development Authority,, Indore Development Authority
and Bangalore Development Authority and

The Karnataka Municipal Act does not mention specifically both land use
planning and transport as its functions. DDA act requires preparation of
land use plan based upon such survey of the present use of land as may
be necessary for estimated future needs and includes transportation.
However, it is essential to achieve integration of land use and urban
transport as well. For this, it is essential to improve the institutional setup
with necessary skills such that both functions become the responsibility
of the same city agency. Going forward, the cities should be empowered
to take care of their needs including urban transport.

State level – At this level, components of urban transport are managed

by various departments and ministries. Urban Development department
and State Transport Department handle significant part of the decisions.
State level departments cascade into three significant agencies at the
regional level – Urban Development Authorities under MoUD, the State
Road Transport Corporations (SRTCs) and Regional Transport Office
(RTOs) under Ministry of Roads, Transport and Highways. RTOs are
entrusted with licensing of motorized vehicles, monitoring of quality of
services, implementation of safety regulations and regulation of private
bus services and Intermediate Public Transport. Urban rail-based public
transport comes under the purview of the Ministry of Railways. Metro
rail services are being planned, designed, implemented and operated
by dedicated companies. Traffic Police, under Home Ministry, is the
enforcement agency for traffic laws and managing traffic at signalized
intersections. Railways have their own police for rail-based modes.

State Road Transport Corporations, are responsible for planning services

and setting fares of bus-based public transport. For bus-based public
transport services, the roles of planning, provisioning, design and
franchising are not clearly defined in any one place, and are being done
by different authorities in various cities (Ministry of Urban Development
& Wilbur Smith, 2008). Some cities including Delhi, Bangalore, Kolkata,
Hyderabad; Jaipur, etc have organizations under Road Transport
Corporation Act of 1950. In these cities, urban and regional services are
both handled by the SRTC.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 27
OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

Bus-based public transport in Chandigarh, Punjab & Haryana and some

cities like Delhi, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Jaipur etc. is done by
Government Departmental Undertakings. Regulations for health and
safety are set by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, CPCB
(Central Pollution Control Board) and SPCBs (State Pollution Control
Board). While responsibility of implementation of safety regulations
is under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, environmental
regulations are under purview of the CPCB and SPCBs. (Report on Indian
Urban Infrastructure and Services, 2011). Department of Environment,
State government is entrusted with monitoring of air quality.

Central Government level - Three Ministries i.e. urban development,

Railways and the Road Transport and Highways are involved at this level.
Ministry of Urban Development is the nodal ministry for urban transport.
It handles strategic planning and policy formulation. The Ministries of
Railways and Road transport and Highways, do not have any dedicated
cells to deal with urban transport issues. Ministry of Road transport
and Highways partakes in strategic planning for the urban transport
sector. Along with the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), this ministry is also
responsible for laying down standards and norms for various components
of urban transport. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas regulates prices
and quality of transportation fuels.

2.2.1 Problems related to current institutional

framework

Figure 2.i: Representative Institutional Framework

Abbreviations used in the figure: UD – Urban Development; TCPO – Town and Country Planning Organization; CPWD –
Central Public Works epartment; PWD – Public Works Department; SRTC- State Road Transport Corporation

28 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

The existing institutional framework is seen to be inadequate at addressing

many of the issues of urban transport in the Indian context. Some of these
are highlighted below:

1. Urban Transport is controlled by multiple institutions. This multiplicity

of institutions (Ministry of Urban Development & Wilbur Smith, 2008)
has resulted in no unity of command and fragmentation of functional
responsibilities. There is also no accountability in ownership,
performance, and maintenance transportation infrastructure and
system operations.

2. Urban transport affects almost all and each agency reports to a

separate ministry at the state and center level from whom it derives its
power. Urban Transport is reduced to a secondary responsibility for
each agency. Each agency has its own primary role in the scheme of
things. These agencies merely carry a component of urban transport
as a secondary function. (National Transport Development Policy
Committee (Planning Commission), 2010).

3. There is no single apex agency for regulation & coordination between

institutions. The current structure of Governance in the transport
sector does not provide for the right Co-ordination mechanism to
deal with urban transport problem (National Urban Transport Policy
2006).

4. There is also no co-ordinating agency for integrating operations of

different modes.

5. Lack of transport planning departments in planning or development

organizations at state and city level.

6. Lack of traffic management expertise, funds and automation in traffic

management under the Traffic police.

7. Weak decision-making power with local governments even two

decades since the 74th Constitution amendment.

8. The recent initiatives by the Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority

(UMTA) serve as a platform for coordinating transport management.
UMTAs have not been formed in all states. Where they exist, there
is no consistency in the role assigned to them. Different states have
assigned different roles and power to the UMTAs.

9. Inconsistent and fragmented data constrains the reliable assessment

of existing systems and future initiatives

10. There is no legislation at present that covers the requirements of

urban transport comprehensively. The Motor Vehicles Act deals with
the licensing of vehicles, Railway Act covers intercity traffic, Metro
Construction Act deals with the specific issues related to construction
of the metro rail, Tramways Act deals with tramways within the road
surface with free access across it. Other modes of mass rapid transit
such as the bus rapid transit, the light rail transit the mono rail and
several other guided modes of transport and issues of transport

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 29
OVERVIEW OF EXISTING CONDITIONS

planning, multi -modal integration, safety, tariff and financing are not
covered under any act

11. Urban local governments in India are among the weakest in the world
both in terms of capacity to raise resources and financial autonomy.
While transfers from state governments and the Government of India
have increased in recent years, the tax bases of ULBs are narrow and
inflexible and lack buoyancy, and they have also not been able to levy
rational user charges for the services they deliver.

2.2.2 Summary findings

The following is a summary of the various issues faced in urban transport

in terms of institutional framework, current trends and future requirements.

1. Land use planning - based on horizontal, low density expansion of

urbanized areas rather than densification of inner areas near public
transport.

2. Priority of users - Motorized modes given priority over non-motorized

modes and pedestrians.

3. Missing single agency - No single agency responsible and

empowered to address issues of Urban Transport

4. Lack of coordination among various agencies - related to urban

transport

5. Lack of reliable and adequate information - for evaluating, monitoring

and planning of transport infrastructure

6. Lack of integration of transportation with land use

7. Restrictive regulations - Current planning approach relies on

restrictive regulations to influence demand and supply rather than
creating market based mechanisms.

8. Lack of Integration with Urban Transport - Freight and Regional

transport planned in isolation with no integration with Urban Transport.

9. Need stronger role of media and voluntary sector - No role for

voluntary sector, media in influencing behavior of end-users.

10. Lack of information and adequate safety and security around use of
public transport.

11. Lack of efficient parking regulations and management

Urbanization is only going to increase in Indian cities and existing urban

conditions will worsen in the coming years unless steps are undertaken
to address the above mentioned issues. The current approach to urban
transport is unsustainable at multiple levels. There is an urgent need to
develop guidelines for sustainable urban transport that can help mitigate
these issues and can be implementable and in the long term, help
strengthen the process of urbanization.

30 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
...
Part 2: Principles,
Recommendations and
Case Studies
32 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 Principles for Sustainable Urban Transport

The following 10 principles have been derived to address the issues

related to urban transport highlighted in the previous section. This builds
on the efforts of the Ministry of Urban Development outlined in the National
Urban Transport Policy (2006) and the Service Level Benchmarking Study
(ongoing). Recent reports of the sub-committees on Urban Transport for
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH), Twelfth Five Year Plan,
and National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) have
also been perused and their recommendations have been integrated with
these principles. Efforts made by other organizations such as the recent 8
principles proposed by the Institute for Transport and Development Policy
(ITDP), and work done by Unified Traffic and Transport Infrastructure
(Planning and Engineering) Center (UTTIPEC) and Centre for Science
and Environment (CSE) have also been considered and assimilated
appropriately.

Walk Develop neighbourhoods that promote walking

Cycle Prioritize cycling and other non-motorized transport modes

Public transport Support access to high-quality public transport

Connect and
Complete Create well-connected network of complete streets

Integrate Integrate land use and transport to create high density, mixed use transit
oriented developments

Compact Encourage compact regions with short commutes

Parking Influence private vehicle usage through parking

Shift Shift from unsustainable mobility to sustainable modes by regulating road
use and other fiscal measures

Safety Ensure safety and security in urban transport

Freight Integrate freight planning with urban transport

While the above principles have been identified to a certain extent

even in earlier studies, including NUTP, this document identifies clear
implementable recommendations aligned with the above principles. It will
be possible for cities and local governments to identify a city specific
approach to their issues of urban transport with the help of this document.
Further, preparation of a detailed Comprehensive Mobility Plan, which
considers all these principles, recommendations, and impacts of
alternative solutions for sustainable urban transport, can be the next step

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 33
in the move towards a more sustainable future for urban transport for
each city.

The first few principles are organized in the sequence of priority. Before
anything else, it would be important to improve quality of pedestrian
infrastructure as identified in WALK. Next comes improvement of cycling
facilities and amenities. Together these constitute a large proportion of
users in our cities and these improvements are also less capital intensive
compared to the larger projects (like flyovers and underpasses). A
number of smaller cities (with population less than 5 lakhs) would be able
to bring about significant improvement in the quality of life of their citizens
even if they implement and apply only the first two principles.

Next is the aspect of PUBLIC TRANSPORT in the 3rd principle. This is

increasingly important for small, medium and large cities. However, with
the current focus and emphasis on heavy rail projects by larger cities,
even smaller cities are trying to implement such projects in their cities. It
is important to understand that the demand in small and medium cities
(up-to 40 Lakh Population) may even be met by a good quality BRTS
at less than one tenth the cost of a metro system. Regardless, as cities
grow in size and population, it is important to proactively put in place an
appropriate public transport system which will minimize the future growth
of private motorized vehicles and improve the quality of life of citizens.

Parking policies and other measures to help people adopt more

sustainable modes of transport are important as without them the public
transport systems cannot realize their full potential. Freight transport and
Safety are some of the most undervalued aspects of urban transport. As
cities grow and become larger, conflicts between freight and passenger
transport will need to be mitigated. Safety is even more critical as this is
one of the key factors affecting mode choice for discretionary users of
public transport.

Together the above principles will provide a framework to help cities

identify existing issues of urban transport and subsequently address
them with appropriate recommendations and implementation tools.

34 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 1. Walk
“Develop neighbourhoods that promote walking”

Sub-principles:

• Ensure provision of high quality pedestrian infrastructure

• Ensure safety and comfort of pedestrians

• Encourage pedestrian friendly building access, frontage, and street

level uses
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Principle 1. Walk
“Develop neighbourhoods that promote walking”

Walking is a nearly universal human activity that provides mobility, exercise

and pleasure.

Walking is the most energy efficient, healthy and sustainable mode of

transport. It is also the most universal mode. Everyone is a pedestrian
for part of their trip even if they are driving or using a bus or rail transit.
Hence, walking needs to be the primary focus of any plan or policy related
to urban transport.

In Indian cities, poor street conditions discourage people from walking,

even for short trips. Currently, the share of public transport trips in major
urban areas in India is between 25%-30% Since every public transport
user is also a pedestrian at the time of access and egress, walking trips
Figure 1.1: The transportation and
mobility priorities pyramid may constitute 50-60% of total trips (Tiwari, 2007). Despite high share
of walk trips, there is a lack of pedestrian infrastructure and walkable
street networks. Majority of our roads (more than 70%) do not have
footpaths (MoUD, WSA, 2008). And where they do exist they rarely meet
the clear minimum width (1.5m) required. Some guidelines for provision
of pedestrian infrastructure and safety of pedestrians do exist in India,
although in a fragmented manner. However, there is not adequate
awareness and guidance regarding these regulations and standards for
the implementing and enforcing agencies.

List of existing regulations for protecting the rights of pedestrians:

1. The Indian Penal Code (1860)sections 279, 304, and 336/37/38 protects the
public, which includes pedestrians, against rash driving and negligence by
motorists.
2. The Motor Vehicles Act (1988), sections 7-38 talks about penalisingthe
motorists exceeding speed limits and license regulationetc, indirectly protecting
vulnerable road users. Furthermore section 138 clause (h &i) empowers the
state government to prevent motor vehicles from using the pavements for
driving or parking.
3. The Rules of the Road Regulation (1989)has three rules mentioning pedestrians
or their right of way which are:
• the duty of the driver to slow down when approaching a pedestrian crossing (Rule 8)
• that no driver can park a motor vehicle near a traffic light or on a pedestrian crossing
or a footpath (Rule 15)
• that motor vehicles are not allowed to drive on the footpaths or cycle lane except with
permission from the police officer on duty (Rule 11)

4. The Municipal Corporation Acts also protect public roads and streets by
terming all obstructions illegal unless they are made with the prior permission
of the collector. They are entitled to ascertain the footpath width based on
width of the public roads.
5. Under the Persons with Disabilities (equal opportunities, protection of rights
and full participation) Act (1995), the government must provide for auditory
signals, engraving on the zebra crossings, slopes in pavements for easy
access of wheel chair, and warning signals at appropriate places.
(Source: www.transparentchennai.com)

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 37
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

In the absence of adequate pedestrian & cycle infrastructure, the use of

non-motorised modes like cycling and walking has become extremely
unsafe, as these modes have to share the same right of way with fast
moving motorized modes.(NUTP, 2006). If our cities are to sustain walking
as a viable mode of transport (even for short / medium trips between
1-3 km), provision of pedestrian infrastructure needs to be made an
immediate priority. Safety and comfort of pedestrians is just as critical.
People will not walk in unsafe environments which are often the after Figure 1.2: Pedestrians as the
effects of automobile oriented street designs. Hence, designing streets primary focus
where walking is prioritised is important along with building regulations
that also prioritises access and egress for pedestrians.

Sub-principles:

1A. Ensure provision of high quality pedestrian

infrastructure

Walking and cycling are the two most basic modes of transport and also
the most sustainable. Together these represent a major portion (30 - 50%)
of the mode share for cities of varying sizes(MoUD, WSA, 2008). However,
at present road space gets allocated to whichever vehicle occupies it Figure 1.3: High quality
pedestrian infrastructure
first. The focus is, therefore, the vehicle and not people. The result is that
a car carrying only one or two persons is allocated disproportionately
high space compared to a bus carrying 40 people. In this process, the
lower income groups have, effectively, ended up paying, in terms of
higher travel time and higher travel costs, for this disproportionate space
allocation to personal vehicles. Users of nonmotorized modes have
tended to be squeezed out of the roads on account of serious threats to
their safety (NUTP, 2006).

Provision of adequate street space and high quality pedestrian

infrastructure can help encourage more people to walk as a mode of
transport and for leisure. In order to encourage pedestrians, it is important
to design and implement ‘complete streets’ which provide a safe and
comfortable environment for walking. Complete Streets are streets for
everyone. They are designed and operated to enable safe access for all
users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists and transit riders of all
ages and abilities. Complete Streets make it easy to cross the street, walk
to shops, and bicycle to work. They allow buses to run on time and make
it safe for people to walk to and from train stations. (smartgrowthamerica)

38 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Figure 1.4: Complete Streets - Streets for all

1B. Ensure safety and comfort of pedestrians

Streets and urban environments must be safe and comfortable for

pedestrians to walk freely. One of the key issues for many Indian cities
today is the increasing challenge of ensuring safe street space for
pedestrians. Frequent conflicts with motorized modes, illegally parked
vehicles, vendor encroachment etc., drives pedestrians to either shift to
other modes and / or to risk their lives and walk frustratingly within the
carriageway. Occupants of private cars account for only 5.5% of the total
number of traffic fatalities (of the 35 cities with million-plus population
Figure 1.5: Pedestrian safety
signage studied). People outside the car constitute the vast majority of traffic
fatalities in all cities irrespective of size. Pedestrians, cyclists & other NMT
users form the single major group of users that account for traffic fatalities
in India. (Mohan, 2009)

Hence, one of the first and most important improvement needed on Indian
streets is the availability of wide and smooth footpaths with appropriate
curb-cuts and ramps for universal access. Well-designed crosswalks are
necessary to ensure safety while crossing the street. Painted crosswalks
often do not work until the notion of safety for pedestrians is instilled in
the mindset of vehicle users. At least initially, this will have to be instilled
through strict enforcement and where needed, through intentional traffic
calming measures such as raised cross walks, differentiation in paving
materials, signalized at-grade crossings etc.

Encroachment of pedestrian space by commercial establishments and

parking is another major hurdle in the way of improving safety and comfort
for people who walk. Enforcement is key and so far has been poor due
to various reasons. One way to improve enforcement is to partner with
the people whom this affects the most. With today’s technology, where
smart phones are increasingly becoming ubiquitous, allowing common
public to report encroachments may go a long way in discouraging

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 39
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

encroachers. On another front, there are also issues of encroachment of

footpaths by the homeless and this is a more difficult issue to address. It
needs to be resolved differently where the rights of the homeless people
do not conflict with the rights of the pedestrians. In short, there has to be a
zero tolerance policy for encroachment on streets, if we are to adequately
address the needs of pedestrians.

Another important factor for pedestrians in the Indian context is the need
for thermal comfort. Shade provided by trees and adjoining buildings
help pedestrians walk comfortably in hot environment. Hence, shade
needs to be considered in the design of streets. ‘Continuous shade’ on
the walkway should be ensured – through presence of tall building at the
property edge or by providing trees close enough to each other so as to
achieve adequate shade condition.

Certain streets should be considered for full-time / part-time

pedestrianization in order to promote safe walkable environments. This
may be especially relevant in the case of older / inner core areas of the
city where walking is threatened by growth of vehicular traffic. Minor
streets / local streets should be designated as pedestrian priority streets.

A key issue that hampers a number of efforts identified above is the

issue of resurfacing of streets in Indian cities. More often than not, during
resurfacing of streets, the final street level is raised due to the thickness
of asphalt added to the previous road. This, in turn, requires the footpaths
to be raised and so on. This creates difficulty in fixing levels of footpaths,
and creating a universal access environment. It is absolutely critical that
the final levels of all major streets and arterials be fixed with respect to
local datum based on a proper survey. This will allow people to provide
better access for pedestrians (including universal access to the disabled
– which is mandatory according to Persons With Disabilities Act 1995).

1C. Encourage pedestrian friendly building access,

frontage, and street level uses

Buildings often have entrances and exits that can only be reached from
their parking lots or driveways. These entrances are difficult and dangerous
for pedestrians to find and access. Encouraging developments that front
the street leads to a natural monitoring of pedestrian activities and helps
enhance safety. Primary building entrance should be oriented toward the
street or public right-of-way. Vehicular entrance (if any) should be located
separate and away from the primary street entrance.

Minimal front setback between the street and the edge of the building
helps define the street edges, and create a sense of enclosure by forming
a “street wall” that encourages pedestrian activity.. Deep front (and side)
setbacks lead to a lesser sense of “street wall” which in turn may lead to
unsafe pedestrian environments. The front setback and the frontage of Figure 1.6: Active frontages
any development on major streets should contribute in a positive manner

40 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

to urban environment by allowing adequate visibility from the street. This

increases “eyes on the street” which lead to safer streets with lesser
crime. Uses that do not contribute positively to the urban environment
such as long term parking should be relocated away from the primary
entrance of the development.

Certain types of informal activities on street can help contribute to the

Figure 1.7: Market encroaching on urban environment for pedestrians, cyclists and other users. However,
ROW of major street, Ahmedabad it is important to understand and distinguish between the kind and size
of informal activities that currently take place on Indian streets. Some
informal activities are in reality full fledged informal markets. While it is
necessary to retain and organise these, they cannot be accommodated
within the ROW of any major street and should placed some place off-
street. There are certain other informal activities that provide support
services to perdestrians, cyclists and other users. Provisions for such
activities should be made within the ROW of major streets so that these
Figure 1.8: Vending kiosk, Delhi do not encroach on the other areas of the street. Wherever possible,
these should be aligned with public transport nodes, important public
buildings, parks etc.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 41
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

42 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Recommendations

1A. Ensure provision of high quality pedestrian

infrastructure

1. Cities should ensure that all streets are designed and

implemented according to i) city / state specific street
design guidelines OR ii) national street standards for
urban roads prepared by IRC / MOUD.
Indicator - Percentage of streets (categories minor street and
above) in the city that are designed and developed as per city/
state street design guidelines OR national street standards by
IRC / MOUD
Benchmark - 90%
Implementation - ULB / UDA through Street Redevelopment
Program
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Figure 1.9: Design of Urban Roads
published by MOUD “Street Classification Table” on pg. 106 outlines an approach
to street design that may help cities prepare their own street
design guidelines if needed. An example of city / state specific
street design guidelines is the one prepared by UTTIPEC for
implementation within Delhi.
Note – It is understandable that certain streets within historic areas
and/or within slums etc. may not be able to meet the design
standards outlined for the state / city. However, it is possible to
account for such areas within the street design guidelines and
hence design/implement these streets according to the guidelines.
Thus, there is no reason for any street within the city to be built
at standards different from what the guidelines recommend.

2. Provide continuous, clear & unobstructed pedestrian

pathway minimum 1.8m wide in each direction
on streets wider than 10m and minimum 1.5m on
streets narrower than 10m. (Complies with IRC code
103:2012)
Indicator - Percentage of streets having unobstructed pedestrian
pathway of minimum standards
Figure 1.10: Continuous
unobstructed pedestrian Benchmark - Minimum 100%
pathway, Ontario.
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement through Street
Design or Street Redevelopment.
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details
Note – Minimum widths of footpaths is the first essential step to
providing “equitable space” to pedestrians as outlined in the National
Urban Transport Policy. The earlier version of this document outlined
this standard as applicable to minor streets and higher in the hierarchy
of streets. However, after discussions with various experts and

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 43
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

stakeholders, it was felt that this standard is fundamental and it needs

to be applied to all streets. The only case where an exception may
be made is in the rare case of pedestrian only streets within historic
/ core areas & other areas of the city and/or in case of local street
where the vehicular traffic speed has been calmed to under 20km/hr.
Utility Margin
Minimum Minimum Minimum
Width of Width of Utili- Total Width Utility Margin

Clear Path- ties Zone of Footpath

Figure 1.11: Segregated footpath
way
and utility zone, Islington. UK
Street with ROW < 10m 1.5 m 0.5 m 2.0 m
Streets with ROW > 10m 1.8 m 0.5 m 2.3 m

Any street with retail 2.3 m 1.0 m 3.3 m

commercial uses at
ground level
Any Arterial (major &/or 2.8 m 1.0 m 3.8 m
minor) with retail com-
mercial uses at ground
level

3. Ensure pedestrian crossings, preferably at grade

rather than grade separated, on all major and minor
arterials, and all major streets at every 200m maximum
distance between 2 crossing.
Indicator - Percentage of total length of all arterials and major
streets that have 5 crossings or more for every km of street.
Benchmark - Minimum 100%

Figure 1.12: Continuous pedestrian crossings on major arterials, USA

Monitoring - Streets Audit

Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement through Street
Design or Street Redevelopment.

1B. Ensure safety and comfort of pedestrians

4. Ensure minimum 1m wide safe refuge for pedestrians

at unsignalized crossings on every street where one
way carriageway width is more than 3 lanes (9 m) or 1.0m Minimum
two-way carriage-way width is more than 4 lanes total
(12m).
Figure 1.13: Safe refuge for
Indicator - Percentage of un-signalized crossings on streets where
pedestrians on un-signalized
one way carriageway is more than 9m or two way carriageway is crossings, India

44 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

more than 12m, with safe refuges for pedestrians and cyclists.
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement through Street
Design or Street Redevelopment.
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details

5. Ensure safe phase for pedestrians at all signalized

intersections
Indicator - Percentage of total number of signalized intersections
that have dedicated pedestrian and cyclist phase
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Figure 1.14: Dedicated phase Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA shall implement this through
for pedestrians at signalized street redevelopment programs.
intersection, Toronto

6. Provide push button signals for pedestrians at busy

intersections where pedestrian volumes are irregular
or unpredictable.
Indicator - Percentage of total number of signalized intersections
that have dedicated pedestrian and cyclist phase
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA shall implement this through street
redevelopment programs.
Figure 1.15: Push button signal for
pedestrian crossing, USA

7. Cities should prepare “Pedestrian & NMT Action Plan”

which includes identifying and designating pedestrian
and NMT priority streets based on appropriate data on
existing and projected volume of trips.
Implementation - NMT cell in ULB / UDA / UMTA should prepare
and implement this.
Figure 1.16: Pedestrian priority
Note - Pedestrian and NMT Action Plan may be prepared as a
street, La Ramblas. Barcelona
part of another larger planning effort like the CMP or be a stand
alone plan prepared by the city. The most important aspect of
this plan is to identify high volume corridors for pedestrians &
NMT and to ensure that a network of streets are prioritized for
use by pedestrians and NMT.

8. Allow part time pedestrianisation of all streets (except

Major Arterial streets and above in hierarchy) as per
demand based on pedestrian volumes
Figure 1.17: Pedestrian Priority
Implementation - UMTA will propose and implement
street, USA pedestrianisation proposals which will be regulated by Traffic

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 45
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Police by creating awareness amongst all categories of street

users and through on-street monitoring.

9. Ensure all pedestrian pathways, crossings and

intersections conform with universal accessibility
guidelines (disabled friendly)
Indicator - Percentage length of all pedestrian pathways with
universal access design considerations. AND
Percentage of all pedestrian crossings that are universally
accessible. AND
Percentage of all intersections with universal access design Figure 1.18: Disable friendly
considerations. crossing , USA

Benchmark - 90%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA should have dedicated
personnel / department for Universal Access specifically in-
charge of disabled friendly access. They should be charged with
the responsibility to implement ‘Universal Access Design’ for all
public streets and open spaces as mandated by the Persons with
Disabilities Act, 1995. Upgrades and redevelopment of existing
streets should be undertaken through street redevelopment
program.
Note: In certain historic / core areas of the city, it may be difficult to
implement universal access if it requires changing /redefining the
grade / slope of public streets which need to be preserved as-is
for heritage purposes. This could be the only exception to the
above standard and hence the benchmark allows a 10% leeway
for the same.

10. Ensure shaded pedestrian pathways on all streets

(major streets and above in hierarchy) by providing
tree plantation / shading structures with the “Plantation
& Furniture Zone” (Minimum. 100 trees per km)
Indicator - Percentage of total length of pedestrian pathway that has
tree plantation or shading structures
Benchmark - Minimum 70% (min. 100 trees per km)
Figure 1.19: Shaded pedestrian
Monitoring - Streets Audit pathways, Tilak Marg, Delhi. India
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through street
redevelopment programs.
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details

11. Provide seating at 50m intervals and where pedestrian

volume on the street (> 2500 pphdp) in both
directions along all streets (major streets and above in
hierarchy) within the “Plantation & Furniture Zone”
Figure 1.20: Seating
Indicator - Percentage of total length of urban streets (Major streets arrangement on streets,
and above in hierarchy) that have at least 30 benches per km on India

46 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

both sides of the streets

Benchmark – Minimum 60%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through street
redevelopment programs.
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details

12. Provide dust-bins at major intersections and public

transport stops/nodes in both directions along all
streets (Minor streets and above in hierarchy) within
the “Plantation & Furniture Zone”
Indicator - Percentage of total length of urban streets (Minor streets
and above in hierarchy) that have at least 30 dustbins per km on
both sides of the streets
Benchmark – Minimum 60%
Monitoring - Streets Audit

Figure 1.21: Street amenities

Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through street
redevelopment programs.
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details

1C. Encourage pedestrian friendly building

access, frontage, and street level uses

13. Ensure primary pedestrian access to buildings from

primary street, vehicular access from secondary street
where a plot has two or more frontages

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 47
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Figure 1.22: Pedestrian and vehicular access on CG road, Ahmedabad, India

Indicator - Percentage of all buildings that have primary pedestrian

access from a primary street.
Benchmark - Minimum 70%
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Development
Control Regulations.

14. Remove minimum requirements for front margins and

disallow any type of fencing / compound wall towards
arterial streets for all plots with frontage on arterial
streets. Exceptions: Institutional land use
Indicator - Percentage of total plots (excluding Institutional uses) on
arterial streets with no front margin / front margin without fencing
or compound wall
Benchmark - 100% compliance for all new developments and
redevelopments
Monitoring - Development Audit
Figure 1.23: Remove compound
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Development wall and disallow front margin
Control Regulations. towards arterial streets

15. Disallow parking within front margin for all plots with
frontage on arterial streets.
Indicator - Percentage of total plots (excluding Institutional uses) on
arterial streets without parking within the front margin space
Benchmark - 100% compliance for all new developments and
redevelopments

48 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Monitoring - Development Audit

Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Development
Control Regulations.

16. Encourage on-street vending activities near public

transport nods/parks/ junction of streets etc in place of
and in close proximity to on-street parking in clusters
not smaller than 5 vending spaces
Implementation - Urban Local Body / Urban Development Authority
will implement and regulate on-street vending activities through
on-street parking management agencies
Note - This recommendation is aimed at making provision for
support services for pedestrians, cyclists, public transport users
etc. and may include activities such as kiosks, drinking water
facility etc. Wherever possible, these should be aligned with
public transport nodes, important public buildings, parks etc.
This recommendation is not aimed at catering to natural markets
that encroach on streets. Natural markets found encroaching on
the ROW of any street should be relocated off-street close to its
present location.

Other recommendations:
• Highways within urban areas should be avoided since they
disrupt pedestrian activity and disturb neighbourhoods. Where
present in built-up areas, they should be treated as major arterial
streets and designed as per UTTIPEC’s Street Design Guidelines
(2010).
• Street design must allow pedestrians to remain at ground level
with comfortable and safe access and minimum detours from
the most direct path. Grade separated structures (FOB and
pedestrian subways) should be avoided to prevent unnecessary
detours to reach destinations.
• If grade-separated pedestrian crossings are unavoidable due
to presence of highways in urban areas, then such crossings
structures should be frequent. The preferred arrangement is to
depress the highway and provide at-grade crossings. There must
be at least four crossing opportunities per Km in built-up areas.
Every crossing should be universally accessible.
• Intermittent buffers, bollards and other physical elements should
be used to protect footpaths from encroachment by motor vehicle
parking. However, such elements should not form a barrier
to pedestrian movement. Continuous railings that constrain
pedestrian access are to be avoided.
• The final road level should be fixed for all streets. When re-
carpeting roads, previous layers must be scraped such that final
road level remains the same.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 49
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

50 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

Case studies

i. Car free zone - Fazilka, India

Key Information
•  In 2006, GWAF organized Car free
street for a week
•  Success of event led to creation of
car free zone for central area
•  Entry for cars banned between 10:00
am to 7:00 pm.
•  Beneficial impact of car free zone
–– 10,000 visitors/day in market areas
–– 23% reduction in accidents in central area
–– 3% reduction in air pollution
–– 25% increase in local sales
–– 12% increase in visitors to area
–– Improved community social life
–– 91% people agree that car free zone
enhances safety of pedestrians
Figure 1.24: Car Free zone near clock tower area, Fazilka, India

Fazilka is a small city in Punjab, India located near India Pakistan border.
Like most small cities in India, Fazilka has many narrow streets in the old
market areas and excessive growth of motor vehicles in the recent years
has lead to increasing traffic congestion. In the year 2009, municipal
committee decided to convert market area into car free zone. The main
market area around clock tower was declared as car free zone. The
entry of cars between are 10:00 am to 7:00 pm is banned. Only two
wheelers and cycle rickshaws are allowed during this period. placement
of traffic calming device and permanent barriers at few locations was
the key to success. (Asija, World’s First Dial a Rickshaw Facility-Green &
Sustainable Technology: Fazilka EcoCab, 2010)

In 2006, a group of people from Graduates Welfare Association Fazilka

(GWAF) organized Fazilka heritage festival for one week. As a part of
the festival, they converted 300 m long street (Sandhu Ashram road) into
pedestrian street. The success of this event led to other opportunities
and GWAF conducted an experiment in central zone as car free zone.
After the first initiative, GWAF was tried to convince the municipality and
market traders about the benefits of this proposal but at the time it was
difficult. In the year 2008, the traders were convinced that such a scheme
would be beneficial to Ghanta Ghar shopkeepers and program could
help decongest the area. Thus, in later phase Shashtri chowk road (800m
long )and Wool bazaar road (400 m long ) were converted into car free
zone. This program improved the air quality, Law and order, traffic related
issues, and provided healthy social life. (Kumar, Planning and Design for
Pedestrian Safety, 2009)

The successful implementation car free zone has been beneficial in many
ways, not only by decongesting the market. The local market traders near

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 51
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

clock tower are now happy with the ban of cars and the trading in the
shop has increased by 25% since the ban.

77% of people accept that pedestrian streets in Fazilka have brought the
community back to the street culture. The pedestrian street will promote
walking trips from various residential zones of the city to market areas
and 64% people accept that pedestrian streets has improved the air
quality in Fazilka. Pollution level in central area is reduced by 3% . (Asija,
Pedestrianisation need of the hour: a case study of fazilka town, 2009)

Fazilka is a historical town and is likely to have potential for tourism

development. Programs like these create more opportunities for
enhancing tourism in the area. Following the successful implementation
of the project, 70% people agree that car free zone will help to enhance
tourism potential for the city. Car free zone has led to reduced accidents
and has increased pedestrian safety during day and night time. A large
majority (91%) of people have indicated that they would like to see such
improvements in pedestrian safety throughout the city along with allowing
for slow moving traffic. Further, they suggest that special provision should
be made to avoid fast moving motorized vehicles in the residential streets
within the city.

ii. Pedestrian priority street - Nanded, India

Key Information

•  50km stretch developed under

JnNURM
•  Project done with support from ILFS,
ICE
•  Key design features:
–– Reduce carriageway for motorized
Vehicles
–– Pedestrian friendly wide footpaths
–– Dedicated cycle track
–– Dedicated area for vendors
–– Parking space provision at regular
interval
–– Building access modified for better
pedestrian access
Figure 1.25: Nanded pedestrian priority street, Maharashtra, India

A program called “The Network and Walkability Improvement Project”

under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was
conceived in 2006. Nanded (in Maharashtra) is one of the mission cities
under JNNURM and Nanded Municipality took the initiative to implement
this project. A project to improve the streets of the city was undertaken and
pedestrian priority streets were designed and implemented. (Mhaisekar,
Presentation on JNUURM Works in Nanded:Nanded Waghala City
Municipal Corporation, 2009)

Approximately 50 kms of the streets in Nanded were redesigned, improved

52 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

and built. The pedestrian pathways have been planned in such a way that
dedicated space is available for pedestrians, cyclists and multiuse zone.

Multi-use zone includes parking space, bus stops, vending zones etc.
Usually in the Indian context, vendors encroach on footpath constraining
the space available to pedestrians for walking. The design of multi-use
zone in street section attempts to minimize the pressure of encroachment
on road or on footpaths. (Kumar, Kulkarni, & Parida, Pedestrian Safety in
Multi Modal Public Transport: A Way Forward to Create Safer City, 2009)

Pedestrian crossings, pedestrian refuge islands, signage, traffic signals

and intersections have been designed and constructed. In certain places,
even the entry & exit of the adjacent buildings has modified to enhance
pedestrian access.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 53
PRINCIPLE 1. WALK

54 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 2. Cycle
“Prioritize cycling and other non-motorized transport modes”

Sub-principles:

• Ensure provision of high quality cycle infrastructure

• Ensure safety and comfort of cyclists & NMT users

• Ensure coordination of cycling facilities with public transport facilities

• Encourage use of Non-motorized mode for last mile connectivity for

people

• Provide legal status and protection to cyclists and NMT users

 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Principle 2. Cycle
“Prioritize cycling and other non-motorized transport modes”
Cycling is a popular mode of transport in Indian cities. As of 2007, between
10 to 20 percent of all trips were cycling trips across different cities in India
(MoUD, 2008). After walking, cycling is the second most efficient and
effective mode of transportation for short to moderate distances. There
are many benefits to cycling including health, environmental, economic,
etc. Considering these multifaceted benefits, a number of cities across
the world, notably Amsterdam, Copenhagen and others, have centered
their transport policies around promotion of cycling and non-motorized
transport.

Currently in India cycling is considered to be the mode of transportation

that is to be used by lower income groups of society, those who cannot
afford any other means of transport. It is also used by students of different
age groups. Higher income group of people prefer using cars or two
wheelers even for short distances. Moreover, the no. of households in
urban India that own bicycles are roughly equal to the no. of households
Figure 2.1: Copenhagen in the
1930s
that own motorized two wheelers and cars/jeeps put together (Census of
India, 2011). However, this is rapidly changing as more no. of households
are buying motorized two wheelers and cars. This reality needs to change
and use of these modes needs to be brought in day-to-day life style of
all sections of society if our future has to be sustainable. It is possible
to maintain and improve the mode share of cycling in the day-to-day
transport in many Indian cities, by investing in and providing adequate
quality infrastructure for cyclists.

Cities such as Copenhagen have gone full circle in terms of focusing on personal
Figure 2.2: Copenhagen in the transport modes for their transport policies. The first bike lane in Copenhagen was
1970s constructed on Esplanaden in 1892. Cycling was the predominant mode of personal
transport up till the 1950s when Copenhagen experienced a decline in utility cycling
due to increasing wealth and affordability of motor vehicles. During the late 60s and
early 70s the modal share of bicycles fell to an all time low of 10% and Copenhagen
was just as car-clogged as anywhere else as their policies focused more on motorized
modes. The oil crisis and the environmental movement of the 70s, alongwith several
planning reforms brought the focus back on cycling as the sustainable mode for
personal use. Today, close to 50% of residents of the city use cycle as their preferred
mode of personal transport. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_in_Copenhagen)

Other non-motorized modes such as Cycle Rickshaws and Cycles

Figure 2.3: Copenhagen today
Rickshaw Trolleys play a similar role as Intermediate Public Transport
(IPT) and non-motorized freight transport respectively. Non-motorized
vehicles do not consume fuel or cause pollution. Another aspect of non-
motorized transport is that it is a significant employment generator for the
minimally skilled workforce in small, medium and sometimes even large
cities. Cycle rickshaw is a public mode of transport and best suited to
provide the last mile connectivity. Many countries recognize the potential
of cycling to grow as a mode of transport and act as an alternative to car
use to create more sustainable urban futures.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 57
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Sub-principles:

2A. Ensure provision of high quality cycle

infrastructure
Currently, most space of the public street is allocated to private motorized
vehicle users (MoUD / WSA, 2008). In 2001, only 30% of households in
urban India owned motorized vehicles and the remaining households were
users of walking, cycling and public transport. This figure has gone up to
45% in 2011 which suggests that bicycle ownership is rapidly declining
Figure 2.4: High-quality bicycle
in India cities (Census of India, 2011). If this has to change and cycling infrastructure
is to be a more well-used mode of transport, it is important to understand
the factors affecting / reducing the use of cycling in cities. A number of
cities in the world have been successful at promoting the use of cycling
by using a multi-pronged approach to improving bicycle use. One of the
first and most important aspects of such an approach is having excellent
infrastructure. This means providing dedicated & segregated cycle lanes
on all major arterials along with proper cycle crossing, cycle parking and
other facilities at regular intervals.

Different people use cycle for different purposes and it is important to

understand the nature of cycle use in a particular city before undertaking
specific infrastructure improvements. The average trip length for all
vehicles (excluding walk) in medium and large cities varies from 4.2- 6.9
km and the average trip length for bicycle is 3.1- 4.5 km. It is observed
from the trip length frequency distribution that 56% to 72% trips are short
trips (below 5km, the typically cycle-able distance) (Tiwari, G. & JAIN, H.,
2009). Hence, there is a great potential for cycling due to the typical short
distances in Indian cities.

Another key feature of cities that have more recently improved the mode-
share of bicycle within their transport is that they have introduced a strong
public bicycle sharing program. Such programs have been implemented
in many cities including, New York, Washington DC, Guangzhou,
Hangzhou, London etc. Some cities in India (Bangalore, Delhi etc) have
initiated pilot projects along similar lines. Public bicycle sharing not only
helps promote bicycling, it also helps sensitize users of other modes to
the needs of cyclists. Certain small & medium sized cities in India have a
different version of cycle sharing - cycle rentals where individual vendors
provide cycles on rent near key areas (like railway stations). These serve
as effective commute option for a number of low and middle income
users (Embarq).

Provision of appropriate street space and infrastructure for pedestrians

and cyclists can help encourage more people to use these sustainable
modes of transport for short and intermediate trips.

58 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

2B. Ensure safety and comfort of cyclists & NMT

users
The perception of risk among captive riders and potential riders does not
show much difference as against popular beliefs. Both the captive users
as well as the potential users focus on primarily on physical safety and
the difficulties in crossing the intersections (Jain, H. & Tiwari, G., 2010).
This is largely because cyclists have to share the same right of way as
motorized vehicles that are larger and fast moving. Pedestrians, cyclists
& other NMT users form the single major group of users that account for
Figure 2.5: Bicycle lanes cleared traffic fatalities in India (Mohan, 2009). Hence, it is important to ensure the
of snow before vehicular safety and comfort of cyclists through provision of dedicated segregated
carriageway (Odense, Denmark)
cycle tracks along major arterials, safe refuges at unsignalized crossings,
ensuring a safe phase for cyclists at signalized intersections etc. safety.

Apart from improving safety, the segregation of vehicles moving at

different speeds would help improve traffic flow, increase the average
speed of traffic and reduce emissions resulting from sub-optimal speeds.
Such segregated paths would be useful to enable full trips using NMT and
also as a means of improving access to major public transport stations
(NUTP, 2006).

Perceptions of comfort may vary among the different cycling user groups
(Jain, H. & Tiwari, G., 2010). However, clear segregated cycle lanes with
minimal conflicts with motorized traffic can greatly affect the sense of
comfort of cyclists. A city wide network of cycle lanes with parking & other
supporting facilities at regular intervals can help maintain and improve the
modal share of cycling in the overall transport of cities. Shade is another
important factor for cycling in the Indian context. Street design should
Figure 2.6: Priority for Cyclists at ensure that tree plantation zone is aligned with cycle lanes and sidewalks
intersections
to create comfortable enviroments for pedestrians and cyclists. Adequate
lighting for NMT infrastructure is necessary to ensure the safety of NMT
users at all times.

Provision of high quality cycling infrastructure in itself is not enough.

There needs to be adequate enforcement to ensure that cycle lanes are
not encroached and obstructed by other modes and / or by utilities, and
the rights of cyclists are protected.

2C. Ensure coordination of cycling facilities with

public transport facilities
Even for trips made using public transport, access to the public transport
node from the origin and desitination of a trip would require use of a
different mode of transport. Integrating provision of cycling infrastructure
with the existing and planned public transport nodes will help ensure that
this need is served by walking, cycling or other NMT. It also allows a larger
group of people to access public transport at a very low / no cost and use
Figure 2.7: Bicycle sharing facility it for longer trips.
at Waterloo station, London
Coordination of cycling infrastructure with public transport nodes

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 59
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

can include provision of bicycle parking stands and bicycle sharing

facilities near major public transport nodes. Additionally, high capacity
public transport modes such as BRT, MRT and light rail should allow for
transportation of personal bicycles in non-peak hours. This is particularly
useful if a city does not have a bicycle sharing program in place.

Coordination of cycling infrastructure with public transport nodes would

ensure that more people have access to public transport and as a result
would also increase use of the public transport facilities (NUTP, 2006).
Figure 2.8: Cycle integrated public
transport, Sunderland, UK
2D. Encourage use of Non-motorized mode for
last mile connectivity for people
After walking and cycling, cycle rickshaws are the next most efficient and
effective mode of transportation for short to moderate distances. Non-
motorized people movers mainly include cycle rickshaws that provide
personal transport. Cycle rickshaws are among the most cost efficient,
pollution-free and noise-free vehicles. In addition to being eco friendly,
cycle rickshawds also have the added advantage of providing an instant Figure 2.9: Cycle rickshaw stand
source of livelihood for impoverished migrants from rural areas who at Delhi metro stations
regularly come to cities in search of work (Jain, H. et al, 2011). However,
cycle rickshaws need to be recognized as an important IPT mode that
help provide the last mile connectivity for users of public transport from
their origins and destinations to the public transport node. Provision of
cycle rickskaw stands at major public transport nodes can help ensure
connectivity for commuters and ensure that cycle rickshaws do not
occupy the main vehicular carriageway for parking.

In addition to the basic infrastructure, facilities such as drinking water,

public toilets etc. can also be provided along the routes to provide
support to the cycle rickshaw drivers. Similar facilities already exist for
public transport staff.

2E. Provide legal status and protection to cyclists

and NMT users
Numerous surveys and studies have shown that safety is one of the key
issues impacting cycling and NMT use. Provision of strong legal status
which allows cyclists and NMT users priority on road space as compared
to other motorized modes would go a long way in helping improve the
use of these modes.

Legal status of right-of-way and rules of behaviour for motor vehicles are
governed by State Motor Vehicle Act. The act also establishes rules for
licensing, registration and permits for various types of vehicle use. Since
Figure 2.10: Equal rights for
the act is not specific with regard to any hierarchy or priority of Right-of- cyclists
way on public streets, frequently, cyclists and NMT users are marginalized.
Hence, it is important that within this act, there be an acknowledgment
of the rights of cyclists as NMT users as legitimate users of street ROW.

60 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Recommendations
2A. Ensure provision of high quality cycle
infrastructure

1. Provide continuous unobstructed cycle lanes made

with high quality paving (Asphalt or Concrete, not
paver blocks) minimum 2m wide in each direction on
all major & minor arterials, optional on all other streets
Indicator - Percentage of total length of major arterials that have
designated cycle lanes as per minimum standards
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Figure 2.11: Continuous
unobstructed cycle lane, Delhi, Monitoring - Streets Audit
India
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Street Design or
Street Redevelopment program
Refer - “Street Classification Table” for further details

2. Ensure cyclist crossings (along with or separate from

pedestrian crossings) on all major and minor arterials,
and all major streets at every 200m
Indicator - Percentage of total length of all arterials and major streets
that have 5 crossings or more for every km of street.
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA

3. Provide priority to cycle parking at any public / private

parking facility by providing for atleast 50 cycles
closest to the entry / exit of the parking.
Indicator - Percentage of total parking facilities (public / private)
which have priority parking space for 50 cycles within 10 M of its
entry / exit .
Benchmark - Minimum 70%
Figure 2.12: On street cycle
parking facilities, USA Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA

4. Implement modern cycle sharing system in all cities

>1million population with stations at every major
public transport node and other important destinations
Indicator - Percentage of urban area in cities > 1 million population
with an active modern cycle sharing system implemented
Benchmark - Minimum 40%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit .

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 61
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Implementation - ULB / UDA

2B. Ensure safety and comfort of cyclists

5. Provide bicycle boxes at all signalized intersections to

prioritize safe crossing by cyclists.
Indicator - % of signalized intersections with bicycle boxes
Benchmark – 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through street
redevelopment programs. Figure 2.13: Cycle holding box at
intersection, Delhi, India

6. Ensure safe refuge for cyclists on un-signalized

crossings for every street where one way carriage-way
is more than 7m or two way carriage-way is more than
12m.
Indicator - % of un-signalised crossings with safe refuge for cyclists
(where one way carriageway is > 7m or two way carriageway is
> 12m)
Benchmark – 100%
Figure 2.14: Safe refuge for cyclists
Monitoring - Streets Audit
on un-signalized crossings, USA
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Street Design
or Street Redevelopment.

2C. Ensure coordination of bicycle facilities with

public transport

7. Provide cycle rickshaw / auto-rickshaw stands at all

major public transport nodes (and at other important
destinations as needed ) within 50m from the entry /
exits
Indicator - % of public transport nodes with cycle rickshaw stands
for minimum 5 cycles.
Benchmark – 100%
Monitoring – Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA should ensure the provision of Cycle
Rickshaw Stands near public transport nodes.

8. Provide secure and weather protected cycle parking

facilities for at least 100 cycles (or more based on
demand) at all major public transport nodes within
50m from exit (stations and above in hierarchy)
Indicator - Percentage of major public transport nodes (stations and Figure 2.15: Cycle parking facilities
above) with secure & weather protected cycle parking facilities near bus shelter, Netherlands

62 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Benchmark - Minimum 100%

Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement through Station area
redevelopment.

9. Provide cycle sharing stations at all major public

transport nodes within 50m from exits and at other
Figure 2.16: Bicycle sharing station important destinations (for cities >1million population,
near BRT station, China
with cycle sharing system)
Indicator - Percentage of major public transport nodes (stations and
above in hierarchy) and important destinations with cycle sharing
facilities
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Figure 2.17: Bicycle sharing Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will be responsible for
system, Paris
implementation. Part funding should be provided by state or
central government

2D. Encourage use of Non-motorized mode for

last mile connectivity for people

10. Incentivise NMT based rickshaws in congested or

core areas of the city by providing NMT priority lanes
and NMT parking/stands near the congested / core
areas.
Implementation – ULB / UDA will provide the incentives through the
NMT component of the Comprehensive Mobility Plan

11. Provide supportive infrastructure in the form of

drinking water, toilet facilities, IPT-based rickshaw
drivers at regular intervals, at least one such facility
every sq.km.
Indicator - Percentage of urban area where there is one such facility
(drinking water & public toilet) every sq.km.
Benchmark - Minimum 80%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA will provide the incentives through the
NMT component of the Comprehensive Mobility Plan

Other recommendations:

• Provide stronger legal right-of-way to cyclists and other NMT users.

Providing this would require change in existing legal/statutory

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 63
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

framework and an amendment to the existing Motor Vehicle Act of the

State. However, through appropriate training and sensitization, people
responsible for managing traffic and enforcing traffic regulations can
be more sensitive to the needs of the cyclists and NMT users as a
first step.

• Ensure design standards for NMT infrastructure must be planned

and implemented according to a comprehensive NMT plan. This plan
could be part of a larger comprehensive mobility plan (as prepared
by the city to meet JNNURM requirements) or could be a standalone
plan whose recommendations are implemented by the city through
their annual capital improvement plans.

• Encourage Cycle & Cycle Rickshaw repair shops. This can be done
through allowing local tax rebates on cycle repair shops or subsidized
tax to other shops which have cycle repair facilities.

• In most cities in India, there are no ancillary facilities like toilets /

canteens etc for cycle rickshaw pullers, auto rickshaw drivers, hand
& animal cart pullers. Hence, it is observed that most people use
street space for such uses. It is recommended that cities should have
atleast 2-3 facilities where drivers and pullers of the above modes are
able to use canteen & rest room services while leaving their vehicles
in a safe & secure environment. It is possible to combine these with
public transport nodes of a higher order as they include such facilities
for other users and one only needs to provide for the safety of their
vehicles.

• Provide on-street parking facilities for cycles and cycle rickshaws as

per demand.

• Ensure basic safety for bicycle users by making it mandatory to either

show proof of helmet or purchase of helmet along with every new
purchase of bicycle.

64 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Case studies

i. Dial-a-Cycle Rickshaw Service- Fazilka, India

Key Information

•  Node to Node Connectivity

•  Sustainable Technology
•  Affordable and Comfortable
•  Key design features:
–– Reduce carriageway for motorized
Vehicles
–– None call centers serve an average
of 1500 Households. Total ECOCAB
available in Fazilka - 500
–– Daily passenger ridership - 10000
passengers per day
•  ECOCAB won the National Award for
Excellence in NMT Intiative from the
MoUD in 2011
Figure 2.18: Fazilika Ecocabs, Dial a Cycle Rickshaw service, Punjab, India

Cycle rickshaws are a traditional and an eco-friendly mode of transport

in India. They continue to play a role as para-transit and non-motorized
mode of transport in Indian cities. The world’s first dial-a-rickshaw service,
ECOCAB, was initiated in Fazilka, Punjab in 2008 by Graduates Welfare
Association Fazilka, an NGO dedicated to education, employment,
environment and energy. ECOCAB is tool for sustainable movement of
passengers and goods in the city and nearby areas. ECOCAB is a dial-
a-cycle-rickshaw (similar to dial-a-cab service which attempts to balance
its demand and supply through equal distribution of fleet and automation
using latest IT tools.

The key to ECOCAB concept has been the improvement of the existing
rickshaw design. The cycle rickshaws are ergonomically designed and
the service is offered at a very affordable price. The new rickshaws
are lightweight, low-floor and carry extra luggage and have better
advertisement space. The ECOCAB lightweight rickshaws are equipped
with luggage space, FM radio and drinking water facility.

The second key innovation in the ECOCAB concept is its operations

based on advanced IT infrastructure. The entire ECOCAB service is now
IT based. Fazilka is divided in nine different zone of one kilometer by
one kilometer grid. Individual grid has its own zone code. Further the
city is being served via nine ECOCAB call centers from where the user
can dial for rickshaw at doorstep. The users just have to dial ECOCAB
number in which the last three digits are zone code. Each traction man
carries mobile phone for direct calling facility and its android application
is available in the market. Figure 9 shows zone map for ECOCAB service
and with contact details and zonal extention code.

Currently in Fazilka, more than 500 ECOCAB is available and daily

ridership is 10000 passengers per day. All traction men are provided with

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 65
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

work uniforms and have to follow a code of conduct, which, if broken,

can lead to the confiscation of their rickshaw license. In Fazilka, nine
call centers have been strategically spread around the town, and each
of these serve an average of 1,500 households. The service is usually
available between 9:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. The scheme functions very
similar to the dial-a-cab service and all rickshaw pullers, also known as
traction men, have been provided with cell phones.

According to estimates, nearly 60 lakh (6 million) people travel on

cycle rickshaws in Punjab every day. The ECOCAB scheme has been
instrumental in employment generation, becoming a source of livelihood
for about 3 lakh (300,000) families and reducing use of fossil fuels. The
ECOCAB services are operationally efficient and include benefits for the
rickshaw pullers, users and society. The availability of ECOCAB save
1500 liters of fuel on daily basis and reduce the amount of air pollutant in
the air. The project helped increase the latent demand for cycle rickshaws
and has contributed towards improved well-being of rickshaw pullers
and their families. With the success of the scheme and its national-
level recognition, several other cities, including Delhi and Jaipur, are
considering implementing a similar dial-a-rickshaw system.

In 2011, Fazilka ECOCAB won the National Award for Excellence in Non-
Motor Transport from the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India. A similar practice has been adopted for auto-rickshaws in several
other cities. The concept was successful, and it has now been taken to 21
other cities in the state of Punjab.

Fazilka ECOCAB got a big boost in 2011 when the Punjab and Haryana
High Court took decision in one of the news item and ordered the
Government of Punjab, Haryana states and UT Chandigarh to implement
it in various cities of Punjab, Haryana and UT Chandigarh. In addition, the
idea also finds mention in the country’s 12th Five-Year Plan, under the low
carbon mobility agenda.

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Figure 2.19: Fazilika Ecocabs, Zonal Distribution Map with Extension code

66 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

ii. Bicycle Sharing - Guangzhou, China

Key Information
•  Launched June 2010
•  Phase 1
–– 5,000 Bicycles
–– 113 Stations
–– 20,000 Bicycles trips per day
–– 4.0 Trips/Bicycle/Day
–– Reduce 7,500 motorized trips per day
•  Fees
–– First hour of usage is free.
–– 2nd hour of usage US$0.15
–– 3rd hour of usage US$0.30
–– ≥ 4th hour add US$0.44/hr
•  Frequency of bike use:
–– 63% more than 3 times per day
–– 50% more than once per day
–– Additionally, almost every BRT station
Figure 2.20: Public sharing bicycle station, Guangzhou, China has some form of bicycle parking.

Guangzhou is one of the fastest growing cities in the world. As the

economic hub of China’s southern coast, it has undergone three decades
of rapid modernization, and until recently, the city’s streets were completely
overrun by polluting private vehicles. However, Guangzhou has started
to change course. In 2010, the city opened its first BRT line making major
strides to cut carbon emissions and reclaim space for people, promising
more public transport and public bike-sharing systems.

Integration of public bicycle sharing and BRT was initially setup in June
2010. The first phase was implemented along the Zhongshan corridor.
This has 18-bicycle station, and more than 1000 bicycles available for the
users. By late 2010, this system expanded to 113 station and 5000 bikes
mainly around Huajinxinch and Xiayuan BRT station.

Almost every BRT station has some form of bicycle parking facility and
many public bicycle stations also provide for private bicycle parking. In
2nd phase, Guangzhou set station around bus stops with more facility.

As a part of overall bicycle infrastructure, full-length, physically separated

bikeways were built along both sides BRT corridor, and improved
footpaths run through the full corridor. Guangzhou transport department
says that the bicycles are currently used for over 20,000 trips per day and
4.0 trips per day per cycle which reduces 7,500 motorized trips per day.
Secure, high-density bicycle parking is also available at BRT stations for
private bicycle users.

Guangzhou Transport Authority has also infolded Yang-cheng-tong card

(like integrated mobility card) that can be used in BRT, Metro train, Taxi
and for cycle sharing purpose. cycle sharing users who do not have a
Yang-cheng-tong card can use the service by paying a deposit of $45
USD.

The first hour of use is free; this is followed by incremental pricing where
users pay an additional 0.15 US$ for the second hour, 0.30 US$ for the

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 67
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

third hour, and 0.44 US$ after every additional hours. The main objective
of the pricing modal is to maximize the use of bicycle and rather than
increasing the revenue. (Schroeder, Bradley, 2011)

While most cities in the world need some level of public subsidy to cover
the difference between operating cost and revenues generated by a public
bicycle sharing system, it is well understood that if all avenues of revenue
generation are explored, this difference can be reduced significantly so
it does not cause an undue burden on the city . such avenues include
advertisements on the bikes / stations, partial sponsorships by large
institution users like universities etc.

iii. Dedicated Bicycle Lanes - Delhi, India

Key Information

•  Cycle traffic share on the 5 important

intersections - 15%- 40%
•  Fatalities in Delhi in year 2004
–– Share of bicycle fatalities - 9.7%
–– Major and seriously bicycles fatalities -
6.2%
•  Bicycle master plan for Delhi
–– Segregated cycle track improved traffic
condition
–– Bicycle priority lanes along BRT corridor
–– Concept of Prioritization of space
allocation
–– 2.5 m wide NMV lanes on both sides
–– NMV lanes have been visually and
physically segregated from pedestrian
paths
Figure 9:
2.21:
Segregated
Dedicated
NMV
Bicycle
lane,/ NMT
Delhi,lane,
IndiaDelhi, India

Unlike other urban areas in India, majority of the population in Delhi is

not dependent on bicycles for daily commute. However, cycle traffic
contributes between 15-40% of the total traffic on the 5 important
intersections monitored since 2003. (TRIPP, 2007)

The share of bicycle traffic continues to be substantial despite lack of

planned facilities for them. However, bicyclists are exposed to higher
risks of getting involved in a road traffic crash. Bicyclists constitute about
9.7% (180 deaths) of the total road traffic fatalities in Delhi in 2004. Also
6.22% (506 victims) are cyclists among those who were seriously injured
during road accidents in 2004. (Delhi traffic police, 2005). Cyclists occupy
the curb side lane in a mixed traffic situation. They share this lane with
transport and goods vehicles, buses and three wheeled scooter taxis,
leading to the risk of serious accidents. Thus cycle track segregation
is required on all roads with maximum speeds more than 50 km/hr,
according to all international design guidelines.

Keeping this in mind, Delhi Master Plan and the Bicycle Master Plan for
Delhi advocated for segregated bicycle infrastructure. However, it was

68 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

finally implemented with the introduction of BRT corridor in the city. The
concept for this corridor Prioritization of space allocation included the
following features:

• Segregated bus lanes in the centre of the Road, for uninterrupted

traffic movement.

• Safe pedestrian and commuter movement at all locations.

• Segregation of slow traffic such as bicycles to ensure efficiency.

The first corridor of BRT in Delhi, from Ambedkar Nagar to Delhi Gate, is
14.5 km long with ROW varying from 28 meters to 51.5 meters. Bus Lane
is in the middle of Road with a width of 3.3 meters. While motorized vehicle
lane is on the side of bus lane with a width of 6.75 meters. Separate tracks
are made for non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians.

Figure 2.22: Cross section of arterial road before implementation of Delhi BRT project

Figure 2.23: Cross section of arterial road after implementation of Delhi BRT project

NMV (cycle) lanes with 2.5m width have been provided throughout the
length of the proposed corridor from Ambedkar Nagar to Delhi Gate.
These lanes have been segregated from the Motor Vehicle lanes by a
0.75m wide median/unpaved zone (Figure 17) on 75% of the length, more
than 0.75m wide green belt/footpath on 20% of the length, 0.3m wide
median on 4% of the length of the corridor.

The NMV track has been combined with the pedestrian walkway (due to
space constraint) to provide a 3m wide common path for less than 1%
length of the corridor. All NMV tracks are accessed through a ramp with a
minimum gradient of 1:12.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 69
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

Figure 2.24: Segregated and painted bicycle track, Delhi, India

Cyclists can use the free left turn at junctions whereas straight and right
moving traffic will negotiate the junction at green signals with other
vehicles. To allow for safe movement of cyclists at green light on junctions,
cycle holding boxes have been demarcated 5 m ahead of the stop line on
the carriageway. NMV lanes have been visually and physically segregated
from pedestrian paths to make a clear distinction between the areas to be
used by each user.

Figure 2.25: Cycle holding box at intersection, Delhi, India

Benefits
Cycle track segregation has helped in improving the traffic flow of other
motor vehicles. Even a low cycle volume prevents motorists from using
the curb side lane of the carriageway as the speed differential between

70 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

the two makes maneuvering between the cyclists almost impossible.

Bicycle lanes also result in better space utilization. For instance a 3.5m
lane has a carrying capacity of 1,800 cars per hour whereas it can carry
5,400 bicycles per hour. (Replogle M., 1991) Average occupancy of a
car is 1.15 persons and bicycle carries one person. (IRC 106-1990) This
implies that in order to move the same number of people we would need
2.6 times the road area that would be required for bicyclists. Given the
fact that there is not much space available to expand existing roads, the
future mobility needs and projected trips can only be met by increasing
the capacity of the existing road network. This can only be achieved by
encouraging modes which are more efficient in terms of space utilization.
(TRIPP 2008)

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 71
PRINCIPLE 2. CYCLE

72 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 3. Public Transport
“Support access to high-quality public transport”

Sub-principles:

• Ensure good quality public transport service within walking distance of

homes, jobs, and amenities

• Maximize public transport capacity in densely developed areas and along

growth corridors

• Create reliable & comfortable public transport services and facilities

• Integrate public transport with Intermediate Public Transport and cycle

facilities to improve accessibility

• Public Transport node classification system

PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

74 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Principle 3. Public Transport

“Support access to high-quality public transport”

To cater to urban transport in rapidly growing cities in India, the only

sustainable long-term solution is provision of high quality public transport.
This has been identified as a critical and urgent need; and much has
been initiated through the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission (JnNURM). However, a lot more needs to be done to make public
transport efficient, accessible and affordable to the majority of people.

The advantages of a high-quality public transport system include

reduction in traffic congestion, improved travel time, reduction in energy
consumption and emissions and public health. It also helps provide
affordable transport alternative that is socially inclusive. High quality
public transport also ensures comfort as well as a “go anywhere anytime
convenience” for people of all ages and abilities. It benefits everyone,
including people who never use public transit themselves but who
experience less traffic and parking congestion, improved safety, and
reduced need to chauffeur non-driving family members and friends.

A fully-integrated, ‘seamless’ network with short waiting times and easy

transfers can help encourage people to switch from private vehicle use
to public transport. Hence, one of the most important task is to ensure
access to good quality public transport for majority of residents in the city.
Public transport includes various services such as buses, trams, trains,
rapid transit (metro rail, bus rapid transit system (BRTS) etc) and water-
based modes like ferry (VTPI, Public Transit Improvements, 2011).

Public transport cannot be successful without appropriate access and last

mile connectivity which in Indian cities is largely provided by intermediate
public transport (IPT) modes such as cycle rickshaw, auto rickshaw,
taxi, etc., Moreover, IPT provides the only public mode of transport in
Figure 3.1: Space occupied by
many small and medium sized cities in India. In both cases, IPT plays an
cars vs public transport for same important role in providing mobility at a very low cost to a large section
capacity of the population. It is important to address the needs for these modes
and to organize and streamline the operations for better reliability and
safety. However, IPT modes should not be seen as a replacement for
public transport modes in larger cities (cities with population more than
one million).

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 75
PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Sub-principles:

3A. Ensure good quality public transport service

within walking distance of homes, jobs, and
amenities

In order for public transport to be well-used, it is important that it serves

majority of residential areas, workplaces and other destinations within the
city. Hence, a well networked system with adequate reach is one of the
first requirements of a good public transport system.

Public transport systems have different capacities, reach and the cost at
type / technology of public transport to the demand and nature of urban
Figure 3.2: 400m coverage of
fabric that may be unique for each city. The utility of any of these systems public transport nodes, Sydney,
has to be judged in terms of how well it serves the individual trip needs, Australia
how many people can benefit for the same investment, and how flexible
it is in meeting the changing demands of the city. Optimal capacity is
one that best fulfils travel demand. Travel demand depends upon city
size, trip lengths, location, density of jobs and residences and other
socioeconomic conditions. System demand depends upon the ease of
access, low fares, and dependability. A high-capacity system succeeds if
there is demand for it within walking or easily accessible distance. (Tiwari,
2006).

Once the public transport has been planned and is undergoing

implementation, it is important to reinforce this massive infrastructure
improvement by incentivising new development to locate in close
proximity to the public transport nodes. This will not only help the PT
service attract ridership, it will also ensure that more people have access
to the new infrastructure.

Each public transport trip requires at least two walk trips; at the
beginning and at the end. For efficient utilization of a high quality public
transport, pedestrian access to public transport needs to be prioritized.
Public transport nodes should be located within a comfortable walking
distance from majority of homes, jobs and services. Also a good walking
environment encourages people to walk longer to reach public transport.
This enhances the feasibility of investment-intensive mass rapid transit
like BRTS and Metro Rail.

In small Indian cities, auto rickshaws, taxis, cycle rickshaws are used as
the main mode of public transport. As trip lengths are shorter in smaller
cities, IPT modes are able to serve majority of population in a more
efficient manner than public transport in terms of network coverage.
However, there is a need to regulate the IPT modes and organize the
routes and stands.

76 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

3B. Maximize public transport capacity in densely

developed areas and along growth corridors

The demand of public transport is always higher in densely developed

areas than in low density areas. This needs to be reflected in the design
and planning of the public transport services and nodes. High density
Figure 3.3: The relationship
areas within the city need easily accessible, frequent and reliable service
between energy use, public
transport share and density in order to meet the travel demand and encourage people to use public
transport.

3C. Create reliable & comfortable public transport

services and facilities

The reliability and comfort of using public transport services determine

the ease of accessibility and eventually the number of people that will
Figure 3.4: Reliable, fast public switch over from private modes.
transport - BRT Delhi
The reliability of public transport services should aim for frequent and
efficient service that reduce journey times and transfer times during
peak periods. Public transport services should focus on comfort and
convenience of users for all aspects of the entire trip. This includes
convenience of interchanging modes if needed, and switching to
intermediate public transport or a bicycle sharing system with minimal
discomfort / delay.

In order to provide high quality public transport, it is important to outline

level-of-service factors that can be used to evaluate service quality and
set targets. These include:

• Availability and Extent of area served

• Service frequency.

• Relative speed. By providing bus lanes, transit buses can be faster

than automobile travel on congested roads, which is very important for
attracting discretionary travelers.

• Adequate space/lack of crowding

• Nice stations (well maintained, clean, safe, not too crowded, amenities
such as washrooms and vendors)

• Good pedestrian access to transit stations

• Universal design (accommodates people with disabilities)

• Convenient user information

• Temperature control (not too hot or too cold, for example, shade from
hot sun and large operable windows in hot weather

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PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

3D. Integrate public transport with Intermediate

Public Transport and cycle facilities to improve
accessibility
Though individual public transport services may be designed well, unless
they are well integrated with other modes of public transport, overall
success is unlikely. Hence, any public transport service should not be
Figure 3.5a: Intermodal
designed in isolation from other existing and planned public transport
integration, Bus stop integrated
modes. Intermodal intergration of all public transport modes is key for and planned at Metro station,
ensuring overall success of public transport usage. This intermodal London, UK

integration in crucial especially between a public transport service and its

immediate lower category of public transport mode.

Integration of public transport with Intermediate Public Transport and

cycle facilities can also greatly improve the accessibility, ridership and
eventually the sustainability of the system. Provision of Intermediate
Public Transport stands and cycle sharing stations needs to be in close
proximity to major public transport stations to improve the accessibility
and ridership.

For public transport trips, the beginning and the last end journey can be
served by Intermediate public transport vehicle. Ensuring location of IPT
Figure 3.5b: Integrate public
stand near residential areas generate trips up to public transit station. transport, IPT & cycle modes
Provision of IPT will also generate employment opportunity and provide
more sustainable and affordable transport.

3E. Public Transport node classification system

Defining a hierarchy of public transport nodes helps implementing
agencies decide priority of investments and location of appropriate
right user facilities. At a public transport node where it is possible to
interchange between different routes it is particularly important that the
public transport node is prioritized for investment and well-equipped with
user facilities. The transfer time can otherwise affect the whole journey in
a negative way (Directorate-General Energy & Transport, 2010).

The location and type of public transport node should be decided based
on the number of routes coming together at the node, accessibility of the
node and its potential ridership volumes and significance in the city.

Figure 3.6: Bus stop hierarchy

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Recommendations
3A. Ensure good quality access to public
transport service within walking distance of
homes, jobs, and amenities

1. The entire urbanized area of the city should be

within walking distance of public transport nodes for
cities with million-plus population (public transport
system based on demand).
Indicator - Percentage of urbanized area within 400m walking
distance of public transport nodes (Only regulated IPT stops and
routes may be included).
Benchmark – 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will be responsible for
implementation through the mobility component of the
Comprehensive Regional Plan.

2. The entire urbanized area of the city should be

within walking distance of public transport nodes & IPT
nodes for cities with population less than one million.
Indicator - Percentage of urbanized area within 400m walking
distance of public transport nodes.
Benchmark – Minimum 80%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will be responsible for
implementation through the mobility component of the
Comprehensive Regional Plan.

Figure 3.7: Distance Coverage from BRT, Seoul, South Korea

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 79
PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

3. The type of public transport service to be provided

should be determined based on various factors
such as system demand, line capacity, system cost,
construction time, cost per passenger, commercial
speed etc. (Tiwari, 2006). As a general principle,
provision of public transport service of a particular type
should follow prioritization as mentioned: Bus, BRT /
Tram, Metro /Light rail, Commuter rail.
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will be responsible for
implementation. In the case of rail-based public transport service,
state government and other relevant agencies may also be
involved.

Bus based public transport service:

At a minimum, public bus service should be provided where estimated demand for
public transport on any given corridor is greater than 1,000 passengers per hour per
direction in at least one direction.The number of buses required in any city per 1,000
population will depend on the public transport mode share, the presence or otherwise
of rail or other public transport modes, the capacity of the buses, the extent to which
they may be utilized in terms of daily kilometers per bus, and the daily number and
average length of bus journeys undertaken by each inhabitant of the city. With so
many variables the minimum requirement varies considerably from city to city, but
should typically lie between 0.5 and 1.2 per 1,000 population. (www.ppiaf.org)

Rail based public transport service:

A metro rail project is recommended in cities which ordinarily have:
• Peak hour peak direction traffic (PHPDT) of more than 20,000 for at least 5 kms
of continuous length by 2021
• Total population of more than 2 million as per 2011 census
• Average trip length of more than 7–8 kms for motorised trips
• At least 1 million ridership per day on organised public transport

These criteria are in the nature of guidelines and are not to be construed as entitle-
ment for a metro project. As huge public money is involved in construction of these
projects, in all such cases, in the first instance, feasibility of relatively cheaper options
should be examined. (Planning Commission, GoI, Twelfth Fiver Year Plan, 2013)

4. New developments that depend on high intensity of

users (like new regional shopping centers, institutions
etc.) should be incentivized to locate within 800m of
a public transport node & provide their own shuttle
service linking to a public transport node.
Indicator – Percentage of all such new development proposed in the
metropolitan area that is within 800m of a public transport node
or has provided a shuttle service linking with a public transport
node.
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring – Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA will be responsible for
implementation, using development control regulations
(Development Control Rules) and building permits. Norms should
be created for the identification of thresholds for high intensity of Figure 3.8: Free shuttle service
users based on land use and density which can be used for this provided by IKEA mall, UK

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 PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

purpose.
Refer - See ITE (Institute for Transport Engineers) trip generation
procedures (ITE, 2004).

5. All new public buildings (institutional / educational

/ cultural etc) should be located within 400m of a
public transport node
Indicator – Percentage of new public buildings planned that are
within 400m walking distance of public transport stations.
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring – Development Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA will be responsible for implementation,
using Development Control Rules.

Figure 3.9: Federation Square, Melbourne. Public building location from public transport station

6. Prioritize provision of continuous unobstructed

pedestrian pathways min. 1.8 m wide within 400 m of
each public transport node
Indicator – Percentage of all streets within 400m of public
transport nodes which have minimum 1.8m wide continuous
unobstructed pedestrian pathway.
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring – Streets Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA through Street Redevelopment
Program OR Station Area Planning around PT nodes
Note: Provision of minimum standards of sidewalks within 400m of
public transport nodes can help ensure that the public transport
service is accessible by more number of people.

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3B. Maximize public transport capacity in densely

developed areas and along growth corridors

7. Frequency of public transport service should be

based on demand
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
the mobility component of the Comprehensive Regional Plan.
Note: It is important to provide adequate public transport service
frequently to meet demand in existing densely developed areas. If it
is not done, such demand will shift to shared rickshaws, 2 wheelers,
etc. Thus indicator for this recommendation could be percentage of
trips by private motorized vehicles along the corridor and benchmark
will be <50%.

3C. Create reliable & comfortable public

transport facilities

8. All public transport services should have node

specific time table which should be strictly
followed by them
Indicator – Percentage of times that the public transport service
falls behind schedule.
Benchmark – Rail based should be less than 10 percent, bus
based less than 20 percent, in mixed less than 30 percent (to be
validated).
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement
this in coordination with public transport agencies through system
design and operations plan.

9. There should be no disruption (breakdowns/ route

deviation) in the public transport services.
Indicator – Percentage of trips that have breakdowns / route
deviation
Benchmark – Less that 10% of all trips
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – Public transport agencies will ensure this through
co-ordination and integration with plans of all Urban Local Bodies
within the metropolitan region.

10. Public transport vehicles should not be operating in

over-capacity conditions more than 5% of the total
peak hour trips on any given day.
Indicator – Percentage of peak hour trips where numbers of
passengers exceed the designed capacity of vehicle

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Benchmark – Less than 5% of peak hour trips.

Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – Public transport agencies will be mandated to
report % of peak hour trips where they exceed capacity. They
may be requested to improve frequency or add additional routes
parallel to the one that is routinely overcrowded.

11. All public transport buses should be compliant

URBAN BUS SPECIFICATIONS with Urban Bus Specifications (Ministry of Urban
Development, 2008)
Indicator – Percentage of public transport buses that adhere to
Urban Bus Specifications.
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement this
in coordination with public transport agencies through system
design and operations plan.

Ministry of Urban Development

Government of India

Figure 3.10: Urban bus

specification, published by 3D. Integrate public transport with Intermediate
Government of India
Public Transport and cycle facilities to improve
accessibility

12. Ensure public transport feeder service stations are

within 50m of rapid transit stations (BRTS, MRT)
where routes of the two services are intersecting or
overlapping
Indicator – Percentage of rapid transit stations with other public
transport feeder service stations within 50 m level walk from
station exit, where routes of the two services are intersecting or
overlapping.
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement
this in coordination with public transport agency through Station
Design / Redesign.

Pedestrian entry/ exit from public transport

Within 50m from entry/exit of Public
Multi-modal interchange
Transport
Cycle Parking/ Sharing Within 50m from entry/exit of Public
station Transport
Intermediate Public Within 150m from entry/exit of Public
Transport Stand Transport
Within 150m from entry/exit of Public
Private vehicle parking
Transport

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PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

13. Provide IPT(Taxi/ auto rickshaw/ cycle rickshaw)

stands within 50m of rapid transit stations (BRTS,
MRT) where routes of the two services are intersecting
or overlapping
Indicator – Percentage of rapid transit stations (where atleast two
routes are overalpping or intersecting) with IPT stand within 50m
of the entrance / exit of the station.
Figure 3.11: Intermediate public
Benchmark - 100%
transport stand near BRT station,
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit Curitiba

Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement

this in coordination with public transport agency through Station
Design / Redesign.

14. Intermediate Public Transport Stand should be located

close to all major public transport nodes within 150m
level walk from entrance / exit
Indicator – Percentage of major public transport stations with
Intermediate Public Transport Stand located within 150m (2 min)
level walk from station entrance / exit.
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement
this in coordination with public transport agency through Station
Design / Redesign.
Figure 3.12: Cycle parking facility
near public transport stand at
Delhi metro station, India
15. Vehicular drop-off area should be located away from
the main pedestrian exits at all major public transport
nodes
Indicator – Percentage of major public transport stations
where vehicular drop-off area is located away from the main
pedestrian entrances / exits
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure and implement
this in coordination with public transport agency through Station
Design / Redesign

16. Public car parking location for fringe area public

transport stations or public transport terminal stations
(not within core areas) should be within walking
distance but not adjacent to the station.
Indicator - Percentage of fringe area public transport stations /
public transport terminals providing car parking within walking
distance (less than 400m) but not adjacent to the station (more
than 150 m).

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Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will regulate this through parking
regulations in Development Control Rules. Public transport
agency will provide public car parking at these locations.

17. Electronic integrated fare collection for different modes

of public transport should be mandatory
Indicator - Percentage of public transport nodes (including all public
transport modes such as MRT, BRTS, buses etc) with electronic
integrated fare collection.
Benchmark - 100%

Figure 3.13: Automatic fare Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit

collection system for all modes of Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this in coordination
public transport, Hong Kong with the various public transport agencies through ITS.

18. Ensure seamless transfers between stations of

different modes of rapid transit services where the
routes are intersecting or overlapping
Indicator - Percentage of multi- modal rapid transit nodes (BRTS,
MRT) where routes are intersecting or overlapping, with seamless
transfers through weather protected area.
Benchmark - 100%
Figure 3.14: Interconnected BRT Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
and Railway station through FOB,
Ahmedabad Implementation – ULB / UDA will implement this through Station
Design / Redesign by ensuring compulsory provision of a certain
percentage of all big transportation projects (say above Rs.
1000 cr. projects) for inter-modal connectivity & Non-motorized
transport linkages.

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3E. Public Transport Node Classification System

19. Classify all public transport nodes based on the

following hierarchies:
A transport node is defined as either a point to access the transport
network or a point through which it is possible to change transport
mode.

- Intermodal Stations

These can include interchanges, terminals of major truck services

of the public transport system. These public transport nodes usually
deal with large volumes of passengers and multiple public transport
routes and modes. Hence, all services need to be accommodated
within a single weather protected structure and furthermore the layout
Figure 3.15: Multimodal Junction,
and design needs to ensure seamless transfers to reduce transfer King Cross. London
times.

- Rapid transit stops (Bus / Rail)

These include all stops of rapid transit services such as Metro, BRTS,
trams etc. that run on fixed guided ways. Such stops may or may not
deal with multiple routes of the same rapid transit service. Inter-modal
connectivity is still important for such stops, but need not be within a
single enclosed structure.
Figure 3.16: Bus rapid transit
- Bus shelters stops, Ahmedabad

These include all bus stops that are important in terms of passenger
demand and / or cater to multiple routes from the same location.
These stops need to have a shelter that should provide information
on the public transport service options available from that stop.

- Bus stops

These include all nodes on the public bus service that do not fall within
Figure 3.17: Bus shelter, Chennai
any of the above categories. These should include at the very least
a flag-post with public transport routes and frequency information
displayed on it.

Major public transport nodes are defined as all public transport nodes
that fall within the “Stations” and “Rapid transit stop” categories.
A minimum standard set of facilities need to be provided for every
hierarchy level. This is shown in the adjoining table..
Figure 3.18: Bus stop,
Copanhagen
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA can implement this through a
public transport network plan, which can be a part of the mobility
component of the Development Plan, or the Comprehensive
Regional Plan.

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Minimum set of standards for public transport node by classification

Bus stop Bus shelter Rapid transit stop Intermodal Station

Information (sign) Location, number & name M M M M

Information telephone M M M M
number
Fare zone information P P M M

Information (dis- Stop-specific time tables P M M M

play) (departures times)
Routes serving the stop & M M M M
frequency
Route destination M M M M

Real-time information - P M M

Information (net- Public transport & locality P M M M

work) map
Information telephone / - S P M
device

Information (regu- Marked bus zones P M M M

latory signage)
Bus zone signs P M M M

Stop identification sign P M M M

(marker)

Furniture Shelter S M M M

Seating S P M M

Bin P M M M

Bicycle rack S S P M

Access Pedestrian refuge / cross- P M M M

ing
Footpath P M M M

Tactile ground surface P M M M

indicator

Security Well-lit / nearby street P M M M

lighting
CCTV / security cameras - S M M

Emergency phone - S M M

Public phones - S P M

Other facilities Drinking water facility - S P M

Public toilet - S S P

Commercial vending ma- - S P M

chine / kiosk

Interconnectivity Seamless transfer - - S M

Weather protected transfer - - S M

M : Mandatory
P : Preferred
S : Site specific
- : Not applicable

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Other recommendations:
• Ensure mode share for public transport remains
within the recommended limits

City Public modes

(Population in millions) (% share)
0.5 - 1.0 70 - 80
1.0 - 2.0 75 - 85
2.0 - 5.0 80 - 90
5.0 plus 85 - 90
Figure 4. Recommended Mode Share
(Ministry of Urban Development and Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008)
Monitoring – Comprehensive Mobility Audit

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Case studies

i. Alwar Vahini, para-transport system, Alwar, India

Key Information
•  Alwar Vahini’s launched: 1310
vehicles (projected – 2200)
–– Three wheelers Replaced: 720
–– Direct Employment provided to 3000+
persons.
–– Daily Passengers currently carried -
1,15,000+ passengers
–– Government Expenditure: Zero
–– Revenue generated through tax (VAT,
Central Excise etc) on Alwar Vahini
vehicles : Rs 17 crores
–– Individual Private Expenditure on Alwar
Vahini: Rs 48 Crores
•  Independent Market Survey shows
extremely high level of satisfaction
among citizens.

Figure 3.19: Mini passenger car, Alwar Vahini, Alwar, India

Alwar a medium-sized city in Rajasthan with a population of approximately

3.6 lakhs people spread over 45 sq.km area (approx). Rapid growth,
industrialization and urbanization have led to increasing the demand and
supply gap for basic infrastructure and transport needs. Hence a need
was felt to have an effective, sustainable and cheap public transportation
system.

Being a medium sized town, a metro system or a BRTS or even a city

bus service may not have been viable as there isn’t enough intensity of
travel throughout the day. Until now, the most common means of public
transport in Alwar city was three-wheelers in the form of auto rickshaws
or three wheeler tempos. A majority of these were more than a decade
old and in very poor condition. In addition, women, elders and children
generally avoided them.

In 2011, the district administration, with the support of various government

Figure 3.20: Overcrowded agencies and private partners, launched the “ALWAR VAHINI”. The vehicle
passenger transport vehicle. behind this concept is a mini-van type passenger vehicle which is used
as a mode of public transport. This concept has made possible a number
of key improvements through its implementation:

1. The old polluting three wheelers were given away by the owners in
exchange of the new low-polluting (Euro-IV compliant) vehicles with
capacity to carry six passengers. These old noisy vehicles were destroyed
by the city so they do not find their way back into operations. In return of
their old vehicles, the owners were being provided new vehicles on a
Figure 3.21: Destruction of existing long term loan of 5 years. With the new vehicles, the RTO and the district
passenger transport vehicle administration fixed the routes of service which provides a more reliable
service to the end users. A number of new bus stops were also created to
ensure proper waiting area for the commuters.

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PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

2. Punjab National Bank provided extended 5-year loans at 14.5% interest

for the new Alwar Vahini vehicles. With an attractive exchange offer in
place, this helped the existing owners of three wheelers take up the Alwar
Vahini as they did not have to pay additional money or put forth any other
collateral.

3. A cooperative society was set up to help provide health / medical

insurance to all drivers of Alwar Vahini. They are also required to undergo
free compulsory medical checkup once every year.

4. The Urban Improvement Trust (UIT) of Alwar provided support in terms

of uniforms, ID Cards, Group insurance and soft skills training to the
drivers. UIT also built the support infrastructure in the form of bus stops,
signages, lighting along major junctions, traffic signals, CCTV monitoring
cameras and an advanced police control room.

5. An NGO was engaged in imparting soft skills related to etiquette and

driving discipline. This was important as the main motto of the project
was “samman aur sewa” (respect and service).

With implementation of Alwar vahini, number of people using IPT services

like tempo has increased. It is a well planned IPT service. The service has
been segregated based on various routes which are displayed on the
vehicle in the form of route stickers. Also, it follows a color coding model
wherein vehicles with white color run within the city whereas red colored
vehicles take passengers from the city to the neighbouring villages.

All these vehicles are parked in line at predefined selected stops. The
service lays emphasis on the frequency i.e. the vehicle resumes service
even if there is a single passenger without wasting time to wait for other
passengers to come and the vehicle gets filled. The service has been
segregated as per the routes designated and along each route an
association has been formed. These associations have worked closely
with the community to create awareness and replace the earlier autos
slowly in phases.

The ALWAR VAHINI model can be considered as a successful model Figure 3.22: Alwar vahini bus
stand
primarily because of its institutional strength. However, they still have
not been able to create a single body above the various route based
associations as planned. Moreover, it may not be considered as a
sustainable and financially sound model looking at the number of empty
trips taken by the vehicles.

Alwar Vahinis are not very visible on railway station owing to a strong hold
of black six seated autos who do not allow to create a dedicated stand. Figure 3.23: Female only Alwar
vahini
Another issue is of the bus stands which were earlier planned; however,
they have not yet come up across the cities as there is no willingness to
build bus stops. Currently, the city has large number of cycle rickshaws
being operated. To create a more sustained model, the next stage could
involve integration of Alwar Vahini with cycle rickshaws for last mile
connectivity.
Figure 3.24: On call Alwar vahini
While these improvements show significant change over the previous and
taxi

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official halting areas for the vehicles, in general, the Alwar Vahini has been
greatly successful in achieving the goals of low-cost, sustainable public
transport for a small town. Another request from many representatives
from many areas is that certain RSRTC roadway routes should be opened
up for use by Alwar Vahini. However, currently, this is not possible due to
viability constraints.

In the initial phase, more than 500 rickshaw drivers and tempo users
participated in this exchange programme and exchanged their vehicle
with new “ALWAR VHANI”. Currently, more than 1,100 Alwar Vahinis are
plying the streets in Alwar District and 720 old polluting three wheelers
have been scrapped in exchange of this new mode. The scheme provides
direct employment to more than 3,000 persons. Rough survey shows
extremely high level of satisfaction among citizens. More than 1.20 lakh
people use the services of Alwar Vahini every day.

Alwar Vahini has also recently initiated On-call taxi services at a premium
rate, a women’s only service and they are about to launch a pilot cycle
renting / sharing service with 50 cycles for tourist and other short duration
cycle users. A significant aspect of this project is that this has been
initiated and implement with zero financial support from the government.
The government’s role in this has been one of facilitation and coordination.
Another key achievement of this project is that it has been implemented
within 2 months of its conception.

As a result of all the above improvements, the project Alwar Vahini was
very well received by users in the city. It has been praised not just in Alwar
but also at various forums where it was presented as a model for low cost
sustainable urban transport solution for small and medium-sized cities.
Recently, the Ministry of Urban Development (MOUD) circulated a notice
proposing that projects similar to Alwar Vahini for providing greener,
cleaner and safe mode of public transport.

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ii. Integration of NMT with Public transport -

Portland, USA
Key Information
•  Bicycle integration with LRT
–– 2000/day carry bicycle
–– No permits
–– No additional cost
–– No time restriction
–– Low floor vehicle for bike access
–– Passenger without bikes has priority.
–– Dedicated space for bicycle in Public
transport
•  Bicycle integration with BRT
–– All public buses have racks
–– Bike racks in front and side of bus to
carry cycle.
•  76% bicycle users carry bicycle in LRT
and BRT
•  Reduce the risk of bike theft and
vandalism.
Figure 3.25: Dedicated bicycle space in Public transport vehicle, Portland, USA

Very few cities in the world have initiated efforts to integrate cycling and
public transport. Portland is one of the few which has implemented the
entire range of integration measures. Bike-and-ride in Portland mainly
involves bikes on transit vehicles. TriMet Portland’s public transport
system estimates that ten times more bikes taken in LRT vehicles than
parked at LRT station. (Fishman, 2009)

More than 2000 cycles users travel with their Bike in LRT vehicle where
less than 300 Bike users park their vehicles at station. Every train has a
low-floor car especially designed to facilitate bike access, with waiting
areas and four bike hooks located near the doors. However, passengers
without bikes have priority to board crowded trains. No extra charges, no
permits and no time restriction make this policy easier for users. (Sherwin,
2010., Pucher & Buehler, 2009)

All buses in the Portland area have bike racks, another inducement for
cyclist to ride with their bikes instead of parking them. Portland does not
provide much bike parking at train and bus stations. In 2009, there were
670 bike parking spaces at TriMet LRT stops and transit centers, which
are major transfer hub for several bus or LRT lines. Half of them are bike
lockers. More than 15 bike lockers owned by Portland city are in down
Figure 3.26: Secure bicycle lockers
town area near bus or rail service. (Wright, Lloyd, 2010) near public transport station,
Portland, USA
Portland does not have any public bicycle sharing stations. This shows
high bike mode share and wide range of other pro-bike policies and
programs. To improve bike parking at transit stops by installing 196 bike
lockers and 168 bike racks near LRT Extended route. (Transpotation
Department of Portland, 1998)

TriMet survey indicates that 76%of cyclist would not be willing to park their
Bike at a transit station even if the secure biking space is available. The
advantage is that users can use the Bike at both ends of the transit trip
and it reduces the risk of bike theft and vandalism.

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Portland carefully and explicitly coordinates its bikeway network with its
public transit network. Bike routes designed to facilitate access to public
transport stops and most transit centers are served by multiple bikeways.

iii. Integrated transit system - Hong Kong

Key Information
•  Hong Kong transport authority
Launched in 1993
–– 20 million cards sold in market
–– 95% population using octopus card
•  Octopus card can be used for
payment at
–– All major public transport
–– Convenience stores
–– Supermarkets
–– Fast-food restaurants
–– On-street parking meters
–– Car Parking areas
•  Additionally, administrative offices,
some schools and colleges using
card for attendance Figure 3.27: Octopus card used as common mobility card, Hong Kong
Hong Kong’s Octopus card is a rechargeable contact less stored value
smart card used to transfer electronic payments in online or offline systems
in Hong Kong. Octopus card was launched in 1997 to collect fares for
mass transit system and now users use Octopus card in all modes of
public transport in Hong Kong. The Octopus is also used for payment at
on-street parking meters, car parks and many other place. According to
Octopus Cards Limited, operator of the Octopus card system, there are
more than 20 million cards in circulation, nearly three times the population
of Hong Kong.

The MTR (Mass transit Railway) one of the main railways in Hong
Kong launched magnetic card as fare ticket in 1979. Similarly In 1989,
KCR (Kowloon-Canton Railway) and KMB (Kowloon Motor Bus) buses
providing to the feeder service to MTR and KCR station and to city bus
service in Hong Kong also launched their magnetic cards in 1993, using
more advanced technologies and lunched new contact less smart cards.

In 1994, MTR Corporation collaborated with four other major transit

companies in Hong Kong to create a joint-venture business to operate
the Octopus system. More than 3 million cards were issued for use within
the first three months of the system’s launch. (Alliance, 2003)

The main reason for the quick success of the system was that MTR and
KCR required that all holders of Common Stored Value Tickets replace
their tickets with Octopus cards within three months or have their tickets
made obsolete, thus forcing their combined base commuters to switch
quickly.

In 2003, Octopus Card Company found another application of Octopus

card and Hong Kong government replaced all 18,000 parking meters with

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 93
PRINCIPLE 3. PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Octopus card operators system. It opened in the year 2004. Additionally

the Octopus card are also used in the school and colleges for the student’s
attendance. As of November 2004, all parking meters in Hong Kong were
converted. They no longer accept coins and Octopus became the only
form of payment accepted. The card is now commonly used in most, if not
all, major public transport, fast food restaurants, supermarkets, vending
machines, convenient stores, photo booths, parking meters, car parks
and many other retails business where small payment are frequently
made by customers.

94 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 4. Connect & Complete
“Create well-connected network of complete streets”

Sub-principles:

• Create a complete streets network with comprehensive yet simple

street classification system that covers all types of streets and roads
in the city

• Ensure all streets are developed as complete streets that enable safe
and comfortable travel for people of all ages and abilities, and users of
all modes including walking, cycling and public transport

• Create dense street networks that enhance walking, cycling, and

vehicle traffic flow

• Create pedestrian access corridors through existing developed

areas to facilitate walking
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

96 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Principle 4. Connect & Complete

“Create well-connected network of complete streets”
Complete Streets are streets for everyone. They are designed and oper-
ated to enable safe access for all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists,
motorists and transit riders of all ages and abilities. Complete Streets
make it easy to cross the street, walk to shops, and bicycle to work. They
allow buses to run on time and make it safe for people to walk to and from
train stations. (smartgrowthamerica)

Conventional Planning Complete Streets Planning

Freight/service vehicle Pedestrian
Automobile traffic Bicycle
Automobile parking Bus
Bus Freight/service vehicle
Bicycle Automobile traffic
Pedestrian Automobile parking
Conventional Versus Complete Streets Planning Hierarchy

In order to create Complete Streets, many transportation and planning

agencies will need to change the way they approach designing and im-
plementation of urban roads. It also emphasises to routinely design and
operate the entire right of way to enable safe access for all users, regard-
less of age, ability, or mode of transportation. It accentuates every trans-
portation project to make the street network better and safer for drivers,
transit users, pedestrians, and bicyclists – making community a better
place to live.

Urban streets serve multiple modes of motorized and non-motorized

transport and accommodate multiple functions such as space for social
interaction, recreation, informal economic activities, etc. As a result of
this there are various types of streets that have different character and
demand for infrastructural services. Narrow, residential neighbourhood
streets are more characterized by pedestrian friendly activities whereas
Figure 4.1: Information portal major arterial and transit corridors are more traffic oriented streets, com-
about Boston Complete Streets mercial streets and educational institutions show pedestrian character
program is transparent and
available on the web in in a user and industrial corridor require heavy transit facilities. It is important to rec-
friendly format. ognize and classify streets based on the functional requirements and to
cater to all modes of motorized as well as non-motorized transport.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 97
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Figure 4.2: A Typical Right of Way Section

One such approach in creation of Complete Street is developing the en-

tire Right of Way (ROW) of the streets that can ensure adequate allocation
of space to the relevant activities and that the entire ROW is efficiently and
optimally used. Complete streets are roadways designed and operated
to enable safe, attractive, and comfortable access and travel for all users,
including pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists and public transport users of
all ages and abilities.

Street network represents the movement network of any given area and
is characterized by its permeability and connectivity. The street network
influences walkability of an area and has a major impact on choice of
routes available for trips of various lengths and as a result it also impacts
traffic congestion. Permeability reflects average block sizes with refer-
ence to choice of travel mode. Smaller block sizes encourage walking
and cycling as one can get to reach more destinations within the same
walking distance as compared to an area with larger block sizes. Con-
nectivity primarily refers to continuity of routes and the ease of way find-
ing. This plays an important role in determining which routes are chosen
for various types of trips.

An inefficient and poorly designed street network can indirectly cause

many problems, traffic congestion remains high as people have fewer
route choices to complete their trips and hence everyone relies on few
well connected routes. This can also lead to increase in trip lengths
and decrease in average travel speeds for some journeys. Use of non-
motorized modes like cycling and walking is greatly affected when the
scale of street network caters mainly to motorized modes (i.e. block sizes
are larger). This can indirectly cause expensive or inconvenient travel for
some groups of people as not everyone can afford motorized transport
for all their journeys.
Figure 4.3: These diagrams show
three street layouts — extremely
walkable, moderately walkable,
and unwalkable — with their
counts of intersections per square
mile

98 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Sub-principles:

4A. Create a complete streets network with

comprehensive yet simple street classification
system that covers all types of streets and roads
in the city.

Street classification systems in India usually address regional roads such

as highways, expressways and sub-regional roads such as district roads
and village roads. However, this system does not adequately address
the different types of urban streets. It has been observed that cities in
India widely accept the Indian Road Congress(IRC) codes to design the
streets and roads but what they miss out is that even the IRC states that
the typical cross-sections mentioned are for general guidance and that
cities should design their roads and streets as per the specific context in
terms of basic nature and intensity of the traffic.

Urban streets are multi-character and multi-functioned streets that only

act as a mode of transportation and commute but also as a vital space
for social, financial, recreational and informal interactions. Moreover it is
essential to address the classification of streets prior to roads is because
in most of the cases that would the the point from where a journey would
initiate.
Figure 4.4: Vancouver: Streets
for all
4B. Ensure all streets are developed as complete
streets that enable safe and comfortable travel
for people of all ages and abilities, and users of
all modes including walking, cycling and public
transport.

Complete streets are thoroughfares/ part of roadways designed and op-

erated to enable safe, attractive, and comfortable access and travel for
all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists and public transport
users of all ages and abilities.

A complete street has roughly seven zones namely Frontage, Pedestri-

an zone, Plantation & Furniture zone, Non-motorized zone (NMV zone),
Multi-functional zone and Vehicular zone and Median. Each of the zones
can accommodate specific facilities, a list of which is given below. Each
street type may have some or all of the facilities mentioned in the list.
Some facilities can be placed in different zones depending on the street
design. In some cases where insufficient right of way and money will not
Figure 4.5: Vital Statictics For First be able to accommodate all this zones in such case, best practice is to
Protected Bicycle Lane In USA prioritize walking, cycling, and public transport zones over vehicular zone
in complete street design.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 99
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Figure 4.7: A Complete Street Section

The following is a list of facilities that can be accommodated within each

zone:

Frontage

• Built to line structure

Pedestrian Zone

• Unobstructed walking space

Plantation & Furniture Zone

• Trees

• Benches

• Dust-bins

• Pedestrian lighting

• Street lighting

Non-Motorized Vehicular Zone

• Cycle lane

• Cycle Stand

• Signage

Multi-functional Zone

• Parking

• Vendor zone

• Bus stop

100 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

• Rickshaw stand

• Street signage

• Service / Access lane

Vehicular Zone

• Vehicular lanes

• BRTS / mass rapid transit

Median

• Street light

• Plantation

Allocation of ROW space for each zone should be proportionate to the

activities and number of users on the streets. For example, streets with
retail commercial frontages and entrances of schools, colleges and other
uses generating high pedestrian volumes should have sidewalks that are
a minimum of 3m width or wider.

4C. Create dense street networks that enhance

walking, cycling, and vehicle traffic flow.

Provision of a denser network of streets can be very helpful in reducing

the traffic congestion. Other than creating a compact well-networked pre-
cinct it also:
• optimizes traffic flow by providing more direct routes which leads to
fewer vehicle kilometers of travel (VKT) than conventional suburban net-
works,
• reduces travel delay by allowing travelers to choose alternate routes to
destinations, reduces the impacts of high traffic volumes on residential
collectors,
• encourages walking and cycling by reducing the block sizes and pro-
viding improved safety,
• offer users relatively direct walking routes to transit stops and helps
to facilitating circulation within an area by all travel modes (Institution of
Transportation Engineers, 2011).

4D. Create pedestrian access corridors through

existing developed areas to facilitate walking

Studies show that more than 40 to 50 percent of the daily trips in many of
our cities have distances less than 5km. (Ministry of Urban Development,
2010) Walking and cycling considering their environmental and health
benefits are the most suitable modes of transportation for such short
trips. However in India, people prefer using motorized vehicles and avoid
walking and cycling even for short distances. This can be attributed to as

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 101
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Figure 4.6: Pitt Street, Sydney. AUSTRALIA.

incomplete street network or poorly designed pedestrian access and cy-

cle tracks (Ministry of Urban Development, 2010). Efforts should be taken
to provide a complete street network considering motorized vehicles,
pedestrians as well as cyclists and create pedestrian access corridors
through existing developed areas to facilitate walking for short distances.

102 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Recommendations

4A. Create a complete streets network with

comprehensive yet simple street classification
system that covers all types of streets and roads
in the city.

1. Classify all urban streets and roads using the following

classification system.
The classification system defines six urban street types based on
size, function and connectivity of the street within the wider movement
network.

Major Arterials
All the streets that form a strong transportation network and serve the
residents of the city to travel from one area to another area within the
city are known as the major arterials

Minor Arterials
All the streets in the city that connect two major arterials and provide
efficient transportation linkages within the city are termed as minor
arterials.

Major Streets
All the streets in the city that connect two major or minor arterials
within the city are termed as major streets.

Minor Streets
Further, there are streets connecting two major streets which are
mainly act as local/neighborhood streets are known as minor streets.
Streets having a major street at one end are also classified as minor
streets.

Local Streets
Streets that are narrow, not very continuous and only serve the
immediate development are classified as local streets.

NMT-only Streets
Streets that provide access for pedestrians and cyclists only are
known as NMT-only streets. Pedestrianised areas can also be
included in this category. These streets can allow restricted access
for vehicles for service at specific times of the day.

Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA can implement this through

a Complete Streets Network Plan, which can be a part of
the mobility component of the Development Plan, or the
Comprehensive Regional Plan.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 103
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

4B. Ensure all streets are developed as complete

streets that enable safe and comfortable travel
for people of all ages and abilities, and users of
all modes including walking, cycling and public
transport.

2. Cities should ensure that all streets are designed and

implemented according to i) city / state specific street
design guidelines OR ii) national street standards for
urban roads prepared by IRC / MOUD.
Indicator - Percentage of streets (categories minor street and
above) in the city that are designed and developed as per city/
state street design guidelines OR national street standards by
IRC / MOUD
Benchmark - 90%
Implementation - ULB / UDA through Street Redevelopment
Program
Monitoring - Streets Audit
“Street Classification Table” on pg. 112 outlines an approach
to street design that may help cities prepare their own street
design guidelines if needed. An example of city / state specific
street design guidelines is the one prepared by UTTIPEC for
implementation within Delhi.
Note – It is understandable that certain streets within historic areas
and/or within slums etc. may not be able to meet the design
standards outlined for the state / city. However, it is possible to
account for such areas within the street design guidelines and
hence design/implement these streets according to the guidelines.
Thus, there is no reason for any street within the city to be built
at standards different from what the guidelines recommend.

104 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
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S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 105
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

106 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 107
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

108 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 109
 DRAFT ‐ For internal circulation only
Street classification system
Exurban  Urban
Arterial Roads Sub arterial roads  Collector street Local Streets
Expressway Highway

110
Major arterial Minor arterial Major street Minor street Local street NMT Only street
ROW As per IRC codes As per IRC codes 40m ‐ 60m 24m ‐ 40m 18m ‐ 24m 12m ‐ 18m 6m ‐ 12m  Less than 6m or as per site 
conditions

Connectivity Intercity only Intertown, village, city Main citywide roads Streets with major arterials at  Streets with arterials at both  Streets with major street at  Streets for pedestrians & 

both ends ends atleast one end cyclists only, can also include 
pedestrianised areas, not 
continuous for more than 
200m without intersections

Design speed As per IRC codes As per IRC codes 30 ‐ 60 Kmph 30 ‐ 40 Kmph 20 ‐ 30 Kmph 15 ‐ 30 Kmph <20 Kmph Service access for vehicles can 

be allowed only at specific 
times of the day

Carriageway As per IRC codes As per IRC codes Minimum 2 vehicular lane in  2 vehicular lane in each  Maximum 2 lanes in each  Maximum 1 vehicular lane in  No lane demarcation needed,  Not applicable

each direction  with dedicated  direction, lane width min  direction, lane width min  each direction, lane width ‐  shared space encouraged
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

bus lane and Maximum 3  3.0m ‐ max 3.5m 2.9m ‐ max 3.3m, for 1  3.5m

vehicular lanes in each  vehicular lane in each 
direction with median and  direction lane width ‐ 3.5m
separated service lanes 
allowed, lane width min 3.0m ‐
max 3.5m
Central median As per IRC codes As per IRC codes Required. Minimum 0.3m  Required. Minimum 0.3m  Optional. Required only if  Not permitted Not permitted Not applicable
width and At Pedestrian  width and At Pedestrian  carriageway is 2 lanes in each 
crossings, medians should  crossings, medians should  direction, minimum 0.3m 
have min 1.5m safe refuge have min 1.5m safe refuge width

Street lighting As per IRC codes As per IRC codes Required. Maximum at 15m  Required. Maximum at 15m  Required. Maximum at 12m  Required. Maximum at 12m  Required. Maximum at 10m  Not applicable

height within the central  height within the central  height within the central  height within the central  height within shared space as 
median or within the  median or within the  median or within the  median or within the  per site conditions
"Plantation & Furniture Zone",  "Plantation & Furniture Zone",  "Plantation & Furniture Zone",  "Plantation & Furniture Zone", 
as per site conditions as per site conditions as per site conditions as per site conditions

E N V I R O N M E N TA L
Cycle lane Not permitted Not permitted Required. Segregated cycle  Recommended if ROW > 22m,  Recommended if ROW > 16m,  Recommended if ROW > 16m,  Pedestrian / cyclist priority  No segregation between 
lane ‐ minimum 2m clear  segregated / demarcated  demarcated cycle lane ‐  demarcated cycle lane ‐  over right of way pedestrians and cyclists
width in each direction cycle lane ‐ minimum 2m clear  minumum 2m clear width in  minimum 2m in each direction
width in each direction, can be  each direction
combined with service / 
access lane

PLANNING
On‐street parking Not permitted Not permitted No parking with direct access  Parallel parking only  if  Optional. Parallel parking  Optional. Only if ROW > 14m,  Optional as per site conditions Not permitted
from main carriageway.  directly accessed from main  minimum 2.0m clear width if  parallel parking ‐ minimum 
Access to be provided from  carriageway provided 2.0m clear width on any one 
service lane. minimum 2.0m clear width side (odd even days system) 
can be provided

On‐street vendor space Not permitted Not permitted Optional, only in place of  Optional, only in place of  Optional, only in place of  Optional, only in place of  Not permitted Optional, only if ROW > 4m, 

parallel parking, maximum  parallel parking, maximum  parallel parking, maximum  parallel parking, maximum  and in designated vendor 
upto 50% of parking spaces as  upto 50% of parking spaces as  upto 50% of parking spaces as  upto 50% of parking spaces as  zones only
per demand per demand per demand per demand

C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Service lane / Access  Required. No direct access  Required. No direct access  Required only if ROW > 40,  Optional Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
lane from any street except at  from any street except at  can be combined with cycle 
intersections intersections lane, minimum 3.0m ‐ 3.3m 
clear width

Pedestrian lighting Not permitted Not permitted Required. Illumination level 30  Required. Illumination level 30  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20 

lux lux lux lux lux lux
 clear width
Service lane / Access  Required. No direct access  Required. No direct access  Required only if ROW > 40,  Optional Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
lane from any street except at  from any street except at  can be combined with cycle 
Service lane / Access  Required. No direct access 
intersections Required. No direct access 
intersections Required only if ROW > 40, 
lane, minimum 3.0m ‐ 3.3m  Optional Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted Not permitted
lane from any street except at  from any street except at  can be combined with cycle 
clear width
Pedestrian lighting Not permitted Not permitted Required. Illumination level 30  Required. Illumination level 30  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20  Required. Illumination level 20 
intersections intersections lane, minimum 3.0m ‐ 3.3m 
lux lux lux lux lux lux
clear width

Pedestrian lighting Not permitted Not permitted Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Optional as per site conditions Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as 

per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions
Pedestrian lighting Not permitted Not permitted Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as  Optional as per site conditions Required. Every 10‐15m c/c as 
per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions per site conditions
Plantation & furniture  Not permitted Not permitted Required. Minimum 1m space  Required. Minimum 0.7m  Required. Minimum 0.7m  Required. Minimum 0.7m  No designated "Plantation &  No designated "Plantation & 
zone adjoining sidewalk on either  space adjoining sidewalk on  space adjoining sidewalk on  space adjoining sidewalk on  Furniture Zone" Furniture Zone"
side  either side either side either side
Not permitted Not permitted Tree cover – min 25% of the 
Required. Minimum 1m space  Required. Minimum 0.7m  Required. Minimum 0.7m  Required. Minimum 0.7m  No designated "Plantation &  No designated "Plantation & 
Plantation & furniture 
total street ROW.
adjoining sidewalk on either  space adjoining sidewalk on  space adjoining sidewalk on  space adjoining sidewalk on  Furniture Zone" Furniture Zone"
zone
Plantation & furniture  Not permitted Not permitted Required. Minimum 1m space 
side  Required. Minimum 0.7m 
either side Required. Minimum 0.7m 
either side Required. Minimum 0.7m 
either side No designated "Plantation &  No designated "Plantation & 
zone adjoining sidewalk on either  space adjoining sidewalk on 
Tree cover – min 25% of the  space adjoining sidewalk on  space adjoining sidewalk on  Furniture Zone" Furniture Zone"
Street furniture Not permitted Not permitted side 
Required. Benches as needed  either side
Required. Benches as needed 
total street ROW. either side either sideRequired. Benches as needed  Optional as per site conditions Optional as per site conditions
Required. Benches as needed 
and dust‐bins at every bus 
and dust‐bins at every bus  Tree cover – min 25% of the  and dust‐bins at every bus  and dust‐bins at every bus 
stop, within the "Plantation &  stop and intersection, within  stop and intersection, within 
stop, within the "Plantation & total street ROW.
Street furniture Not permitted Not permitted Required. Benches as needed  Required. Benches as needed 
Furniture Zone" Furniture Zone" Required. Benches as needed  Required. Benches as needed 
the "Plantation & Furniture  Optional as per site conditions Optional as per site conditions
the "Plantation & Furniture 
and dust‐bins at every bus  and dust‐bins at every bus  and dust‐bins at every bus 
Zone" and dust‐bins at every bus 
Zone"
Street furniture Not permitted Not permitted Required. Benches as needed  stop, within the "Plantation &  Required. Benches as needed 
stop, within the "Plantation &  Required. Benches as needed  stop and intersection, within  Optional as per site conditions Optional as per site conditions
stop and intersection, within  Required. Benches as needed 
and dust‐bins at every bus 
Furniture Zone" and dust‐bins at every bus 
Furniture Zone" and dust‐bins at every bus  the "Plantation & Furniture 
the "Plantation & Furniture  and dust‐bins at every bus 
stop, within the "Plantation &  stop, within the "Plantation &  stop and intersection, within  stop and intersection, within 
Zone"
Tree plantation /  Optional Optional Required. Shade providing  Required. Shade providing Zone"Required. Shade providing  Optional, within the  Optional as per site conditions Optional, required only if 
Furniture Zone" Furniture Zone" the "Plantation & Furniture  the "Plantation & Furniture 
Shading structures trees every 6m, preferred  trees every 6m, preferred  trees every 6m, within the  "Plantation & Furniture Zone" ROW > 3m
Zone" Zone"
along sidewalk & additional on  along sidewalk & additional on  "Plantation & Furniture Zone"
Tree plantation /  Optional Optional Required. Shade providing 
median Required. Shade providing 
median Required. Shade providing  Optional, within the  Optional as per site conditions Optional, required only if 
Shading structures trees every 6m, preferred  trees every 6m, preferred  trees every 6m, within the  "Plantation & Furniture Zone" ROW > 3m
Tree cover – min 15% of the  Tree cover – min 25% of the 
Tree plantation /  Optional Optional Required. Shade providing  "Plantation & Furniture Zone" Optional, within the 
along sidewalk & additional on  Required. Shade providing 
along sidewalk & additional on  Required. Shade providing  Optional as per site conditions Optional, required only if 
total street ROW.
trees every 6m, preferred  total street ROW.
trees every 6m, preferred  trees every 6m, within the  "Plantation & Furniture Zone" ROW > 3m
Shading structures median median
along sidewalk & additional on  Tree cover – min 25% of the  "Plantation & Furniture Zone"
Tree cover – min 15% of the  along sidewalk & additional on 
Sidewalk Not permitted Optional. Required only where  Required. Minimum 2.0m 
median
total street ROW. Required. Minimum 2.0m 
median
total street ROW. Required. Minimum 2.0m  Required. Minimum 2.0m  Shared space

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T
passing through urban areas,  unobstructed walking space  unobstructed walking space. unobstructed walking space. unobstructed walking space. Minimum 1.5m clear 
Tree cover – min 15% of the  Tree cover – min 25% of the 
Not permitted minimum 2.5 m unobstructed 
Optional. Required only where  Required minimum 3.0m if 
total street ROW.
Required. Minimum 2.5m  Required minimum 3.0m if 
total street ROW.
Required. Minimum 2.5m  Required minimum 2.5m if 
Required. Minimum 2.0m  Required minimum 2.5m if 
Required. Minimum 2.0m  Shared space unobstructed walking space
Sidewalk
walking space unobstructed walking space unobstructed walking space
passing through urban areas,  Any Arterial with retail  Any Arterial with retail  unobstructed walking space Any Arterial with retail 
Any Arterial with retail unobstructed walking space Minimum 1.5m clear 
Sidewalk Not permitted Optional. Required only where  Required. Minimum 2.5m 
minimum 2.5 m unobstructed  commercial uses at ground  commercial uses at ground 
Required. Minimum 2.5m  commercial uses at ground 
Required. Minimum 2.0m  commercial uses at ground 
Required. Minimum 2.0m  Shared space
unobstructed walking space
passing through urban areas, 
walking space level level
unobstructed walking space unobstructed walking space level
unobstructed walking space level
unobstructed walking space Minimum 1.5m clear 
minimum 2.5 m unobstructed  unobstructed walking space
Pedestrian & cyclist  Required. Pedestrian  walking space
Required. Pedestrian  Required. Pedestrian  Required. At‐grade crossings  Required. At‐grade crossings  Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  NMV crossing at every 200m
crossings overbridge / underpass every  overbridge / underpass / at‐ overbridge / underpass / at‐ for pedestrians & cyclists only,  for pedestrians & cyclists only,  right of way right of way
Pedestrian & cyclist  Required. Pedestrian 
Required. Pedestrian  grade for pedestrians & 
400m where passing through  Required. Pedestrian 
grade crossings for  Required. At‐grade crossings 
every 200m, signalised / non‐ Required. At‐grade crossings  Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  NMV crossing at every 200m
every 200m, signalised / non‐
crossings overbridge / underpass every 
urban areas overbridge / underpass / at‐
cyclists, every 400m where  overbridge / underpass / at‐ for pedestrians & cyclists only, 
pedestrians & cyclists only, At  signalised for pedestrians & cyclists only, 
signalised right of way right of way
Pedestrian & cyclist  Required. Pedestrian 
400m where passing through  Required. Pedestrian 
grade for pedestrians & 
passing through urban areas Required. Pedestrian 
grade crossings for 
every intersections,  signalised  Required. At‐grade crossings  every 200m, signalised / non‐ Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  Optional, pedestrian / cyclist  NMV crossing at every 200m
every 200m, signalised / non‐ Required. At‐grade crossings 
crossings overbridge / underpass every 
urban areas overbridge / underpass / at‐
cyclists, every 400m where  overbridge / underpass / at‐
pedestrians & cyclists only, At  for pedestrians & cyclists only, 
if at‐grade signalised for pedestrians & cyclists only, 
signalised right of way right of way
400m where passing through  grade for pedestrians & 
passing through urban areas grade crossings for 
every intersections,  signalised  every 200m, signalised / non‐ every 200m, signalised / non‐
urban areas cyclists, every 400m where  pedestrians & cyclists only, At 
if at‐grade signalised signalised
Barriers to pedestrian  Allowed at median or edge of  Not Allowed Not Allowed Not Allowed Not permitted
passing through urban areas every intersections,  signalised 
crossing Foot path only if at grade ped 
if at‐grade
Barriers to pedestrian  Allowed at median or edge of 
crossing or grade separated  Not Allowed Not Allowed Not Allowed Not permitted
crossing Foot path only if at grade ped 
crossing available every 400 m 
Barriers to pedestrian  Allowed at median or edge of 
crossing or grade separated  Not Allowed Not Allowed Not Allowed Not permitted
(5 min walk).
Foot path only if at grade ped 
crossing crossing available every 400 m 
crossing or grade separated 
(5 min walk).
crossing available every 400 m 
Public transport Required. Within 400m of  Required. Within 400m of  Required. Public transport 
(5 min walk). Recommended. Public  Recommended. Public  Recommended. Public  Not permitted
intersection, where passing 
Required. Within 400m of intersection, where passing 
Required. Within 400m of  stop or station every 800m
Required. Public transport  transport stop or station every 
Recommended. Public  transport stop or station every 
Recommended. Public  transport stop or station every 
Recommended. Public  Not permitted
Public transport
through urban areas through urban areas
intersection, where passing  intersection, where passing  stop or station every 800m 800m
transport stop or station every  800m
transport stop or station every  800m
transport stop or station every 
Public transport Required. Within 400m of 
through urban areas Required. Within 400m of 
through urban areas Required. Public transport  Recommended. Public 
800m Recommended. Public 
800m Recommended. Public 
800m Not permitted
intersection, where passing  intersection, where passing  stop or station every 800m transport stop or station every  transport stop or station every  transport stop or station every 
through urban areas through urban areas 800m 800m 800m

Flyovers & Underpasses Required for intersection with  Recommended for  Not recommended for  Not recommended Not recommended Not permitted Not permitted

Flyovers & Underpasses Required for intersection with 
all categories of streets  Recommended for 
intersections with major  Not recommended for 
intersections with streets such  Not recommended Not recommended Not permitted Not permitted
intersections with major 
all categories of streets  arterials only
(including other expressways) intersections with streets such 
as minor arterials and below 
Flyovers & Underpasses Required for intersection with  Recommended for 
(including other expressways) arterials only Not recommended for 
as minor arterials and below  Not recommended
in heirarchy Not recommended Not permitted Not permitted
all categories of streets  intersections with major  intersections with streets such 
in heirarchy
(including other expressways) arterials only as minor arterials and below 
in heirarchy

NOTE: Highway should follow characteristics of major arterials and should be designed as such when passing through urban areas, unless it is grade separated
NOTE: Highway should follow characteristics of major arterials and should be designed as such when passing through urban areas, unless it is grade separated
Zones ROW ROW 
NOTE: Highway should follow characteristics of major arterials and should be designed as such when passing through urban areas, unless it is grade separated
Vehicular zone
Zones ROW  0‐5m 5‐10m 10‐15m 15‐20m 20‐25m 25‐30m 30‐35m 35‐40m 40‐50m 50‐60m
Major Arterial
Major Arterial
Multifunctional zone
Vehicular zone 0‐5m 5‐10m 10‐15m 15‐20m 20‐25m 25‐30m 30‐35m 35‐40m 40‐50m 50‐60m
Minor Arterial
Major Arterial
Major Arterial
Plantation & furniture zone
Multifunctional zone Major Street
Minor Arterial
Minor Street
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

111
Pedestrian
Plantation & furniture zone Major Street
Local Street
Minor Street
Pedestrian
Local Street
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING COLLABORATIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING COLLABORATIVE
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

4C. Create dense street networks that enhance

walking, cycling, and vehicle traffic flow.

3. Restrict a maximum uninterrupted block face of no

more than 150m.
Indicator - Percentage of urban area with minimum 50
intersections per sq km.
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through
Development Plan and Local Area Plans.
OR Figure 4.8: Regular street block,
Portland
Indicator - Percentage of the urban area where distance between
adjacent street intersections (not traffic intersections) is less than
or equal to 150m
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through
Development Plan and Local Area Plans.

4. Major arterial with ROW> 40m should have service

lane to separate local traffic from through traffic and to
provide access to surrounding properties.
Indicator - Percentage of length of major arterials (ROW>40m) with
service / access lanes.
Benchmark - Minimum 70%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Figure 4.9: C G Road, Ahmedabad
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through street
redevelopment programs.

5. Disallow cul-de-sacs longer than 100m unless there is

a pedestrian, cyclist connection at the dead end.
Indicator - Percentage of cul-de-sacs that are less than 100m or
have a pedestrian-cyclist connection at the dead end
Benchmark - Minimum 90%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through
Development Plan and Local Area Plans.

4D. Create pedestrian access corridors through

existing developed areas to facilitate walking

6. Create pedestrian access corridors at a maximum

112 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

150m C/C through existing developed areas

Indicator – length of new pedestrian access corridors created
should be equal to the length of new vehicular streets created.
Benchmark – Ratio should be 1. (Length of new pedestrian access
corridors should be 100% equal to the length of new vehicular
streets created)
Monitoring – Streets Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA will take care of implementation
through Development Plan and Local Area Plans

Figure 4.10: Pedestrian access corridors through existing developed area near Sabarmati riverfront, Ahmedabad

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 113
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

114 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

Case Studies

i. Small and Varied blocks - Savannah, USA

Key Information

•  Founded in 1733 and planned by James Edward

Oglethorpe
•  Block size
–– 675 feet X 675 feet
–– Centrally developed open space
–– Smaller streets blocks encourage walking
–– Also, encourage NMT vehicles for short trips.
•  One block developed for residential and another
developed for public purpose

Figure 4.11: Residential block structure of Savannah, USA

Small block size is essential to create lively walkable urban areas. In most
North American cities older areas show smaller block size than newer
suburban development. . This smaller block promote walking activity for
short distance trips. (Vialard, Alice, 2012)

One the best example of a dense street network is in Savannah (USA).

The roads are typically narrow, and some of those streets could also be
called alleys. Savannah founded in 1733 and laid out by General James
Edward Oglethorpe. The ideal plan prepared by Oglethorpe has four
wards and squares. Two new wards were added in 1735, after that 18
more further implemented. Further fragmentation of existing blocks is
not possible mainly because blocks are already small. The major block
(called “ward) is 675 feet x 675 feet( 205 metres) square. The Street
spacing in the North-South direction is 110 metres and, 79 metres in the
East-West direction. Streets and building lots organized around a central
open space or square. (David, Mark, 2006., Siksna, 1997))

The streets bounding the wards allow uninterrupted movement of traffic

while the internal streets are interrupted by the squares to create a
pedestrian-friendly scale. Savannah is an example, where block size is
small and development of block is for two different purposes. One block
is for residential and the other used for public uses. (Brinckerhoff, 2006).

Numerous studies have been (and are still being) conducted on the block
structure and morpohology of Savannah which provides natural traffic
calming for pedestrians and bicyclists while retaining high degree of
connectivity.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 115
PRINCIPLE 4. CONNECT AND COMPLETE

ii. Small and Regular blocks - Portland, USA

Key Information

•  Block size
–– 200 feet X 200 feet
–– Smaller streets blocks encourage walking and
cycling activity
–– 28% of total pedestrian trips generated through
Inner city areas.

•  Walking in inner city areas of Portland is safer

and convenient mode of transport

Figure 4.12: Block structure of Portland, USA

The city block is fundamental to the physical structure of the city. The city
center of North American cities provides good examples of block size
in urban areas and Portland is one of them. Portland is located on west
coast of USA. The development of this city formed block, size of 200
square feet.(Lit, Andrew, 2009.,Smith, James, 2006)

The minimum block size provides routes to transit stops and provide easy
circulation for commuters by all travel modes. Residents of neighborhoods
with shorter block lengths are more likely to walk to their destinations.
Reducing block size can help create a community that is more accessible
to pedestrians and bicyclists and thus encourages more walking and
bicycling. (Savannah Residential Block, 2010)

In 1997, Portland transport authority (METRO) completed a street design

study in which the impact of street connectivity on potential vehicle
traffic conditions along major streets was modeled and evaluated. The
connectivity study found that, the high levels of local street connectivity
reduced the amount of local traffic on major streets. (City Block)

The study reported that about 28% of all trips in these inner, mixed-use
areas made on foot, compared to 5% in suburban areas in the region.
The survey commissioned by the Portland Office of Transportation in
1994 showed that residents in inner areas were very satisfied with the
safety and convenience of walking in their neighborhoods.

116 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 5. Integrate
“Integrate land use and transport to create high density,
mixed-use, transit oriented developments”

Sub-principles:

• Align density to availability of public transport

• Encourage appropriate mix of uses for new developments close to

mass rapid transit nodes

• Ensure availability of affordable housing in close proximity to mass

rapid transit nodes

• Align location of different land uses with availability of transport

infrastructure
PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

118 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

Principle 5. Integrate
“Integrate land use and transport to create high density,
mixed-use, transit oriented developments”

Cities have always been shaped by transport; where the planning and
design of cities has always impacted transport choices. (thisbigcity.net)
However, for a long time, transport planning and land-use planning has
been undertaken independent of each other which have led to a number
of unintended consequences resulting in the sprawling of cities.

Figure 5.1: Pedestrians friendly Transit Oriented Development in Bogotá.

Land use and transport integration deals with how transportation

investments can be best aligned with development plans; and how
transport can take further the vision for the future of our cities. At a
minimum, what the coordination of land use and transportation requires
is, that those concerned with the well-being of a community (or region,
state or nation) assess and evaluate how land use decisions affect the
transportation system and how can it increase the viable options for
people to access opportunities, goods, services, and other resources to
improve the quality of their lives. In turn, the transportation planners need
to be aware of the effects the existing and future transportation systems
may have on land use development demand, choices, and patterns
(U.S. Department of Transportation FHWA). Integration of these two
Figure 5.2: Ideal City Plan:
Integration of various sectors main components of city planning also requires extensive coordination
between the various departments of the city’s planning agencies.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 119
PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

Moreover it is also important to integrate NMT and IPT with the overall
development, as they are some of the most affordable modes of transport
for the urban poor in addition to being a source of income for them.

The primary criteria for the integration of land-use and transport is to

achieve a compact and mixed use development that also focuses on
sustainability aspect of the development and the community. To achieve
these desired outcomes Transit Oriented Development (TOD) has been
accepted as one of the most desirable andefficient tools. Transit Oriented
Development (TOD) is generally characterized by compact, mixed use
development near new or existing public transportation infrastructure that
provides housing, employment, entertainment and civic functions within
walking distance of transit. This approach allows cities to focus on their
Figure 5.3: Bicycle rickshaws are
scant resources in a manner which maximizes its value for users and still an essential NMT mode of
residents of the city. transport in many parts of India

Sub-principles:

5A. Align density to availability of public transport

Balancing demand with the transit capacity is essential for an efficient

and self-sustaining transit system. The “transit-oriented development”
– theory says that allowing higher densities near mass rapid transit
nodes can help increase ridership of the transit system and decrease
overall infrastructure costs. This boosts location efficiency and increases Figure 5.4: Curitiba’s Master Plan
mobility choices. This can be planned and implemented through station integrated transportation with
land use.
area planning.

5B. Encourage appropriate mix of uses for new

developments close to mass rapid transit nodes
Mixed land uses in close proximity to mass rapid transit nodes are
important for multiple reasons. It has been found that areas with mixed
land uses generate fewer motorized trips and even the ones that are
generated are of shorter trip length. People living in mixed-use areas in
close proximity to public transport are less tempted to own motorized
vehicles and hence rely more on public transport for longer trips.
Figure 5.5: Integrated landuse-
Traditionally, Indian cities have had more mixed-use areas. However, the transport and pedestrian friendly
introduction of modern town planning principles (as seen in Chandigarh neighbourhood, Queen’s road,
Hong Kong
and other planned cities of 20th century) has led to segregation of uses
with defined residential areas and shopping centres. This has led to
increase in motorized trips in a number of cities. Delhi has a number
of such ‘planned’ areas where residential uses are segregated from the
commercial and amenities. This results in an increase in number and
length of motorized trips.

120 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

5C. Ensure availability of affordable housing in

close proximity to mass rapid transit nodes
Low-income group depends on public transport. Hence it is essential to
allocate affordable housing that can cater to households from the low-
income group. This helps promote social inclusion and creates socially
sustainable neighbourhoods.

Most urban services, public or private, employ and depend on a large

number of people from low-income groups. The availability of affordable
housing along the transit corridor and transit nodes will not only suffice
the issue of housing for the low-income group but would also open the
oppurtunity for them to use public transport, more frequently and at
affordable costs.

Figure 5.6: Benefits of mixed-income TOD

5D. Align location of different land uses with

availability of transport infrastructure.
Integration of land use and transport planning must also look at micro-
level planning issues such as compatibility and location of certain uses
in reference to the urban transport network. Traffic intensive land uses
usually generate high levels of vehicular movement at concentrated
spots. This can increase traffic congestion greatly if the location of
such spots is not aligned with the street network, intersections etc. It is
important to understand that traffic congestion is not just because of poor
transportation planning, but also because of poor integration between
land use and transport.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 121
PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

122 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

Recommendations

5A. Align density to availability of public transport

1. Increase Floor Space Index (FSI) (by at least two

times) within 400m walking distance of Mass Rapid
Transit (high speed, high capacity systems like BRTS
and above) stations
Indicator - Percentage of mass rapid transit station areas where FSI
has been increased.
Benchmark - Minimum 80%.
Monitoring – Development Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
station area planning or development control regulations and DP/
Figure 5.7: Transit oriented Master plans.
development along BRT route,
Note: Most of the cities in India have a very low FSI and thus less
Guangzhou
density. The increase in FSI focuses on meeting the demand in
the existing available areas rather than in the extended location
.

5B. Encourage appropriate mix of uses for new

developments close to mass rapid transit nodes
2. All new developments and redevelopments within
the mass rapid transit station area should have a
mix of residential and at least one of the following
non-residential uses: institutional, government, office
commercial, retail commercial.
Indicator - Percentage of new developments and / or
redevelopments with mixed use
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA will implement this through
development control regulations.

5C. Ensure availability of affordable housing in

close proximity to mass rapid transit nodes
3. Ensure that at least 20% of built space within 400m
of mass rapid transit stations is dedicated towards
affordable rental housing for low income groups.
Indicator - Percentage of mass rapid transit stations with
affordable housing units equivalent of 20% of the built space
within the influence zone (400m)
Benchmark - Minimum 50%
Monitoring - Development Audit

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 123
PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through

station area planning. Land and construction cost should be
subsidized by distributing them over the remaining 80%. The
affordable rental housing should be maintained and managed
by local authorities through designated NGOs.
Note:Planning Regulation adopted for Ahmedabad Development Plan
2021:
• In order to enhance the supply of land for affordable housing,
a new dedicated zone R AH of 1 km width has been proposed
on the outer side along Sardar Patel Ring Road. This accounts
for 75 sq. km of area and shall accommodate about 15 lakh
affordable housing units. This overlay zone shall be applicable
only for development of affordable housing with unit upto 80 sq m.
The base FSI for affordable housing in this zone shall be 1.8 with
chargeable FSI of 0.9 at reduced rates as specified in GDR.
• The development regulations have been revised with appropriate
modifications which include:
• No ground coverage criteria after leaving required margins and
common plot
• Parking requirement of affordable units has been relaxed and shall
be 10% of utilizable FSI
• Additional FSI which is chargeable shall be available at reduced
rates i.e.
• For housing unit size upto 50 sq.m – 10% of Jantri rates
• For housing units above 50 sq.m - 66 sq.m – 20% of Jantri rates
• Common open plot shall be provided as 10% of the total plot
area. However, if common plot is provided at one place in one
contiguous piece then the requirement shall be only 8%.

5D. Align location of different land uses with

availability of transport infrastructure.
4. Vehicular entrances and exits of Traffic intensive
land-uses such as large scale commercial malls,
office buildings, petrol-pumps, party plots etc. should
not be located within 300m of a major intersection
(intersection involving major and / or minor arterials)
Indicator - Percentage of major intersections with traffic intensive
uses within 300m distance.
Benchmark - Maximum 10%
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through
Development Control Regulations

124 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

Case Studies

i. Transit Oriented Development Policy and

framework - Delhi, India
High Connectivity: Smaller block-widths – greater permeability
Key Information
•  Master Plan for Delhi – 1962: lacked
integration of infrastructure, landuse
and transport.
•  UTTIPEC & Delhi Development
Authority: framed a Transit Oriented
Development for Delhi.
•  TOD Influence Zone:
–– Zone 1: Intense TOD Zone
–– Zone 2: Standard TOD Zone
.P
ed –– Zone 3: TOD Transition Zone
es
tria
n •  Land-types under the Influence Zone:
Pa
se –– Redevelopment/ Infill sites, Greenfield
o
0m
80 ma

15 x.
sites and Retrofit
-
- 1 x.

80 ma •  TOD Policy framed for Delhi:

50
m

Streetwalls with windows: –– holistic approach to the overall transit

for “Eyes on the Street” oriented development

Figure 5.8: Anand Vihar TOD pilot project, Delhi, India

Context for TOD in Delhi

The concept plan of the Master Plan for Delhi in 1962 was a poly-centric
planned city with major transport nodes and work centers but what it
lacked was to address the integration of infrastructure, landuse and
transport.

Since then, Delhi has seen a lot of discrepancy in its investments into
developing a Public Transport System and its approach towards physical
planning of the city. Today not only it is a major auto-centric state in the
country but also a majorly polluted state. The dominance of private-
motorized commute has lead to a scenario today, where transport policy
and planning for the state, though adding heavy investments to public
transportation, looks more like auto-oriented framework.

In this alarming situation there is an unavoidable need to develop a

framework that enforces, enhances and incentivizes the use of public
transport that is not only faster, safer and convenient but also restructures
and redefines the concept of Sustainable Cities. Thus to achieve this,
Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure (Planning & Engineering)
Centre (UTTIPEC) in close co-ordination with Delhi Development Authority
framed a Transit Oriented Development - Policy, Norms & Guidelines for
Delhi.

“Transit Oriented Development is essentially any development, macro

or micro, that is focused around a transit node, and facilitates complete
ease of access to the transit facility, thereby inducing people to prefer to

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walk and use public transportation over personal modes of transport.”

Benefits of TOD to Delhi

The Delhi TOD framework is designed not only to increase the living quality
of the citizens but also to benefit the agencies in Transit, Land & Road
services. It envisages itself as a holistic approach towards integrating
existing infrastructure, land-use and future transportation options.

Along with providing a cheaper public transport, better livable environment

and quality of life it also focuses on affordable housing, mixed-use &
high density development and public-private partnership development
opportunities to provide the required infrastructure at an affordable and
timely manner.

The TOD policy would not only induce the ridership through public
transport but would also potentially increase revenue from land due to
increased development with lesser public money investment.

Zoning of TOD for Delhi

A maximum up to 2000 m. wide belt on both sides of centre line of the

MRTS Corridor is designated as TOD Influence Zone which has been
identified in the combined Zonal Development Plans of Delhi for public

Figure 5.9: Influence and coverage area under MRTS and BRTS, Delhi, India

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 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

notification. This entire zone will be designated as a “White Zone” with its
specialized policies and development control norms based on Influence
Zone Plan. However this norms and policies would be framed with utmost
considerations to;

a. Special Areas - Lutyens’ Bungalow Zone, Chanakyapuri., DIZ

Area and Matasundari Area and Civil Lines Bungalow Area
which may have height restrictions.

b. Monument Regulated Zones (as per ASI guidelines).

c. Flight funnel zones shall follow the height restrictions as per

regulations of Airport Authority of India.

d. Environmental Protection Zones (as per Chapter 9).

e. Seismic Zones such as fault lines.

Moreover, to facilitate an organized development and to bring transparency

in the development process as per TOD, the Influence Zone is further
divided as:

Zone 1: Intense TOD Zone (300 M influence zone of all MRTS Stations)

Zone 2: Standard TOD Zone (800 M influence zone of all MRTS Stations)

Zone 3: TOD Transition Zone. (2000 M influence zone of all MRTS Stations)

Land-types under the Influence Zone

Considering the exiting development and availability of the basic

infrastructure, there would be a need to identify the type of development
as per the land-type and thus frame the regulation as per ground realities.
To facilitate this, the land falling under the Zone 1 and Zone 2 will be
categorized as: Redevelopment/ Infill sites, Greenfield sites and Retrofit.

Influence Zone Plan

A Detailed Influence Zone Plan is a document that provides a framework

and vision for future TOD development for a single or a set of MRTS
stations. Any public or private development within the Influence Zone Plan
Areas must adhere to the overall strategies, framework and benchmarks
provided by the Plan. The Plan shall be prepared or be approved by the
competent Planning Authority for each influence zone area in a phased
manner, customized to site characteristics and context.

The plan shall include the following components:

1. Urban Design Framework

2. Transport Impact Assessment & Mitigation Strategies

3. Decentralized Infrastructure and Sustainability Plan

4. Economic Viability and Implementation Model

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Policy

1. Redevelopment within developed areas of the city would be permitted

only when an overall Influence Zone Plan has been prepared for the
Station.

2. Densification should be allowed in all plot sizes subject to the project

complying to the approved Influence Zone Plan, so that incremental
development and densification can start taking place.

3. It is highly inappropriate to allow land banking in TOD zones.

4. Penalties should apply to all developers as well as Govt. bodies, to

prevent inefficient use of valuable land and thus to ensure time bound
densification along with MRTS corridor.

Norms

1. If Influence Zone layout plan for the station area does not exist, no
individual developments with TOD norms shall be permitted.

2. If Influence Zone Plan for the station area exists, any project size of
more than 50 Ha or an individual building will be sanctioned if it is
in adherence to the influence zone plan prepared by the Planning
Authority.

3. For projects accommodating more than 5000 residential population,

the residents/ cooperative societies/ private developers should get
the detailed layout and services plan prepared in consultation with
the concerned authority for finalapproval. Variations from the existing
influence zone plan prepared by DDA would be permissible subject
to adherence to all TOD norms and Codes.

TOD Policy and Development Control Norms

1. Each TOD must have the following components:

2. Pedestrian & Cycle/ Cycle-Rickshaw Friendly Environment

3. Connectivity: Create dense networks of streets and paths for all

modes.

4. Multi-modal Interchange: Mass transportation modes servicing the

area should be well integrated to afford rapid and comfortable modal
transfers.

5. Modal Shift Measures: Shift to Sustainable Modes by Using Design,

Technology, Road Use Regulation, Mixed-Use, Parking Policy and
Fiscal Measures

6. Placemaking and Safety: Urban places should be designed for

enjoyment, relaxation and equity.

7. High Density, Mixed-Income Development: Compact Neighbourhoods

for Shorter Commutes and Equity for All Sections of Society.

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Policy Details and Development Norms for Pedestrian & Cycle/

Cycle-Rickshaw Friendly Environment

For any multi-modal or transit oriented development, pedestrian

movement/ circulation plays a vital role. In countries like India, where one
can also see a significant use of cycle as a mode of transport, pedestrian
and cycling should go hand-in-hand. A well planned, designed and
maintained pedestrian and cycling/non-motorized transport (NMT)
dedicated lanes will help in reducing the use of motorized vehicles, at
least for short trips.

The affordability and equity for the use of Public Transport are two major
challenges that Delhi is facing. With major urban poor relying on walking
as a mode of transport, UTTIPEC put forward the following policies and
standards to amplify and enhance the pedestrian and cycling condition
in the city.

Policy

• Design for pedestrian safety, comfort and convenience on all streets.

• Create street-level activity and well and well-watched streets for

pedestrian security and enjoyment.

• Provide adequate amenities for pedestrians, cyclist, NMT and public

transport users.

• All streets, public spaces and buildings must be universally

accessible.

Norms and Standards

Adherence to Chapter 12 UTTIPEC Street Design

Conclusion

The TOD Policy framed for Delhi gives a holistic approach to the overall
transit oriented development where rather than just increasing the density
and FAR for the particular precinct it details out the over-all basics to
implement and create a more livable and sustainable built environment.

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ii. Transit Oriented Development - Curitiba, Brazil

Key Information
•  Integrate land use with transportation
in Curitiba
–– Trinary road design system
–– Major roads in Curitiba designated for
BRTS
•  Development along BRT
–– Permissible FSI along BRT route is five
time the plot size
–– ZR-4 - Residential zone mid-rise
–– ZR-3-FSI up to 1.3 times the size of
parcel
–– ZR-2 – FSI restricted to the size of the
plot.
•  Ridership and Usage
–– Passenger volume – 1.9 to 2.1 million
trips per day
–– 11,000 passengers per hour per
direction.
–– Bus capacity – 270 passengers Figure 5.10: Transit oriented development along BRT corridor, Curitiba, Brazil

Curitiba (a medium size city) is widely known for one the best and
most sustainable transit system in the world. Curitiba’s high capacity
transit system was not developed in one or two years, it was planned
and implemented over three decades. Curitiba’s planners developed a
master plan, which integrated transportation and urban land use. The plan
focused on cost effective well-planned system to meet the transportation
needs of the city. (leroy, W.; Demery, Jr., 2004)

The first comprehensive plan for Curitiba, developed in 1943,(Agache

plan) prepared to strengthen Curitiba’s core by building radial avenues
that linked downtown with the rest of the city as well as concentric ring
road. In reality, the city never had the money to implement the Agache
Plan completely.

After the failure of first master plan, in early 1960s the local authority
decided to prepare new master plan. With the adoption of the new Master
Plan in 1965, the projected layout of the city changed dramatically. In the
new plan, the city was not planned to grow in all directions (as per the
Agache Master Plan); rather, the growth was planned along designated
radial corridors. This was supported by zoning and land use policies
promoting high-density development along the corridors.

Toward End of 1960, central Curitiba started showing signs of overcrowding

and serious traffic congestion. To avoid the traffic congestion, the master
plan required to channel overspill growth along five structural axes (also
called “transit arteries” later). The new structural axes become the main
catchment for new development. Downtown Curitiba was not a primary
destination any more; it was a hub and terminus.

The important step towards implementation of master plan came up

during 1971. The new elected mayor took the decision to implement the
new master plan. The mayor converted downtown streets to pedestrian

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ways. The city’s downtown and historic sector was partly closed for
vehicular traffic and space was utilized for pedestrian users. The Master
Plan also provided economic support for urban development along the
arteries through the establishment of industrial and commercial zones
and mixed-use zoning, and encouraged local community self-sufficiency
by providing each city district with its own adequate education, health
care, recreation, and park areas. By 1992, almost 40 percent of Curitiba’s
population resided within three blocks of the major transit arteries. (TCRP,
2009)

Land within two blocks of the structural axes was declared as zoned for
mixed commercial-residential uses. Higher densities were permitted for
office space, since it traditionally generates more transit ridership per
square foot than residential space. Beyond these two blocks, zoned
residential densities taper with distance from transit ways. Very limited
and time-restricted public parking is available in the downtown area, and
private parking is very expensive.

As the population increased during the period from 1970 through

the present, Curitiba’s bus system evolved incrementally. It required
expansion of service routes, frequencies and capacities, improvements
in fare payment and scheduling to facilitate the passenger transferring
process.

During mid 1980’s the ridership had grown, enough to support a rail
network, but capital costs were prohibitive. Instead, a high-capacity high-
speed service known as “direct service” was introduced on the one-way
exclusive bus lanes that parallel the main corridors one block away. This
service, including the tube stations and was far cheaper, faster and less
disruptive than the light rail system. (Henrique, Luis; Fragomeni, C, 2008)

Based on 1991 traveler survey results, it was estimated that 28% of direct
bus service users previously travelled by private car. Residential patterns
changed to afford bus access on the major arteries to a larger proportion
of the population. The main three arterials were built during mid of 1980’s.
During this period, the population growth was 73%, while the population
growth along the arteries was 120 %.

Currently approximately 1,100 buses make 12,500 trips per day, serving
more than 1.3 million passengers per day, which is 50 times more than the
same number 20 years ago. 80% of the travelers use either the express
or direct bus service, while only 20 percent use the conventional feeder
services. Additionally to enjoying speedy and reliable service, commuters
spend only about 10 percent of their income on travel.

Density and FSI

The initiative of zoning regulations also provide various bonuses and

that promote higher densities immediate to the transit ways. Majority of
parcels within structural axes, which consist two blocks within trinary road
system, was reserved for mix development (commercial and residential).

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The permissible development (FSI) along structural corridor for office

building is five times the area of plot size. The first two floors extended
up to the property lines where building structures directly face exclusive
bus ways and auxiliary lanes, which create space between building and
street curb for sidewalks. 50% of ground and second floors was used for
retailers and commercial users and allocated space was not count as
against permissible plot ratios. Thus, nearly all of the first two floors of
building that front transit ways are devoted to retail shops and restaurant
or eateries shops.

Residential zone is placed outside the structural axes and within easy
walking distance from the main transit lines. Residential density reduces
as distance from the transit line increases. The other side of the one-way
transit artery was also developed as residential zone (ZR4), where eight
to twelve stored mid rise height buildings constructed. In the ZR4 zone,
building area can be developed twice the plot area size. The next roads
coming out from one way is local streets, where low rise three to five
stories garden apartments were buildings permitted. ZR3 zone, which
is also residential zone and permissible FSI under the ZR3 zone, would
be 1.3 times the size of the parcel size. In addition, ZR2 zone, which
allowed single semi detached single story housing. ZR1 zones allow
some neighbored small retails shops.

Affordable Housing

Land acquisition along or close to structural axes created opportunities

for planners to regulate and direct growth. In past 25 years, housing for
low-income families was build near transportation corridors. Another
initiative came up in which developers can buy up to two extra floors
of residential buildings by contributing to the housing authority and the
contribution was set at 75% of the market value of the extra building area
provided.

Bus Rapid Transit System

Curitiba’s “bus rapid transit” system includes (1) trunk line buses
operating on the busways as “express” services and “direct” services
operating on the adjacent one-way arterial streets. Feeder buses serve
the arterial trunk lines on the five structural axes but they are not given
priority over other traffic. The “express” services are segregated from
other traffic. The integrated terminals (multi-modal terminals) are located
at every 4 kilometers. “Direct” express bus services run along the one-
way roads on each side of the central roads that form the structural axes.

These services feature fewer stops, and passengers pay before boarding
the buses in special raised tubular stations. The service was initiated in
1991 with four routes that parallel the busways. By 1995, 12 lines served
more than 225,000 daily trips. Reports of the passenger volumes on the
complete citywide system vary from about 1.9 to 2.1 million passenger
trips million per day (which includes transfers as separate trips). Reported

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 PRINCIPLE 5. INTEGRATE

daily bus way ridership volumes are approximately 188,000 passengers

in the north south corridor, 80,000 in the Boqueirao corridor and 52,000
in the east corridor and 19,000 in the west corridor. The most heavily
loaded corridor carries about 11,000 passengers per hour per direction,
which is consistent with headway of 90 seconds and a bi-articulated bus
capacity of 270 passengers per bus. Curitiba has all the factors that make
up rapid passenger handling for a successful rapid transit system, i.e.
wide bus doors; level access; five doors per bus that are designated
for separate, simultaneous boarding and alighting; no fare payment or
display of passes to drivers; etc.

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134 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 6. Compact
“Encourage compact regions with short commutes”

Sub-principles:

• Prioritize & incentivise reuse and infill of existing developed

urbanized areas

• Channel new development to areas adjacent to existing urbanized

areas
PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

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Principle 6. Compact
“Encourage compact regions with short commutes”

Compact development is an urban planning and design concept to

minimize the impact of human activity on the environment by keeping
the area for urban development low while preserving surrounding natural,
agricultural and forested areas. Such a development may at times be
at high densities and could be served with an efficient public transport
system and an urban street network that is dense and well-connected to
Figure 6.1: Urban Sprawl: By
Choice or By Force?
encourage walking and cycling.

The concept aims to reduce overall energy consumption by ensuring

that travel for work or leisure is optimized. This is mainly achieved by
concentrating new development close to existing urbanized areas and
developing vacant pockets of land. The concept also emphasis on
developing adequate supporting physical and social infrastructure (parks,
gardens, public health facilities, libraries etc.) within the dense areas to
enhance quality of life of the residents of such a compact development.

Shanghai: 7397000 people - 244 sq km

Figure 6.2: Compact urban form like that of Shanghai makes it feasible to provide
Public Transport as a low per capita cost.

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PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

Sub-principles:

6A. Prioritize & incentivise reuse and infill of existing

developed urbanized areas
Prioritizing and directing growth within the urbanized areas enables more
efficient use of urban services and infrastructure. This can be implemented
mainly in two ways. Development can be encouraged or facilitated in
vacant parcels of land or land that was previously developed, for example
vacant industrial mill land. This is known as urban infill. Adaptive reuse is
another way, where older structures which have outlived their uses are
converted into new ones (Joachim, 2011).

Redevelopment of existing areas is an expensive, messy and tedious

process for developers. Such infill / adaptive reuse can only be successful
if there are enough incentives for developers to undertake redevelopment
of existing areas.

Figure 6.3: London Scenarios: Infill Development possibilities

Development Plans or Master Plans of a city needs to adopt planning

policies and strategies that incentivize new developments, encourage
redevelopment and infill development in existing areas. These can help
integrate land use planning proposals with the urban transport strategy to
promote sustainable patterns of growth of the city. Moreover such plans
have the potential to unify and integrate all urban components of a city,
which otherwise would be planned separately. Also, local development
regulations need to formulated so as to include incentives in the form of
higher FSI along transit corridors, in CBD areas, existing underdeveloped
areas, development of affordable housing etc.

Moreover, for those areas of the city which are currently compact or
dense, i.e. core city area, for example, Howrah in Kolkata, Walled city
area in Ahmedabad, Bhuleshwar in Mumbai; these areas need to be

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 PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

serviced with better public transport and better physical infrastructure so

as to complement it with newly developed urbanized areas.

6B. Channel new development to areas adjacent

to existing urbanized areas

Figure 6.4: Draft Development Plan 2021 for Ahmedabad has defined its growth
boundary to channel new developments near existing urbanised areas.

Traditionally, most cities do not prefer to invest in upgradation of physical

infrastructure and public transport but rather open up new areas for
development. This is because just as for developers even for the city it
is easier and cheaper to provide infrastructure in new / green-field areas
than the brown-fields.
Figure 6.5: Redevelopment However, large scale infrastructure like water treatment facilities and
Scenario: Gulmohar Park Mall,
Ahmedabad sewage treatment plants work well only at a certain scale. Hence, in the
long run scattered infrastructure would turn out to be more expensive than
concentrated infrastructure (which is possible by improving infrastructure
in existing areas). Not just from infrastructure, but also from social well-
being perspective, it is better to live in denser environments close together
Figure 6.6: Infill- development than living in scattered manner in sprawling areas.
Scenario: Alpha One Mall,
Ahmedabad Thus, it is essential to limit areas for new developments by restricting
the release of new land for zoning and development. This in turn would
prevent urban sprawl and encourage compact development

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PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

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 PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

Recommendations
6A. Prioritize & incentivise reuse and infill of existing
developed urbanized areas
1. Increase Floor Space Index (FSI) along existing and
future transport corridors in the city
Indicator - Percentage of total length of existing and proposed
corridors with increase in FSI
Benchmark - Minimum 80%
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA should implement this through the
Comprehensive Regional Plan / development control regulations
Note: Applicable for cities with more than 1 million population.

Figure 6.7: Existing & propoaed scenarios for increase in FSI along transport corridors.

2. Calculate property tax based on permissible built floor

space instead of actual built floor space
Implementation - ULB / UDA can implement this through
amendments in Development Control Regulations

3. Introduce incentives and strategies to encourage

redevelopment and infill development
Indicator - Percentage of vacant and underutilized land getting
redeveloped per year
Benchmark - Minimum 10% per year
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this by introducing
incentives and suitable development control regulations

4. Avoid claiming multi or double cropped agricultural

land for development uses by using Transfer of
Development Rights (TDR) mechanisms
Indicator - Percentage of agricultural land claimed for development
will be an indicator.
Benchmark - 100% compliance
Monitoring - Development Audit

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PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

Implementation – ULB / UDA will implement this through the

Comprehensive Regional Plan and TDR policies.

5. Restrict / limit zoning of new development areas

Indicator - Proportion of development potential in newly developed
area v/s development potential of existing areas
Benchmark – Development potential of existing areas to be higher
than newly developed areas
Monitoring - Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this by controlling land
use and suitable development control regulations
Note – Development potential can be calculated as:
• For newly developed areas (X) :
(Total Plot Area x allowable FSI)
• For existing areas (Y):
(Total Plot Area x allowable FSI) – (Existing Built-Up Area)

Y should be greater than X.

6B. Channel new development to areas adjacent

to existing urbanized areas
6. New areas opened for development should be
adjoining existing developed areas unless separated
by undevelopable natural barrier
Indicator - Percentage of total area opened for development (that is
adjoining existing developed areas)
Benchmark – Minimum 80%
Monitoring - Annual Development Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this by controlling land
use and suitable development control regulations

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Case Studies

i. Encourage infill and reduce sprawl -

Ahmedabad Revised Development plan 2022

Key Information

•  Presently vacant and available land

in residential zones R1 and R2 - 65
sq.km
•  Nearly 38 million sq.m. of built space
can bemade available in the zoned
areas R1 and R2 if
•  approximately 50% of this vacant land
(33 sq.km) gets developed due to
the development demand and FSI
incentives
•  land area develops at the rate of 60%
of the permissible FSI and
•  20% of plots undergo redevelopment
in R1 zone.

Figure 6.8: Proposed development framework, Ahmedabad, India

The previous planning policies of Ahmedabad focused more on horizontal

planning than vertical. In the previous Development Plan 2001, additional
land was opened up in the periphery which resulted in sprawl while the
inner core development areas maintained less density. Therefore, the
Revised Development Plan 2022 for Ahmedabad has been formulated to
encourage compact city form and encourage infill development.

It follows one of the principles of compact growth which includes

• Reduce sprawl by encouraging compact city form which helps

shorten commute trips, makes infrastructure more efficient and leads
to a higher quality of life

• Discourage the development inducing infrastructure in far flung areas

To effectively implement this, enhanced General Development Regulations

(GDR) and effective zoning principles have been used. These planning
tools manage growth, regulate density and organize land uses within the
urban area.

In order to encourage compact city form and to enhance mobility through

transit oriented development following are some of the important steps
taken up in the

1. Incentivize development in existing zoned area(R1 and R2) : In

order to optimize the utilization of vacant land and areas with old
development primarily in R1 and R2 zones, incentives in terms of
payable FSI were introduced that would help encourage development

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PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

and redevelopment within this area.

2. Incentivize development in CBD : A new zone of Central Business

District (CBD) is carved out from the existing zone to create a high
density district with a distinct character and a clearly identifiable
urban form. This zone will promote and incentivize regeneration
and rejuvenation of city’s central area and transform it into a vibrant,
mixed use, transit oriented, walkable CBD that is attractive for
business, entertainment and tourism. Along with base FSI of 1.8,
additional chargeable FSI of 3.6 is made available to incentivize the
development in this zone bringing total permissible FSI to 5.4. Also,
height restriction is removed to allow maximum height as approved
by Airports Authority of India (AAI).

3. Encourage compact development along transit corridors: A Transit

Oriented zone is introduced as an effective tool to promote compact,
transit oriented development within the walking distances of public
transit routes such as BRTS and Metro. (200m on both sides along
BRTS and Metro)

4. Organize development in Growth Centers : Keeping the principles

of compact growth in focus, growth centers are planned at Sanand,
Mahemdabad, Kalol, Dehgam and Bareja in order to support/

Indicates the core development zone

Figure 6.9: Development potential zone within existing urban area, Ahmedabad, India

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 PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

accommodate population in various SEZs, SIRs and industrial

clusters around Ahmedabad

5. Allow for natural growth around villages through buffers: The growth
around village should be accommodated in immediate vicinity of
the village Gamtal in contiguous manner. Therefore, a buffer of 200
is provided around Gamtals having population less than 5000 and
300 m around Gamtals having population of more than 300 m where
specific regulations and uses may be permitted according to GDR.

6. Restricting development to preserve prime agriculture land : To

preserve fertile double cropping land as well as reduce sprawl,
necessary regulations have been framed in GDR and Prime Agriculture
Zone has been introduced so as to discourage any development
other than agriculture and some of the support activities.

7. Development around existing zoned areas to incentivize affordable

housing : In order to enhance the supply of affordable housing, a new
overlay zone RAH is identified within 1 km wide stretch on the outer
side of SP Ring Road covering around 75 sq.km of land area. This
overlay zone shall be applicable only for development of affordable
housing with unit sizes upto 80 sq m. All other developments shall
be permissible as per the existing zones only. The RAH overlay zone
shall take precedence over the underlying R1, R2, R3, Commercial
and Agricultural zone.

8. The base FSI for affordable housing in this zone shall be 1.8 with
chargeable FSI of 0.9 at reduced rates as specified in GDR. For all
other developments the FSI shall be permissible as per the provision
of the base zone as identified in GDR.

ii. Vacant land Policy - Cleveland, USA

Key Information

•  One of the most successful land bank

in USA
•  Focus on converting tax-reverted
property to new uses
•  Vacant land information
–– Parcel identified through Aerial imagery
–– 13 sq.km vacant land in Cleveland city
–– 20,000 vacant or vacated land
–– 7500 parcels under land bank control
•  Community Development Corporation
(CDCs) involved with land bank
•  Involvement of CDCs
–– Purchase vacant land
–– Prepare master Plan for vacant land
•  Property Tax concession for distressed
Figure 6.10: Windmill developed on land proposed for redevelopment.
previously vacant land, Cleveland

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PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

Cleveland is a thriving city within the state of Ohio in USA. The city is
located in the northeastern Ohio. Recently, in the aftermath of the global
financial crises, the city of Cleveland has been adversely impacted
through falling property prices, severe home-loan foreclosures and an
increasing incidence of vacant/vacated properties and land within the
city. These changes in Cleveland’s population and economic base have
created an opportunity for the city to re-imagine its future.
Figure 6.11: Previously vacant
Currently, approximately 3,300 acres of land in Cleveland is vacant, land developed as community
most of which was previously occupied. This vacant, or vacated, land space and gardens.
represents about 20,000 parcels (plots) of land, more than 7,500 of which
are under City control in Cleveland’s Land Bank. This scenario creates
a unique opportunity for Cleveland to rebuild a vibrant community that
provides a better quality of life for its residents. (Cleveland City Planning
Commission, 2008)

The City of Cleveland is noted as having one of the top residential land
bank operations in the country, particularly for being one of the first
cities to address vacant, abandoned and underutilized properties while
simultaneously planning and restoring properties for neighborhood reuse.
(Keating, Dennis W, 2006)

In the aftermath of the housing crises in US, the city expedited its
foreclosure process (even though it can take up to three years) jointly with
the land bank’s ability to cancel delinquent taxes on acquired property.

This made it one of the models of aggressive vacant land reutilization.

Under the City Land Bank law, the Land Bank distributes all the
acquisitions within 15 years, hence planning for final parcels for housing
and neighborhood redevelopment can be done.

The City of Cleveland has already taken significant steps to advance the
sustainable re-use of vacant land. Cleveland’s Land bank has legal and
administrative powers to sell properties at below-market value. The bank
also has ability to waive property taxes for distressed properties proposed
for redevelopment. One of the more interesting aspects to Cleveland’s
land bank structure, as compared to other cities, however, is its use
and reliance on local community development corporations (CDCs) to
purchase the properties once acquired and managed by the land bank.
(Cleveland State University & GLEFC, 2005)

Local CDCs are now working with the City of Cleveland to implement
agricultural pilot projects over the next several years throughout the city. A
total of 66 project aiming to renovate vacant land have been implemented
throughout Cleveland, 31 of which are urban agriculture related, 13
are market, gardens, and the remaining are community gardens and
windmills. The urban farms will provide supplemental income to many
farmers and primary income for one or two farmers. These projects are
limited to city-owned land. The city has agreed to a five-year lease for the
pilot projects, with the goal of transferring title to the community group
or individual farmer after the expiration of the lease. (Alexander, Frank S,
2011.; Dewar, Margaret, 2009)

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Large CDCs network and major CDC supported organizations are capable
and ready to reuse land for neighborhood revitalization in a strategically
planned way. The city’s willingness to work with and distribute 500 to 800
parcels per year to local CDCs (at $100 per parcel) provides an avenue
for ongoing planning and cooperation critical to the success of housing
redevelopment. (Pagano, Michael A; Bowman, Ann O’M., 2000)

iii. FSI mechanism to regulate growth - Seoul,

South Korea
Key Information

•  Different FSI to regulate growth near

transit corridor
•  World’s third largest metro system
–– Metro linked CBD with other suburban
areas.
•  Allowable FSI near main metro nodes
higher compare to other areas.
•  FSI regulation in Seoul
–– 8 to 10 FSI in CBD areas
–– 0.5 to 4 FSI in residential area
–– 10 FSI near metro nodes
•  FSI value decrease as distance
increase from metro station nodes

Figure 6.12: Development with high FSI near transit station in Seoul, South
Korea

Over the years, Seoul has implemented various growth management

techniques and FSI & TDR tools are prominent among them. Seoul’s
compact development with large CBD area and newly developed sub
centers is important. (KWON, Young Jong, 2010)

Seoul’s metro system is world’s third largest metro system, which linked
various sub centers and CBD via different routes. To create compact and
sustainable development, Seoul’s has different allowable FSI for different

Figure 6.13: FSI value in Seoul’s residential area

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 147
PRINCIPLE 6. COMPACT

areas. For CBD area, the permissible FSI is 10 and for the rest of the
CBD area and various sub centers, the permissible FSI is 8. Seoul’s
development authority allowed 0.5 to 4 FSI in residential areas. (Bertaud,
2010)

Permissible FSI in areas around main metro nodes is higher compared to

other areas within the same district. Areas around metro nodes can use
maximum FSI value 10 and FSI decreases as distance from metro station
increases. (Rakwatin, Preesan; Watanabe, Naoki; Yonemura, Takahiro,
2010)

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Principle 7. Parking
“Influence private vehicle usage through parking”

Sub-principles:

• Formalize and regulate all on-street parking provision and usage

• Disincentivize free parking within private developments

PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Principle 7. Parking
“Influence private vehicle usage through parking”
For every trip undertaken by vehicles, there arises a need for the vehicle to
be parked. Parking convenience not only affects the ease of reaching the
destinations but also the overall journey & accessibility. Hence it would not
be wrong to say that parking today plays a crucial role in the process of
designing and defining the comprehensive urban transportation system.

Once an essential component of transportation design and system, today

Figure 7.1: Urban Sprawl: By parking has become a source of arguments, conflict and inefficiency,
Choice or By Force? threatening future developments by occupying the major potential parcel
of lands that can be utilized for betterment of society. Parking facilities are
not only a major expense to the society but also a most common problem
faced by designers, operators, planners and other officials.

Parking problems are mostly defined/ derived either in terms of demand-

supply analysis or in terms of demand-management analysis. In most
of the cases, management solutions tend to be better than expanding
Figure 7.2: The Parking Road
supply because they support more strategic planning objectives (Litman,
2011).

Frequently planners mistake parking as a needed infrastructure rather than

a Travel Demand Management (TDM) tool. Travel Demand Management
is a practice wherein various strategies (policies, programs, services and
products) are used to change travel behaviour (how, when and where
people travel) in order to increase the efficiency of transport systems and
achieve sustainability of mobility systems. TDM strategies aim to control
and manage the demand for travel, especially by private vehicles through
various means such as pricing measures, regulatory measures, etc.
Figure 7.3: Parking Congestion,
Dhaka TDM programmes are demand oriented rather than supply oriented i.e.
they manage travel of population rather than trying to provide for more
physical capacity for travel. TDM measures try to lessen the burden on
the existing road infrastructure and reduce the need to invest in costly
road improvement measures. (source: Toolkit on Transport Demand
Management)

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Sub-principles:

7A. Formalize and regulate all on-street parking

provision and usage

Parking can be managed and regulated to encourage more efficient

use of parking resources and more efficient travel. Free parking results
in unorganized conditions and is one of the reasons behind traffic
congestion. Frequently, on-street parking is provided at the cost of
providing adequate street space for pedestrians and cyclists. Pay and
use parking not only helps in organizing parking, regulating traffic and
maintenance of the streets, but also disincentivizes private vehicle
ownership and usage.

Parking management can also help generate revenue that can in turn
Figure 7.4a: TDM as a tool to
be used for the maintenance and upkeep of the streets. Parking pricing manage the growth and periodic
should be market based and its management should be out sourced in shifts in traffic demand
order to manage it efficiently.

Figure 7.4b: The effects of parking prices in Grosvenor Square, London

7B. Disincentivize free parking within private

developments

Minimum parking requirement for private developments is governed

by the building bye-laws. This is usually available free of the allowable
maximum Floor Space Index within any given plot. Removing these
regulations and letting the market decide the provision will be helpful
in not only ensuring that supply matches demand, but also in ensuring
that the major cost of parking is borne by the people who own and use
them rather than distributing the cost over all the residents regardless of
whether they own a car or not.

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

7.86
8

4 3.45

3 2.58
1.9 1.71
2 1.46 1.32
0.78 0.6
1 0.41 0.37 0.21
0.16 0.15 0.11
0

Figure 7.5: Low Parking charges (here shown in US $) in Indian Cities encourages
cars.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 153
PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

154 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Recommendations

7A. Formalize and regulate all on-street parking

provision and usage

1. All on-street parking on major and minor streets and

above in hierarchy should be designated as paid
parking
Indicator - Length of paid on-street parking (on Major streets and
above) compared to overall length of all formal on-street parking
(on Major streets and above)
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Figure 7.6: On street paid parking
on major streets, USA Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB/UDA will implement this through
appointment of parking management agency

2. Ensure restriction of free and unorganized on street

parking in CBD areas
Indicator – Percentage of paid and organized on street parking in
CBD
Benchmark –100%
Monitoring – Comprehensive Mobility audit
Implementation – ULB/UDA will implement this through
appointment of parking management agency

3. All parking on minor and local streets should be

regulated through permits and should be charged
Indicator - Length of regulated on-street parking (on Minor and
Local streets) compared to overall length of all formal on-street
parking (on Minor and Local streets)
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Figure 7.7: Parking regulation
through parking permits, Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through the
Singapore mobility component

4. On-street parking-price should be market-based

Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
the mobility component
Note - Market based pricing ensures that parking is charged based
on the location of the parking space and also it can be used to
disincentivse long term parking that discourages private vehicle
usage for all trips.

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

5. Parking management and compliance should be out-

sourced.
Implementation – ULB / UDA should have a “Parking Management”
Department that will implement this through a tendering process.
Note:
Private sector involvement in on-street parking is common in many
cities, without any clear-cut correlation between such delegation
and successful on-street parking management. Activities that can
potentially be delegated separately to the private sector include on-
street parking pricing itself, enforcement against illegal or disruptive
parking, and enforcement against pricing-related violations.
Delegation should also include the use of towing of vehicles parked
obstructively, which is feasible even where vehicle registration
systems are unreliable.

7B. Disincentivize free parking within private

developments

6. There should be no minimum requirement for parking

in private developments
Implementation – Urban Local Body / Urban Development Authority
will implement this through Development Control Rules
Some city governments offer incentives for the private sector to build
more parking (over and above requirements) and to open this
extra parking to the public. This policy comes with the condition
that the extra parking must be made open to the public.
Note:
It should be noted that development bonuses are not free of cost.
Just like land itself, such bonuses can be considered a public sector
resource with an opportunity cost. A bonus to incentivize parking can
be used to promote something else, such as low-cost housing or
public space. (Asian Development Bank – Parking policy in Asian
cities)

7. Parking should not be free of FSI in private

developments
Implementation – Urban Local Body / Urban Development Authority
will implement this through Development Control Rules

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Case Studies

i. On-Street Parking Use Zones - San Diego, USA

Key Information
•  CBD Area : 5.87 sq.km
•  On Street Parking Space – 55,000
•  Parking meters – 38,000
•  Parking Zone
–– Red Zone / Fire zone
–– White Zone / Passenger loading zone
–– Yellow Zone / Commercial loading zone
–– Blue Zone / Handicapped parking zone
–– Green Zone / Short term parking zone
•  Timings for parking zone
–– Red Zone: No parking anytime
–– White Zone: Parking allowed as per
posted time limit
–– Yellow Zone: No parking during 8:00 am
to 6:00 pm
–– Blue Zone: No limits for Handicapped
–– Green Zone: Parking allowed as per
Figure 7.8: Blue zone parking area, San Diego, USA posted time limit

San Diego is one of the major cities in the U.S. The City of San Diego’s
parking regulations help regulate available on-street parking, maintain
traffic flow and enhance public safety. These regulations complement the
City’s commitment to promote a quality living environment for residents
and visitors. (Stienstra, Sjoerd, 2008)

Within CBD area, commercial parking requirement are determined by the

level of commercial use and proximity to the transit. Outside the CBD
areas, residential parking requirement estimated based on the land use
district and size of dwelling units. For multi- family residential building
required, more space compared to area near to transit station or low-
income housing development. (Department S. D.), (San DiegoTransport
Department, )

Although San Diego has high parking requirements in place, the City
also has a zoning regulation to reduce parking requirements and support
alternative modes. Parking is completely banned near intersection,
crosswalk, footpath and parkways. Within 15 feet of fire station, driveway
or fire hydrant location parking banned. even in areas where parking
permitted, continuous parking not allowed for more than 72 hours. Parking
for loading and unloading of goods in residential areas banned, unless
they park the vehicle in designated parking zone. On-street Parking
Zones throughout San Diego feature colour coordinated curbs and/or
signs to help drivers quickly identify parking rules for the area. (Centre
City Development Corporation, 2009)

Red Zone is NO PARKING/NO STOPPING ZONES. A red curb means,

“No stopping any time” When signs are used in place of a red curb, the
prohibition is in effect on the days and times specified on the sign.

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Figure 7.10: Red parking zone

Figure 7.11: Yellow parking zone

Figure 7.12: White parking zone

Figure 7.9: Parking space location, San Diego, USA

Yellow Zone is COMMERCIAL LOADING ZONES. In this zone, trucks and

commercial vehicles permitted to stop for 20 minutes to load or unload Figure 7.13: Blue parking zone
goods. Passenger vehicles may also stop for three minutes to load or
unload passengers. Commercial loading zones are in effect between 6:00
am to 6:00 pm, Sundays and City holidays excepted, unless otherwise
posted.

White Zone is PASSENGER LOADING ZONES. In white zone, vehicles

allowed to stop for the purpose of loading or unloading passengers. The
time limit is three minutes, or ten minutes in front of a building. Passenger
loading zones are in effect 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless
otherwise posted.

Blue Zone is DISABLED PERSONS PARKING ZONES. Vehicles displaying

a distinguishing placard or license plate issued to disabled persons by
the California Department of Motor Vehicles may park in this zone. If a
person have a disabled placard or license plate, person can also park at
green curbs or in time limit zones with no time restriction and at metered
parking spaces for free and with no time restriction. Additionally, parking
in the blue crosshatch area designated for wheelchair lifts prohibited and
subject to a fine.

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Green Zone is SHORT-TERM TIME LIMIT PARKING ZONES. Parking is

limited to the time stencilled on the curb or posted on a sign. In most
cases, the time limit is either 15 or 30 minutes. Short-term time limit
parking zones are in effect 8:00 am to 6:00 pm, Sundays and City holidays
excepted, unless otherwise posted.

While there is significant off-street parking available, general tendency

of people is to park in the closest available location. Hence, managing
on-street parking become extremely important to allow judicious use of
public space.

ii. Parking Pricing zones - Copenhagen, Denmark

Key Information

•  Inner city area: 6.7 sq.km

•  City divided into three parking zone
•  Parking Regulation during weekdays
–– Red zone: 5US$/hour between 8:00 am to
5:00pm
–– Green zone: 3US$/hour between 8:00 am to
5:00pm
–– Blue zone: 2US$/hour between 8:00 am to
5:00pm
•  Charges in all three zones during weekdays
–– 2US$/hour between 5:00 pm to 11:00pm
–– 0.50 US$/hour between 11:00 pm to 8:00am
–– Car users reduces by 6%
–– 9% transit ridership increased

Figure 7.14: Parking zones, Copenhagen, Demark

While Copenhagen is renowned world over as the cycling capital of the

world, the city has also undertaken major reforms in parking. During the
period from 2000 to 2004, measurement of congestion in Copenhagen
was shows that congestion rose by about 20% in this period. The
measurements showed that there was an annual fall in driving speed over
the years, from 34 km/h in 1985 to 27 km/h in 2005. (Corporation, 2009.,
(Tørsløv, Niels, 2010)

In September 2009, the Copenhagen City Council established 3,000 new

parking spaces and closed 1,000 on-street parking spaces in the inner
metropolitan area. As a part of their strategic master plan for parking, City
transportation department divided urban area into three traffic zones: the
Copenhagen tariff zones – red, green and blue -, which are all charged

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

differently. It covers the Copenhagen city centre and the inner bridge
areas. The closer one gets to the city centre, the more expensive it is to
park ones vehicle. (Parking, 2009., Litman, Parking Pricing Implementation
Guidelines, 2011)

In the parking zones, the users have to pay for parking from Monday
to Saturday, between 8.00 am to 6.00 pm. Blue zone is the cheapest,
where parking cost is 2 US$/hour; Next is the Green Zone, where parking
is 3 US$/hour; and lastly the Red Zone, is the most expensive one, at
5 US$/hour. (Jensen, Søren B., 2000.; Impact of Copenhagen’s Parking
Strategy, 2009)

In all three zones, prices are 2 US$/hour between 6:00 pm to 11:00 pm

and 0.50 US$/hour between 11.00 pm and 8.00 am except Sunday.
Parking is free between the 6.00 pm on Saturday to 8.00 am on Monday
and on public holidays.

After the establishment of parking zones, car traffic has fallen by about
6% since 2005. The main reasons for the fall in car traffic are improved
parking facilities. Fifteen percentages fall in parking ratio of commercial
users during the morning rush hours, while forty percentages fall in
private parking users during the morning rush hours in the inner city area.
The essential reason is that private parking users are more susceptible
to higher payment than commercial users. (Litman, Parking Pricing
Implementation Guidelines, 2011)

The main result of the analysis shows that the proportion going to their
work by car has fallen from 22% to 16%. On the other hand, the proportion
going by train for a certain part of the journey has risen from 24% to 33%.
The proportion using bus and bicycle or walking to their work has only
changed little.

Figure 7.15: Means of transport before/after Parking Strategy

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Parking Management - Seoul, South Korea

Key Information
•  Ministry of Transportation (MOT) of
Korea enacted the Urban Transportation
Improvement Promotion Act (UTIPA) in
1986
•  Parking policy - Resident Parking Permit
Program (RPPP)
–– Users have to purchase parking permits
–– More than 70% people approved of RPPP
•  Parking timeings and cost
–– All day: 33 US$/month
–– Day time: 25 US$/month
–– Night only: 17 US$/month
•  Intiative “My Garage scheme” to
support RPPP
–– Space inside the house converted in to a
parking lot
–– 50% of the construction costs were
supported by local governments.
Figure 7.16: Parking zones, Seoul, South Korea

Korea has experienced a rapid increase in automobile ownership from the

1980’s to the present. With the surge in the number of private cars, most
of the cities, particularly the large cities like Seoul, have been suffering
from serious parking problems in both residential areas and CBD.

In 1983, a report by Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology

(KAIST), “A Study on the Transportation Improvement Plan for Seoul
Metropolitan Areas,” strongly suggested that parking facilities should
be expanded through a variety of methods. In addition, the Ministry
of Transportation (MOT) of Korea enacted the Urban Transportation
Improvement Promotion Act (UTIPA) in 1986. UTIPA required local cities
or developers to provide parking facilities for citizens. Major UTIPA
provisions related to parking facilities include the following:

• Every city with a population of 100 thousand or more population

should establish and implement a transportation improvement
plan in which parking facility plan comprises a major portion.

• Every construction project involving fairly large size structures

should prepare the transportation plan for areas in and around
the project area and pass the transportation impact assessment
(TIA) administered by the government.

Now, as per the “Parking Policy in Asian Cities” by Asian Development

Bank (ADB), Seoul falls under the longer-motorizing group, criteria being,
the timing of each city’s early surge of car ownership, which is taken to be
their passage through about 20 to 60 cars per 1,000 persons and whether
this took place more than 15 years ago or was much more recent. (Anon.,
2011)

Seoul has a much lower city-center office parking requirements than

in its outer areas and has been the most active of the Asian cities in
adopting and innovating with parking management policy tools, including

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

its parking maximums, residential permits, and varying on-street parking

pricing by zone.

In-Chul Hwang in one of his paper presentation regarding “Parking

Problems and Policy Direction in Korea,” recommended that house-
attached parking space standards should be tough, while the regulation
for parking building should be relaxed for the expansion of parking
facilities in residential areas. Most city governments have accepted such
Figure 7.17: Parking zones, Seoul,
policy directions since 1996. In the case of Seoul City, the objectives of South Korea
the parking policy can be summarized as follows.

1. Reasonable control of parking demand in CBD or congested

commercial areas.

2. Strong enforcement of parking violations

3. Reasonable arrangement of parking facilities in residential areas

4. Expansion of park & ride facilities using public and private

investment

iii. Resident Parking Permit Program (RPPP) – A

major parking policy
RPPP makes parking spaces available to users by creating curb-parking
spaces along the inside roads of residential areas. In principle, a parking
lot is assigned to the user who bought the parking permit. Previously,
there were just open spaces along the inside-roads of residential areas,
where illegal free parking was tacitly approved. As the demand for
community parking increased, however, such open spaces were not
sufficient to accommodate all users and many conflicts arose between
community neighbors. RPPP was a solution for such problems. Three
kinds of permits are available: all-day, daytime only, or nighttime only. The
monthly price for a permit is about 40 thousand won (US$ 33) for an all-
day permit, 30 thousand won (US$ 25) for a daytime-only permit, and 20
thousand won (US$ 17) for a nighttime-only permit. Normally, community
people whose residence is near the lot have a priority in buying a permit.
In case of a daytime permit, people who work at a permanent job near
the lot have a priority.

Introduction of RPPP did get rid of the conflicts between community

neighbors over limited parking spaces. According to a survey by the Seoul
City Government, more than 70% of city residents approved of RPPP.
Compared to disorderly illegal parking, the arranged parking pattern
improved the walking conditions along the inside-roads. Moreover,
the revenue from the parking lots can be utilized to fund other parking
developments.

“My Garage scheme” – An initiative to support the

RPPP
The “My Garage scheme” was promoted with some incentives by some

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 PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

Figure 7.18: After and before scenario of “My garage scheme”

local Ku governments in Seoul and other major cities. In Korea, a house

usually has a solid wall, with more or less spaces inside the wall.

If the wall can be removed, there may be good space to utilize as a

parking lot. The “My Garage scheme” is a kind of social campaign to
remove the wall partially or fully to construct a parking lot under some
financial support from the local government. However, it is not easy for
the residents to remove their walls, since it is Korean tradition to live within
solid walls traditionally. In 1998, only 650 lots were made in Seoul despite
that 50% of the construction costs were supported by local governments.

Also since parking spaces are very short in supply, certain local streets
over 5.5 meters wide in Seoul were converted to one-way roads with car
parking provided on one side where the residents could rent a designated
space by paying about 30,000 won (about U.S.$23) per month.

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PRINCIPLE 7. PARKING

164 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 8. Shift
“Shift from unsustainable mobility to sustainable modes
by regulating road use, parking and other fiscal measures”

Sub-principles:

• Discourage private vehicle usage in CBDs and other congested areas

• Encourage use of “greener” vehicles for motorized public and private

transport

• Promote and incentivize use of private and semi-private shared transit

services

• Promote and incentivize use of public transport services

• Use participatory approach for the planning of large infrastructure projects

• Provide support for advocacy campaigns and voluntary groups

• Ensure availability and accessibility of appropriate information at all

public and significant private destinations
PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

166 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

Principle 8. Shift
“Shift from unsustainable mobility to sustainable
modes by regulating road use, parking and other fiscal
measures”

In India, more and more people rely on private transport for the majority of
their daily trips. However, at present walking, cycling and public transport
still account for more 40% of the mode share in Indian cities of all sizes
(MoUD, WSA, 2008). There is a need to focus on retaining the mode
share and to improve it in the future.

To cater to rapidly growing cities in India, the sustainable long-term solution

Figure 8.1: Shifting from
unsustainable modes to is provision of high quality public transport. It is essential that investment in
sustainable modes high quality public transport should increase. Also, the existing networks
should be expanded, the existing fleet should be upgraded, and the
existing service should be more reliable. Furthermore, it is necessary to
City category NMT & PT understand the behaviour of users, i.e. how users manage their travel
Category-1a 42 % needs. Shifting people from unsustainable modes to sustainable modes
Category-1b 66 %
can be accomplished by influencing their travel behaviour.
Category-2 61 %
Category-3 56 % However, ensuring provision of good quality public transport is not
Category-4 53 % sufficient for people to shift from their private motorized transport. In order
Category-5 57 %
to do this, there needs to be a framework of incentives and disincentives
Category-6 74 %
National 66 % that will gradually influence people’s travel behaviour.
Figure 8.2: % modeshare of Market based mechanisms such as congestion charges, high parking
walking, cycling and public
transport in Indian cities fees; vehicle taxes will encourage users to shift from private transport to
public transport. Also, having proper information and signages will help
improve usage of public transport. Advocacy and user education will go
a long way in shaping the mind set of people in favour of sustainable
transport.

In the long run, this shift will help address transport issues and lead
to many benefits, including economic benefits, congestion reduction,
carbon reduction, and improvements in public health.

Sub-principles:

8A. Discourage private vehicle usage in CBDs and

other congested areas

Congestion pricing and parking management mechanisms can help deal

with heavy traffic congestion situations on particular routes or areas in a

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

city. Congestion pricing can improve the situation by managing different

types of trips with respect to peak hours. This can mean shifting the non-
work-related travel on the streets during rush hour to less busy times,
thereby reducing congestion. It is important to note that the purpose of
congestion pricing is not to stop all vehicles from taking a particular route
but rather to remove some of the vehicles from peak periods to off-peak
hours.

Parking management mechanisms can also help reduce congestion on Figure 8.3: Congestion Charge
zone in Central London
streets by organizing and regulating parking, thereby ensuring that the
vehicular carriage-way is used more efficiently for moving traffic. Both the
mechanisms can be used to reduce the amount of private vehicle use
within congested areas and should be accompanied by the provision of
high-quality public transport so that mobility choices for people are not
reduced.

8B. Encourage use of “greener” vehicles for

motorized public and private transport

Switching to a cleaner and fuel-efficient technology helps greatly reduce

air pollution and overall vehicle emissions. Private and public transport
vehicles switching to cleaner technologies can help reduce the overall
city’s energy consumption and Greenhouse Gas emissions. In many
Indian cities, PUC (Pollution Under Control) is mandatory for all motorized
vehicles. It is mandatory for every vehicle owner to carry a valid PUC
certificate and maintain and drive the vehicle in a condition so as to Figure 8.4: CNG public buses,
comply with the prescribed emission norms. Unfortunately, in majority Delhi
of Indian cities enforcement of law is a major issue. Without proper
monitoring mechanism, this system will not work properly.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a cleaner fuel type which has been
implemented as the primary fuel for buses and auto rickshaws in many
cities. This has helped these cities reduce ambient pollution in terms of
particulate matter and help improve efficiencies of operations. Many other
cities can take up conversion of bus fleet and auto rickshaws to use CNG
as primary fuel. Cities will have to incentivize agencies that will undertake
such conversion and also incentivize setting up of new CNG fuel stations.

There are many other recommendations that are beyond the powers of cities and
ULBs. These can be taken up by respective state governments / departments.

For example, in the recent past there has been a steady increase in the use of
diesel propelled vehicles in India not for agricultural purposes but for private use
within cities. This is mainly due to the subsidy on diesel. Such subsidies for private
vehicle use should be offset by appropriate increase in registration / other taxes
which will ensure that the subsidies are not misused for private benefit. These
things such as tax on diesel vehicles and reduction in diesel subsidies is already
being undertaken at the national level. State governments can levy additional tax
to control the growth of diesel vehicles if needed.

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Another key issue is that road tax to be paid at the time of registration of vehicles
is a one-time payment. Considering the rapid increase in construction and
maintenance costs, it is not feasible for the government to support upkeep of
roads through these one-time taxes. Moreover, road tax can be a good tool to
control the number of vehicles on road. Hence, it is better to have road tax based
on annual mileage of vehicle travel in a single year than single lifetime payment.
So the users may save on taxes if they reduce their annual vehicle travel. For
this, the payment mechanism may need to be streamlined so it does not create
additional burden at the RTO. With today’s technology, it is very easily possible to
ensure that these payments reflect the true cost of maintenance and upkeep of
roads and footpaths on an annual basis.

8C. Promote and incentivize use of private and

semi-private shared transit services

Public transport services are not very extensive in their coverage in most
cities in India. Many people rely on Intermediate Public Transport services
and other private / semi private services for covering the “last mile” of their
trip. Formalizing and integrating these services with the public transport
nodes can help ensure that people can complete their trip without any
connectivity gaps. Cycle sharing facilities at such locations can also offer
people more mobility choices. Organizations that have a large number of
employees can also promote car-pooling, ride-sharing programs whereby
Figure 8.5: Carpooling to work people travelling to the same areas can share their private transport.

8D. Promote and incentivize use of public transport

services

The provision of high-quality public transport services is not enough by

itself to encourage people to switch over from private vehicle use. Local,
state governments can facilitate this process by incentivizing public and
private organizations and their employees for using public transport
Figure 8.6: Promoting use of
public transport for their daily work related trips. Usually such programs or initiatives
incentivize use of public transport for longer terms through subsidizing
monthly and yearly public transport passes; thereby reducing commuter
trips.

8E. Use participatory approach for the planning of

large infrastructure projects

Public participation activities help the decision makers build public support
and trust. Although the goal is always better decisions, the level of public
influence on a decision and the tools used to inform and involve the public
Figure 8.7: Public participation for
transport projects may vary. Public participation encourages social inclusion and promotes
a feeling of ownership of the project and can ensure that the project is

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

well received by the public. For some planning initiatives, appropriate

participation may be limited to public information. Other initiatives
and key decisions may require much more involvement, incorporating
techniques commonly associated with social science and marketing
research, facilitation and mediation, organizational development, and/
or consensus building (MetropolitanCouncil, 2004). Planning processes
that use public participation benefit from better decisions, and a more
supportive role of public at the end of the project.

8F. Provide support for advocacy campaigns and

voluntary groups

Advocacy groups create change by influencing government or society

to act on local issues, demands and needs of specific user groups.
Advocacy groups may use a variety of methods such as public
awareness campaigns, media activity, demonstrations and so on to
help raise awareness about the different issues related to sustainable Figure 8.8: Accessibility audit of
buses by Samarthyam, Delhi
transport. They serve as an interface between the government and the
people in helping facilitate better communication to influence public
behaviour. Local authorities should create a cell that can further facilitate
communication between such groups and the various departments of the
local civic authorities.

8G. Ensure availability and accessibility of

appropriate information at all public and significant
private destinations

Journeys by public transport - in contrast to journeys by car, on foot or

by bicycle - are characterized by the fact that more detailed knowledge
is required about public transport services. Inadequate knowledge about
public transport provision and the need to plan the journey are barriers
that contribute to lower use of public transport. Rather than spending time
and energy to obtain the necessary information, the majority of people
would prefer the ease of using private vehicles.

Good travel and wayfinding information is important for users to be able

to plan their journey well, and also for retaining and attracting more Figure 8.9: Bus stop with
adequate information and map
passengers. The goal should be to spread awareness about availability
of public transport services. In today’s information age, it is not sufficient
to have information in one medium. The information should be available
in multiple mediums which cater to multiple user groups. For the
individual traveller, it is easiest when all information about public transport
in a region is available at a single point, providing information about all
possible choices, giving the best alternative for the user (Lodden, 2004).

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Recommendations

8A. Discourage private vehicle usage in CBDs and

other congested areas

1. Implement congestion zones within CBD area, parks,

commercial, shopping districts and other congested
areas identified through traffic congestion study
Indicator - Percentage of modal share of private motorized vehicles
in CBD areas.
Benchmark - Percentage of modal share of private motorized
vehicles in CBD areas should be within the suggested ranges:
Figure 8.10: CBD area as
congestion zone in London, UK City Private modes
(Population in millions) (% share)
0.1 - 0.5 25 - 35
0.5 - 1.0 20 - 30
1.0 - 2.0 15 - 25
2.0 - 5.0 10 - 20
5.0 plus 10 - 15
(Ministry of Urban Development and Wilbur Smith Associates, 2008)
(Refer Figure 3)
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit will monitor the change in
mode share for private motorized transport.
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through the
mobility component of the Comprehensive Regional Plan
Note: the implementation of congestion pricing may be for CBD like in
London or for majority of urbanized area like in Singapore depending
on the recommendation of the congestion pricing study.

8B. Encourage use of “greener” vehicles for

motorized public and private transport

2. Rating of vehicles according to emission norms

(GHG emissions per person per km) should be made
compulsory
Indicator - Percentage of vehicles that have implemented this rating
system.
Benchmark - 100% compliance
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – RTO will implement this through Motor Vehicles
Act

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

3. Switch all public transport and intermediate public

transport vehicles to CNG or equivalent technology
with equal or lower emissions
Indicator - Percentage of public transport / Intermediate Public
Transport vehicles using CNG or equivalent technology driving
within the city
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation –ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through city
level legislations

4. Incentivize CNG and alternate fuel technology

pumping stations
Indicator - Percentage of CNG & alternate fuel pumping stations
compared to the total number of fuel stations within the city
Benchmark - Minimum 50%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through Figure 8.11: Use of CNG as
appropriate incentives alternative fuel

8C. Promote and incentivize use of private and

semi-private shared transit services

5. Create appropriate tools to encourage car pooling or

similar shared transit service
Indicator – Percentage of total motorised work-based trips through
car pool or similar shared transit service
Benchmark – 80%
Monitoring – Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB/UDA should facilitate the implementation of Figure 8.12: Use of buses as mode
such service by incentivizing public / private organizations that of transportation for employees in
encourage long term use of shared transit for its employees. Wipro, India

Note - Private and semi-private shared transit services may include

car pooling, shared IPT services, private company buses etc.

8D. Promote and incentivize use of public

transport services

6. Incentivize all public / private organizations that

encourage use of public transport for its employees
Implementation – This will be implemented by ULB / UDA initiatives
through tax-breaks for public / private organizations that
encourage long term use of public transport for its employees.

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8E. Use participatory approach for the planning

of large infrastructure projects

7. Mandate a minimum of 3 public consultation meetings

at the beginning, mid-point and final design stage of
the project for every large infrastructure improvement
project (of more than 100 crore rupees)
Indicator - Percentage of projects that have such public consultation
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
appropriate incentives

8. Allocate minimum 3 percent of the budget for large

infrastructure improvement projects (more than 100
crore rupees) to advocacy, outreach and capacity
building with users and stakeholders
Indicator - Percentage of projects that have such an allocation
Benchmark – 100% compliance
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
appropriate incentives

8F. Support for advocacy campaigns and

voluntary groups

9. Institute a city wide advocacy and outreach wing /

cell and encourage local advocacy groups and user
associations under UDA/ULB charged specifically to
influence public behaviour towards walking, cycling
and using public transport through advertising,
campaigns, ambassadors etc. and
Implementation - Community users, NGOs, ULB etc. Support from
local authorities is necessary for any such effort from independent
groups or organizations.

8G. Ensure availability and accessibility of

appropriate information at all public and
significant private destinations.

10. Implement Integrated Information Systems for

coordinating the different modes of public transport

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

Indicator - Whether such a system has been implemented or not

Benchmark - Yes / No
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will enforce this and public
transport agencies will implement this

11. Provide Inter modal Public Transport journey planner

services via information portal on the phone and Figure 8.13: Information for
internet, and at major public and private destinations different modes of public
transport
Indicator - Percentage of public transport nodes that have
implemented such services
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
an Intermediate Public Transport plan within the Comprehensive
Regional Plan

12. Provide information on transit routes and service

frequency at all public transport nodes (including bus Figure 8.14: Public transport
stops) in three different languages (English, Hindi and Information available on Phone
and Internet, London
Local language)
Indicator - Percentage of public transport nodes (including bus
stops) with information on transit routes and service frequency.
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will enforce this and public
transport agencies will implement this

Figure 8.15: Transit route map,

13. Provide Passenger Information Systems including Ahmedabad BRT
information on transit frequency, routes, local street
map for a radius of 400m from the transport node,
at public transport nodes (bus shelters and above in
hierarchy)
Indicator - Percentage of public transport nodes (bus shelters and
above) with Passenger Information System
Benchmark - Minimum 80%
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will enforce this and public
transport agencies will implement this

14. Provide Intermediate Public Transport information

regarding contact information, locations of nearest
Intermediate Public Transport stand at all public
Figure 8.16: Local information for
transport nodes (bus shelters and above) 400 m radius available at bus stop

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 PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

Figure 8.17: Public transport map and other information available at bus shelter

Indicator - Percentage of public transport nodes (bus shelters and

above) with Intermediate Public Transport information
Benchmark - Minimum 80%
Monitoring- Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
an Intermediate Public Transport plan within the Comprehensive
Regional Plan

Other recommendations:
• Registration tax should be higher for vehicles that have a low
emissions rating and it should be lower for vehicles with a
higher rating within the same vehicle category
• Sales tax should be higher for vehicles that have a low
emissions rating and it should be lower for vehicles with a
higher rating within the same vehicle category
• Registration tax and Sales tax should be higher for diesel
propelled vehicles that fall within the light motor vehicle and
sport utility vehicle category as compared to other vehicles
within the same category that use non-subsidized fuel
technology
• Road tax payment should be based on annual miles travelled of
vehicle in a single year and not single lifetime payment

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

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Case Studies

i. Area Licensing Scheme - Singapore

Key Information
•  Congestion Zone area – 7.25 sq.km
•  Total share of roads –12%
•  Phase - I (1975)
–– Time regulation - 7:30 am to 6:30 pm
–– Manually Operated
•  Phase II (1994)
–– Time regulation - 24 hours in CBD area.
–– Manually Operated
•  Phase III (1998)
–– Time Regulation - 24 hours in CBD area
–– Operated by Electronic Road Pricing
gantry
•  Traffic reduction in CBD area - 7 - 8%
•  Public trasnport users incresed by
65%
Figure 8.18: Area Licensing Scheme in CBD area, Singapore

Singapore is one of the most densely populated and urbanized countries

in the world. It has a population of more than 5.3 million people, residing
on an island of 710 square kilometer area. Due to rapid urbanization and
economy growth, travel demand has increased tremendously over the
last few decades. Since, Singapore is country where the land scarcity is
major issue, country cannot use vast amount of land for roads. Currently
city has used 12% of its total land for roads. Master plan of Singapore also
includes integration of transport and land use with provision of quality
public transport and comprehensive road network, which maximizes the
use of its capacity. Singapore Land Transport Authority (LTA) manages
demand of road usage through ownership and usage measures, which
include Vehicle Quota System (VQS) and Area Licensing Scheme (ALS).
Purpose of Vehicle Quota System (VQS) is to restraint vehicle ownership
and Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) is to restraint vehicular usage in
Singapore city.

Singapore LTA implemented its first congestion-pricing zone in 1975,

which was initially known as Restricted Zone (RZ). Initially, it was a manual
system but now it has high tech digital system to control vehicles in CBD
areas. Under Restricted Zone the motorist were required to purchase
and display an area license on their windscreens or handle bars for
motorcycles prior to entering the RZ during the hours of operation.

The area licenses had to be bought in advance from post offices, petrol
stations, on area license sales booths located on the approach roads
or convenience stores prior to entry point of Redistricted Zone. The
purchased license was valid for a day and vehicles could make multiple
trips into the RZ. For enforcement purposes, police constables were
deployed at each gantry position to carry out visual checks on each

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

vehicle. The ALS had effectively controlled congestion in the RZ for more
than twenty years. It had successfully maintained the traffic flows within
RZ during the morning and evening peak hours despite an increasing
vehicle population from about 100,000 in 1975 to 230,000 in 1994.

In the beginning of 1994, the Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) was extended
to the whole day to even out traffic flow between 7:30 am and 6:30 pm
to achieve a better utilization of the RZ road network throughout the day
and allow for a higher volume of traffic to be carried without congestion.

The manual Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) was fully replaced by Electronic
Road Pricing (ERP) system in 1998. The objective of the ERP scheme
was to charge vehicles for the use of the road at places and at times,
where and when they cause congestion. Therefore, the main difference
between ERP and the earlier ALS is the pay-when-you-use principle,
which is different from the old scheme where charges are on a per license
basis regardless of the number of times that motorists enter the RZ or
passes the expressway gantries.

In high tech ERP system, a Cash Card is inserted into the On-Board Unit
(OBU), which is fixed permanently in the vehicle and powered by the
vehicle battery. When vehicle passes an ERP gantry the cash balance
after the ERP charge deduction is shown on the On-Board Unit (OBU),
for 10 seconds. The electronic system has the ability to vary the prices
based on traffic conditions and by vehicle type, time and location. Today
all vehicles are charged, (exclude emergency vehicle).

In 2005, the coverage of ERP expanded the gantries around Singapore

central business district and on major arterials and expressways. To
ensure optimal use of road space and to maintain optimal speeds, the
system is revised quarterly.

The implementation of the ERP has effectively reduced the traffic volumes
in the Central Area (CBD) during the morning peak hours and off peak
hours by about 7-8% as compared to the ALS previously implemented
before 1998. This reduction is due mainly to a decline in the number of
multiple trips made into the Restricted Zone. Nevertheless, the roads in
the RZ have sufficient capacity to cope with the traffic volumes during
the evening peak hours. Based on Year 2004 records, an average of
about 260,000 ERP transactions are generated daily and out of this just
0.5% of the transactions involve violation cases with “No CashCard” and
CashCard with “Insufficient balance”. With a strict preventive maintenance
regime, LTA has managed to maintain an average system availability rate
of 99.5% over the last few years of operation.

After replacing the ALS with the ERP system, traffic levels have decreased
a further 15 percent. In addition, 65% of commuters now use public
transport, an increase of nearly 20%. Reduced traffic in the charging zone
led to a 176,400-pound reduction in CO2 emissions and a 22-pound
reduction in particulate matter. The system has curbed traffic demand and
managed road space for highest productive capacity, cutting congestion,
pollution, emissions, and fuel use.

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ii. Congestion Charging Zone - London, UK

Key Information

•  Congestion Zone area – 35 sq.km

•  Timings and Charges
–– Cost : 18 US$/day
–– Time : 7:00 am to 6:00 pm
•  Benefits
–– Reduction in traffic – 21%
–– Cycling activity increase - 43 %
–– Level of Pollution is reduced
–– Improved ridership of public transport –
12%
•  Revenue generation utilized in public
transport

Figure 8.19: CBD area as congestion pricing zone , London, UK

The greater London (central zone) Congestion Charging Scheme

was introduced in February 2003. Since then a number of variations
to the schemes have been made in order to make adjustments and
improvements in its operation. (Amin, Nurul, 2009)

The main aims of the congestion zone is: (i) reduce congestion in inner
areas, (ii) encouraging drivers to shift from private vehicles to public
transport, walking and cycling and (iii) reducing greenhouse gases
and pollution level. Drivers have to pay US$18 daily congestion charge
between 7:00 AM to 6:00 PM during weekdays within congestion zone.

Figure 8.20: Congestion zone, London

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

iii. Car Free Day - Bogota, Colombia

Key Information
•  Bogota celebrate car free day in month
of February.
•  Car free day’s benefits
–– Zero Accidental death
–– 20-22% reduction in pollution level
–– 10% increase in public transport ridership
–– 20-30% reduction in hospital emergency
consultation
–– 89% population had no difficulties with the
transportation system
–– 92 % arrived at work place and educational
place normally
–– More than 8 lakh cars stay in the garage on
this day
–– More than 5 lakh people use bicycle on car
free day Figure 8.21: Car free day, Bogota, Colombia

A Car-Free Day encourages motorists to give up their car for a day.

September 22 is celebrated as World Car-Free Day. Currently Bogotá
holds the world’s largest car-free weekday event covering the entire city.
The first Car-Free Day was organized in February 2000 and became
institutionalized through a public referendum. (Susa, Ivan Humberto
Baquero, 2011)

The city of Bogotá in Colombia took a monumental step in promoting

reduced dependence on automobiles, by holding the world’s largest Car-
Free Day. From 6:30 am to 7:30 pm, private cars banned from city streets
(over the entire extended urban area). While some 850,000 private cars
stay home in their garages, city residents turn to public transport, bicycles,
taxis, regional train, roller-skates and other modes of transit to get to
their destinations. (Car Free Bogota: the response to the transportation
challenge)

One and a half million people cycled on the day, and 10% more people
than average used public transport to get around. A substantial reduction
in contaminants was reported for the day, with NOx being reduced by 8%,
carbon monoxide decreased by 22%, and particulates reduced by 21%.

The Car-Free Day was the first day in more than three years that not
one person died in a traffic accident compared to the daily average of
2-3 reported deaths. Although there were some reported crashes, and
injuries, there were far less than an average day. Some hospital clinics
reported a decrease of 20 to 30% in the emergency consultations.

Such reductions save public costs in health care, police and other
associated services. For Car-Free Day to be implemented on a more
regular basis, more work will have to be done with retailers, many of
whom experienced losses in sales. A national polling firm revealed that
87 percent of citizens agreed with the Car-Free Day; 89 percent had no
difficulties with the transportation system they used during the event;
and 92 percent arrived at work, school or university normally. Even more

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 PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

important is that 88 percent would like to hold another car-free day.

One poll showed only 7% of retailers experiencing an increase in sales,

while the remainder experienced either stable or lower sales. In Bogotá,
despite the lack of benefits for most retailers, 44% of retailers in one poll
still believed the day was a success. However, retailers must be closely
involved with planning car free events to ensure that they too can benefit.

The success of the day has led to local transportation, city planning and
environmental teams in Bogotá working on plans to create an entirely new
and innovative plan for “alternative transportation system for Third World
Mega cities”.

The plan includes one of the world’s most comprehensive bicycle

transportation networks (more than 200 km of system built or under
construction), stringent parking measures and major provisions for
pedestrians taking trips within the city. Also under way is the strategic
renovation and redeployment of a public transport system presently
consisting of some 30,000 buses of various sizes and types, and 55,000
taxis.

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PRINCIPLE 8. SHIFT

182 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Principle 9. Safety
“Ensure safety and security in urban transport”

Sub-principles:

• Incorporate safety in the design, operations and all other aspects of

the entire urban transport system

• Ensure safety and security of all public transport services and all of
its users

• Ensure a secure public realm that will encourage pedestrian

movement, cyclists and commuters

• Ensure that the City Traffic Authority takes a proactive approach

toward implementing, executing and educating the City Traffic
guidelines and regulations, for Pedestrians, NMV and MV
PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

184 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
 PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

Principle 9. Safety
“Ensure safety and security in urban transport”
Transport safety can be defined as vulnerability to accidental injury
(usually involving at least one vehicle as the instrument causing the injury),
whereas transport security can be defined as vulnerability to intentional
criminal or antisocial acts suffered by those engaged in trip making. Both
these factors play a major role in determining the choice of travel mode
that an individual makes. (Gwilliam, 2002)
Figure 9.1: Unsafe pedestrian
crossings Safety also includes service level benchmarks and industry norms that
determine the quality of the transport infrastructure. Ideally, all motorized
vehicles, public and private, should adhere to existing safety norms .
Aand where such norms do not exist, they need to be created.

Safety as a component of transportation systems has raised major

concerns regarding road traffic safety as

• Traffic fatality rates have been increasing in most cities.

• Pedestrians, bicyclists and two wheeler riders comprise of 60-90% of

the total fatalities.
Figure 9.2: Conflict between
various modes of transport • Motorcyclists represent a large portion of urban fatalities (about 25%).

• Several studies indicate that the involvement of trucks in fatal crashes

is greater than expected.

• Nighttime driving in India is substantially riskier than daytime driving.

(source: Geetam Tiwari_Safety Accessibility Action Plan 2030)

Figure 9.3: 2011 staistics for road accidents and death by road accidents in India

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 185
PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

Sub-principles:

9A. Incorporate safety in the design, operations

and all other aspects of the entire urban transport
system

Good design and adequate provision of street infrastructure helps

substantially in making the urban environment safer and comfortable for
pedestrians and cyclists. Operational changes, such as management
of freight traffic, can also greatly enhance the safety of pedestrians and
cyclists. Also, public awareness of street safety issues, in a formalized
and structured manner, can help influence user behaviourbehavior and
attitudes. Informing and educating motorists about priority of modes and
right of way can also help ensure the safety of pedestrians and cyclists.

Figure 9.5: Typical mandatory

road signages

Figure 9.6: Along with CCTV

Figure 9.4: BRTS Corridor in Ahmedabad warning it is also essential to have
contact details of direct Help-Line

9B. Ensure safety and security of all public transport

services and all of its users
Personal security while using public transport services plays an important
role in the choice of travel mode for any trip undertaken. Depending on
the location and time a variety of surveillance and security measures can
be adopted. These measures should also ensure the safety and security Figure 9.7: Public safety and
security is critical at public
of the physical property of all the public transport services and vehicles. transports and thus should be
This can help further enhance the perception of personal security for all displayed by a color and sign that
is easily understandable
the users of the public transport services.

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 PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

9C. Ensure a secure public realm that will

encourage pedestrian movement, cyclists and
commuters
Safety and security within the public realm plays a major role in choice
of travel mode. Active frontages and mixed land uses can ensure
natural surveillance but with limitations. Adequate lighting for vehicles
and pedestrians can greatly help reduce street accidents. Surveillance
through CCTV cameras can help keep a check on anti-social activities
and help in enforcement of traffic rules and regulations. Emergency
services and security alarms are necessary to address emergencies and
help instil a sense of security in pedestrians, cyclists and commuters at
all times of the day.

BEFORE AFTER
Figure 9.8: Southbank Centre Redevelopment Masterplan, London

9D. Ensure that the City Traffic Authority takes

a proactive approach toward inplementing,
executing and educating the City Traffic guidelines
and regulations, for Pedestrians, NMV and MV
It is evident that well framed guidelines and regulations for commuters,
both public and private users are necessary but what is more important
is to ensure that this set of regulations are implemented and followed
by the end users. A proactive effort from the RTO and the local police
departments is necessary, not only to monitor this regulations but also
Figure 9.9: 2010 BMW Children’s
Traffic Safety Education educate the commuters who break such regulations. The traditional
traffic_education.html)
approach of fining the user who breaks the laws is mandatory but
what should also be practiced is to keep those records noted so that
after repeating the error for next three times, his driver’s license can be
suspended.

Moreover most of the people learn driving and not the driving rules in their
early teens under the guidance of their elders. The youth accounts to a
major population of the country and it is necessary that these youngsters
grow with better road users’ knowledge. Graduated licensing programs
is one such option to minimize this impact where the students have traffic
Figure 9.10: “Helmet and Traffic
Safety Awareness Campaign” education as a mandatory subject and are eligible for a driving license
only after clearing this program with a satisfactory results.

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Recommendations

9A. Incorporate safety in the design, operations

and all other aspects of the entire urban transport
system

1. Incorporate pedestrians’ and cyclists’ safety within the

driver’s instruction manual, driver’s tests and licensing
processes for all motorized vehicles
Indicator - Percentage of drivers of all motorized vehicles trained
and licensed in defensive driving
Benchmark - 100%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - RTO and traffic police will implement through
changes in drivers’ licensing procedures and through street
safety improvement / awareness programs
Note: The RTO should not only issue a Driver’s Manual but provide
informal education to the motorists about how to share the road
with bicyclists and pedestrians is integral to bicyclist and pedestrian
safety.

9B. Ensure safety and security of all public

transport services and all of its users

2. Provide Close Circuit TV (CCTV) camera coverage at

all major public transport nodes
Indicator - Percentage of major public transport nodes equipped
with CCTV cameras
Benchmark – Minimum 70%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure this facility and the
public transport agencies will implement it.
Note: Apart from the use of technology for public safety, the strategies
like Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) should
be adopted. CPTED, is based on the idea that the proper design and
effective use of the built environment can lead to a reduction in the
incidence and fear of crime, and an improvement in the quality of life.

3. Provide CCTV cameras on all public transport vehicles

such as buses, metro train etc.
Implementation - Public transport agencies should implement this
to ensure the safety and security of their public transport vehicles
and its users.

Figure 9.11: CCTV cameras in

public transport vehicle

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PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

4. Provide security alarms at all public transport stops,

shelters, stations, terminals and on all public transport
vehicles such as buses, metro train etc.
Indicator - Percentage of public transport stops, stations, terminals,
buses, trains equipped with security alarm system
Benchmark - Minimum 90%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure this facility and the
public transport agencies will implement it.

5. Mandate dedicated women-only compartments, zones

in all public transport vehicles (buses, trains etc.)
Indicator - Percentage of public transport vehicles with dedicated
women-only compartments or zones
Benchmark - Minimum 90%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will ensure this and the public
transport agencies will be responsible for implementation

Figure 9.12: Women-only

6. Provide dedicated women-only public transport compartment, Mumbai local
trains
services for particular routes and times based on
demand
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA should facilitate the provision
of such services based on demand

7. Mandate security guards at all major public transport

nodes at all hours of the day
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA should ensure this facility
and the public transport agencies should be responsible for
implementation Figure 9.13: Dedicated women-
only train, Delhi, India

9C. Ensure a secure public realm that will

encourage pedestrian movement, cyclists and
commuters

8. Provide adequate vehicular street lighting

Indicator - Percentage of all vehicular streets, having 90 percent
working street lights located at least one in every 20 m
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through annual
street maintenance programs
Figure 9.14: Vehicular Street lights,
Ahmedabad

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9. Provide adequate pedestrian street lights, (Minor

streets and above in hierarchy) and on all NMT-only
streets
Indicator - Percentage of all vehicular streets (Minor streets and
above in hierarchy) and all NMT-only streets having 90 percent
working street lights at least one in every 10 m
Benchmark - Minimum 100%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this through annual
street maintenance programs
Figure 9.15: Pedestrian Street
lights, USA Note: Required Illumination levels for different types of roads:
• Arterial Roads: 30 Lux
• Pedestrian Crossings/ Intersections: 50 Lux
• Local Street: 10 Lux
• Foothpath/ Cycle Track: 20 Lux
(Source: MoUD, IUT, Design of urban roads, Code of Practice
(Part1), 2012)

10. Provide CCTV cameras at all major intersections

Indicator - Percentage of total major intersections having functioning
CCTV cameras
Benchmark - Minimum 80%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Figure 9.16: CCTV cameras at Implementation - ULB / UDA will implement this advanced security
intersection system through street safety improvement programs

11. Promote on-call Intermediate Public Transport service

with call registration, registered meters and licensed
drivers for all cities
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA should be responsible for the
implementation

Figure 9.17: “ECO cab”, on-call

NMT service in Fazilka, India 12. Standardized street signage including street names,
on all streets and intersections (Minor streets and
above in hierarchy) to aid way-finding
Indicator - Percentage of number of streets / intersections (Minor
streets and above in hierarchy) that have street signage including
street name installed.
Benchmark - Minimum 70%
Monitoring - Streets Audit
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
street redevelopment programs

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13. Ensure provision of on-call emergency services for all

major BRT, Metro stations, outside of public transport
nodes, at major destination like malls, cinema halls,
hospitals etc.
Implementation - ULB/UDA should facilitate the implementation of
such service

9D. Ensure that the City Traffic Authority takes

a proactive approach toward inplementing,
executing and educating the City Traffic guidelines
and regulations, for Pedestrians, NMV and MV

14. Initiate Traffic Civic Awarness programs that is

executed and implemented by UDA or ULB’s at
various locations.
Implementation - ULB/UDA should facilitate the implementation of
such programs with the help of public transport agencies and
NGO’s.

Other recommendations:
• Initiate traffic education as a mandatory subject in the education
system where the driver’s license is issued only after satisfactory
completion of that course.

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Case Studies

i. Reduction in fatalities through improved design,

New york, USA

Key Information
•  Manhattan appears to be the most
dangerous borough for pedestrians
in New York City
•  Fatalities in Manhattan borough
–– pedestrian fatalities - 47%
–– pedestrian severe injuries - 34%
•  Fatalities on Intersections and Arterial
streets
–– pedestrian crashes occurred at
intersections - 74%
–– pedestrian crashes occurred on Arterial
streets - 60%
•  Action plan
–– USE 3E approach (Engineering,
Enforcement and Education)
Figure 9.18: Improved tunnel design to reduce fatalities, USA

Over the past decade New York City has made tremendous progress in
reducing its traffic fatalities. 2009 was in fact the safest year on record
since the City began collecting data in 1910; annual traffic fatalities are
down by 35 percent compared to 2001.

With the aim to reduce the pedestrian fatalities further and create a walk-
able environment, the Department of Transport (DOT) along with the
engagement with key agencies like New York City Police

Department (NYPD), New York City Health Department (DOHMH), and

New York State Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) formulated citywide
strategies. The Action Plan mainly focused on vulnerable road users
such as pedestrian, bicyclists and motorcyclists. Vulnerable road users
accounted for 71% of New York City’s traffic fatalities and pedestrians
accounted for 52% of traffic fatalities from 2005-2009.

The borough of Manhattan appears to be the most dangerous borough

for pedestrians in New York City, possessing the highest rate per
100,000 population of pedestrians killed or severely injured (KSI). 43%
of pedestrians killed in Manhattan lived in another borough or outside of
New York City. Within Manhattan, a disproportionate number of pedestrian
crashes occurred on major two-way streets. Major two way streets (e.g.
Canal, 14th, 125th, Park and Adam Clayton Powell) account for 47% of
pedestrian fatalities and 34% of pedestrian severe injuries, but only 12%
of the Manhattan street network.

Spots: Intersections, Arterial Streets, Bicycle Lanes

Intersections: In New York City, 74% of pedestrian KSI crashes occurred

at intersections. The design of New York City’s street infrastructure

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is a likely explanation for this difference; small block sizes and grid
patterns result in a high intersection density and encourage crossing at
intersections.

Nearly half (47%) of pedestrian fatalities and severe injuries occurred

at signalized intersections; surprisingly, most (57%) of these crashes
occurred while the pedestrian was crossing with the signal. Although
crashes are clustered at intersections, they are widely dispersed along
dangerous streets.

Arterial Streets: Arterial streets account for 60% of pedestrian fatalities

but only 15% of the road network. In addition, pedestrian KSI crashes on
arterial streets are 2/3 more deadly than crashes on non-arterial streets.

In New York City, the densely populated activity (land-use) and wider,
high volume - high speed designed roads (transport) play a vital role in
pedestrian crashes. Wider roads and lanes in dense population results in
increased speeding and diminished driver’s awareness.

Moreover, serious pedestrian crashes are about two-thirds more deadly

on major street corridors than on smaller local streets and 79% of crashes
that kill or seriously injure pedestrians involve private automobiles as
opposed to taxis, trucks and buses.

Bicycle lanes: Pedestrian KSI crashes on streets with bike lanes were
40% less deadly as crashes on other streets until DOT introduced the
dramatic expansion of the bicycle network, building 200 miles of new bike
lanes between 2006 and 2009. This expansion has not only increased
safety and access for bicyclists, but has improved safety for pedestrians
as well.

Time

40% of pedestrian KSI crashes occurred in the late afternoon/early

evening. Late night pedestrian KSI crashes are nearly twice as deadly as
other time periods. Nearly 20% more pedestrian KSI crashes occurred
per month during the Winter holiday season.

The Action Plan

The Action Plan consists of highly targeted, data-driven policies and

programs identified to have the highest impact on reducing pedestrian
fatalities and severe injuries, while safely maintaining traffic operations.
Using a three-pronged approach to road safety (Engineering, Enforcement
and Education), these policies and programs will be vital tools in driving
DOT to reach its strategic goal of reducing fatalities by 50% by 2030.

Engineering

Traffic engineering and road design have the most day-to-day impact
on how we experience the streets of the city. DOT’s engineering
recommendations are focused on pedestrian safety, but also aim to
increase safety and quality of life for all users of New York City’s streets.

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Corridor & Intersection Ranking: To better identify, prioritize and evaluate

projects

DOT will create a ranking system for both corridors and intersections,
capable of assigning a percentile rank based on severity-weighted injuries
(intersections) or severity-weighted injuries per mile (corridors). Locations
will be compared with other locations in the same borough and citywide.

Figure 9.19: Manhattan Street Using crash data from NYPD, New York State DOT/ DMV and NYCDOT,
- Before implementation as well as geographic information from New York State DOT and the
Department of City Planning, this system will allow planners to efficiently
identify high-crash corridors, prioritize proposed projects based on crash
data, and evaluate the effectiveness of projects after implementation.

High Crash Corridors: DOT will address minimum 60 miles per year

A minimum of 20 miles of these streets per year will be addressed by

intensive safety redesigns. These projects would employ a full toolbox of
design options, including pedestrian refuge islands, road diets, sidewalk
extensions, pedestrian plazas, bicycle lanes, lane reconfigurations, signal
Figure 9.20: Manhattan Street
timing modifications, countdown signals, markings, signage and parking
- After implementation
regulation modifications.

Executed

Safe Streets for Seniors: Safe Streets for Seniors is a pedestrian safety
initiative targeted at 25 neighborhoods with high densities of senior
pedestrian crashes. Safety improvements were implemented in the
first five pilot areas in 2008 and, as of July 2010, six areas have been
completed and work is underway in ten additional areas. The remaining
neighborhoods are currently under consultant study. Within the project
areas, DOT has added crossing time at over 400 traffic signals, installed
25 pedestrian refuge islands and numerous curb extensions, median
extensions, pedestrian ramps and LPIs.

ii. Women’s only Local Trains - Mumbai, India

Key Information

•  Indian railways initiated program in

Mumbai for local trains.
•  Dedicated Ladies compartment
–– Up to 13 years age children allowed in
compartment.
–– Women’s compartments in express trains
for long route trains
•  Dedicated Ladies Special trains in
Delhi and Mumbai
–– Special trains for women’s
–– Nine compartment
–– Run twice in day
–– Trains available during morning and
evening peak hours
Figure 9.21: Ladies special train and compartment, Mumbai, India –– Provide safety to female commuters.

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 195
PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

As an initiative towards empowerment of women, Indian railway has been

providing a special compartment for women in local trains of Mumbai.

Mumbai suburban railway has two different classes in local train for
regular passengers. Similarly, for ladies, a second-class and first class
compartment is available in each local train. (Women-only suburban
special train, 2009)

Though these compartments are reserved exclusively for women, male

children up to the age of 13 can travel in this compartment accompanied
by a woman. Adult men are not allowed to travel, and may face a penalty
or jail. Certain additional coaches also serve as women-only compartment
during the day’s peak hours. In such coaches, men are allowed between
11:15 pm – 6:30 am. (Timings of Ladies Special Trains in Mumbai, 2012)

A note near the doors of the compartments indicates the restrictions. The
second class ladies only coaches are designated by green and yellow
stripes. Similar stripes are located on the platform near the coach. First
class ladies only compartment is designated by red and yellow stripes.

Additionally in Mumbai, Indian Railways has also initiated women’s only

trains to provide better safety and security. Central line has one train from
CST (Chatrapati Shivaji terminus) to Kalyan Station in the evening once
in day. The Mumbai local train also has connectivity on harbor line and
western line between and these trains connect Panvel, Virar, Borivali,
Bhayander to Church Gate twice, in a day (morning and evening). A
women only compartment is also available in certain express/long
distance trains in Indian railways. (Timings of Ladies Special Trains in
Mumbai, 2012)

iii. Women’s only taxi cab service - Mumbai, India

Key Information

•  “For-She” - a call-a-cab facility for

women only
•  Service available in Delhi, Mumbai
and Kolkata
•  Charges
–– No extra rates charged for service
•  Service provided
–– On call booking facility
–– All cabs connected through GPS
–– All cabs have GPRS facility
–– Martial art training help female drivers to
handle worst condition

Figure 9.22: “For-She” Women’s only cab, Mumbai, India

As an initiative towards safety and security of women, For-She Travels and

Logistics Private limited (FTL) launched a call-a-cab service for women
in the year 2008 in India. FTL is committed to train female drivers for

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 PRINCIPLE 9. SAFETY

commercial driving and guarantees suitable earning opportunities for the

women. A “For-She” cab shows a promising future in making travelling
safer for women in Delhi and Mumbai region. This is the first fleet of taxis
operated only by women.

The passengers are in safe hands as the drivers are not only well-trained
in driving but also in martial arts. Thus, they are competent enough to
meet any eventuality. It is anticipated that the number of the cabs will
be increased as the demand of these cabs is witnessing a continuous
growth. For-She cabs also provide on-call booking facility. Every cab kept
under a thorough watch through a GPS system. The cabs also have a
constant connectivity through GPRS, which facilitates the cab driver and
passengers as well. (Taxi Service for Women)

All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) and OAIS, a private company; hold
the credit of providing training to 20 women cab drivers each in the initial
stages. (Taxi Service for women, 2009)

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Principle 10. Freight
“Integrate freight planning with urban transport”

Sub-principles:

• Plan and organize freight movement in the city

• Manage the delivery of goods within the city through appropriate

mode and time restrictions

• Encourage cleaner and safer modes for transportation of goods

within the city

• Encourage existing non-motorized means of goods transport within

the city
PRINCIPLE 10.FREIGHT

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 PRINCIPLE 10.FREIGHT

Principle 10. Freight

“Integrate freight planning with urban transport”

Although freight vehicles represent a small portion of total Vehicles

Kilometers Travelled (VKT), they tend to impose large impacts on the
traffic conditions (VTPI, Freight Transport Management, 2011). Planning
and implementing a freight traffic management plan can have several
benefits such as reduced congestion, cost savings on street maintenance,
pollution reduction, increased safety for pedestrians and cyclists, among
others.

In India, urban freight vehicle travel in total metropolitan vehicle travel

is substantial with a 37% contribution (gtz, Sustainable Urban Freight
in Asian Cities, 2012). Currently, there is no standardization of mode or
type / size of vehicle for freight delivery in Indian cities. Usually heavy
Figure 10.1: Unsafe pedestrian four-wheeler vehicles like truck and tempo, three-wheeler medium size
crossings
tempos and NMT vehicles like hand carts, animal carts or cycle rickshaw
trolleys are used to transfer the goods from one part of the city to another
depending on the distance of commute, quantum of goods and cost

Figure 10.2: Unsafe pedestrian

crossings

Figure 10.5: Freight Urban Mobile Equipment (FUME) and cities size
Figure 10.3: Unsafe pedestrian
crossings Apart from motorized modes of freight transport, non-motorized modes
occupy significant proportion of the total freight travel. This is usually
viewed unfavorably by many cities as non-motorized modes are slow and
sometimes conflict with motorized passenger traffic. But more importantly,
non-motorized modes of freight provide employment at the lowest rung
of the skill ladder. Rickshaws, Hand carts, etc., are modes used by the
unskilled workers and they provide a much needed service at very cheap
rates. It is important to recognize this dual benefit of non-motorized freight
transport while trying to address issues of last leg connectivity.

Solutions such as truck terminals and transport-nagars, while being

Figure 10.4: Unsafe pedestrian popular, have failed to adequately address the conflict of large freight
crossings

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PRINCIPLE 10.FREIGHT

vehicles with local urban traffic. Hence, there is a need to holistically

address the issues of freight.

In Indian context, even the mobile vegetable and food vendors serve
as an important last mile connectivity for freight. They not only transport
goods essential to daily needs of a section of society, they also deliver it at
source of demand. Hence, it is important to recognize the role of vendors
in sustainable freight management of the city. While some vendors do
encroach on scarce street space, if provided with appropriate safe road
space to travel on, and dedicated space to sell their goods / services,
vendors could significantly reduce the total motorized freight movement.

Unorganized and unregulated freight traffic on urban streets can lead

to many problems. Restriction of heavy vehicle or by regulation delivery
of goods through time management reduces traffic in the city. while
restricting the movement of heavy & motorized freight vehicle through
the city, non motorized vehicles such as hand cart & cycle rickshaws may
be allowed to ply at all the times. This incentivizes their use during peak
hours and reduces the percentage of freight by motorized vehicles

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Sub-principles:

10A. Plan and organize freight movement in the

city

Figure 10.6: Freight Urban Mobile Equipment (FUME) and cities size

Distribution of goods happens at different scales, from national, regional,

city, and local levels. The movement of goods across these scales
also happens through different modes such as air, ship, rail, roads
and through different sized vehicles. It is therefore important to locate
distribution centers for goods based on the scale of movement. The
pattern of movement and delivery of goods in and around urban area
has a big impact on traffic congestion and can adversely affect the urban
environment in numerous ways. Better organization of this sector through
a freight management plan can help mitigate the adverse effects. This
plan can address issues regarding location of distribution centers, mode
of transport, time restrictions, fuel consumption and technology, air and
noise pollution, etc. For example, a regional distribution centre should
ideally be located on the outskirts of the city in close proximity to regional
transport infrastructure, while a local distribution centre can be located
and distributed within the city, closer to the retail outlets.

10B. Manage the delivery of goods within the city

through appropriate mode and time restrictions
The movement of goods through the city has a negative impact on the
urban environment. Larger goods vehicles can be difficult for pedestrians
Figure 10.7: Various signages to and cyclists to cope with. Speed of the delivery vehicles also has an
indicate Loading Zones as per
specified timings impact on safety on urban streets. Regulations on delivery times, size of
vehicles and speed can greatly improve urban environments.

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PRINCIPLE 10.FREIGHT

10C. Encourage cleaner and safer modes for

transportation of goods within the city
Delivery vehicles tend to cause a lot of noise and air pollution. Encouraging
greener and cleaner technologies can help in mitigating pollution issues,
and also increase efficiency of the vehicle itself. Every vehicle registered
with the RTO should be PUC (Pollution Under Control) certified and the
enforcement, implementation and monitoring should be done on a regular
annual basis and not just when a commuter violates the traffic rules.

Fig 10.8: Eco-friendly urban cabs

10D. Encourage existing non-motorized means of by FedEx
goods transport within the city
Around the world in many cities, last mile delivery of goods is done by
using non-motorised or electric cycle or tricycle. In Indian cities, tricycle
or trolleys are still used for the goods delivery for smaller distance.
Insufficient and poor infrastructure is one the reason that NMT mode for
freight delivery is not popular in Indian cities. In many parts of India, the
postman’s at Indian Post still uses bicycle as a mode of transport to deliver
the post. Hence, rather than converting such existing sustainable non-
motorised vehicles into motorized, it is in fact advisable to provide better
Fig 10.9: Postmen in India still use
infrastructure or modifying the efficiency NMT goods delivery vehicles bicycle as the mode of transport
which will encourage use of this mode for freight delivery in urban areas. for delivery

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Recommendations

10A. Plan and organize freight movement in the

city
1. Prepare and implement a freight management plan for
Transport for London the city
Executive Summary
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
London Freight Plan
sustainable freight distribution:
a plan for London
the freight planning and management component of the
Development plan/ Master plan/ City mobility plan
Note - Applicable for cities with population more than 1 million

2. Locate regional distribution centres in close proximity

to regional transport infrastructure
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through
the freight planning and management component of the
MAYOR OF LONDON Development plan/ Master plan/ City mobility plan
1

Fig 10.10: London Freight

management plan
10B. Manage the delivery of goods within the city
through appropriate mode and time restrictions
3. Encourage use of smaller delivery vehicles within the
city
Implementation - ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through the
freight management plan

4. Regulate delivery times and size of motorized delivery

vehicles on all urban streets
Indicator - Percentage of urban area where delivery times are limited
to off-peak hours.
Benchmark - Minimum 60%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Fig 10.11: Use of smaller vehicles
for goods delivery in Urban area, Implementation -ULB / UDA / Traffic police will implement this
France through traffic rules and guidelines

5. Set and enforce maximum speed limits for all delivery

vehicles at all times within the city
Implementation - ULB / UDA / Traffic police will implement this
through traffic rules and guidelines
Refer - “Street classification table” for details on speed limits

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PRINCIPLE 10.FREIGHT

10C. Encourage cleaner and safer modes for

transportation of goods within the city
6. Incentivize use of ‘green’ delivery vehicles (cleaner
technologies, higher fuel efficiency and lower
emissions) within the city
Indicator - Percentage of delivery vehicles using CNG or equivalent
technology driving within the city
Benchmark - Minimum 50%
Monitoring - Comprehensive Mobility Audit
Implementation – ULB / UDA / UMTA will implement this through the
freight management plan

10D. Encourage existing non-motorized means of

goods transport within the city
7. Incentive use of NMT vehicle like hand-carts, cycle-
rickshaw, trolleysfor last mile connectivty
Implementation – ULB / UDA through Freight management plan.

Other recommendations: Fig 10.12: Use of electric bicycle

for goods delivery in core city
• Cities with high amount of through freight traffic must have area, France
ring road/bypass road on periphery of the city to avoid through
movement & conflict of freight vehicle

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Case Studies

i. Entry restriction for freight delivery in urban

areas - Boston, USA
Key Information

•  Commercial vehicle prohibited in busy

downtown
•  Boston transport department
implements time regulation
•  Timings
–– 11:00 am to 6:00 pm
–– Banned commercial vehicles from entry to
downtown
–– 1,800 parking meters
–– Double the fines for peak hours violations

Figure 10.13: Commercial parking for loading-unloading of goods, Boston

In an unregulated environment, many freight deliveries within urban areas

occur during peak periods for passenger transportation. High volumes of
delivery trucks during peak travel times can lead to roadway congestion,
and the impact of delivery vehicles stopping in the travel lane is particularly
disruptive during these times. Major contributor for congestion on major
commercial corridors is double-parking. Double-parked vehicles reduce
the capacity of the street. This can be particularly severe when double
parking occurs during peak commuting hours in high commercial streets.
(Parking management on major corridors, 2010)

The solution to this issue could be to limit freight deliveries to off-peak

periods for passenger transportation. One of the alternatives is, by
prohibiting entry of motorized delivery vehicles to the area, or other is
to restrict loading and unloading while allowing for through-travel during
peak hours.

Boston is one of the major cities in Massachusetts, which has adopted

similar concept to regulate urban freight movement. The City of Boston
has restricted commercial vehicles from using certain streets in its busy
Downtown Crossing area between 11 AM and 6 PM. (Traffic rules and
regulations city of Boston; Boston Transport Department, 2003)

Commercial vehicle operators may seek a permit to enter Downtown

Crossing for short period for special circumstances, such as an
emergency or a one-day event. Utility companies may enter at any time to
respond to emergencies, and exceptions made for the US Postal Service
and local newspapers after 2 PM. Often delivery vehicles also end up
occupying on-street parking spaces. To regulate parking better, BTD has
installed 1800 parking meters on different location. In addition, most of
parking meters are in operation between 8:00 am to 8:00 pm. BDT also
raised the parking fines any double the fines for peak hour’s violations for
on street parking.(Off-Street Loading Guidelines; 2006)

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ii. Comprehensive Freight Plan & Non motorized

vehicles for delivery of goods – Paris, France

Key Information

•  Electrical tricycle use since 2003

•  La Petite Reine provide electric cycle
and is responsible for freight delivery.
•  City provides space for goods
consolidation near city center.
•  Delivery Vehicle
–– Vehicle used for last mile delivery
–– Electric motor operated
–– Up to 100kg goods hauling capacity
–– Express delivery inner city area
–– 20 electric vehicles
–– Approximately 7,00,000 parcels per year
delivered

Figure 10.14: Electric tricycle for freight delivery in Paris, France

The City of Paris has understood the importance of proper freight

planning. Total freight movement passing through Paris is about 32 million
tonnes per year, including 1 million by rail, 2.5 million by waterway. Of this,
commercial flow accounts for 40% of total at 1.6 million movements per
week, consumer flow another 50% of total and other (waste/removals etc)
is 10%. (Wisetjindawat, Wisinee, 2010)

Freight also consumes 25% of total transport energy, 50% of diesel

consumption and is responsible for 60% of particulate emissions. Thus in
order to enhance freight operations while minimizing its harmful impacts,
the city of Paris prepared a comprehensive freight plan. One of the
components of this plan was to promote distribution of goods through
non-motorized means. (Taniguchi, Eiichi; Imanishi, Yoshi, 2008)

The city of Paris has experimented with freight deliveries using electric Figure 10.15: Use of bicycle for
tricycles in since 2003. A private company called La Petite Reine uses this freight transport
mode to make deliveries. The city has provided a consolidation area near
the center of Paris. The Company provides consolidation and last-mile
delivery services, focusing on food products, flowers, and small parcel.
In addition to store and business deliveries, parcel deliveries are made
directly to customer’s homes. (Wisetjindawat, Wisinee, 2010)

Delivery vehicles are tricycles assisted by an electric motor. The

maximum delivery weight is 100 kg. The project began as a trial, but is
considered a success and has been implemented permanently. It has
also expanded from four designated central areas to all of Paris. Similarly
FedEx Corporation has initiated an electric, non-carbon emitting tricycle
for goods delivery in Paris. (Better Market Street: Existing Conditions &
Best Practices, Part Two: Best Practices, 2011)

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Part 3: Implementation
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Chapter 1. Implementation tools

1.1. Introduction
To achieve the goals outlined for sustainable urban transport in India,
robust tools need to be specified for implementation. In the existing policy
purview, there is inadequate emphasis on implementability.

For implementation of standards for Sustainable Urban Transport, the

following tools are required:-

1. Audits: To evaluate the existing conditions and monitor progress.

2. Comprehensive Planning: Needs to consider several aspects

to enhance livability of the area through coordinated improvements in
transport, physical and social infrastructure at region, city and local level

3. Programs: For implementing the guidelines and standards.

4. Institutional Structure that supports sustainable transport

planning: For implementing the standards, channeling the funding and
overseeing programs and audits

5. Supportive economic framework: For providing a framework of

funding for urban transport sector’s programs and projects

Implementation tools may be programmatic, regulatory, economic or

informational activities or measures. While some may be applicable at
the local level, others may be needed at state or national level.

1.2 Audits
Most cities in India do not have adequate information regarding urban
transport within their cities. The information, even if it exists, is frequently
piecemeal and outdated. Hence, it is our recommendation that cities
initiate the process of planning for sustainable urban transport by first
finding out the state of urban transport within their area. This can be
done through the audits proposed below. Once improvements have
been made, the audits will also help serve as a monitoring tool to ensure
positive development in urban transport sector initiatives.

In order to promote transparent and fair audits, using support from third-
party agencies to implement the audits would go a long way. This will help
bring the required transparency and accountability.

The Ministry of Urban Development has initiated work in this direction

through introduction of a Service Level Benchmarking exercise (Service
Level Benchmarks for Urban Transport at a Glance). This exercise was
envisaged for cities participating in the JnNURM. Systems for collection of
data, monitoring and institutional responsibilities have also been outlined.
However, developing cities may need to address several challenges to

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create performance management systems. Therefore, it would be a

better idea to start with performance evaluation, develop requisite ways
of monitoring, make improvements and then move towards creating a
benchmarking system. (Measuring public transport performance, GIZ,
2011)

Alongside, the Institute of Urban Transport (IUT), has taken steps towards
improved data collection and management systems for the urban
transport sector. Building requisite capacity for these activities is also
being given serious thought.

To add to MoUD’s initiatives, annual audits, as envisaged in this report,

are necessary. These audits are related to all Principles of Sustainable
Urban Transport detailed in Part 2 of this report.

Urban Local Bodies and other city level parastatal agencies should
develop systems for measuring, reporting and monitoring data for urban
transport systems. A third party evaluation audit will then be requested
for, by the local authorities. Moreover, experts and professionals in urban
transportation need to be included in the audit committees to strengthen
the evaluation mechanism. The audits will also have to recognize the
overall master plans of the city’s growth.

However, given the current scenario, the local authorities may outsource
the collection of data along with its evaluation to a third party. Also, to start
with, a sample audit may be conducted on an annual basis whereas the
results could be published once in five years owing to implementation
constraints.

Ministry of Urban development has carried out several initiatives to

facilitate ULBs and states in urban transport capacity building. The
Guidelines and Toolkits for Urban Transport Development have been
prepared by a Technical Assistance on Urban Transport Strategy funded
by the Asian Development Bank for the Ministry of Urban Development
(MoUD), Government of India. These documents are designed to help
decision makers and practitioners in states and municipal governments
who are concerned with urban transport development in medium-sized
cities in India. The city authorities can refer to the various checklists
prepared to evaluate an existing proposal or study. (For further details
refer to sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org)

Similarly, the urban local bodies can refer to PPP toolkit for improving
PPP decision making processes prepared for Ministry of Finance, Govt.
of India under a non-lending technical assistance co-financed by AusAID
through the South Asia Region Infrastructure for Growth Initiative, Public-
Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF) and the World Bank. It
comprises various checklists and templates to evaluate a proposal or
project. (For further details refer to http://toolkit.pppinindia.com/)

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1.2.1. Streets Audit

The streets audit is envisaged as a metropolitan area /city level audit.
The purpose of this audit is to help understand the state of street
infrastructure in the city. The audit will attempt to examine all aspects of
street infrastructure and assess them quantitatively and qualitatively. This
will need significant effort in the beginning but eventually it could be done
more effortlessly as it get enmeshed within the existing processes of city
staff. This audit may be carried out annually or biannually based on the
capacity and resources available with the city authorities.

Monitoring of standards and specifications related to the Principles of

Sustainable Urban Transport, as outlined in Part 2 of this report.

Main components envisaged in this audit are:-

1. Measure availability and quality of pedestrian infrastructure.

1A.1 Percentage of streets (categories minor street and above) in the city that are
designed and developed as per city/state street design guidelines OR national street
standards by IRC / MOUD

1A.2 Percentage of streets having unobstructed pedestrian pathway of minimum

standards

1A.3 Percentage of total length of all arterials and major streets that have 5 crossings
or more for every km of street.

2. Measure availability and adequacy provisions related to safety and

comfort for pedestrians.

1B.4 Percentage of un-signalized crossings on streets where one way carriageway

is more than 9m or two way carriageway is more than 12m, with safe refuges for
pedestrians and cyclists.

1B.5 Percentage of total number of signalized intersections that have dedicated

pedestrian and cyclist phase

1B.6 Percentage of total number of signalized intersections that have dedicated

pedestrian and cyclist phase

1B.9 Percentage length of all pedestrian pathways with universal access design
considerations AND Percentage of all pedestrian crossings that are universally
accessible AND Percentage of all intersections with universal access design
considerations

1B.10 Percentage of total length of pedestrian pathway that has tree plantation or
shading structures

1B.11 Percentage of total length of urban streets (Major streets and above in
hierarchy) that have at least 30 benches per km on both sides of the streets

1B.12 Percentage of total length of urban streets (Minor streets and above in
hierarchy) that have at least 30 dustbins per km on both sides of the streets

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3. Measure availability and quality of cycle infrastructure.

2A.1 Percentage of total length of major arterials that have designated cycle lanes as
per minimum standards

2A.2 Percentage of total length of all arterials and major streets that have 5 crossings
or more for every km of street.

4. Measure availability and adequacy provisions related to safety and

comfort for cyclists.

2B.5 % of signalized intersections with bicycle boxes

2B.6 % of un-signalised crossings with safe refuge for cyclists (where one way
carriageway is > 7m or two way carriageway is > 12m)

5. Measure service parameters of public transport services in terms of

pedestrian access.

3A.6 Percentage of all streets within 400m of public transport nodes which have
minimum 1.8m wide continuous unobstructed pedestrian pathway

6. Monitor streets are developed as complete streets.

1A.1 and 4B.2 Percentage of streets (categories minor street and above) in the
city that are designed and developed as per city/state street design guidelines OR
national street standards by IRC / MOUD

7. Monitor availability of dense street network.

4C.4 Percentage of length of major arterials (ROW>40m) with service / access lanes.

8. Measure availability and adequacy of pedestrian access corridors as

per standards.

4D.6 Length of new pedestrian access corridors created should be equal to the
length of new vehicular streets created

9. Monitor availability of public realm to encourage pedestrian movement,

cyclist and commuters.

9C.8 Percentage of all vehicular streets, having 90 percent working street lights
located at least one in every 20 m

9C.9 Percentage of all vehicular streets (Minor streets and above in hierarchy) and
all NMT-only streets having 90 percent working street lights at least one in every 10 m

9C.10 Percentage of total major intersections having functioning CCTV cameras

9C.12 Percentage of number of streets / intersections (Minor streets and above in

hierarchy) that have street signage including street name installed. 

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1.2.2. Development Audit

The development audit is also envisaged as a metropolitan area / city level
audit. The purpose of this audit is to understand the attributes of private
and public development as it happens every year. City / Development
Authority may have to modify the forms they use currently for purpose
of issuing building / occupancy permits if it has to undertake this study
without spending much effort. This audit may be carried out annually or
biannually based on the capacity and resources available with the city
authorities.

This audit will help monitor standards and specifications related to the
Principles of Sustainable Urban Transport, as outlined in Part 2 of this
report. Main components envisaged in this audit are:-

Monitoring of standards and specifications related to:-

1. Measure adequacy and relevance of the implemented standards

related to encouraging pedestrian-friendly building access.

1C.13 Percentage of all buildings that have primary pedestrian access from a primary
street

1C.14 Percentage of total plots (excluding Institutional uses) on arterial streets with
no front margin / front margin without fencing or compound wall

1C.15 Percentage of total plots (excluding Institutional uses) on arterial streets

without parking within the front margin space.

2. Monitor total parking facilities for cycle parking

2A.3 Percentage of total parking facilities (public / private) which have priority parking
space for 50 cycles within 10 M of its entry / exit

3. Measure service parameters of public transport services in terms of

adequate frequency and possibilities of maximum direct routes, as per
standards.

3A.5 Percentage of new public buildings planned that are within 400m walking
distance of public transport stations.

5. Monitor the availability and effectiveness in implementation of guidelines

related to aligning density in cities.

5A.1 Percentage of mass rapid transit station areas where FSI has been increased.

6. Monitor the appropriateness in implementation of guidelines related to

mix of uses around mass rapid transit nodes.

5B.2 Percentage of new developments and / or redevelopments with mixed use

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7. Monitor availability of affordable housing as per guidelines.

5C.3 Percentage of mass rapid transit stations with affordable housing units
equivalent of 20% of the built space within the influence zone (400m)

8. Monitor appropriateness in implementation of guidelines related to

aligning land use to transport infrastructure.

5D.4 Percentage of major intersections with traffic intensive uses within 300m distance

9. Measure increase in reuse and infill of existing developed urbanized

land.

6A.1 Percentage of total length of existing and proposed corridors with increase in
FSI

6A.3 Percentage of vacant and underutilized land getting redeveloped per year

6A.4 Percentage of agricultural land claimed for development will be an indicator.

10. Monitor zoning of new development areas.

6A.5 Proportion of development potential in newly developed area v/s development

potential of existing areas.
Development potential can be calculated as:
• For newly developed areas (X) :
(Total Plot Area x allowable FSI)
• For existing areas (Y):
(Total Plot Area x allowable FSI) – (Existing Built-Up Area)
Y should be greater than X.

6B.6 Percentage of total area opened for development (that is adjoining existing
developed areas)

1.2.3. Comprehensive Mobility Audit

The Comprehensive Mobility Audit is envisaged as a thorough and
comprehensive version of the current Comprehensive Traffic and
Transportation Studies that are being undertaken by some cities. The
purpose of this audit is to measure and understand the state of public
transport mobility and other aspects such as parking etc. within the city
through its impact on mobility. This audit should be carried out once
every five years to monitor the progress of initiatives undertaken by local
authorities.

This audit will cover the entire metropolitan area and all mobility-related
aspects, not just traffic aspects. Its main components are:-

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1. Measure availability and quality of infrastructure for cyclists.

2A.4 Percentage of urban area in cities > 1 million population with an active modern
cycle sharing system implemented

3. Measure coordination of bicycle facilities with public transport

2C.7 % of public transport nodes with cycle rickshaw stands for minimum 5 cycles

2C.8 Percentage of major public transport nodes (stations and above) with secure &
weather protected cycle parking facilities

2C.9 Percentage of major public transport nodes (stations and above in hierarchy)
and important destinations with cycle sharing facilities

4. Measure provision of support facilities for NMT & IPT rickshaw drivers

2D.11 Percentage of urban area where there is one such facility (drinking water &
public toilet) every sq.km.

5. Measure service parameters of public transport services in terms of

adequate frequency and possibilities of maximum direct routes, as per
standards.

3A.1 Percentage of urbanized area within 400m walking distance of public transport
nodes (Only regulated IPT stops and routes may be included)

3A.2 Percentage of urbanized area within 400m walking distance of public transport
nodes

3A.4 Percentage of all new development (that depend on high intensity of users)
proposed in the metropolitan area that is within 800m of a public transport node or
has provided a shuttle service linking with a public transport node.

6. Measure reliability and comfort of Public Transport services.

3C.8 Percentage of times that the public transport service falls behind schedule

3C.9 Percentage of trips that have breakdowns / route deviation

3C.10 Percentage of peak hour trips where numbers of passengers exceed the
designed capacity of vehicle

3C.11 Percentage of public transport buses that adhere to Urban Bus Specifications

7. Measure efforts towards inter-modal integration.

3D.12 Percentage of rapid transit stations with other public transport feeder service
stations within 50 m level walk from station exit, where routes of the two services are
intersecting or overlapping.

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3D.13 Percentage of rapid transit stations (where atleast two routes are overalpping
or intersecting) with IPT stand within 50m of the entrance / exit of the station.

3D.14 Percentage of major public transport stations with Intermediate Public

Transport Stand located within 150m (2 min) level walk from station entrance / exit

3D.15 Percentage of major public transport stations where vehicular drop-off area is
located away from the main pedestrian entrances / exits

3D.16 Percentage of fringe area public transport stations / public transport terminals
providing car parking within walking distance (less than 400m) but not adjacent to the
station (more than 150 m).

3D.17 Percentage of public transport nodes (including all public transport modes
such as MRT, BRTS, buses etc) with electronic integrated fare collection.

3D.18 Percentage of multi- modal rapid transit nodes (BRTS, MRT) where routes are
intersecting or overlapping, with seamless transfers through weather protected area.

8. Monitor restrictions on block sizes.

4C.3 Percentage of urban area with minimum 50 intersections per sq km. OR

Percentage of the urban area where distance between adjacent street intersections
(not traffic intersections) is less than or equal to 150m

4C.5 Percentage of cul-de-sacs that are less than 100m or have a pedestrian-cyclist
connection at the dead end

9. Monitor availability of on-street parking space provision and parking

space usage.

7A.1 Length of paid on-street parking (on Major streets and above) compared to
overall length of all formal on-street parking (on Major streets and above)

7A.2 Percentage of paid and organized on street parking in CBD

7A.3 Length of regulated on-street parking (on Minor and Local streets) compared to
overall length of all formal on-street parking (on Minor and Local streets)

10. Measure effectiveness of congestion reduction methods through

change in mode share.

8A.1 Percentage of modal share of private motorized vehicles in CBD areas.

11. Measure the increase in use of greener vehicles.

8B.2 Percentage of vehicles that have implemented this rating system.

8B.3 Percentage of public transport / Intermediate Public Transport vehicles using

CNG or equivalent technology driving within the city

8B.4 Percentage of CNG & alternate fuel pumping stations compared to the total
number of fuel stations within the city

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12. Measure increase in share of private and semi-private shared transit

services

8C.5 Percentage of total trips through car pool

13. Measure implementation of public participation and consultation

initiatives

8E.7 Percentage of projects that have such public consultation (minimum of 3 public
consultation meetings at the beginning, mid-point and final design stage of the project
for every large infrastructure improvement project (of more than 100 crore rupees))

8E.8 Percentage of projects that have such an allocation (minimum 3 percent of the
budget for large infrastructure improvement projects (more than 100 crore rupees))

14. Measure accessibility and adequacy of information

8G.10 Whether such a system (Integrated Information Systems for coordinating the
different modes of public transport) has been implemented or not

8G.11 Percentage of public transport nodes that have implemented such services

8G.12 Percentage of public transport nodes (including bus stops) with information on
transit routes and service frequency

8G.13 Percentage of public transport nodes (bus shelters and above) with Passenger
Information System

8G.14 Percentage of public transport nodes (bus shelters and above) with
Intermediate Public Transport information

15. Measure adequacy of safety-related aspects and extent of their

implementation.

9A.1 Percentage of drivers of all motorized vehicles trained and licensed in defensive
driving

9B.2 Percentage of major public transport nodes equipped with CCTV cameras

9B.4 Percentage of public transport stops, stations, terminals, buses, trains equipped
with security alarm system

9B.5 Percentage of public transport vehicles with dedicated women-only

compartments or zones

16. Monitor location of freight distribution center at all scales.

10B.4 Percentage of urban streets where delivery times are limited to off-peak hours.

17. Measure the extent to which incentives for using ‘greener‘ fuel
technology freight vehicles has worked.

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10C.6 Percentage of delivery vehicles using CNG or equivalent technology driving

within the city

Specifically for Urban Transport, few implementation tools are listed in

the following sub-sections. These tools talk about specific programs
and localized policies necessary for integration of land use and urban
transport planning.

1.3 Comprehensive Mobility Plan

Most cities / urban areas are required to prepare a development / master
plan for their jurisdiction according to the town planning act of the
particular state. However, development plans/master plans – for the most
part – are narrowly focused on planning for land uses and development
control regulations (Development Control Rules) in order to facilitate
growth of new areas. So far, very few development plans have focused
on the integration of land use and transportation planning.

In order to benefit from incentives and funding through JnNURM, it was

mandatory for cities to undertake a comprehensive mobility plan (CMP);
which a number of cities have completed. Critique of the existing set of
CMPs include no integration with overall vision for the city, no integrated
approach to land use planning, minimal emphasis on addressing the
needs of non-motorized modes of travel etc.

Hence, there is a clear and immediate need for cities to prepare mobility
plans (either stand alone OR as part of a larger level comprehensive
planning effort), which are integrated with the overall vision and the land
use policies being framed for the city. This will help cities better plan their
resources to help alleviate transport problems in this intense phase of
urbanization. These plans may include areas within and/or outside the
city and may have special focus on certain areas that need more detailed
analysis / proposals.

1.3.1 Proposed Structure for Comprehensive

Mobility Plan
This plan should address and include detailed strategies and components
such as :
i) Vision, goal, Objective, Strategy
ii) Scope
iii) Existing urban transport environment
• Review of land use pattern
• Existing transport infrastructure

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• Public transport system

• Urban Goods movement/ Freight
• Traffic safety and enforcement
• Institutional and financial situation
• Environment and social situation
iv) Transport demand surveys
v) Development of Urban land use and transport - plans, proposals and
strategies
• Land use-transportation integration
• Transit oriented development through station area planning
• Public transport improvement Plan
• Street design and street classification system
• Development of complete streets network
-- Network improvement
-- Pedestrian network and NMT improvement Plan
-- Dedicated bicycle network plan
• Parking management plan
• Freight movement plan
• Intermodal facilities
• Signage and way finding
vi) Implementation programs
• Redevelopment of existing urban areas
• Local area plans
• Street Redevelopment Program
vii) Capacity building
viii) Roles and Responsibilities of various departments
ix) Financing options1

The planning process should include Public Participation at least 2 stages,

1) Visioning and Issues Identification stage, and

2) Review of Proposals Stage.

The planning should be based on integrated modeling to have an objective

way of assessing and evaluating the proposals and their impacts against
the goals.

1
Refer Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) : Preparation toolkit, ADB and MoUD

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The planning process and monitored data should be transparently

available to public via web site and other means. The planning department
(within the city/ Urban Development Authority) should have a consistent
and uniform mandate, constitution and authority. The city / designated
authority should co-ordinate with all sub-agencies within the urban area
for preparation of the CMP. Based on the 74th Amendment Act, 1998,
ward and village level planning should be encouraged at the grass roots
level to participate in such planning exercises. Transport plans of each
urban local body should be completely consonant with master plans /
development plans or any other such statutory plans.

The city / designated authority must ensure that there is no conflict

between plans at any of these levels. The Urban Transport Plan should
be reviewed, monitored and updated at regular intervals of 5 years (or
earlier).

1.3.2 Critical elements of the Comprehensive

Mobility Plan
The overall composition of the Comprehensive Mobility Plan has been
outlined above. Specifically for Urban Transport, few implementation tools
are listed in the following sub-sections. These tools talk about specific
programs and localized policies necessary for integration of land use and
urban transport planning.

a. Transit Oriented Development through Station Area Planning

Program

This is a local area planning tool to address the need for public transport-
oriented development or Transit Oriented Development (RECONNECTING
AMERICA, Centre for Transit –Oriented Development, 2007). Station Area
Planning Programs should be used for implementation of spatial plans
Figure 1.1: Transit Oriented
and urban transport networks around public transport stations. district

Growth around Public Transport stations should create symbiosis between

land use and availability of high capacity public transport. Each station
area plan may cover a “pedshed”, or walking distance, of 400 m radius or
an administrative ward. Like the town planning scheme mechanism, the
station area plans should be a statutory provision to • Land use changes

• Circulation and connectivity improvements in street network

• Mandatory provision of affordable housing

• TOD – supportive parking policies

The Urban Local Body and the ward level planning cell should work on
creating each station area planning program. Each station area should
be defined and mapped based on the stipulated radius of 400m walking
distance from the station exit. Under this program, guidelines should be

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set for all development control regulations for the station areas. Decisions
about the permitted land uses and densities should be made based on
the specific needs of each station area in each city.

b. Station Design

Station design is a part of the actual design of Public Transport system.

However, the city may recommend guidelines and standards regarding
access and integration with surrounding areas / other modes of local
transport. This could be defined as a sub-set to the station area planning
program or as standalone station design guidelines. The public transport
agency will be responsible for design of station areas.

c. Street Classification & Complete Street Network

It is important to recognize and classify streets based on the functional

requirements and to cater to all modes of motorized as well as non-
motorized transport. To ensure design of complete streets, each city will
have to classify its urban streets, as a first step. Principle 4 in Part 2 of
this document outlines a matrix Street Classification including various
elements and their dimensions / specifications. The Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) has identified similar categories of streets and the above
classification is aligned with that overall classification. IRC recognizes that
urban streets will need to be designed based on the specific conditions of
urban areas (IRC 86 – 1988 and IRC 103:2012). Hence, for urban areas,
street classification should follow the needs of the city.

The street classification system used here should be based on character

and context of a street rather than simply depending on the ROW width.
For example, a relatively narrow street may be an important spine with
significant urban activities and connecting important areas in different
parts of the city. It would be a mistake to identify such street as a ‘collector’
or ‘local’ street under conventional ROW width based systems.

In addition to ROW widths, the classification system considers

parameters such as length of the street, what does it connects, land use
characteristics etc. It is proposed that any future work regarding the road/
street network must be based on this street classification system and the
relevant guidelines provided for them.

Once a comprehensive street classification is complete, the city needs

to develop the complete streets network. This means identifying missing
pieces of the overall network and developing those streets as per the
classification system identified above. The city also needs to upgraded
based on a long term Street Redevelopment Program.

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d. Pedestrian Network and NMT Plan

Improving pedestrian infrastructure in Indian cities requires dedicated

focus and attention on part of city officials. Hence, in order to implement
pedestrian and NMT improvements effectively, it is recommended
to prepare Pedestrian Network and NMT Plan as a part of CMP (or
separately) which would integrate pedestrian and NMT requirements
of the city. Below are some of the major elements our streets need to
incorporate to develop / create pedestrian & NMT friendly environment.

• Continuous, obstruction free, well paved walking surfaces of along

both sides of the streets.

• Clear 2 m clear sidewalk

• Tree covered well streetscape with well designed street furniture and
other elements.

• Clearly defined, safe pedestrian crossing at intersections and

appropriate locations.

• Active street frontages to create safe environment

• Small block sizes to allow better pedestrian connectivity in

perpendicular direction with surrounding neighbourhoods.

In order to create a pedestrian friendly city with walkable streets and

neighbourhoods, these elements must be incorporated in design of all
urban roads to be constructed in future.

e. Bicycle Network Plan

In order to improve the level of bicycle us in our cities as safe and

sustainable means of urban transport, it is essential to connect public
transit nodes, industrial areas, educational institutions and parks and
open spaces with the continuous, safe and efficient network of bicycle
friendly streets. Hence, it is recommended to prepare ‘Bicycle network
plan’ as a part of CMP (or separately) that identifies a network of streets
to be developed as bicycle priority streets for the city. The plan shall
identify appropriate types of bicycle lanes on various street types. The
bicycle network shall comprise all types of bicycle lanes such as

• Dedicated Bicycle Lanes

• Demarcated bicycle Lanes

• Shared Lanes on bicycle priority streets

Bicycle plan shall identify guidelines and standards for designing these
lanes and facilities. Also it will identify important locations for various
bicycle facilities such as bicycle parking at transit stations, parks and
gardens, major shopping centers, major public institutions, education
institutions.

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f. Local Parking Plan and Management Policy

Each metropolitan area should implement a parking policy. The policy

should follow the recommended standards and guidelines for Sustainable
Urban Transport, as outlined in Part 2, Principle 7 (Influence private vehicle
usage through parking).

A parking management plan needs to be prepared and parking zones

identified around major parking generators such as prime commercial
streets, local business districts, transit station areas, informal market
areas, and would typically include streets of surrounding residential areas
that are likely impacted by spill-over parking and related issues.

To improve management of parking, some modifications will be needed

in Development Control Rules also. Suggesting these changes should
form part of the local parking policy. Management of and compliance with
this local parking policy should be out sourced to the private sector. This
will help aid setting of charges based on market demand and collection
of charges. Charges thus generated will help fund parking management.

Figure 1.2: Parking management

plan g. Freight movement plan

Each metropolitan area should conduct a review of urban goods terminals,

markets; regulation, and practices relating to heavy goods vehicles,
transporting hazardous goods movement, such as petroleum products.
It also comprises aspects such as travel demand management, safety,
strategic fright network of freight routes for the city etc.

h. Signage and way finding

Wayfinding is the methodology of arranging indicators to guide people to

find their destinations. Signages are tools that aid in way finding. There are
various types of signages like written, graphical, textured, map, pictorial,
audio, video etc. Consistency of colour, size, height, etc would be critical
for a successful signage program.. The importance for designing and
planning for way finding is not yet fully realized in Indian context. Looking
at the present scenario of signages in the Indian cities, it is recommended
to prepare and implement a ‘Comprehensive Signage & Wayfinding Plan’
as a part of CMP for wayfinding. This plan could be implemented using
public private partnership (PPP), by providing advertising rights as a tool
to implement and maintain the signage system.

i. Funding of CMP

Currently, funding for creation of pedestrian, cyclist and NMT infrastructure

is completely neglected. It is recommended that JNNURM programme

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to include NMT infrastructure projects and facilitate development of

infrastructure through dedicated funds for the same. (Also recommended
in Twelfth Five year plan – Urban development as well). For Pedestrian,
NMV, streetscaping, the funding may be provisioned as 50% by GoI and
50% by State Govt./ ULB/ Parastatal where as introduction of Public
Bicycle Scheme and upgradation of cycle rickshaws needs to be done
through 100% funding by GoI.( [Recommendations of Working Group on
Urban Transport for 12th Five Year Plan] Operation and maintenance can
be done through public private partnership.

As discussed earlier, audits would play an important role to evaluate the

existing conditions and monitor progress of the urban transport initiatives
undertaken. However, one of the primary constraints which the city
authorities are facing is lack of funds.

1.3.3 Implementation programs

a. Program for Redevelopment of Existing Urban Areas

Promotion of compact development, densification along public transport

networks and strong disincentives for sprawl are important for achieving
sustainable urban transport. Each metropolitan area should ensure that
its spatial planning is in line with Sustainable Urban Transport principles.
One of the key components for this is the appropriate and timely
redevelopment of existing urbanized land. This can be achieved through
localized programs for promoting redevelopment of existing areas. Also,
special Vacant Land Cell needs to be formed in each city which would
primarily focus on development and better utilization of vacant lands.
Programs that are time-bound and have clear orientation and objectives
should be created by the MPCs or Urban Development Authorities as part
of the Comprehensive Urban Transport plans.

b. Local area Plans

A Local Area Plan is a micro level planning tool that will help implement
the City’s vision at local area level taking into account the needs of the
existing ward/ neighborhood or any area within the city. The objective
including improvement in overall mobility, pedestrian accessibility, public
transportation, gardens, open space, amenities, infrastructure and
enhancement of overall neighborhood character, so that the city can
be better equipped to accommodate future growth in a sustainable and
livable manner.

A typical Local Area Plan shall include:

1. Study of exiting areas, its built form, development character and activity

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patterns

2. Specific proposals and recommendations for improvements of

i. Streets network and public transportation infrastructure

ii. Parks, Gardens, Plazas and public spaces

iii. Physical infrastructure

• Sewerage

• Solid waste

• Storm water

• Street light

3. Social infrastructure

• Schools
Figure 1.3: Local Area plan • Health centers/ clinics

• Vendor spaces

• Public toilets

• Libraries

• Fire stations

• Fitness centers

• Sports facilities

A Local Area Plan will include detailed assessment of existing

conditions and involve local stakeholders to derive various proposals
and recommendations. It will recommend various improvements in
infrastructure and amenities based on the established standards and
guidelines (such as identified in the Development Plan, UDPFI etc).

Local Area Plans can be commenced by the Urban Area Development

authority or Municipal Corporations with help of experts and professionals.
A local Area Planning Committee should be formulated that will guide
and oversee the preparation and implementation of the plan. The Area
Planning Committee may comprise an urban planning official, a city
engineer, an architect, a locally elected official, prominent local residents
who are familiar with the planning area and understand the local needs.
In the planning process, it should also involve and take inputs from
various stakeholders such as the local community; land owners, NGOs,
developers etc. The development authority or municipal corporation may
also hire professional teams to help with preparing and implementing the
plan.

Delhi has adopted local area planning through preparation of zonal

development plans. Till now, 14 zonal development plans have been
prepared.

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c. Street Redevelopment Program

It is essential for the cities to initiate Street Development Program to

develop complete streets that enables safe and comfortable travel
for users of all modes including walking, cycling and public transport;
and for people of all ages and abilities. These streets need to be
developed so as to provide dedicated space for all activities or zones
like pedestrian movement, cycle tracks, parking space, commercial and
informal activities, plantation and landscape, street furniture and lighting
and also regulates traffic flow. These streets also integrate utilities and
infrastructure in the design to allow for seamless construction and ease
of maintenance.

ULBs/UDAs need to undertake the program in a staged manner. The

program needs to be initiated by identifying various existing streets that
need to be redeveloped and prioritizing them. Some of the streets then
need to be taken up for redevelopment on a pilot basis to assess the
success. Also, Street Design Manual needs to be prepared to standardize
street design details which will further assist the technical team of UDA/
ULB in implementation.

1.4 Capacity building

Urban transport professionals are generally not employed by city
agencies or the State Government leading to lack of planning skills in
the urban development authority / local authorities. Capacity Building
program is therefore crucial for creating public acceptance and demand
for sustainable mobility and livable cities, changing established values
and strengthen outreach and capacity. (Ministry of Urban Development,
2009).

Capacity building includes several activities – Education, training,

knowledge creation and dissemination. Training of city officials needs to
be taken up through leaders program for in service officers and young
leaders program for the post graduates and other young professionals.
Training programs for city officials and other stakeholders would enable
them to undertake small planning assignments and to supervise and
monitor the work of the consultant.

Since capacity building would involve some additional time, the city
authorities can also take assistance or work in collaboration with Technical
experts of the field.

As an overview, capacity building programs should be aimed at:-

1. Reorientation of regulations

2. Reorientation of administrative framework

3. Technical and Institutional capacity

a. Reorientation of academic curriculum to reflect the subject of urban

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transport along with land use –transport integration.

b. Facilitate specialized courses in urban planning for City engineers,

town planning officers, etc

c. Skill-building programs for existing professionals in the field.

d. Experience-sharing platforms

e. Pilot and demonstration projects

4. Support for training and orientation programs for:

a. Non-state actors and other stakeholders

b. Media

5. Safety –

a. Capacity building city engineers, town planners, safety auditor, traffic

police (every year: Minimum 5 officers must be trained for road safety
in each million plus city.

b. Training programs initiated must include special programs for traffic

safety.

To implement the above mentioned steps for capacity building, the

city authorities can avail funding assistance from the Capacity Building
Scheme for Urban Transport launched by the MoUD, with a fund
requirement of 99 Crore between 2009 and 2014 (Ministry of Urban
Development, 2009). A major component is Training (for strategic
decision makers, technical staff, operators, etc.) covering various areas
such as sensitization, institutional development, financing and cost and
benefit analysis, demand assessment, urban transport planning, modal
integration, environment issues implementation, operations and traffic
management. The total number of trainees proposed to be covered over
a five year period is 2,500.

In addition, there is a centrally sponsored scheme for urban transport

planning. Under this scheme, the MoUD has been assisting Cities to
prepare Comprehensive Mobility Plan, launch awareness campaign
on sustainable urban transportation and develop projects under Clean
Development Mechanism through funding 80% of the project cost. For
preparation of Detailed Project Reports in Urban Transport, assistance
upto 50% for the project cost is provided. In addition, Training of Trainers
and Practitioners has been taken up.

Also, Institute for Urban Transport (IUT) a professional body set up under
the purview of the Ministry of Urban Development Government carries
out several capacity building initiatives on behalf of the MoUD. The city
authorities can avail assistance from IUT in carrying out training programs
in several subjects related to urban transport.

Similarly, Centers of Excellence in Urban Transport set up by MOUD

is a resource centre for education, research and training in planning
and management of urban transport. The centers carry out numerous
training, seminars and workshops for professionals, city authorities, state

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government organizations as well as other agencies related to urban

transport.

Better communication mechanisms and dissemination of knowledge

about best practices among ULBs can help improve their performance.
The Peer Experience and Reflective Learning (PEARL) initiative led by
the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is one such attempt by the
Ministry of Urban Development. The Vibrant Governance programme
implemented in a number of states is another example of a training
programme to help government officials understand the priorities of
governance and the importance of their role in it. (Report on Indian Urban
Infrastructure and Services, 2009-2010)

Apart from the above initiatives taken in the country, several bi-lateral and
multi-lateral development agencies have evinced a keen interest in the
urban sector. Projects are being implemented with the of the World Bank,
Asian Development Bank, Japanese International Cooperation Agency,
Department for International Development (DFID) and recently the AFD
(French Agency for Development). Most of these projects contain a
Capacity Building component which may include provision of consultants,
exposure visits, establishment of third party monitoring agencies, project
implementation units and specific training programs focusing on the
project of interest implemented by them.

In states like Andhra Pradesh (APUSP- DFID), Karnataka (KSUDP - ADB),

Kerala (KSUDPADB), Tamil Nadu (TNUDP - WB), Rajasthan (RUIDP- ADB),
Madhya Pradesh due to implementation of major urban development
projects funded by the multi- lateral agencies focusing on Urban Local
bodies it was contingent on the local bodies to build training and capacity
building programs as part of the project implementation. This has led to
perceptible improvements in institutional capacity. (Report of the Working
Group on Capacity Building for the Twelfth Plan)

1.5 Roles and responsibilities

According to the Indian Constitution, Urban Transport is a State Subject.
Thus, implementation of the recommendations of this report falls under
the State’s roles and responsibilities. However, urban local bodies have
been assigned some of the responsibilities of Urban Transport through
the respective Municipal act. This has further been reinforced by the 74th
Constitutional Amendment (and the twelfth Schedule, which outlines
power, authority and responsibility of Urban Local Bodies). Effective
implementation of Sustainable Urban Transport needs to be taken
up by corresponding agencies and departments within the municipal
administration.

Role of the Urban Local Body

Currently, the Urban Local Body (ULB) has several powers and functions

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defined in The Bombay Provincial Municipal Corporations Act, 1949

related to urban transport such as:

• Construction and regular maintenance of streets

• Construction of street improvement projects such as flyovers,

bridges, underpasses etc.

• Providing street lights

• Provision and Maintenance of Transport Undertaking (for running

bus service).

Under the Bombay Provisional Municipal Corporation (BPMC) Act, there

is provision of creating a Transport Committee. According to the act, this
transport committee would be in-charge of the transport undertaking, but
if organized appropriately, this Transport committee could be tasked with
all aspects of urban transport within the powers of the city. BPMC Act also
identifies a Transport Manager who would be responsible for overseeing
the affairs of the Transport undertaking (like a bus service etc). This role
could also be expanded to include other aspects of urban transport
within the transport managers’ purview. For, those cities not having this
provision, the Municipal Commissioner can use his discretionary powers
to appoint such as committee.

For facilitating funding for transport initiatives, NUTP propose the creation
of an Urban Transport Fund. This can go a long way in ensuring financial
viability of various urban transport improvements.

To make cycling a popular and well accepted mode of transportation

in India and to provide safe pedestrian and cycle infrastructure, a
dedicated NMT cell should be created within each municipality/municipal
corporation. This will help ensure that the needs of the most vulnerable
users of streets – pedestrians and nmt users – are not marginalized in the
planning and implementation of new improvements for urban transport.

The city buses and BRTS would need to be brought under a city specific
SPV instead of the present system of their management being done by
State Transport Undertakings (as is the case in many states).

Together, the above improvements will help bring a more focused

approach to urban transport at the city level and will help improve
conditions for end users of all modes of transport.

The municipal entities need to be strengthened as local governments

with ‘own’ sources of revenue, predictable formula-based transfers from
state governments, and other transfers from the Government of India
and state governments to help them discharge the larger responsibilities
assigned to them by the 74th Constitutional Amendment. Improved
tax revenues combined with rational user charges will enable cities to
leverage their own resources to incur debt and also access new forms
of financing through public private partnership (PPP). (The High Powered
Expert Committee (HPEC) for Estimating the Investment Requirements
for Urban Infrastructure Services, 2012)

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Important recommendations given by HPEC are

• ULB should have functional autonomy, i.e. functions of local governments vis-
à-vis state governments, and their entities must be unambiguous
• ULB should have financial autonomy and be required to be financially viable,
i.e. local finances, including own revenue and inter-governmental transfers,
must match local requirements and should be accompanied by the necessary
autonomy to expend these resources;
• local functionaries must be competent to discharge the local functions
effectively, i.e. an ongoing process of training and dissemination of knowledge
must be built into the system of governance, functional outcomes, including
authority for approving and disbursing moneys for approved projects, must
match the finances allotted within a framework of transparency, accountability,
and community participation; and
• social accountability must be ensured
The HPEC Committee strongly recommends the setting up of an independent
Urban Utility Regulator whose responsibility will be to ensure that service standards
are met and that user charges cover costs within a framework which is spelt out in
a transparent manner.

Role of Urban Development Authority

In order to facilitate planned growth of cities and urban areas, most states
have set up Urban Development Authorities through either a State Town
Planning Act or a special Urban Development Authority Act. In most cases,
Urban Development Authority is required to work in close collaboration
with the municipal authority which lie within its jurisdiction. The role of
Urban Development Authorities is primarily to plan for the new developing
areas, provide planned framework of streets and other infrastructure,
etc. UDAs in different parts of the country use different mechanisms for
implementing their plans. One of the more popular means of doing this is
through development of Townships.

Township Model

Here, the UDA acquires the agricultural land surrounding the city and
then redevelops this land (either by themselves or in partnership with
private developers) and sells developed properties to end users.
This model has faced many challenges in the past and though it
continues to remain popular with Development Authorities (and
States) it does not provide for original land owners to benefit from the
development process (as most of the upgraded land value accrues
to the UDA/developer).

Town Planning Scheme Model

An alternate approach to this is the Town Planning Scheme model.

This is a statutory process of land pooling - land readjustment
process where the land belonging to a number of different land
owners is pooled. A certain percentage of total land is deducted for
provision of various streets, common services and other amenities.
The remaining land is returned back to the original owners. Since
this land is now urban land with provision of services etc, its value is
much higher than the original agricultural land. Original land owners

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benefit from this increase in value and hence this is a more equitable
process of land development. This has been successfully used in
Gujarat for a long time and is coming back as a statutory process in
many other states.

In certain states, UDA is also responsible for provision / management

of public transport at regional level. There are proposals for setting up
of Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) in various urban
areas. If successful, these can be established either at the same level
or in conjunction with the structure of existing UDAs. This will help build
institutional strength at the regional / metropolitan level and also help
address both Development and Transport issues hand in hand. See
section on UMTA for further details

Role and Responsibilities of State

To support and facilitate the ULB/UDA in implementing urban transport

initiatives State Government will need to support the city in many ways.

1. State can help update / create appropriate legislation to empower

ULB / UDA with responsibility related to Urban Transport.

2. Without adequate staffing and capacity, ULB will not be able to fulfil
their responsibilities. Hence, State may also need to support with
technical support through state level urban transport organizations
until such time that cities have adequate capacity of their own.

3. State may need to set up appropriate review processes and

procedures to ensure that cities are implementing urban transport
policies and initiatives with intended results.

4. Without appropriate financial support many cities’ plans will remain

on paper. Hence, strong financial support program from the state will
help cities address issues of urban transport within their jurisdiction
in a comprehensive manner.

5. A Road Transport Safety Board can be set up at State level in each

State to deal with urban transport safety issues in a comprehensive,
scientific and a systematic manner.

Roles and Responsibilities of Central Government

Through JNNURM and other similar programs the Central Government

has and may continue to plan a crucial role in driving the agenda for
sustainable urban transport forward.

1.6 Financing Urban Transport

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Despite being a major contributor to economic value generation in urban

areas, urban transport has not received serious consideration. Financing
urban transportation requirements needs to be taken-up as a priority
(PricewaterhouseCoopers Pvt. Ltd., 2008).

Urban transport financial resources should be pooled within an urban

transport fund. This fund should be administered by a strategic transport
authority at the city or metropolitan level.

Currently, one of the important source of finance is petrol cess and/ or

congestion charges. This is considered to be a progressive charge. This
can also be called environmental tax based on polluter pays principle.

On all the existing vehicles an annual green cess has been proposed at
the rate of three percent of the insured value of the personalized vehicles.
For the ease of collection the annual cess will be collected through
insurance companies along with the annual insurance premium. The
Urban Transport Tax or Cess has been proposed on Purchase of New
Cars and Two Wheelers assumed at the level of 7.5% of the total cost of
the vehicles.

Many cities across the world following congestion charging such as

Singapore, London. In India, congestion charges are being planned to be
imposed in the CBD area of Ahmedabad by the local urban development
authority.

Instruments for capturing value from proximate and indirect users would
be under the jurisdiction of Urban Local Bodies through imposition and
collection of taxes or levies. Such revenues should be earmarked for use in

SOURCE TYPES OF HOLDING USES

FUNDS VEHICLE
URBAN
State/Central TRANSPORT
Government Loans FUND

Capital Fund Capital Projects

Funding
Grants
Agencies

Local Fund - Local Taxes

sources - Parking Fees
- Management
- Development
General Fund - Operations
Charges
- Up-gradation
Private - Fare box
Sector revenues

Figure 1.4: Sources and Uses of the Urban Transport Fund

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 IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS

urban transportation related projects. For this, it may be necessary to ring-

fence these revenues from the consolidated fund of state governments
and Urban Local Bodies (PricewaterhouseCoopers Pvt. Ltd., 2008).

Cities across the world have used four key funding sources:-

1. Land Monetization

2. Property tax and user charges

3. Debt and support from Government

4. PPP

Public institutions need to develop innovative instruments that capture

value from indirect and proximity beneficiaries so that urban transportation
projects do not excessively rely on real-estate development for financing.
A policy on budgetary allocations, user charges and tapping other source
of funds based on taxation of non-user beneficiaries, land development
and vehicle taxation should be provided to the city. Intergovernmental
transfers should normally be made to the fund and should be structured
in such a way as to avoid distorting the efficient allocation of resources
within the transport sector at the local level.

Domestic debt should be facilitated with Government Guarantee and

interest subsidy to the SPV. Also, public transport should be exempted
from taxes. Private sector financing for transport infrastructure should
be raised through competitive tendering of concessions that may be
supported by public contributions as long as these have been subject to
proper cost benefit analysis. When allocating funds to urban transport,
the relationship between transport policy and other sector policies, in
particular housing, should be borne in mind.

Financing of pedestrian and cyclist infrastructure should be through a

combination of funding from Govt. of India, State Govt./urban local body,
development agencies, property development, loan from domestic and
financial institutions as well as PPP.

UT Authority in city can control all funds related to capital cost of UT

projects as well as operational subsidies, if any. Resource generation
policy could be formulated after detailed study

A city/State-level development fund could be set up through proceeds

accruing to ULBs from innovative sources like land monetization and
other land based instruments should be pooled into a ‘ring fenced’ city
development fund and then used only for urban infrastructure projects
and projects for providing shelters to the urban poor in respective cities
and not for any other purpose.

In view of the capital intensity of transport projects, it is suggested that the

fund may have two parts—

(i) Fund marked for urban transport projects and

(ii) fund for other infrastructure and shelter related projects.

To start with, such funds may be created in metropolitan cities. To meet

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the demands of smaller ULBs, each State should set up a State Financial
Intermediary, on the lines of Tamil Nadu Urban Development Fund
(TNUDF), which can then pool funding requirements of the ULBs in the
State and provide economies of scale. (Twelfth Five Year Plan)

ULBs can utilize the option of leveraging Municipal Bonds including

Pooled Financing to raise funds. For example, Ahmedabad Municipal
corporation had come up with Rs 1000 million worth municipal bonds in
1998. It was a sort of a landmark as it is the first instrument to be issued
without a state gurantee. The proceeds of these bonds were utilized to
fund the city’s water supply and sewerage project.

Further, ULBs to exclusively levy property tax, profession tax, entertainment

tax and advertisement tax and retain the whole of their proceeds
(hereinafter referred to as ‘exclusive taxes’).

1.7 Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority

Ministry of Urban Development has mooted the idea of a Unified
Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) to coordinate urban transport
and related issues in cities over 1 million in population. While this is a
significant development that could help integrate efforts and agencies
working on urban transport issues, lack of adequate powers, financing
and clarity of role has resulted in very different understanding of UMTA in
different states. In certain cases where UMTA has been set up through
executive order, it has been able to serve the needs of the urban areas
(and state, case of DULT Karnataka), while in certain other places where it
has been set up as a coordinating committee, it has failed to be effective.

Regardless of what the future holds for UMTA in various states, cities
already have adequate authority (statutorily) to be able to improve urban
transport within their jurisdiction. They can further enhance this by working
collaboratively with the Urban Development department at the State level.
With appropriate leadership and willingness at the city level, cities can
make a huge difference to the state of urban transport without relying too

Recommendations of Isher Ahluwalia Committee on Financial Devolution to ULBs

• Insert a ‘Local Bodies Finance List’ (LBFL) along the lines of the Union and
State Lists
• Empower ULBs to exclusively levy property tax, profession tax, entertain-
ment tax and advertisement tax and retain the whole of their proceeds
(hereinafter referred to as ‘exclusive taxes’). In case States continue to levy
and collect profession tax or entertainment tax, then the entire revenues, net
of collection cost, should be passed on to the ULBs
• Constitutionally ensure sharing of a pre-specified percentage of revenues
from all taxes on goods and services (including motor vehicle tax and
stamp duty) which are levied by States to enable ULBs to meet their func-
tional responsibilities assigned to them by the 74th Amendment (hereinafter
collectively referred to as ‘revenue-shared taxes’)
• Provide for formula-based sharing of the divisible pool with the ULBs and
also grants-in-aid to ULBs from the divisible pool for bridging, wherever
necessary, horizontal fiscal imbalance.

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 IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS

much on UMTA if it does not exist or if it is not effective.

1.8 Implementation of 74th Amendment

According to the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, there is a
mandatory provision for constituting a Metropolitan Planning Committee
(MPC) in all metropolitan areas (urban areas having population greater
than 1 million). A number of these metropolitan areas have existing
metropolitan/urban development authorities. These authorities could
serve as technical / secretarial assistants to MPC in the disbursement of
their roles and duties etc.

According to the act, the Metropolitan Planning Committee shall be

responsible for preparing development plans for the metro area and
coordination of plans prepared by urban local bodies and panchayats of
the area. MPC shall also be responsible for allocation of resources and
phasing and prioritization of development works within its jurisdiction.

Despite the fact that this act has been in effect for the past 20 years, very
few metropolitan areas have actually constituted functional Metropolitan
Planning Committees. Devolution of planning power to the metropolitan
level and ward level has not yet happened. The tiered structure of decision
making as outlined above provides for people at the village / ward level
to have a role in the planning and implementation of development works,
while at the metropolitan level and above, the agencies are responsible
for facilitation and technical advice.

According to the act, MPC should include/integrate existing Urban /

Metropolitan Development Authorities as technician support and advisory
to the committee. Heads of the Urban Development Authority (UDA) and
the Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMTA) shall be members of
the MPC. The MPC shall be responsible for co-ordinating the functions of
the Urban Development Authority and the UMTA. In the hierarchy, UMTA
shall be placed parallel to the Urban Development Authority. This will
promote integration between spatial planning and urban transport.

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Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

BMLTA Bangalore Metropolitan Land Transport Authority

BMTA Bangkok Mass Transit Authority

BRTS Bus Rapid Transit System

CAG Comptroller and Auditor General

CBD Central Business District

CCTV Close circuit Television

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

CPWD Central Public Works Department

CSE Centre for Science and Environment

CTTS Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Study

DCR Development Control Rules

FSI Floor Space Index

FOB Foot Over Bridge

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse Gases

IPT Intermediate Public Transport

IRC Indian Roads Congress

ITDP Institute for Transport and Development Policy

ITS Intelligent Transport Systems

IUT Institute of Urban Transport

LMV Light Motor Vehicle

LRTS Light Rail Transit System

LTA Land Transport Authority, Singapore

MMRDA Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority

MoPNG Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

MoRTH Ministry of Road transport and Highways

MoUD Ministry of Urban Development

MPC Metropolitan Planning Committee

MPV Multi purpose Vehicle

MRTS Mass Rapid Transit System

MTW Motorized Two Wheelers

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 239
MVV Münchner Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund, MVV (Munich Transport and Tariff Association)

NGO Non Governmental Organization

NMT Non Motorized Transport

NTDPC National Transport Development Policy Committee

NUTP National Urban Transport Policy

NYCTA New York City Transit Authority

PWD Public Works Department

RTO Regional Transport Office

SPCB State Pollution Control Board

SPV Special Purpose Vehicle

SRTC State Road Transport Corporation

STP Syndicat des Transports Parisiens (the Paris transport authority)

SUV Sport Utility Vehicle

TCPO Town and Country Planning Organization

TD Transport Department, Hong Kong

TERI The Energy and Resources Institute

TOD Transit Oriented Development

UD Urban Development

UDA Urban Development Authority

ULB Urban local body

UMMTA Unified Mumbai Metropolitan Transport Authority

UMTA Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority

UTTIPEC Unified Traffic and Transport Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) Centre

VKT Vehicle Kilometers Travelled

VTPI Victoria Transport Policy Institute 

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 Definitions

Affordable housing Housing that is subsidized and predominantly aimed at lower

income groups

Core area Areas immediately surrounding the CBDs of the city

Fringe area Areas on the periphery of the city limits

Floor Space Index The ratio of the combined gross floor area of all floors including
areas of all walls and columns except areas specifically exempted
under these Regulations, to the total area of the building unit.

Intermediate Public Intermediate Public Transport service includes modes of travel

Transport (IPT) service such as taxis, rickshaws etc. that are privately owned but operate
for public use

Major intersection Street intersection of any two arterials (major and minor included)

Major public Public transport nodes that fall within the “Stations” and “Rapid
transport node transit stop” categories of the public transport node classification
system

Mass rapid transit Area within 400m walking distance from a metro station (mass
station area rapid transit)

New development Development on a piece of land that was previously vacant

NMT mode Non-motorized transport mode includes all modes of travel that is
powered by human and / or animal energy. These include
walking, cycling, cycle rickshaws, cycle carts, bullock carts, etc.

Redevelopment Development on a piece of land that was previously occupied by

buildings

Right of way Area within the public domain for streets between property edges
on either side

Road Street that focuses predominantly on transportation

Station Area Plan Development plan or proposal for areas within 400m walking
distance from a public transport station

Street Any public right of way that accommodates non-motorized and

motorized modes of transport and facilitates public interaction

Urban block Area of urbanized land surrounded on all sides by streets

(vehicular and / or pedestrian streets) and / or physical break
such as railway line, river etc.

Urbanized area Areas of the city that have been developed for any land use other
than agricultural land use
 

S U S TA I N A B L E U R B A N T R A N S P O R T 241
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List of Figures
PART 1
Chapter 1:
Fig 1.a Author
Fig 1.b Author
Chapter 2:
Fig 2.a indiatransportportal.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/mumbai-nightmare.jpg
Fig 2.b eoearth.org /files/191501_191600/191521/figure-5-2-l.png
Fig 2.c static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/12/8/1323351688634/Traffic-jam-in-
Delhi-008.jpg
Fig 2.d PayScale.com (a US-based salary tracking firm)
Fig 2.e indiatransportportal.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Indian-public-bus.jpg
Fig 2.f cdn3.vtourist.com/4/3798365-Rickshaw_and_auto_rickshaw_Delhi.jpg
Fig 2.g HCPDPM
Fig 2.h fetalreebz.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/india-bus.jpg
Fig 2.i Author

Principle 1: Walk
Fig 1.1 makevictoriabetter.blogspot.com/2010_05_01_archive.html
Fig 1.2 antalya-magnificent-city.blogspot.in
Fig 1.3 protocolsnow.com
Fig 1.4 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 1.5 safety.fhwa.dot.gov/
Fig 1.6 mto.gov.on.ca/
Fig 1.7 HCPDPM
Fig 1.8 principalsecretarysblog.blogspot.com
Fig 1.9 Ministry of Urban Development, 2012, Design of Urban Roads, MOUD
Fig 1.10 metrolinx.com/mobilityhubs/images/mhg/fig6-3.jpg
Fig 1.11 islington-consult.objective.co.uk/events/15754/images/web/2081969_0_1.jpg
Fig 1.12 Author, based on Google Earth
Fig 1.13 psda.in/images/public-realm/dda/images/4.jpg
Fig 1.14 burypartners.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Scramble.jpeg
Fig 1.15 london.ca/Transportation/images/pedestrian_signage.jpg
Fig 1.16 tunliweb.no/Bilder_SM/_album_Barcelona/IMG_1000_1024pixel.jpg
Fig 1.17 denverstreetcars.net/image/06.07-01.jpg

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Fig 1.18 safety.fhwa.dot.gov/intersection/resources/fhwasa10005/images/b11_f3.jpg
Fig 1.19 icdn.images.touristlink.com/data/cache/D/S/C/N/5/3/0/3/dscn5303_700_0.jpg
Fig 1.20 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 1.21 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 1.22 Unified Traffic and Transport Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) Center, Delhi
Development Authority. (2010). Street Design Guidelines.
Fig 1.23 2.bp.blogspot.com/_e4dEvZ58ZSo/SmaefP6p5VI/AAAAAAAABIY/PDoLQrhYFJE/s400/
DSC_1171+F-728608.jpg
Fig 1.24 psda.in/images/public-realm/nanded-street/images/14.jpg

Principle 2: Cycle
Fig 2.1 copenhagenize.com
Fig 2.2 lesleyriddoch.co.uk
Fig 2.3 ebw.evergreen.ca
Fig 2.4 omonaij.files.wordpress.com
Fig 2.5 cyclingchristchurch.co.nz
Fig 2.6 cityofpa.us
Fig 2.7 seattletransitblog.com
Fig 2.8 rudi.net
Fig 2.9 manushi-india.org
Fig 2.10 floridabicycle.org
Fig 2.11 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 2.12 bostoncompletestreets.org/img/feed/bike%20parking_thumb.jpg
Fig 2.13 farm3.staticflickr.com/2247/2741238414_12ec054694_z.jpg
Fig 2.14 1.bp.blogspot.com/_twqih16lQSc/TOIehImeF2I/AAAAAAAAAO8/zQYKbmkOK6w/s1600/
DSC00716.JPG
Fig 2.15 railzone.nl/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/IMG_6866.jpg
Fig 2.16 www.gzbrt.org/images/DSC_5767.jpg
Fig 2.17 3.bp.blogspot.com/_NRsSmc8gBDg/THHAGWnKWuI/AAAAAAAAHWw/4nfAjWOzDVg/s1600/
Bikesharingacessri.jpg
Fig 2.18 ecocabs.org/images/slider_3.jpg
Fig 2.19 Author, based on Google Maps
Fig 2.20 upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Hangzhou_bike_sharing_station.jpg
Fig 2.21 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 2.22 Unified Traffic and Transport Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) Center, Delhi
Development Authority. (2010). Street Design Guidelines
Fig 2.23 Unified Traffic and Transport Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) Center, Delhi

250 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Development Authority. (2010). Street Design Guidelines
Fig 2.24 farm4.staticflickr.com/3303/3479624036_c3c0d3283e_m.jpg
Fig 2.25 farm3.staticflickr.com/2247/2741238414_12ec054694_z.jpg

Principle 3: Public Transport

Fig 3.1 Shoroc.com
Fig 3.2 citiesandcitizenship.blogspot.in
Fig 3.3 istp.murdoch.edu.au
Fig 3.4 defence.pk
Fig 3.5 a: romania-insider.com, b: esci-ksp.org
Fig 3.6 Translink Transit Authority. (2012). Public Transport Infrastructure Manual. Brisbane: Translink
Transit Authority, Queensland Government, Australia.
Fig 3.7 ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0264275110001332-gr2.jpg
Fig 3.8 d3.dion.ne.jp/~naka3/LOVELOG_IMG/ikea_bus.jpg
Fig 3.9 farm8.staticflickr.com/7340/8717584904_ab3b6cf6f2_z.jpg
Fig 3.10 Ministry of Urban Development. (2008). Urban Bus Specifications. MoUD.
Fig 3.11 farm7.static.flickr.com/6073/6067471824_9ee698ed40_m.jpg
Fig 3.12 farm4.staticflickr.com/3303/3479624036_c3c0d3283e_m.jpg
Fig 3.13 hong-kong-traveller.com/image-files/using-octopus-card-at-bus.jpg
Fig 3.14 0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR_Y8spKXuRfsRqBPGzv1ms18vGZ2BsbyS_
XcP0ZRYj4dsPDpBz&t=1
Fig 3.15 media.kingscross.co.uk/cache/image_3303_1200_800.jpg
Fig 3.16 images2.travbuddy.com/1797811_1351598656971.jpg
Fig 3.17 thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/00064/CBE_SHELTER_64001f.jpg
Fig 3.18 localhiddenvariable.com/ciid/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/urban-examples2.jpg
Fig 3.19 thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/01349/DE02PERISCOPEALWAR_1349346f.jpg
Fig 3.20 farm4.staticflickr.com/3106/2851044527_84daf50419_z.jpg?zz=1
Fig 3.21 alwarvahini.com/images
Fig 3.22 alwarvahini.com/images
Fig 3.23 alwarvahini.com/images
Fig 3.24 alwarvahini.com/images
Fig 3.25 media.oregonlive.com/opinion_impact/photo/11730635-large.jpg
Fig 3.26 journalmetrocom.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/117a4e754ae2b31a0a6674a712b0.
jpg?w=600&h=408&crop=1
Fig 3.27 facts-about-hong-kong.com/images/octopus.jpg

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Principle 4: Connect & Complete
Fig 4.1 bostoncompletestreets.org/
Fig 4.2 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 4.3 pedshed.net
Fig 4.4 raisethehammer.org/
Fig 4.5 smartgrowthamerica.org
Fig 4.6 thenewcityjournal.net
Fig 4.7 HCPDPM
Fig 4.8 publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/data/13030/v5/ft5k4006v5/figures/ft5k4006v5_00063.gif
Fig 4.9 ITDP, EPC. (2011). Better streets, better cities. Ahmedabad: Print Vision Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad.
Fig 4.10 HCPDPM
Fig 4.11 Author, based on Google Earth
Fig 4.12 Author, based on Google Earth

Principle 5: Connect & Complete

Fig 5.1 climatetechwiki.org/technology/walking
Fig 5.2 ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0264275110001162-gr5.jpg
Fig 5.3 themshow.com/news/MShow_India.htm
Fig 5.4 travelswithgp.blogspot.in/2010/10/curitiba-model-of-sustainability.html
Fig 5.5 hong-kong-travel.org/Lan-Kwai-Fong
Fig 5.6 transit-oriented.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/VennDiagram6002.gif
Fig 5.7 chinabestpractices.net/shipaiqiao/lr/guangzhou-kf_20101117_070.jpg
Fig 5.8 UTTIPEC, 2009, TOD roadmap
Fig 5.9 UTTIPEC, 2009, TOD roadmap
Fig 5.10 en.academic.ru/pictures/enwiki/67/Curitiba_04_2006_01_RIT.jpg

Principle 6: Connect & Complete

Fig 6.1 geographypages.co.uk/a2ruralurban.htm
Fig 6.2 rujak.org/2009/08/density-myth-and-reality/
Fig 6.3 urbaninfill.co.uk/title.png
Fig 6.4 Author, based on AUDA DP 2021
Fig 6.5 Author, based on Google Earth
Fig 6.6 Author, based on Google Earth
Fig 6.7 HCPDPM
Fig 6.8 AUTHOR
Fig 6.9 Author, based on AUDA DP 2021

252 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Fig 6.10 planning.city.cleveland.oh.us/cwp/images/sus_2.jpg
Fig 6.11 clevelandneighborhoodarts.wordpress.com
Fig 6.12 ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/1338888438-d-cube-city-01-1000x666.
jpg
Fig 6.13 Alain Bertaud, “Options for new alternatives for development control regulation and justification
for increasing FSI”

Principle 7: Parking
Fig 7.1 automotivehorizon.sulekha.com
Fig 7.2 downtoearth.org.in/node/1753
Fig 7.3 downtoearth.org.in/node/1753
Fig 7.4 a. geographypages.co.uk/a2ruralurban.htm b. www.streetsblog.org
Fig 7.5 downtoearth.org.in/node/1753
Fig 7.6 1.bp.blogspot.com/_47mDU4vB2hk/TJfaF7Y8t/AAAAAAAAASs/xBLThr0pt44/s1600/ambassador_
edit.BMP
Fig 7.7 3.bp.blogspot.com/_9Wu_fv0DMXQ/TIOEwVugp9I/AAAAAAAAAgg/kjbDaO95vZI/s1600/
Image132.jpg
Fig 7.8 Google Street View
Fig 7.9 hisandiego.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/met_parking_handout_page_2.jpg
Fig 7.10 Google Street View
Fig 7.11 2.bp.blogspot.com/_GLRD02NPKvI/TAf/SRLo_I/AAAAAAAABqo/85d85rU9Gm4/s1600/Rep+Ha
milton+parked+in+yellow+zone.jpg
Fig 7.12 Google Street View
Fig 7.13 Google Street View
Fig 7.14 Litman, Parking Pricing Implementation Guidelines, 2011
Fig 7.15 Litman, Parking Pricing Implementation Guidelines, 2011
Fig 7.16 reinventingparking.org/2012_04_08_archive.html
Fig 7.17 reinventingparking.org/2012_04_08_archive.html
Fig 7.18 worldparkingsymposium.ca/parking-library/download/97/00000097_d990026wx.pdf

Principle 8: Shift
Fig 8.1 businesstravellogue.com
Fig 8.2 Ministry of Urban Development and Wilbur Smith Associates. (2008). Study of Traffic and
Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India.
Fig 8.3 news.bbc.co.uk
Fig 8.4 travel.outlookindia.com
Fig 8.5 autowale.in

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Fig 8.6 campaignindia.in
Fig 8.7 uncrd.or.jp
Fig 8.8 samarthyam.org
Fig 8.9 mapsforhumans.com
Fig 8.10 mylondra.it/public/faq/faq134.jpg
Fig 8.11 blic.rs/data/images/2011-07-06/156195_rikse-afp_f.jpg?ver=1309903502
Fig 8.12 img213.imageshack.us/img213/3959/30724965069f0b240baebuo3.jpg
Fig 8.13 rslweb.co.uk/documentSetting/Webpage/morecropRSL28_07_11-083257_1312220809.jpg
Fig 8.14 virtualworldlets.net/Worlds/Listings/AugmentedReality/PublicTransportGPS.jpg
Fig 8.15 thecityfix.com/files/2010/03/Ahmedabad-BRT-map.jpg\
Fig 8.16 citytransport.info/Digi/P1030582.jpg
Fig 8.17 0.tqn.com/d/publictransport/1/0/9/1/-/-/Brampton-Zum-Stop-5.JPG
Fig 8.18 1.bp.blogspot.com/--9lDllBxMuU/T1OybC3bG8I/AAAAAAAAABE/-vSMwOdP-Y/s1600/
Erp+Gantry.jpg
Fig 8.19 mylondra.it/public/faq/faq134.jpg
Fig 8.20 tfl.gov.uk/tfl/roadusers/congestioncharge/whereandwhen/assets/images/DetailMapECCZ.gif
Fig 8.21 sanfranciscosentinel.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/sunday-streets.jpg

Principle 9: Safety
Fig 9.1 guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/may/02/traffic-accidents-biggest-killer-young-people
Fig 9.2 embarq.org/en/sites/default/files/imagecache/scale_500xH/pictures/2011-12-fedex.jpg
Fig 9.3 hindustantimes.com/Images/Popup/2012/7/accident_popup2.jpg
Fig 9.4 files.myopera.com/vivekdhiman/albums/6197471/BRTS-Ahmedabad.jpg
Fig 9.5 trafficwardens.in/images/mandatory_signs1.gif
Fig 9.6 solonsecurity.co.uk
Fig 9.7 allsportmedical.co.uk
Fig 9.8 openbuildings.com/buildings/southbank-centre-profile-3626
Fig 9.9 bmw.com.cn/cn/en/insights/csr/educational/archive/2010_
Fig 9.10 xbhp.com
Fig 9.11 yourfreedomexpired.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/cctv-bus.png
Fig 9.12 4.bp.blogspot.com/_MEDB3V7Nrc0/TImXym6C7oI/AAAAAAAAAJs/vL6y1JLCYmM/s1600/
writing.jpg
Fig 9.13 media.onsugar.com/files/ons1/301/3019466/38_2009/8e5c33abf3bad8c6_Picture_3.xlarge.jpg
Fig 9.14 farm6.staticflickr.com/5041/5246101046_03cb8f8c97_s.jpg
Fig 9.15 dcelectricgroup.com/image/49765679.jpg
Fig 9.16 brkchina.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/5483991500_2e2536d507_o.jpg

254 E N V I R O N M E N TA L PLANNING C O L L A B O R AT I V E
Fig 9.17 ecocabs.org/media/gallery_photos/m_6647538_28-11-2011-35.jpg
Fig 9.18 nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/nyc_ped_safety_study_action_plan.pdf
Fig 9.19 nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/nyc_ped_safety_study_action_plan.pdf
Fig 9.20 nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/nyc_ped_safety_study_action_plan.pdf
Fig 9.21 4.bp.blogspot.com/_MEDB3V7Nrc0/TImXym6C7oI/AAAAAAAAAJs/vL6y1JLCYmM/s1600/writing.jpg
Fig 9.22 media.onsugar.com/files/ons1/301/3019466/38_2009/8e5c33abf3bad8c6_Picture_3.xlarge.jpg
Fig 9.23 urban-review.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Viira-cabs-main.jpg

Principle 10: Freight

Fig 10.1 indiadailyphoto.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/rickshaw-heat.jpg?w=1024
Fig 10.2 advocatesindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/jam.jpg
Fig 10.3 t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRsidrFsmcnAWbRoJFm43SNUe9JnIrwbVt7g-1n-9JBAYZe-
7E4&t=1
Fig 10.4 floridabicycle.org
Fig 10.5 Dablanc, L. (2009). Freight transport for development toolkit: Urban freight. Washington DC:
Transport Research Support, DFID
Fig 10.6 HCPDPM
Fig 10.7 rta.nsw.gov.au/rulesregulations/images/loading_zones.gif
Fig 10.8 ebw.evergreen.ca
Fig 10.9 thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/00907/30THPERAMBUR_907176f.jpg
Fig 10.10 London Freight Plan sustainable freight distribution: a plan for London
Fig 10.11 bikesiliconvalley.org/files/images/100905-BikeMove1.jpg
Fig 10.12 1.bp.blogspot.com/_OHljfnV91gE/Smi0xJ9qk5I/AAAAAAAAA0w/hkv_GOgh3SU/
s400/3091413627_3268378b34.jpg
Fig 10.13 Off-Street Loading Guidelines, (2006). Boston Transport Department
Fig 10.14 1.bp.blogspot.com/_OHljfnV91gE/Smi0xJ9qk5I/AAAAAAAAA0w/hkv_GOgh3SU/
s400/3091413627_3268378b34.jpg
Fig 10.15 bikesiliconvalley.org/files/images/100905-BikeMove1.jpg

Implementation Tools:
Fig 1.1 Chirayu Bhatt
Fig 1.2 HCPDPM
Fig 1.3 Author
Fig 1.4 Author

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 IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS

EPC E N V I R O N M E N T A L
256
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