FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

BASIC CONCEPTS

Criminal Investigation- is an art that deals with the identity and location of the offender and prove his
guilt in a criminal proceeding.

Criminal Investigation- it is the systematic method of inquiry that is more a science than an art. The logic
of scientific method must however, be supplemented by the investigator's initiative and resourcefulness.
The sequences of the investigation should be regarded by scientific, operating framework that requires
improvising on the part of the investigator.

Criminal Investigation is an Art – based on intuition, felicity of inspiration or by chance; and a Science –
based on adequate professional preparation and abundance of certain qualities

Investigator- is the person who is charged with the duty of carrying out the objectives of criminal
investigation. He is an individual who gathers documents and evaluates facts about crime

Special Crime Investigation- deals with the study of major crimes based on the application of special
investigative techniques. It is also the study concentrates more on physical evidence; it’s collection,
handling, identification and preservation in coordination with the various criminalists in the crime
laboratory. Special crime investigation involves close relationship between the investigator in the field
and the investigator in the laboratory- the Criminalist.

Duty of Criminal Investigator

1. Establish that, in fact, a crime was committed under the law.

2. Identify and apprehend the suspect.
3. To recover stolen property.
4. To assist the state in prosecuting the party charged with the offense.

Job of the Criminal Investigator

1. Discover whether or not an offense has been committed under the law.
2. After determining what specific offense has been committed, he must discover how, when, where,
why, what offense was committed.

Methods of Identifications of Criminals

Criminal are identified thru the following:

1. Confession and Admission

2. Statement of witnesses
3. Circumstantial Evidence
4. Associative Evidence

A. Confession- this is an expressed acknowledgement by the accused in criminal cases of the truth of his
guilt as to the crime charged or of some of the essential part there of. There is no implied confession for
it is positive and direct acknowledgement of guilt. It is the best means of identifying criminal.

Rules in Confession
a. Confession need not to be in writing
b. Confession may be written in a language which the accused does not speak
c. Confession must be freely and voluntarily made
Voluntarily – means that the accused speak of his free will and accord, without inducement of any kind
and with the full and complete knowledge of the nature and consequences of the confession.

Freely- when the speaking is so free from the influence affecting the will of the accused at the same time
the confession was made.

NOTES IN CDI
Requirement for confession as proof of guilt

1. Other corroborative evidence must support it.

2. Corpus delicti- must be established separately (the actual commission of the crime charged. It refers
to a particular crime and signifies that specific offense had been actually committed by someone
being composed of two elements: that certain results were produced, that someone is criminally
responsible
3. Confession must be made voluntarily.

B. By EYE-WITNESS TESTIMONY- description made by eyewitness

Value of identification by eyewitness testimony depends on the following: (credibility-bringing honor)

1. the ability of the eyewitness testimony to observe and remember the relative “distinctiveness” of
the accused appearance
2. The prevailing conditions, visibility and observation
3. The lapse of time between the criminal event and identification

Methods of Identification made by eyewitness

1. Verbal Description- portrait parley vividly describing in words the appearance of a person by
comparing and thru personal appearance.
2. Photographic files (rogues gallery)
3. General photograph- files of photograph in any given establishment.
4. Artist Assistance or composite sketches- drawing or sketching the description of a person’s face by
the cartographer
5. Police line-up- selecting the suspect from a group of innocent persons to eliminate the power of
suggestions as factor of identification

Cartography- the art of sketching the image of a person or the art of making map

Bases of the eyewitness in the identification of criminal

1. Face-forehead, eyebrow, mustache, eyes, ears, cheeks, mouth, lips, teeth, chin, jaw, etc.
2. Neck- shape, length, Adam’s apple
3. Shoulder- width and shape
4. Waist- size, shape of the abdomen
5. Hands- length, size, hair, condition of the palms
6. Fingers- length, thickness, stains, shape of nails and condition
7. Any deformities (cross eyed, limping and etc.)
8. Teeth-
9. Gait

Bases of Physical Description of Physical Appearance

1. Mug Shot
2. Artist Drawing
3. Composite Sketches
4. Verbal description or Portrait Parley
HISTORICAL FEATURES IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

The art and science of Criminal Investigation that exist today is the result of countless
development since policing was conceived and then institutionalized. The following is just a brief
account of some of the major milestone in the history of Criminal Investigation.

WORLDWIDE DEVELOPMENT

1720s, ENGLAND: - JONATHAN WILD He was a buckle maker then a brothel operator; a master criminal
who became London’s most effective criminal investigator. He was the most famous THIEF-CATCHER in

NOTES IN CDI
1720s. His methods or techniques made popular the logic of EMPLOYING A THIEF TO CATCH A THIEF. He
conceived the idea of charging a fee for locating and returning stolen property to its rightful owners.

1750s, ENGLAND: - HENRY FIELDING An Englishman who wrote a novel entitled “Tom Jones” and was
appointed as magistrate (sheriff) for the areas of Westminster and Middle Age, London. He was the
creator of the BOW STREET RUNNERS while he was the magistrate; he formed a group of police officers
attached to the Bow Street Court, and not in uniform, performing criminal investigative functions.

1753, ENGLAND: - SIR JOHN FIELDING The younger brother of Henry Fielding who took over the control
of Bow Street Court in 1753. His investigators were then called Bow Street Runners and became quite
effective because of his personal guidance despite the fact that he was blind. He introduced the practice
of developing paid informants, printing wanted notices, employing criminal raids, and bearing firearms
and handcuffs.

1759, USA: The US CONGRESS created the office of the GENERAL AND REVENUE CUTTER SERVICE. This is
the first organized federal law enforcement and investigative effort made by the US government.

1800, LONDON: - PATRICK COLQUHOUN A prominent London president who proposed the unique idea of
creating sizeable uniformed force to police the city of London in order to remedy the public outcry
concerning the alarming increase of criminality during the early 1800s. His proposal was considered too
radical and was dismissed by the Royal Court.

1811, FRANCE: - EUGENE ‘Francois” VIDOCQ He was a criminal who turned Paris Investigator. He is a
former convict who became a notorious thief-catcher in France. He is credited as the founder of LA
SURETE, France’s national detective organization. He made popular the concept of “SET A THIEF TO
CATCH A THIEF”. He introduced the concept of ‘TRADE PROTECTION SOCIETY’, which is a forerunner of
our present-day credit card system. For a fee, any owner of a shop or business establishment could
obtain particulars concerning the financial solvency of new customers. He created a squad of ex-convicts
to aid the Paris police in crime investigation.

1829, LONDON: - SIR ROBERT PEELS The founder and chief organizer of the London Metropolitan Police
– the SCOTLAND YARD. He reiterated the idea of creating sizeable police force in his recommendations,
which lead to the passage of the Metropolitan Police Act. This act had a tremendous impact on the
history of criminal justice in general, and on the development of criminal investigation specifically. He
introduced the techniques of detecting crimes such as: detectives concealing themselves, and secretly
photographing and recording conversations.

1833, ENGLAND: The Scotland Yard employed the first undercover officer while in

USA: First daytime paid police department was established in Philadelphia, USA.

1835, USA: TEXAS RANGERS was organized as the first law enforcement agency with statewide
investigative authority, the forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

1839: - The birth year of Photography. WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT explained a photographic process
he had invented to the Royal Society of London.

JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE gave a public demonstration in Paris of his discovery - a

photographic process he developed in collaboration with NICEPHORE NIEPCE.
1842: Scotland Yard created the first FULL-TIME INVESTIGATIVE, which is a forerunner to the Criminal
Investigation Division of Scotland Yard.

1851, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, USA: Multi-suspect ID LINE-UP is employed in the first time.

1852, USA: - CHARLES DICKENS - Through his story entitled BLEAK HOUSE, he introduced the term
DETECTIVE to the English language.

1852, USA: - ALLAN PINKERTON - America’s most famous private investigator and founder of Criminal
Investigation in USA. He established the practice of handwriting examination in American courts and
promoted a plan to centralize criminal identification records.

NOTES IN CDI
1856, USA: - KATE WAYNE: The first woman detective in the history of criminal investigation, hired by
the Pinkerton Agency.

1859, USA: Appellate courts recognized/accepted photographs as admissible evidences when they are
relevant and properly verified.

1865, USA: US SECRET SERVICE was founded to investigate counterfeiting activity in post-civil war
America.

1866, USA: - INSPECTOR THOMAS BYRNES: A New York Chief of Detectives introduced the MODUS
OPERANDI FILE.

1866, Liberty, Missouri, USA: The JESSE JAMES GANG made the first bank hold-up which mark the
beginning of the gang’s 15-year hold-up and robbery spree (12 bank hold-ups and 12 train stage coach
robberies in 11 states). Clay County Savings Association was their first victim and their take was $
60,000.00.

1877, ENGLAND: - HOWARD VINCENT: Headed the newly organized CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
DEPARTMENT in Scotland Yard.

1882, FRANCE: - ALPHONSE BERTILLON: A French Police Clerk who introduced and established the first
systematic identification system based on ANTHROPOMETRICAL SIGNALMENT (or Anthropometry) he is
considered as the FOUNDER OF CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION.

1884, CHICAGO, USA: The Chicago Police Department established the first American Criminal
Identification Bureau.

1887, DR. ARTHUR CONAN LYLE: He popularized the Scientific Criminal Investigation by creating the
fictional detective SHERLOCK HOLMES and his friend Dr. WATSON. Holmes was featured in 6 short
stories and 4 novels.

1892, ENGLAND: - FRANCIS GALTON: An Englishman who published his study on classifying fingerprints.
While other scientists were studying fingerprints in their biological nature, Galton recognized their
uniqueness and potentiality/significance in criminal identification.

1893, GERMANY: - HANS GROSS: An Englishman who published a handbook for Examining Magistrates in
Munich, Germany and advocated the use of scientific methods in criminal investigation process.

1948, ABERDEEN, SCOTLAND: A new concept was introduced in the field of criminal investigation. This is
known as TEAM POLICING. In team policing, there is no patrol division or criminal investigation per se.
In this system, a team of police officers is assigned to patrol and investigate all criminal matters within
their area of jurisdiction or district. Team policing required that police officers who respond to a call
regarding a criminal case should investigate the case to its conclusion.

1954,USA: - Dr. PAUL KIRK: Best known American criminalist who headed the Department of
Criminalistics as the University of California, USA.

1961,USA: - Mapp vs. Ohio (376 vs. 584): The Supreme Court ruled the illegally obtained evidence is
inadmissible in state criminal prosecutions.

1965, USA: Office of Law Enforcement Assistance (forerunner of the Law Enforcement Assistance
Administration – LEAA) was established to fund and coordinate administration, research and training in
criminal justice.

1966, USA: - MIRANDA vs. ARIZONA (384 vs. 436): The US Supreme Court established procedural
guidelines for taking criminal confessions.

DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

1712. CARABINEROS DE SEGURIDAD PUBLICO: Organized for the purpose of carrying out the policies or
regulations of the Spanish government. The members were armed and considered as the mounted
police. Later, they discharge the duties of a part, harbor, and a river police.

NOTES IN CDI
1836. GUARDRILLEROS: A body of rural police organized in each town, which was established by the
Royal Decree of January 8, 1836. This police force was composed of 5% of the able-bodied inhabitants in
each town or province, and each member will serve for at least 3 years.

1852. GUARDIA CIVIL: An organization created by the Royal Decree issued by the Spanish Crown
Government on February 12, 1852. It relieved the Spanish Peninsular Troops of their works in policing
towns. It consisted of a body of Filipino policemen organized originally in each of the provincial capitals
of the Central provinces of Luzon under the command of Alcalde (Governor).

NOV. 30, 1980. INSULAR POLICE FORCE: Established during the Filipino-American War (1898-1901)
upon the recommendation of the American Commission to the Secretary of War.

JULY 18, 1901. ACT # 175: The act establishing the Insular Police Force which was titled as “AN ACT
PROVIDING FOR THE ORGANIZATION AND GOVERNMENT OF AN INSULAR CONSTABULARY”. The organic
act creating the Philippine Constabulary.

OCT. 3, 1901. ACT # 255: The law which established the Philippine Constabulary

REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE OF 1917, Section 825: The law stated that the Philippine Constabulary
is a national Police Institution for preserving the peace, keeping the order and enforcing the law.

SEPT. 8, 1966. RA # 4864. (Law co-authored by Rep. Teudolo Natividad): The law otherwise known as the
POLICE ACT OF 1966, It created the Office of the Police Commission which was later called National
Police Commission (NAPOLCOM). In its inception, the Police Commission was under the Office of the
President. It was created as the supervisory agency to oversee the training and professionalization of the
local police forces. Through this law, reformation and professionalization of the police service gained
official recognition.

AUG. 8, 1975. PD#765: The law which stipulated that the office of the NAPOLCOM was under the office of
the Ministry of the National Defense. It defined also the relationship between the Integrated National
Police and the Philippine Constabulary. This is in compliance with the provisions of Section 12, Article
15 of the 1973 Philippine Constitution.

1935 PHILIPPINE CONTITUTION, Article III, Section 17 (1) - The law provides that:” In all criminal
prosecutors, the accused shall…. Enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel……”. Criminal
prosecution was however interpreted by the court in US vs. Beechman (25 Phil 25,1972) to mean the
proceeding at the trial court from arraignment to rendition of judgment.

1973 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION, Article III, Section 20

“No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. Any person under investigation
for the commission of an offense shall have the right to remain silent and to counsel, and to be informed
of such right. No force, violence, threat, intimidation nor any means, which vitiate the free will, shall be
used against him. Any confession obtained in the violation of this section shall be inadmissible as
evidence.

The warning of the right to remain silent must be accompanied by the explanation that anything
said can and will be used against the individual in court. This warning is needed in order to make him
aware not only of the privilege, but also of the consequences of forgetting it. (People vs. Duero, 104 SCRA
379, 1981)

1983 – MORALES vs. JUAN PONCE ENRILE (GR#61016-17; April 26,1983; SCRA 538)

The ruling in this case makes it clear that the MIRANDA WARNING as it is generally called have
to be made so that a confession can be admitted. Therefore, while upon police custody for investigation,
the accused must be appraised of his:
1. Right to remain silent with explanation that anything that he might say maybe used
against him in the court of the law;
2. Right to talk to a lawyer, a relative, or a friend, and have a lawyer ready and a friend
present while he is being questioned; and
3. Right to the appointment of a lawyer if he cannot afford one.

NOTES IN CDI
1985 – PEOPLE vs. GALIT (GR#51770;March 20,1985) - The right to a counsel maybe waived but the
waiver, to be valid, must be made with assistance of a counsel.

1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION, Article III, Section 12 (1) - “Any person under investigation for the
commission of an offense shall have the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have a
competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the
services of a counsel, he must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and
in the presence of a counsel.

Article XVI, Section 5(4) - “No member of the armed forces in the active services shall, at any time, be
appointed for designated in any capacity to a civilian position in the Government including government
owned or controlled corporation, or any of their subsidiaries.”

Article XVI, Section 6 - “The State establish and maintain one police force, which shall be national in
scope and civilian in character, to be administered and controlled by a National Police Commission. The
authority of local executives over the police units in their jurisdiction shall be provided by law.”

1990, RA 6975 - DILG ACT, Philippine National Police (PNP) together with BFP and BJMP organization

1998, RA 8551 – PNP Reform and Reorganization Act

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

In the performance of his duties, the investigator must seek to establish the six (6) cardinal
points of investigation, namely: what specific offense has been committed; how the offense was
committed; who committed it; where the offense was committed; when it was committed; and why it
was committed.

The Phases of Criminal Investigation

a) Preliminary Investigation - identify the criminal through confession; eyewitness testimony;

circumstantial evidence; and associate evidence
b) Follow Up Investigation - trace and locate the criminal; and
c) Final Investigation - proved by evidence the guilt of the suspect/s.

In proving the guilt of the accused in court, the fact of the existence of the crime must be
established; the defendant must be identified and associated with the crime scene; competent and
credible witnesses must be available; and the physical evidence must be appropriately identified.
The proof of guilt will depend on the establishment of the essential elements of the crime. The
investigator must know by heart the elements of a specific crime.

Tools of an Investigator in Gathering Facts

a) Information – Data gathered by an investigator from other persons including the victim himself
and from Public records; Private records; and Modus Operandi file.
b) Interrogation and Interview – Questioning of witnesses, suspects, and offended parties.
c) Instrumentation – Scientific examination of real evidence, application of instrument and
methods of the physical sciences in detecting crime.
INFORMATION
All evaluated materials of every description including those derived fro observation, reports,
rumors, imagery, and other sources from which intelligence in produced.

Information is a communicated knowledge by others obtaining by personal study, investigation,

research, analysis, observation. The use of modern gadgets in intelligence and other things and material
that possess or contain a desire information or knowledge.
Two General classifications of sources of information:

1. Open Sources – 99% of the info collected are coming from open sources.
2. Close Sources – 1% of info from close sources.

NOTES IN CDI
Overt Intelligence – is the gathering of information or documents procured openly without regard as to
whether the subject or target become knowledgeable of the purpose

Open Sources: Includes information taken from

 Enemy activity – POW – Civilians - Captured documents
 Map - Weather, forecast, studies, report - Agencies

Covert Intelligence – is the secret procurement of information, which is obtained without the knowledge
of the person or persons safeguarding vital intelligence interest.

Close Sources: are information usually taken through:

 Surveillance
 Casing
 Elicitation
 Surreptitious entry
 Employment of technical means (Bugging and Tapping device)
 Tactical Interrogation
 Observation and Description
Other sources of Information: Overt and Covert
 Routine patrol and Criminal investigation
 Use of informants and Interrogations
 Search and seizures and Cordon and scratch
 Checkpoints and Police public relations activities
 Coordination with law enforcement agencies
 Inmates of various city jails, national penitentiary, military stockade.
 Statistics
Persons as sources of Information
Informant Net – It is a controlled group of people who worked through the direction of the agent
handler. The informants, principal or cutouts supply the agent handler directly or indirectly with Intel
information
Informants (Asset) – people selected as sources of information, which could be voluntary, or in
consideration of a price.
 Informant – refers to a person who gives information to the police voluntarily or
involuntarily with out any consideration
 Informer – those who give information to the police for price or reward

Types of Informants
1. Criminal Informant – an informant who give information to the police pertaining to the
underworld about organized criminals with the understanding that his identity will be
protected
2. Confidential Informant – is similar to the former but he gives information violate of the law
to includes crimes and criminals
3. Voluntary Informant – a type of informant who give information freely and willfully as a
witness to a certain act
4. Special Informant – those who gives information concerning specialized cases only and it is
regarded a special treatment by the operatives (ex. teachers, businessmen)
5. Anonymous Informant – those who gives information through telephone with the hope that
the informant can not be identified
Sub-type of Informant
1. Incidental Informant – a person who casually imparts information to an officer with no
intention of providing subsequent information
2. Recruited Informant – A person who is selected cultivated and developed into a continuous
source of info

Categories of Recruited Informants:

1. Spontaneous or Automatic Informant – Informants who by the nature of their work or
position in society have a certain legal, moral or ethical responsibilities to report info to the
police
2. Ordinary run of he Mill Informants – Informants that are under the compulsion to report
info to the police
3. Special Employee – informants who are of a specific operational nature

NOTES IN CDI
Other classification of Informant
Automatic – Penetration - Full time - Rival – Elimination - False Informant - Frightened Informant -
Self- aggrandizing Informant - Mercenary Informant - Double Crosser Informant - Woman Informant
- Legitimate Informant

Common Motives of Informants

Reward – Revenge - Fear and avoidance of punishment – Friendship - Patriotism – Vanity - Civic-
Mindedness – Repentance –Competition -Other motives

INFROMANT RECRUITMENT
1. Selection – it is particularly desirable to be able to identity and recruit an informant who
has access to many criminal in-group or subversive organization. Wide access is probably the
single most important feature in the consideration of recruiting the potential informant
2. Investigation – the investigation of the potential informants that has tentatively identified
as a “probable” must be as thorough as possible. It must establish possible existing motives as
to this person might assist the police Intel community. Failure to do so will deny this office who
must perform the approach and persuasion phase with little more that a guess. If necessary,
conduct complete background investigation (CBI)
3. Approach – approach must be done in a setting from which might include pleasant
surroundings, perhaps a confidential apartment, completely free form any probability of
compromise, preferably in an adjacent city or a remote area foreign to the informants living
pattern.
4. Testing – the testing program should begin, of course, with the limited assignment, with a
gradual integration into the more important areas. The occasional testing of an informant
should continue through the entire affiliation
INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION
1. Interview Defined. - An interview is the questioning of a person believed to possess knowledge that
is in official interest to the investigator.
2. Importance of Interview. - Interview in crime investigation is very important considering that the
person interviewed usually gives his account of an incident under investigation or offers
information concerning a person being investigated in his own manner and words.
Basic Assumptions: Nobody has to talk to law enforcers. No law compels a person to talk to the
police if he does not want to. Therefore, people will have to be persuaded, always within legal and
ethical limits, to talk to law enforcers. This makes interviewing an art:
INTERROGATION IN GENERAL

1. Interrogation Defined. An interrogation is the questioning of a person suspected of having

committed an offense or of a person who is reluctant to make a full disclosure of information in his
possession which is pertinent to the investigation.

2. Interrogation Techniques – The following are some of the techniques practiced by experienced
investigators:
a) Emotional Appeals – Place the subject in the proper frame of mind. The investigator should
provide emotional stimuli that will prompt the subject to unburden himself by confiding.
Analyze the subject’s personality and decide what motivation would prompt him to tell the
truth, then provide those motives through appropriate emotional appeals.
b) Sympathetic Approach – The suspect may fell the need for sympathy or friendship. He is
apparently in trouble. Gestures of friendship may win his cooperation.
c) Kindness – The simplest technique is to assume that the suspect will confess if he is treated in a
kind and friendly manner.
d) Extenuation – The investigator indicates he does not consider his subject’s indiscretion a grave
offense.
e) Shifting the Blame – The interrogator makes clear his belief that the subject is obviously not the
sort of person who usually gets mixed up in a crime like this. The interrogator could tell from
the start that he was not dealing with a fellow who is a criminal by nature and choice. The
trouble with the suspect lies in his little weakness – he like liquor, perhaps, or he is excessively
fond or girls or he has had a bad run of luck in gambling.
f) Mutt & leff – Two (2) agents are employed. Mutt, the relentless investigator, who is not going to
waste any time because he knows the subject, is guilty. Jeff, of the other hand, is obviously a
king-hearted man. .

NOTES IN CDI
 (i) Plan the interview as to the type of “approach.”
[1] Return of favor. – Even small favors can help a lot in developing informants. These may
be extended in various ways.
[2] Monetary consideration – There may be ties when an officer has to pay for information.
one must make sure he gets his money’s worth. Do not overpay or you will have a
professional informant.
[3] Appeal to prospect’s ego. – Men on the beat (patrolmen/investigators) have a good
opportunity of developing informants.
[4] Development of “friendship” helps because the informant respects the officer. – This is
accomplished by friendly acts of the officer to the possible informant himself or his
relatives.
[5] Involvement in illegal activity – The illegal activity serves as pressure on the possible
informant. The attitude toward him, though, should be “Put up or get out”.
[6] Fear motive. – This is fear of the police or of his associates
[7] Revenge motive
[8] Perverse motives – To eliminate competition, for example.
[9] Bad publicity – Especially applicable to businessmen
(iii) Officer’ Ability.
[1] Develop an informant to the point that he really respects you. - Do not call hour informant
a “stool pigeon” or a “stoolie” when talking to him.
[2] Secrecy in contacts cannot be over-emphasized. It helps maintain the confidence of the
informant. You may use fictitious names over the phone. Contact should be discreet
and the meeting place frequently changed.
[3] The informant may expect a few favors in return. – Make him understand that you
association with him does not give him the license to operate illegally. You must have
him understand also that he is not an employee of the police even though he is being
paid for the information. It may be necessary to hold something over his head.
- Be sure that your informant does not brag about his association with you
- Make sure he is giving you good information. test him with facts you know.
- Do not allow yourself to be interviewed by an informant.
Give him the facts he needs to know, and nothing more.

A. UNDERCOVER INVESTIGATION
1. Preparation for undercover work should be sufficiently thorough:
a) To preclude compromise
b) To minimize danger to the undercover operative
c) To ensure the ultimate success of the investigation

B. SURVEILLANCE

1. In General. – In the investigation of a certain case, a point is reached when the investigator
sometimes finds it difficult to secure leads through questioning of the complainant and witnesses. In
such a situation, the investigator has to go to the filed to locate the criminal or, if he is known, to
study his habits, movements and possible accomplices in the commission of the crime.
2. Definition – Surveillance is the discreet observation of places, persons and vehicles for the purpose
of obtaining information concerning the identities or activities of subjects.
3. Objectives of Surveillance:
a) To detect criminal activities
b) To discover the identity of persons who frequent the establishment and determine their
relationship.
c) To discern the habits of a person who lives in or frequents the place.
d) To obtain evidence of a crime or to prevent the commission of a crime.

4. Shadowing or Tailing. It is the act of following a person. Its objectives are:

a) To detect evidenced of criminal activities.
b) To establish the association of a suspect
c) To find a wanted person
d) To protect a witness

There are three (3) types of shadowing employed, depending upon the objective of the
surveillance:

NOTES IN CDI
 a) “Loose Tail” is employed when a general impression of the subject’s habits and associates is
required.
b) “Rough Shadowing” without special precautions may be used where the criminal must be
shadowed and he is aware of this fact; or where the subject is a material witness and must
be protected from harm or other undesirable influences.
c) “Close Tail” surveillance is one is which extreme precautions are taken against losing the
subject.

5. Tactics. – The subject should be kept unaware that he is being shadowed. The investigator should be
inconspicuous. He should not be detected looking directly at the suspect. He should shift from left to
right, never remaining for long directly behind the subject. Both sides of the street should be used. If
the tail, he should request immediate removal from the statement.
6. Note. – The investigator must maintain a note or log containing a chronological record of the
activities of both the investigator and the subject. The log can be used either in the interrogation of
the suspect or for purposes of cross-examination during trial.
7. “Roping” or Undercover Work. – It is a form of investigation in which the investigator assumes a
different and unofficial identity (a cover story) in order to obtain information. The general objective
of an undercover investigation is to obtain more information.
8. Arrest of Undercover Agent. – If the police arrest an investigator, he must act in accordance with his
orders. If he has not received orders regarding the disclosure of his identity in case of arrest by
other law enforcement officers, he must act according to his judgement. In such a case, if retaining
his assumed character does not serve a useful purpose, the investigator should refuse to make a
statement except to a member of his own organization.
Scientific Examination of Real Evidence

a) The Crime Scene Search

Processing and Securing a Crime Scene – Processing a crime scene includes the application of
diligent and careful methods by an investigator/policeman to recognize, identify, preserve and
collect facts and items of evidentiary value that may assist in reconstructing that which actually
occurred. The crime scene is the area surrounding the place where the crime occurred. the
processing of the area at the scene includes all direct traces of the crime. and this is determined
by the type of crime committed and the place where the act occurred.

Protecting the Crime Scene and the Evidence – Successful crime scene processing, depends upon
the policeman’s or investigator’s skill in recognizing and collecting facts and items of value as
evidence, and upon his ability to protect, preserve, and later, to present these in a logical
manner. This requires making careful and detailed notes and sketches; using correct
procedures in taking photographs of the scene; taking written statements and transcribing
verbal statements of witnesses, suspects and marking and preservation of collected physical
objects of evidentiary nature.

b) Laboratory examination of objects and substances located usually at the crime scene Objects
and substances needing examination in some cases are carried, intentionally or
unintentionally, by suspects from the crime scene.

Investigator’s Notebook.

a) Purpose: Considering the mass of details and the number of cases which in some instances an
investigator is handling, it is very possible that he might forget some details. Many of the details
associated with the investigation, while not essential to the report, might become points of
interest to the court when the case is brought to trial. Experienced investigators employ a
handbook to record the relevant details of the case. During trial, the court allows investigators
to consult their notes to refresh their memory.

b) Recording Notes: The data of the investigation should be recorded in a complete, accurate and
legible fashion so that in the event another investigator is required to assume the responsibility
for the investigation, be can make intelligent use of the notebook.

NOTES IN CDI
Custodial Investigation/Interrogation.

It is the skillful questioning of a suspect or a hostile witness to divulge information on the crime
being investigated. It must be remembered, however, that police investigators cannot learn proper
interrogation merely by reading books. The success of interrogation depends on its legality, topic,
physical insight and experience.

PROCEDURE AT THE CRIME SCENE

Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene

a. Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the scene, condition of the weather,
condition and type of lighting direction of wind and visibility
b. Secure the crime scene by installing the crime scene tape or rope (police line)
c. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene determine first the status of the victim,
whether he is still alive or already dead. If the victim is alive the investigator should exert effort
to gather information from the victim himself regarding the circumstances of the crime, while a
member of the team or someone must call an ambulance from the nearest hospital. After the
victim is remove and brought to the hospital for medical attention, measure, sketch, and
photograph. Only a coronal or a medical examiner shall remove the dead body unless unusual
circumstances justifies its immediate removal.
d. Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen or responsible persons to stand
watch and secure the scene, and permit only those authorized person to enter the same.
e. Identify and retain for questioning the person who firs notified the police, and other possible
witnesses.
f. Determine the assailant through inquiry or observed him if his identity is immediately
apparent. Arrest him if he still in the vicinity.
g. Separate the witnesses in order to get independent statements.

Recording - As a rule, do not touch, alter or remove anything at the crime scene until the evidence has
been processed through notes, sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.

Searching for Evidence

a) A general survey of the scene is always made, however, to the location of obvious traces of
action, the probable entry and exit points used by the offender(s) and the size and shape of the
area involved.
b) The investigator examines each item encountered on the floor, walls, and ceiling to locate
anything that may be of evidentiary value. You should:
i. Give particular attention to fragile evidence that may be destroyed or contaminated if
it is not collected when discovered.
ii. If any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it as evidence until proven
otherwise.
iii. Ensure that the item or area where latent fingerprints may be present is closely
examined and that action taken to develop the prints.
iv. Carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value in surfaces conducive to making
casts or molds. If possible, photograph the impression and make a cast or mold.
v. Note stains, spots and pools of liquid within the scene and treat them as evidence.
vi. Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fiber, and earth particles, foreign to the
area in which they are fund – for example, matter found under the victim’s
fingerprints.
vii. Proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the conclusion of the processing of the
scene. The search for evidence is initially completed when, after a thorough
examination of the scene, the rough sketch, necessary photograph and investigative
note have been completed and the investigator has returned to the point from which
the search began. Further search may be necessary after the evidence and the
statements obtained have been evaluated.
c) In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into strips about four (4) feet wide. The
policeman may first search the strip on his left he faces the scene then the adjoining strips.

NOTES IN CDI
 d) It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area considered to be immediate scene of the
incident or crime. For example, evidence may indicate that a weapon or tool used in the crime
was discarded or hidden by the offender somewhere within a square-mile area near the scene.
e) After completing the search of the scene, the investigator examined the object or person
actually attacked by the offender.

Methods of Crime Scene Search

A. Strip Search Method In this method, the area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle. The three
(3) searchers A, B, and C proceed slowly at the same place along paths parallel to one side of the
rectangle. When a piece of evidence is found, the finder announces his discovery and the search
must stop until the evidence has been cared for. A photographer is called, if necessary. The
evidence is collected and tagged and the search proceeds at a given signal. At the end of the
rectangle, the searchers turn and proceed along new lanes.
B. The double strip or grid method of search is a modification of the Strip Search Method. Here, the
rectangle is traversed first parallel to the base then parallel to a side.
C. Spiral Search Method - In this method, the three searchers follow each other along the path of a
spiral, beginning on the outside and spiraling in toward the center.
D. Zone Search Method - In this method of search, the area is considered to be approximately
circular. The searchers gather at the center and proceed outward along radii or spokes. The
procedure should be repeated several times depending on the size of the circle and number of
searchers. One shortcoming of this method is the great increase in the area to be observed as
the searcher departs from the center.

Collecting Evidence. This is accomplished after the search is completed, the rough sketch finished and
photographs taken. Fragile evidence should be collected as they are found. All firearms (FAs) found to
have tampered serial numbers (SNs) shall be automatically subjected to macro etching at the Philippine
National Police Crime Laboratory (PNP-CL). A corresponding report to the Firearms and Explosive Office
(FEO) must be made for verification purposes. In the collection, the investigator should touch the
evidence only when necessary.

Removal of Evidence. The investigator places his initials, the date and the time of discovery on each item
of evidence and the time discovery on each item of evidence for proper identification. Items that could
not be marked should be placed in a suitable container and sealed.

Tagging or Evidence. Any physical evidence obtained must be tagged before its submission to the
evidence custodian.

Evaluation of Evidence. Each item of evidence must be evaluated in relation to all other evidence,
individually and collectively.

Preservation of Evidence. It is the investigator’s responsibility to ensure that every precaution is

exercised to preserve physical evidence in the state in which it was recovered/obtained until it is
released to the evidence custodian.

Releasing the Scene. The scene is not releases until all processing has been completed. The release
should be effected at the earliest practicable time, particularly when an activity has been closed or its
operations curtailed.

Sketching Crime Scenes.

Pointers to Consider:
a) To establish admissibility, the investigator must have had personal observation o the data in
question. In other words, the sketch must be sponsored or verified.
b) REMINDER: Sketches are not a substitute for notes or photos; they are but a supplement to
them.
c) Types of sketches: Floor plan or “bird’s-eye view”; Evaluation drawing; Exploded view; and
Perspective drawings.
d) Write down all measurements.

NOTES IN CDI
 e) Fill in all the detail on your rough sketch at the scene. Final sketch may be prepared at the
office.
f) Keep the rough sketch even when you have completed the final sketch.
g) Indicate ht North direction with an arrow.
h) Draw the final sketch to scale.
i) Indicate the PLACE in the sketch as well as the person who drew it. Use the KEY – capital letters
of the alphabet for listing down more or less normal part sof accessories of the place, and
numbers for items of evidence
j) Indicate the position, location and relationship of objects.
k) Methods or systems of locating points (objects) on sketch
 Rectangular coordinates. (Measurements at right angels from each of two walls)
 Coordinates constructed on transecting base line . Choose relatively fixed points for your
baseline.
 Triangulation. (Measurements made from each of two fixed objects to the pint you want to
plot or locate so as to form an imaginary triangle. Sketch will show as many imaginary
triangles as there as object plotted).
l) Two (2) investigators should check critical measurements, such as skid marks.
m) Measurements should be harmony; or in centimeters, inches, yards, meters, mixed in one
sketch.
n) Use standard symbols in the sketch.
o) Show which way doors swing,
p) Show with arrow the direction of stairways.
q) Recheck the sketch for clarity, accuracy, scale, and title key.

GENERAL TYPE OF SKETCH

Rough Sketch- made at the crime scene, no scale, proportion ignored and everything is approximate

Finished Sketch- for courtroom presentation, scale and proportion are strictly observed.

Kinds of Sketch

1. Sketch of locality gives a picture of the crime scene in relation to its environs including
neighboring buildings, roads, etc.

2. Sketch of grounds includes the crime scene and its nearest environment, ex a house w/ a garden

3. Sketch of details describes the immediate crime scene only.

SCENE OF CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)

Composition of SOCO Team

The SOCO team is composed of but not limited to the following depending on the nature of the case:
1. Team Leader
2. Assistant team leader
3. Photographer and photographic log recorder
4. Sketcher and Evidence Recorder
5. Evidence Recorder
6. Evidence Recovery Personnel
7. Driver/Security

INTERVIEW IN GENERAL
Interview Defined. - An interview is the questioning of a person believed to possess knowledge that is in
official interest to the investigator.

NOTES IN CDI
Importance of Interview. - Interview in crime investigation is very important considering that the
person interviewed usually gives his account of an incident under investigation or offers information
concerning a person being investigated in his own manner and words.

SCIENTIFIC AIDS TO CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

The scientific tools a criminal investigator can use are:

a. Fingerprinting (Dactyloscopy)
b. Photography
c. Forensic Chemistry
d. Medico-legal
e. Forensic Ballistics
f. Questioned documents examination
g. Polygraphy
h. DNA Analysis

DNA: THE LATEST SCIENTIFIC TOOL

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (de–ak–si–ri–bo–n(y)u–kle–ik) - is a chemical substance found in all cells

of living organism whose composition have been passed on from parents to offsprings. It is called as the
genetic or hereditary material. A person’s DNA is the SAME in every cell. It is contained in blood, semen,
skin cells, tissue, organs, muscle, brain cells, bone, teeth, hair, saliva etc.

Chemically, it is an acid and is composed of three sub-units, namely:

1. the phosphate group

2. a deoxyribose sugar, and
3. one of the four bases – Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G)

FROM THE WHOLE TO THE (MICROSCOPIC) PARTS

The There Each One The Genes are

human is a nucleus chromosome chromosomes segments
body nucleus contains 46 of every are filled of DNA
contains inside chromosomes pair with that contain
100 each arranged is from tightly instructions
trillion human in 23 each coiled to make
cells cell pairs parent strands proteins
of the building
DNA blocks of life

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AMENABLE FOR DNA ANALYSIS

 blood and bloodstains
 semen and seminal stains
 hair with follicle/root
 saliva and buccal cells
 tissues and skin cells
 organs
 bone marrow and bones
 teeth

NOTES IN CDI
LINE UP OF CASES WHERE DNA ANALYSIS MAYBE USEFUL

 Sexual assault cases like RAPE

 Murder
 Homicide
 Robbery
 Hit and run
 Extortion
 Paternity cases
 Identification of remains in mass disaster
 
IDENTIFYING DNA EVIDENCE

EVIDENCE Possible location of Source of DNA

DNA on the evidence

baseball bat or similar handle, end sweat, skin, blood, tissue

weapon

hat, bandanna, or mask inside sweat, hair, dandruff

eyeglasses nose or ear pieces, lens sweat, skin

facial tissue, cotton surface area mucus, blood, sweat, semen,

swab earwax

dirty laundry surface area blood, sweat, semen

toothpick tips saliva

used cigarette cigarette butt saliva

stamp or envelope licked area saliva

tape or ligature inside/outside surface skin, sweat

bottle, can, or glass sides, mouthpiece saliva, sweat

used condom inside/outside surface semen, vaginal or rectal cells

blanket, pillow, sheet surface area sweat, hair, semen, urine, saliva

“through and through outside surface blood,tissue

bullet

bite mark person’s skin or saliva

clothing

fingernail, partial scrapings blood, sweat, tissue

fingernail

COLLECTION OF DNA EVIDENCE

BLOOD Liquid Person Collect in EDTA tubes.
Liquid Scene a. Use syringe, collect into EDTA tube.
b. Transfer onto cotton cloth. Air dry.

NOTES IN CDI
 BLOOD Clot Scene a. Collect clot in test tube.
b. Transfer onto cotton cloth. Air dry.

BLOOD Wet Clothing Air dry at room temperature. Package in paper

Wet Object bag.
Wet Water Air dry at room temperature. Package in paper
bag.
Collect sample with syringe. Place sample in
plastic container. Freeze sample.

DRIED Crust Person, Scene, Scrape crust into paper packet. Collect control
BLOOD Stain Object blank.
Weapon Collect item directly.

EVIDENCE CONDITION LOCATION COLLECTION MODE

URINE Liquid Person Direct deposit in container. Keep refrigerated.

SALIVA Liquid Scene Use syringe transfer into test tube. Keep
refrigerated.

TISSUE, Fresh Scene Place in container. Keep refrigerated.

ORGAN Dried Scene Place in container.
BONE

HAIR With tissue Scene Collect hair with tissue in container. Keep
With blood Scene refrigerated.
Intact hair Scene Separate hair from blood. Air dry. Collect in
Fragments Scene paper packet.
Control Person Pick up sample with clean forceps. Place in
paper packet.
Tape lift. Package in container.
Pulled (at least 20).

HOW IS DNA TYPING DONE?

DNA typing or profiling is a procedure wherein DNA extracted from the evidentiary sample as
well as from the reference biological samples obtained from the victim and suspect are analyzed and
processed to generate a particular pattern or profile for each samples. This profile is unique for each
person except from identical twins. The patterns are compared either with that of a known individual to
determine a match, or a set of possible relatives to determine consanguinity.

In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the evidentiary sample is compared with
that of a suspect. If the patterns are different, definitely it has not originated from the suspect. If it is
SIMILAR, the probability that the evidentiary sample arose from the suspect and not from a random
individual in the population is calculated using a formula based on well-accepted concepts of statistical
probabilities and population genetics.
In cases of determining consanguinity, DNA from the subject and his/her relatives are analyzed
and compared. DNA fragments of an individual are contributed by his/her father and mother.
Identification of mass disaster victims are done in the same way, the DNA of unidentified victim and
relatives are analyzed and compared. In paternity cases, the DNA fragment contributed by the father
should be observed in the alleged father. Then, the probability that the alleged father is the father of the
child is calculated as a ratio between that of the alleged father and any random male in the population.

There are several types of DNA tests that can be performed. The NBI currently employs the
PCR-based testing using the Short Tandem Repeats (STR) systems like PE-ABI Profiler and Promega’s
PowerPlex 16 and PowerPlex Y Systems of analysis.

STAGES OF DNA ANALYSIS

NOTES IN CDI
  EXTRACTION – to obtain the DNA material from the specimen. Two commonly used methods are
Chelex, DNA IQ (rapid methods) and organic extraction.

 QUANTITATION - to determine the amount of DNA material extracted from the sample. NBI
make use of the QUANTIBLOT kit which is human specific and highly sensitive up to picogram
level.

 DNA AMPLIFICATION by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)– to make many copies of specific
DNA fragment. PCR is a synthesis reaction that is repeated for a number of cycles and results in
exponential accumulation of the specific DNA fragment. The thermal cycler is the machine that
does this PCR and is compared to a Xerox machine.

Admissibility of DNA evidence

Under the rules of evidence, expert opinion on specialized knowledge must be relevant to the
question at issue; that is, it must assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact
in issue. For instance, in the Daubert case earlier referred to, two minor children and their parents
sought to recover damages for birth defects which were allegedly caused by the mother’s prenatal
ingestion of Bendectin, an anti-nausea drug sold by the defendant pharmaceutical company. After
discovery, the defendant moved for summary judgment, asserting that Bendectin does not cause birth
defects in humans.
Defendants submitted an opinion from a well-credential expert stating that his review of all of the
literature on Bendectin revealed nothing to indicate that the drug was capable of causing birth defects in
humans. So the issue before the court was what standard would be used for admitting expert scientific
testimony in a trial before a federal court. The US Supreme Court held that the standard should be “If
scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact in issue, a witness
qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education may testify thereto in the
form of an opinion or otherwise.” This is the standard laid down in Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of
Evidence in the US. Our own Rules of Court in the Philippines follows this standard with respect to the
admission of opinion evidence.
In short, expert opinion based on the scientific method must be (1) relevant to the fact in issue,
and (2) must be scientifically valid, as tested by the four indicia noted above. Relevance requires a valid
scientific connection to the pertinent area of inquiry so that it will be admitted as evidence.
In the Philippines, the admissibility of DNA evidence was squarely raised in the celebrated case of
People v. Hubert Webb, et. al. (Criminal Case No. 95-404, Regional Trial Court, Branch 274, Parañaque
City). This case involved a sinister plan to gang rape the teen-aged victim. The accused, 7 of them, went to
the house of the victims after midnight on June 29, 1991 and by a pre-arranged plan with the principal
witness, three of them entered the house. According to this witness, after three of the accused had
entered the house, she too went inside and pushing a door leading to one of the rooms, she saw two
bloodied bodies on top of the bed, and on the floor she saw the first accused with bare buttocks on top of
the rape victim, pumping her. She also saw the second accused at the foot of the bed where the two
bodies lay, which was about to wear his jacket. She saw the rape victim moaning and in tears, and her
mouth was gagged. It was further found by the trial court that when the first accused was raping the
victim, her seven year-old sister was awakened and, upon seeing her elder sister being raped, she
jumped at the first accused, bit his shoulder, grabbed his hair, and pulled down his leather jacket. The
first accused became furious, grabbed the young girl, pulled her to the wall, and stabbed her several
times. The medico-legal officer of the NBI found that the mother of the rape victim was stabbed 12 times
after having been hog-tied with an electric cord like the younger daughter. The rape victim was found
positive for spermatozoa in the genital area in the smear test conducted by the NBI laboratory although
it was noted that there were no injuries therein. At the time the cadaver of the rape victim was
discovered, she was found naked from the waist down; and it bore contusions on the left and right
thighs, which meant that she had put up a severe resistance to an unwanted sexual intercourse. The
wounds on the younger sister also indicated that she was able to ward off her assailant.

SPECIAL CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

NOTES IN CDI
HOMICIDE AND MURDER INVESTIGATION

Homicide Investigation - It is the official inquiry made by the police on the facts and
circumstances surrounding the death of the person which is expected to be criminal or unlawful.

Homicide

Any person who, not falling within the provisions of Article 246 (Parricide) Revised Penal Code
shall kill another without the attendance of any of the circumstances enumerated in Article 248
(Murder) RPC, shall be deemed guilty of homicide.

The elements of homicide are:

(1) A killing exist
(2) The accused did the act without legal justification and with intent to kill
(3) The killing is neither murder, parricide nor infanticide.

Intent to kill is presumed if deaths results from the unjustified act. If death did not result from
the act, intent to kill is essential to prove attempted or frustrated homicide otherwise the crime may be
physical injuries only.

Murder
Any person who, not falling within the provision of Article 246 (Parricide) of the RPC shall kill
another, if committed with any of the following attendant circumstances:

1. With treachery, taking advantage of superior strength, with the aid of armed men, or employing
means to weaken the defense or of means or persons to insure or afford impurity.
2. In consideration of a price, reward, or promise.
3. By means of inundation, fire, poison, explosion, shipwreck, stranding of a vessel, derailment or
assault upon a street car or locomotive fall of an airship, by means of motor vehicles or with the
use of any other means involving great waste and ruin.
4. An occasion of any of the calamities enumerated in the proceeding paragraph or of an
earthquake, eruption of a volcano, destructive cyclone, epidemic, or any other public calamity.
5. With evident premeditation.
6. With cruelty, by (deliberately and inhumanly augmenting the suffering of the victim, or
outraging or scoffing at his person or corpse.

The elements of murder are:

(1) A killing exists.
(2) The accused killed the deceased under any of the above circumstances qualifying the killing to
murder.
(3) The killing does not constitute parricide or infanticide.

The circumstances that qualify the killing to murder must be alleged in the information as otherwise the
killing may be considered as merely homicide.

Parricide

Any person who shall kill his father, mother, or child, whether legitimate or illegitimate, or any
of his ascendants or descendants, or his spouse, shall be guilty of parricide.

The elements of parricide are:

(1) A person is killed by the accused.
(2) The person killed is the father, mother or child (not less than three days old), whether
legitimate or illegitimate, or the ascendant or descendant or the spouse of the accused.
The relationship with the other ascendant or descendant (grandfather or grandson) must be
legitimate. The spouse killed must be legitimate wife or husband. But the father, mother or child
may be legitimate or illegitimate. If the child killed is less than three days old, the crime is
infanticide.

Responsibilities of a Homicide Investigator

NOTES IN CDI
 1. Homicide investigator when called upon to investigate a violent death, stand on the dead man’s
shoes, to produce his instincts against those suspects. Consequently, the zeal, enthusiasm and
intelligence the investigator brings in the case marks the difference between a murderer being
convicted or set free.
2. If the investigator interprets an accidental death as due to natural death and wisdom or the
family may be deprived of benefits and other properties which the deceased have sacrificed to
obtain.
3. If he interprets a criminal death as accidental or natural, a guilty person is otherwise set scot
free.

Note: Remember that the police is the first line of defense in the effective application of criminal
justice.

A. The Medico-Legal Autopsy

1. The real beginning of any homicide investigation should be to establish the cause of death
accurately.
2. An autopsy should be performed at once when there is the slightest reason to suspect the
probability of homicide.
3. In general, it maybe stated that death has been caused by violence, an autopsy is always performed
unless there is adequate proof to the contrary.

The value of the Investigator in attending autopsies

During the conduct of autopsy, an investigator can observe first hand and ask questions
pertinent to the case under investigation. The medico-legal officer can explain the autopsy findings as
they progress. As the results of the autopsy are received by the investigator such information, if
pertinent and requiring expeditious investigative attention, can be passed along to the other
investigators for immediate handling. When the investigator has a suspected weapon, comparison of the
weapon with the wound can be made. The officer present at the autopsy can be the liaison with the
investigation team working on the case and see that all evidence is obtained during the examination.

B. The Role of the Medico-Legal officer in Homicide Investigation

The determination of criminal responsibility in death has been developed into a specialized
field of medical science called forensic pathology. A pathologist can assist in homicide investigation by:
1. Documentation of all wounds, bruises, scratches, scars or other marks at the time of the
autopsy.
2. Interpretation of findings based on medical facts.

Necropsy Report- It is a document stating the cause of death of the victim. This is the medico-legal
report.
C. The Facts of Death
1. The first action of an investigator upon arriving at the crime scene of the homicide is the verification
of death.
2. An individual is said to be dead in the medical sense when one of the three vital function is no longer
performing within the body:
a. Respiratory system
b. Cardiac Activity
c. Central nervous system activity
3. In the legal sense, death is considered to occur when all of the three above vital functions have
ceased.
D. Presumptive signs and Test of Death
1. The following are few of the signs indicative of death:
A. Cessation of breathing and respiratory movement
B. Cessation of heart sounds
C. Loss of placing of nail beds when pressure is applied in the fingernails is released.

Suspended Animation
1. Cardiac activity, breathing and functioning of the nervous system may reach such a low-level activity
that a homicide investigator maybe deceived into an assumption of death.
2. The following conditions produced simulated appearance of death:

NOTES IN CDI
 1. electric shock
2. prolonged emersion
3. poisoning from narcotic drugs
4. barbiturate poisoning
5. certain mental diseases

Methods of Identification

a.DNA Analysis
b.Fingerprints - ingerprint identification is the most positive and quickest method of ascertaining
identity. However the prints of the deceased may not be on file or may not be obtainable
because of trauma, mutilation, incineration or decomposition. The sole clue maybe bone, a skull
or a few teeth.
c. Skeletal Studies - Examination of the skeleton may provide a basis for identification because of
individual peculiarities such as old fractures and presence of metal pins. Bones may also
provide information about age, sex, and race.
d. Visual Inspection - Someone knowing the deceased person may recognize the victim. However,
trauma, incineration, or decomposition may render the features unrecognizable. In addition, a
visual inspection without further verification has the advantage of possible subjective error or
deliberate false identification. Visual inspection combined with fingerprint evidence is a
favored method for rapid identification.
e. Personal Effects - Identification of a victim by personal effects such as Jewelry, I.D. card, wallets,
belts, shoes etc.
f. Tattoo and Scars - Identification scars, moles, tattoos, pockmarks or other markings may be
helpful in identification, particularly in conjunction with other findings.
g. Dental Evidences (Forensic Odontology) - Identification based on the examination of teeth
(teeth charts, fillings, inlays crowns, bridgework, dentures etc.) is valuable inasmuch as the
teeth are probably the most durable part of the human body. There are probably no two people
alive with dentures that are completely identical in all respects. Dental evidence is legally
recognized and accepted, if properly presented in court.
h. Clothing - Articles of clothing containing cleaner’s mark, labels, initials, size, color, texture
knitting, etc. have provided investigators with the leads and even identification in most
instances.
i. Photographs - Identification of victims has been made by publication in bulletins, circulars,
television and other distribution media, artist sketches, death mark and casts have likewise
aided the police in identifying unknowns.
 Victims Background - very promising leads can be developed from the review of the
background of the victim that can provide the background of the victim which can give the
pursuit defined goals.
 Modus Operandi - choice of particular crime to commit and the selection of a method of
committing a criminal act that forms the signature of the criminal give a clear lead on who
might have committed the crime.
 Informants - are a traditional starting point in seeking basic leads. In fact informants sometimes
offer data about an unreported or undiscovered crime or one in its planning stage.
 Benefits - the question of who might benefit from the crime provides an excellent focus for
making inquiry. The “benefit factor” can provide investigative leads.
 Opportunity
 Knowledge - simply determining who might have knowledge of the crime to establish further
information
 Approximate time of death
 Composite Sketches
ROBBERY AND THEFT INVESTIGATION

Robbery

The law on robbery in the Philippines can be found on the following articles of the Revised
Penal Code:
Article 293

Who are guilty of robbery?

NOTES IN CDI
 Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any personal property belonging to another, by
means of violence or intimidation of any person, or using force upon anything shall be guilty of robbery.

Elements of Robbery:
1. Unlawful taking of personal property
2. The property must belong to another
3. The taking is done with violence against an intimidation of any person of force upon things
4. The taking is with intent to gain

Note the following:

 Article 294 – Robbery with violence or intimidation of persons

 Article 295 – Robbery with physical injuries committed in an uninhabited place and by
 band or the use of firearm on a street.
 Article 297 – Attempted and frustrated robbery committed under certain circumstances.
 Article 298 – Execution of deeds by means of violence or intimidation
 Article 299 – Robbery in an inhabited house or public building or edifice devoted to worship –
Any armed person who shall commit robbery in an inhabited house or public building or edifice
devoted to religious worship – and if:
(a) The malefactors shall enter the house or building in which the robbery was committed, by any
of the following means:
1. Through an opening not intended for entrance or egress
2. By breaking any wall, roof or floor or breaking any door or window
3. By using false key, padlocks or similar tools
4. By using fictitious name or pretending the exercise of public authority or if –
(b) The robbery be committed under any of the following circumstances:
1. By the breaking of doors, wardrobes, closets, or any other kind of locked or sealed
furniture or receptacle.
2. By taking such furniture or objects away to be broken or forced open outside the place
of the robbery.
 Article 302 – Robbery in an uninhabited place or in a private building
 Article 303 – Robbery of cereals, fruits or firewood in uninhabited place or private building.

Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974

(Presidential Decree 532)

Piracy – Any attack upon or seizure of any vessel, or taking away of the whole or part thereof of
its cargo, equipment or the personal belonging of its complement or passengers, irrespective of value
thereof, by means of violence against or intimidation of person or foce upon things, committed by any
person, including a passenger or member of the complements of said vessel in Philippine waters, shall
be considered as piracy. The offender shall be considered as pirates.

Highway Robbery/Brigandage – The seizure of any person for ransom, extortion or other
unlawful purposes, or the taking away of the property of another by means of violence against or
intimidation of persons or force upon things of other unlawful means committed by any person or any
Philippine highway.

Aiding Pirates or Highway Robbers/ Brigands or Abetting Piracy or Highway Robbers/Brigands

– Any person who knowingly and in any manner aids or protects pirates or highway robbers/brigands,
such as giving them information about the movement of police or other peace officers of the government
or acquire or receives property taken by such pirates or brigands or indirectly abets the commission of
piracy or highway robbery or brigandage, shall be considered as an accomplice of the principal offender.

Anti-Cattle Rustling Law of 1974

(Presidential Decree 533)

Cattle Rustling – Is the taking away by any means, methods or scheme, without the consent of
the owner/raiser, of any of the above animals (cow, carabao, horse, mule or other domesticated member

NOTES IN CDI
of the bovine family) whether or not for profit or gain, or whether committed with or without violence
against or intimidation of any person or force upon things. It includes the killing of large cattle, or taking
its meat or hide without the consent of owner/raiser.

Anti-Fencing Law of 1979

(Presidential Decree 1612)

Fencing is the act of any person; who, with intent to gain, for himself or for another shall buy,
posses, keep, acquire, conceal, sell or in any other deal on any articles, items, objects or anything of
value which he knows to have been derived form the proceeds of crime or robbery or theft.

Fence – include any person, firm, organization, association, or corporation or partnership and
other organization who which commits the act of fencing.

Style and Tactics in Robbery Cases

The identification in an armed robbery case often relates to the tactics and style of the robbery.
Robbery has been categorized as having three styles:
(1) The ambush – is the least planned of all and is based on the element of surprise
(2) The selective raid – involves a minimum of planning but some casing of the robbery scene
(3) The planned operation – is carefully structured and the robbery group examines all aspects of
the situation, plans for all foreseeable constingencies.

Crime Partnership in a Robbery Group

Crime partners in a robbery group form a loose partnership, providing the skills for the various
task necessary to carry out different types of robberies. They participate in the planning of robberies as
well as the basic decision as to whether or not a certain target can be successfully robbed.
Crime partners usually are associates from spontaneous play groups in the underworld.
Investigators assigned a single robbery or series of robberies to investigate should search for “link-up”
“connect-up” which will indicate the operations of a group.

Types of Robbers

1. Amateurs – motivated by greed, want, the desire for a thrill, or need for self-testing.
2. Professionals – are described as those persons who worked at robbery as a trade making it
their living and having no other means of income.

Technique Commonly Employed by Robbers – Means of Entry

The means of entry differs in various burglaries and are related to the skill of a robber. The
various known means of entry are:
1. The open door or window entry – the robber/s roams residence areas, apartments, and hotels
looking for open doors or windows.
2. The jimmy entry – the robber/s forces a door or window with an iron tool such as a tire iron,
screwdriver, or small crowbar or box opener.
3. The celluloid entry – the burglar forces open a door spring lock with a small piece of celluloid.
4. The stopover or human fly entry – the burglar is an aerialist, the stopover robber steps from a
fire escape, balcony or other building to a nearby window. The “human fly” robber can progress
upward or downward or the sides of a building to a selected point of entry.
5. Roof entry – the burglar breaks into a premises through a skylight or air conditioning duct or
the roof or by cutting a hole in the roof of a building or residential home.
6. The hide –in entry – the burglar hides in a commercial premises until all employees have left
and then breaks out with the stolen property.
7. The cut-in entry – the robber uses tools of various kinds to cut through the floor, ceiling, or wall
of a store or office to another store or office.
8. Hit and run – the robber breaks a window of a ground floor store and takes property from a
window or nearby portions of the premises, and flees before police can be alerted to the crime.
9. Key entry – the robber uses a key – the key may be given to him by an informant (finger-man) it
may be stolen or the burglar may obtain a duplicate or master key by various means.\

NOTES IN CDI
Methods of safebreaking

1. Punching- In this manner of entry a sledge hammer and a drift punch are used to knock the
combination dial from the safe and to drive the spindle back into the safe. This makes the
release mechanism of the lock accessible and allows the safe to be opened.
2. Pulling – A device similar to a gear or wheel puller is used to pull the dial or spindle completely
out of the safe door and thus allow the safe to be opened.
3. Peeling – This means of entry involves the prying off the outer surfaces of the safe door so that
the locking mechanism of the safe is exposed and can be pried open, allowing entry to the safe.
4. Drilling – One or more holes are drilled in the door of the safe to expose the lock mechanism
allowing the safe-breaker to align the lock tumblers manually and open the door of the safe.
5. Ripping – This is a battering of the top, bottom or sides of a safe with a chisel or other metal
cutter, such as a ripping bar the hydraulic ramming device used in a body and fender shop.
6. Burning – Use of oxygen/acetylene torch.
7. Blasting – Use of explosives
8. Carrying away.

Physical Evidence to be Collected

1. Footprints
2. Fingerprints
a. areas of break
b. closets – prints may be found in door and jambs
c. door knobs
d. dressers
e. pieces of furniture
f. bottles and glasses
g. walls
h. tools
i. desks
3. Clothings – sometimes the robbers exchange their own jacket with that one found
4. If a window was broken is effecting entry, glass particles may be present in the trouser cuffs and
pockets of suspect. Samples of broken glass should be collected for possible future comparison
in the event that a suspect is picked up.
5. Paint- If a crowbar has been used to force the window, paint may adhere to the tool. Paint
samples should be taken for future comparison.
6. Tool marks
7. Tools
8. Some robbers are given to add behavior such as defecation on the floor, stealing fountain pen,
eating candy or drinking excessively from bottles found on the premises. The peculiarity of the
behavior would be noted and check in modus operandi index.
9. Cords and ropes use.
10. Firearms use.
11. Get-away vehicle.
12. Stolen articles/properties

KIDNAPPING

Kidnapping - a word derived from kid, meaning child and nap (nab) meaning snatch, recorded
since 1673, was originally used as a term for the practice of stealing children for use as servants or
laborers in the American Colonies .It has come to mean any illegal capture or detention of a person or
people against their will, regardless of age. Since 1768 the term abduction has also been used in this
sense.

Kidnapping for Ransom - Philippine jurisprudence defines kidnapping for ransom as “the
unlawful taking and carrying away of a person by force or fraud or against his will, or in any manner
depriving him of his liberty for the purpose of extorting ransom as payment for his/her release.”

NOTES IN CDI
 This is punishable under the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines which provides that any
individual who shall kidnap or detain another, or in any manner deprive him of his liberty, shall suffer
the penalty of reclusion perpetua to death, if:

1. the kidnapping or detention shall have lasted more than five (5) days;
2. if it shall have been committed simulating public authority;
3. if any serious physical injuries shall have been inflicted upon the person kidnapped or
detained, or if threats to kill him shall have been made; and
4. if the victim shall be minor, female or public officer.

Modus Operandi in Kidnapping

Kidnapping activity varies with the capability and resources of kidnappers to do surveillance,
safekeeping and negotiation with their target group. One common thing all KFRGs, however is that they
have a well planned strategy of abduction process

Kidnappers usually start their activity in surveying trough an informer or sputter whose work
is to locate targets for the group. To facilitate the operation, a gang member is sometimes made to seek
employment such as driver or household help or have a business transaction to gain access and control
of the victim. KFRG conducts a thorough study of background of their victims, such as capability to pay
and daily movements’ activities. Surveillance to establish routes is extensively carried out.

Perpetrators of kidnapping have some peculiar operational style that distinguishes one group
from the other. Some groups are contented with money given immediately by the victims'
families/relatives while others are capable of prolonged negotiations for a bigger ransom. Some groups
are crude in executing their plan while others do it with precision and finesse
However, most cases of kidnapping particularly those undertaken by criminal groups, revealed the
following stages:

1. Spotting. The first step in planning a kidnapping operation is to come up with a shopping list of
three to four possible targets that are capable of paying a huge amount of ransom. Targets are
usually businessmen of Chinese descent.

2. Surveillance. Targets are then subjected to a thorough surveillance and investigation. The
investigation focused on the financial capability, home address and place of work, phone
numbers, complete description of the vehicle being used, travel routes, identities of household
helpers, drivers and employees, and personal security of potential targets

3. Risk analysis and target selection. After a thorough investigation, the group selects one of the
targets, which present a lower risk and difficulty in ransom negotiation. In some cases, the
group selects the one whom the group had gathered the information first. In order to enhance
precision in their operation, some group send out members of the syndicate to apply as drivers,
employees, and household helps to gain further access on the target

4. Seizing of victim. The time allotted for forcibly taking the victim is usually two to three hours.
The victim is usually forcibly taken on his/her way to place of work or while going home after
work. Most of the victims are successfully intercepted while crossing road intersections or
traveling along highly traveled streets.

5. Negotiation. Ransom demand may range from PhP1 million to PhP100 million, depending on
the paying capacity of the victim and the operational capability of the group. The weakest
member of the victim's family is usually selected by the syndicate to act as negotiator, warning
the latter not to report the incident to the concerned police authorities.

6. Collection of ransom. After the ransom has been negotiated, the group will design a pay-off
procedure. The ransom is usually brought to a predesignated site. In some pay-off situations
however, the ransom courier is usually instructed to bring along a cellular phone for ease of
communication during the actual pay-off. There were instances where couriers were given a
round-the-bush before reaching the final pay-off venue. Professional groups normally release
the victims after the pay-off had been secured.

NOTES IN CDI
 Even with the “no ransom policy” of the government, it was noted that the victims' family easily
give in to the demands of the kidnappers, with minimum negotiations. Usually, kidnapping victims are
released in 3 to 6 days, after ransom money has been paid

For investigation of special crimes, please refer to SPECIAL CRIMES noted under the area on Criminal
Jurisprudence.

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

WHAT IS FIRE?

Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel and an oxidizer-
typically the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light.

Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or in some cases gaseous
chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of a flame, which is composed of glowing particles
of the burning material and certain gaseous products that are luminous at the temperature of the
burning material.

THE START OF FIRE

All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, liquid and gas (vapor). The atoms or
molecules of a solid are packed closely together, and that of a liquid is packed loosely, the molecules of a
vapor are not packed together at all, they are free to move about. In order for a substance to oxidize, its
molecules must be pretty well surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids are
too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.

However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules move about rapidly. If enough heat is
applied, some molecules break away from the surface to form a vapor just above the substance. This
vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If there is enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition temperature
(temperature needed to burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor will oxidize rapidly – it
will start to burn.

The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the burning process). Vapor from heated
fuel rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces enough heat to release more vapor and to draw in air to
burn that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production increases. More heat is produced, more vapor
released, more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction keeps increasing –
the size of the fire increases until fuel is consumed.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire: FUEL (Combustible materials to
vaporize and burn), OXYGEN (Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor,
air contains 28% O, 78 N, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor to its
ignition temperature). The combinations of these three elements form the so-called Fire Triangle.

The Fire Triangle

Oxygen Heat

Fuel

NOTES IN CDI
 Figure 1

Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is missing, a fire can not start or if any side
of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go off.

With the presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take place. Before a fuel will burn, it
must be changed to its vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually results from the initial
application of heat. The process is known as PYROLYSIS. Pyrolysis (also known as thermal
decomposition) is defined as the “chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat”. In this
case, the decomposition causes a change from a solid state to vapor state. If the vapor mixes sufficiently
with air and heated to high temperature, combustion results.

The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.

The Fire Tetrahedron

Oxygen Heat

Fuel Chain Reaction

Figure 2

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the combustion process because
it has room for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces.

The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron
illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. In this sense,
the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling apart.

The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of combustion. The modes of combustion
are either Flaming mode or Surface mode (Glowing– represented by the fire triangle).

A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion

A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation

PROPERTIES OF FIRE
A. The Physical properties
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of
an equal volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at
the same temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which the substance
must be heated in order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors
are evolved fast enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture
that ignites (mixture with in the explosive range).

NOTES IN CDI
 To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until ignition point is
reached. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain
degree of temperature. When the temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases highly
combustible vapors known as FREE RADICALS (combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen).

During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:

 the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point,
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel (free
radicals)
 free radicals undergo combustion.

B. The Chemical Properties

1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added

before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible
material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion
which is the same as actual burning (rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

Types of Flames

a. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel

1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being

heated due to incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and has
relatively high temperature.

b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory burner where

hydrocarbon (any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced through a nozzle
into the atmosphere which diffuses in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a
flammable mixture. The candle flame is an example of diffusion flame governed purely by
molecular diffusion, and the flame of the oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – dispersed, widely
spread)

c. Based on Smoothness

1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous

flame.
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady, irregular flows. As physical size,
gas density or velocity is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

FIRE ELEMENTS

As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having three components: fuel, heat, and
oxygen. This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a
chemical relationship. The additional component needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical
chain reaction shown in the fire tetrahedron.

NOTES IN CDI
 FUEL

FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter and matter exist in three physical states: solid,
liquid and gas. Solids melt to become liquids, and these may vaporize and become gases. The basic rule
is that at high enough temperature all fuels can be converted to gases. And each of the physical states
exhibits different physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility. For
example, gasoline as a liquid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the liquid that burn. Likewise,
wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but gives of flammable vapors (free radicals).

FUEL is also a material that provides useful energy. Fuels are used to heat and cook food, power
engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are artificially created. Such
natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and natural gases obtained from underground deposits that were
formed million years ago from the remains of plants and animals. They are called fossil fuels, which
account for about 90% of the energy people use today.

Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types of rock and sand, and biomass.

Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some – especially chemical
fuels used in rockets – need special oxidizers in order to burn. Nuclear fuels do not burn but release
energy through the fission (splitting) of fusion (joining together) of atoms.

Classification of Combustible Materials

1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
solutions, oil, liquid petroleum products, etc.
3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as materials used on
electrical wiring and other electrical appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium.

General Categories of Fuel

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, and
metallic solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

The Solid Fuels

The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. Its burning rate depends on its
configuration. For example, solid fuels in the form of dust will burn faster than bulky materials.

Types of Flammable solids

a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles: wood, paper
and so on. The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This
exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.

b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common example is
charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No
vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.
The following are group of solid fuels

1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters like wood, garbage and
animal manure that can be use to produce energy. For example, heat produced by burning nutshells, rice
and oat hulls, and other by-products of food processing. They are often used to operate plant equipment.

NOTES IN CDI
 Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products

a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it is to burn.
b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood is more difficult to ignite and burn
than dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a longer time to ignite than those
materials that are good conductors of heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials don’t easily ignite and needs direct
contact with flame than highly combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of oxygen, the rate of burns increases, more
heat is produced and fuel is consumed more completely.
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster it reaches ignition point and
it varies depending on the other factors above.

2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are combustible. A fiber is a very fine thin
strand or thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers. And textiles are machine woven or
knitted fabric.

Classification of Fibers

a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut fiber, Cotton – seed fiber, pulp –
wood fiber) , from animals (wool, silk, protein fibers – leather), from minerals (asbestos)

b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate, non-cellulose,

and inorganic fibers like fiber glass, steel

Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers

a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic fibers are generally highly
combustible materials especially if they are dry. Mineral fibers and synthetic inorganic
fibers are normally fire resistant materials.
b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with organic fibers are supportive to
continued burning of fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its resistance to ignition, thus delaying its
ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the smaller the space it contains, thus it
takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame retardant have higher resistance to
ignition.

Fabric Ignition

Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to
continuously burn once source of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it
will cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high. Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition
temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because they do not ignite easily. Also, they do not
continue burning after the source of heat or flame is removed.

3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A except those materials of or
containing cellulose nitrate. Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they are also called
pyroxylin.

Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of organic substances or high

molecular substances. They are solid in the finished state although at some stage of manufacture plastics
can be made to flow into a desired shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both.
4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the partial decomposition of matter
under varying degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal gas, water gas,
and many coal compounds. They are also used to heat buildings and to provide energy for industrial
machinery.

NOTES IN CDI
 The forms of coal are: lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite

Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It contains more
carbon and produces more heat than either lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal best suited
for making coke. Antracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more carbon and produces
more heat than other coals. However, antracite is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.

5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bags and used as a fuel
chiefly in areas where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut formed in
blocks, and dried; the dried bloks are then burned to heat homes.

The Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some synthetic liquids are also produced.
Petroleum is also called crude oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.
Other fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual oils. Distillate oils are light
oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. Residual oils are heavy, and used to
provide energy to power utilities, factories and large ships.

Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable liquids. In the process of vaporization,
flammable liquids release vapor in much the same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for
liquids than solids, since liquids have less closely packed molecules. In addition, liquids can release
vapor over a wide range, example, gasoline starts to give vapor at –40C (-45 F). This makes gasoline a
continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable vapor at normal temperature.

General Characteristics of Liquids

1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.

2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite expansion, unlike gas.

2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels

1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point of 37.8 C (100F) and a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um) at 37.8 C.

2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 C (100F).

Burning Characteristics of Liquids

Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which burn, the case of ignition as well as the
rate of burning can be related to the physical properties such as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling
point, and evaporation rate.
1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the liquid surface at the stored
temperature have rapid rate of flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature have slower rate of flame
propagation. The chemical explanation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat sufficiently the
liquid surface to form flammable vapor-air moisture before the flame will spread through
the vapor.
Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and Burning of Liquids
 wind velocity
 temperature
 heat of combustion
 latent heat of evaporation
 atmospheric pressure
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid and from a
liquid to gas. Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.

The Gas Fuels

NOTES IN CDI
 Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion. They
have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container. There are both
natural and manufactured flammable gases. Gas fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to provide
energy for homes, businesses, and industries. Examples of gas fuels are acetylene, propane, and butanes.

Some properties of gas fuels are:

 compressibility
 expandability
 permeability (open to passage or penetration)
 diffusion (intermingling of molecules)

Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential in changes in volume. Diffusion is the
uniform distribution of molecules of one substance through those of another. Permeability means that
other substances may pass through or permeate a gas.

Characteristics of Gas Fuels

1. They are matters that have no definite shape.

2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random motion in a
straight line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container and are
relatively far from one another.

Classification of Gases:

1. Based on Source
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides energy for
industries. It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural gas is usually
mixed with compounds of foul-smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be detected.
Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become liquids
when placed under large amount of pressure. When pressure is released, they change back
to gas. Such fuels, often called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG), are easily stored and shipped as liquid.
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain
fuels are abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be
converted to gas through heating and various chemical procedures.

2. According to Physical Properties

a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal temperature inside its container; exist
solely in the gaseous state under pressure. The pressure depends on the pressure to which
the container is originally charged and how much gas remains in the container. However,
temperature affects the volume and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature inside its container, exist partly in
the liquid state and partly in gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid
remains in the container. The pressure basically depends on the temperature of the liquid
although the amount of liquid also affects the pressure under some condition. A liquefied
gas exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result of heating.
c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exists in its container at temperature far below
normal atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and
correspondingly low to moderate pressure. Examples of this gas are air, carbon monoxide,
ethylene, fluorine, helium, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.

3. According to Usage
a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for burning with air to produce heat, utilize
as power, light, comfort, and process. Most commonly used gases are natural gas and the
LPG (butane and propane).

NOTES IN CDI
 b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number of gases used for industrial
processes as those in welding and cutting (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (freon,
ammonia, sulfur dioxide); chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine);
water treatment (chlorine, fluorine).
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous
oxide); respiratory therapy (oxygen).

Burning of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. Only the proper intermixed with oxygen
and sufficient heat is needed for ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, always produce a visible flame,
they do not smolder.

Chemical Fuels

Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and
power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and an
oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen
tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel
needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.

Nuclear Fuels

Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most
commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these
elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly to
generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced
through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.

 Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms

 Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom

THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity.

In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from one
body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from
substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of
the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains
constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer
work is always present.

The study of energy is rooted in the subject of thermodynamics, a very logical science that
carefully defines energy, heat, temperature and other properties.

Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold region. Thermal energy is a
property of matter directly associated with the concept of temperature.

Heat and Temperature

Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative
amount of heat energy contained with in a given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement,
with units in degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement
of quantity and is given in British thermal units (Btu).

Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness
or coldness of something. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature and commonly
expressed in C, F, and K.

NOTES IN CDI
 Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two substances by the sense of
touch, it is impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the temperature by subjective reactions.
Adding heat to a substance, however, not only raises its temperature, causing it to impart a more acute
sensation of warmth, but also produces alterations in several physical properties, which may be
measured with precision.

Specific Heat

The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required raising the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance one-degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a constant
volume or is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant
volume.

Latent Heat

A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a substance.
Almost all substances expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of water
between 0 and 4C (32 and 39 F) constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of a
substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur
at definite temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is referred to as
SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as MELTING and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the
pressure is constant, the process occurs at constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce a
change of phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and vaporization
exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature does not rise above
100C (212F), no matter how much heat is added. For example, the heat that is absorbed without
changing the temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing the
water to steam and is then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is
condensed to form water (CONDENSATION). Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated,
its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up in
overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the water.

Temperature Scales

Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:

1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a boiling point of 100C. It is widely used through
out the world, particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking countries for purposes other than
scientific works and based on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of
water is 32F and the boiling point is 212 F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero
is defined as absolute zero of temperature that is, - 273.15 c, or –459.67 F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point in
which each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The
freezing point of water under this scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of 31 nations adopted a new
international temperature scale with additional fixed temperature points, based on the
Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based on the
property of electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature
between –190  and 660C.

Heat Production

There are five ways to produce heat:

NOTES IN CDI
 1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together
to generate enough heat is an example.
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction.
Poor wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing
through an improperly sized wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly increased
producing heat.
5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission
or fusion respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces
steam to turn steam turbines.

Heat Transfer

The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies
are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is called
convection.

Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

1. Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or medium,

usually a solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction. Example, if you touch a hot
stove, the pain you feel is a first result of conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your
hand. In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other structural members such
as walls and floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.

2. Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat
transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The supper-
heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can and do
initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high fireball that accompanies the incident is
referred to as a firestorm and is an example of convected heat.

3. Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the
speed, as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the
exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or straight
line from their source until they strike an object. The heat that collects on the surface of the
object or building in the path of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through
conduction.

Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or portions of bodies exchanging heat,
but radiation does not require contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies. Convection
occurs when a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid body at a different temperature and is always
accompanied by the motion of the liquid or gas. The science dealing with the transfer of heat between
bodies is called heat transfer.

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the most
abundant of all elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in
combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to combine with nearly all
other elements, and is essential to life processes and to combustion.
The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen,
and 1 % inert gas (principally Argon).
Take Note: 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12%
oxygen is insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can
support fire point.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

NOTES IN CDI
 The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and
thermal imbalance. Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal
behavior when the pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal
movement of fire due to the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire
investigator in determining the exact point where the fire originated.

Dangerous Behavior of Fire

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area
that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not
properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden
combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).

Characteristics of Backdraft

 fire gases are under pressure

 existence of black smoke that is becoming dense gray yellow
 confinement of excessive heat
 there is little flame or no visible flame
 smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
 windows are smoked stained
 muffled sounds are heard inside the building
 violent rushing of air inside when opened

2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is
incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or
flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of
radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at
a certain distance in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.

3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations
and become stronger and bigger instead.

4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn
simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an
explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the following characteristics are observed:
 normal room temperature
 the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 F
 ceiling temperature is about 200 F
 the pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small quantities of
carbon monoxide and sulfides maybe present.
2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics:
 accelerated pyrolysis process take place
 development of convection current: formation of thermal columns as heat rises
 temperature is 800-1000 F at the base of fire, 1200-1600 F at ceiling
 pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame) leaving burnt
patterns (fire fingerprints)
 occurrence of flashover.

3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following characteristics:

 oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in
layers,

NOTES IN CDI
  products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon monoxide with
an ignition temperature of about 1125 F,
 ceiling temperature is 1000-1300 F,
 heat and pressure in the room builds up,
 building/room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little
oxygen,
 when sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

Based on Cause

1. Natural causes – such as

 Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous
combustion due to auto-ignition of organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a
confined space until ignition temperature is reached.
 Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better
electrical conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it
strikes telephone and other transmission lines, causing an induced line surge. It can also
cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with
dust, the dust will suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.

A lightning may be in the form of:

Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials

Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart an
entire structure, produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high temperature.

 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it.

2. Accidental Causes – such as

 Electrical accidents in the form of
Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated
electrodes; an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between
2 electrical conductors.
Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (charged
conductors) come in contact; occurs during short circuits or welding operations.
Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical energy flow or power voltage;
induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating
materials, explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of amperage while electric
current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of
insulating materials, maybe gradual or rapid, internal or external.

 Purely accidental causes

 Negligence and other forms of human error
3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)
If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers,
then the cause of fire is intentional.
 Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation.
 Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire.
 Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.

Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)

NOTES IN CDI
 1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire resulting from the burning wood,
paper, textiles, rubber and other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the type of fire
caused by ordinary combustible materials.
2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable and or combustible liquids such as
kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical wires, equipment,
motors, electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in finely
divided forms. These combustible metals include magnesium, potassium, powdered
calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium.

FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and property. It is one of the most important
emergency services in a community. Fire fighters battle fires that break out in homes, factories, office
buildings, shops, and other places. Fire fighters risk their lives to save people and protect property from
fires. The people who work as fire fighters also help others who are involved in many kinds of
emergencies besides fires. For example, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped in cars or
vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides, and
earthquakes. Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques, fires often destroyed whole
settlements. When a fire broke but, all the people in the community rushed to the scene to help. Today,
fire fighting organizations in most industrialized nations have well-trained men and women and a
variety of modern fire fighting equipment.

History of Fire Fighting

Most fire services around the world were formed after a major fire made people realize that
lives and property would have been saved if they had had a proper body of people trained to fight fires.
One of the first organized fire fighting forces was established in Rome, about 500 B.C. The first fire
fighters were Roman slaves who, under the command of the city's magistrates, were stationed on the
walls and the gates of Rome. These units were called Familia Publica. However, this system was not
very effective, probably because the slaves had no choice in whether they fought fires or not. In A.D. 6,
after an enormous fire devastated Rome, the Emperor Augustus created the vigiles, a fire fighting force
of 7,000 men that was divided into seven regiments. Like many of today's fire services, the vigiles had
the power to inspect buildings to check for fire risks, and could punish property owners whose
negligence led to fires. The vigiles' fire fighting equipment included pumps, squirts, siphons, buckets,
and ladders. Wicker mats and wet blankets were used for rescue and salvage work. The Romans
developed advanced fire fighting equipment. But when the empire fell, much of this technology was lost
for centuries.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, European cities and towns became disorganized and
nobody coordinated fire fighting. Some people even thought that prayer was the best way to control
fires. Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved. In many cities people were required to put out their
cooking and home fires at night. In some towns, thatched roofs were forbidden and night watchmen
were employed to raise the alarm if they discovered a fire.

Organized fire services in Europe were usually only formed after hugely destructive fires. The
Great Fire of London in 1666 led to the development of fire insurance industries in England. These
companies marked their insured properties with metal badges called fire marks and formed private fire
brigades to protect those properties. Each company's brigade attended only those premises bearing the
company's own fire mark. There was much competition, and occasionally rival fire brigades even
obstructed each other in their fire fighting efforts. It was not until the 1800's that London insurance
companies began to cooperate and a single London Fire Engine Establishment was formed. The new
service fought fires in any premises within the London area.

Serious blazes also caused death and destruction elsewhere in Europe, and rulers began to
realize that it was necessary to have organized forces to deal with fires. In France, groups of citizens

NOTES IN CDI
kept watch for outbreaks of fire, and regulations controlled rescue operations. In the 1600's, a number
of serious fires spread terror throughout Paris. The king of France bought 12 pumps, and a private fire
service was established. In 1750, the company of firemen was mostly taken over by the army, but fires
continued to ravage the city and fire fighting efforts were not always effective. In 1810, the Emperor
Napoleon attended a ball at the Austrian Embassy. A candle set the curtains ablaze, and the fire spread
quickly, causing a dreadful panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered the creation of the Battalion de
Sapeurs Pompiers and the French Fire Brigade was born.

Better equipment for getting water to fires and for fighting fires was developed in the 1500's.
Tools included syringes, which squirted water, but most people relied on bucket brigades, relays of men
passing buckets of water. The problems with bucket brigades were that many men were needed, it was
very tiring work, and it was not very efficient--buildings often burned to the ground. In 1672, an uncle
and nephew in Amsterdam, both called Jan van der Heide, invented a flexible hose, which could be joined
together to form a long pipe. Later, the same men invented a pump to deliver water through the hose,
and fire fighting became much more efficient. In many places around the world, fire pumps were first
drawn to fires by horses or even by people. Warning bells enabled people to get out of the way when the
pumps were rushing to a fire. The German company Daimler invented the first petrol-driven pump in
1885, but the pump still had to be taken to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire engines were introduced
in the early 1900's, but many countries were slow to change from horse-drawn pumps. Although today's
fire services have a range of modern equipment, fire can be just as dangerous now as it was thousands of
years ago.

The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)

Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire
Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and to
enforce the laws on fire.

Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used by the bureau to
stop, extinguish and control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. It has
the following objectives:

1. To prevent destructive fire from starting

2. To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive fire
3. To confine a destructive fire at the place where it began
4. To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts

Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various safety measures utilized to stop harmful
or destructive fires from starting.

The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection in the Philippine setting includes PD #
1185, Fire Code of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # 1096, Building Code of the Philippine (19
February 1977)

The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-trained fire fighters. In fighting fires, they
bring with them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist vehicles can provide turntable ladders,
hydraulic platforms, extra water, foam, and specialist appliances for hazardous incidents.

In some countries, such as the United States, fire-fighting units are divided into engine
companies and ladder companies. Engine companies operate trucks called engines, which carry a pump
and hoses for spraying water on a fire. Ladder companies use ladder trucks, which carry ladders of
various lengths. Ladder trucks also have a hydraulically extended ladder or elevating platform to rescue
people through windows or to spray water from a raised position.

Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of fires. Each type requires a different plan of
action to put it out. For example, the methods used to fight a building fire differ greatly from those used
to fight a forest or grassland fire.

NOTES IN CDI
Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control

Fire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of fire hazards in a building or area.

Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may cause increase in the probability that
fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the
safeguarding of life and property

Conditions of Fire Hazards

1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or explosives in the building not

designed to store such materials.
2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.
3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for fire fighters.
5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible materials.
6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen.
7. Building under repair
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials

Fire Fighting Operations

Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. In general the following
procedures should be observed:

1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and defining systematic course of
actions that maybe performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection: involves the
process of establishing the SOP in case fire breaks out.

2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process
knowing the emergency situation. It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-
charge to determine the appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of
success.

Evaluation of the situation:

a. Learn the facts of the situation – by answering the 5 Ws – 1H

b. Understand the probabilities of fatal behavior of fire
c. Know your own situation or capabilities – weaknesses and
strengths: available manpower and equipment
d. Determine the specific course of action – entry or rescue
3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the
burning area to minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case it propagates
to other adjacent buildings.
4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible
manner. Purposes of conducting forcible entry:
a. To provide access for fire fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments
b. To provide rescue
c. To aid in ventilation
5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving, people and other
livestock from the burning building and other involved properties, conveying them to a secure
place
6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is the activity of securing other buildings near the
burning structure in order to prevent the fire from the extending to another building.
7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started :
the process of preventing fire from extending from another section or form one section to
another section of the involved building.

NOTES IN CDI
 8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the
process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved building with normal air from
outside atmosphere.
9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the
fire. The steps are a) remove the material outside the burning area, and b) protecting or cover
the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with water proofing).
10. EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4
general methods of fire extinguishments.
11. OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein
to eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash; involves complete extinguishments of sparks or
smouldering (glowing) substances (embers) to prevent possibilities of re-ignition or
rekindling.
12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry
conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

1. Fighting a Forest Fire

Many grassland and forest fires occur in areas that are hard to reach and far from a source of
water. Local fire brigades have trucks that carry water and can travel over rough land. Observers in
helicopters or aeroplanes may fly over the fire and report on its size and behavior. Sometimes,
helicopters or aeroplanes are also used to carry fire fighters to the fire or to drop chemicals that slow
the spread of the fire.

Grassland and forest fires often spread rapidly and are difficult to put out. Fire fighters try to
keep the fire within the smallest area possible, and so they may first create a firebreak, or fire line. The
fire fighters clear a strip of land some distance in front of the racing flames. They cut down the grass or
trees and scrape away some of the soil with shovels. The fire fighters spray water or throw soil on the
flames until the fire is out.

In some cases, fire fighters allow a grassland or forest fire to burn. They may do so if the fire
has been caused by lightning or some other natural event. Such fires are a regular part of the life cycle of
grasslands and forests. However, fire fighters do try to limit or put out all forest and grassland fires that
threaten people or property.

2. Emergency Rescue Operations

Our fire fighting organizations have rescue companies to handle non-fire emergencies. For
example, rescue workers may be called to free people trapped under the wreckage of a fallen building or
in a car after an accident. They have specialized teams to rescue people who are stranded underwater
or in swift-flowing water, or on cliffs and in other high places.
3. Emergency Medical Operations

Many fire fighters provide medical care in non-fire emergencies before the patient is taken to
the hospital. These units make up an important part of their community's Emergency Medical Services
(EMS) system. They are the so called Paramedics.

Some fire fighting services provide only a basic, "first response" service. Ambulance workers or
other emergency workers then provide more advanced treatment and transport the patient to the
hospital. Paramedic units operate ambulances and use communication equipment to stay in touch with
a nearby hospital. Under the direction of a doctor, they may use advanced medical equipment and
administer drugs. They may also transport the patient to the hospital.
4. Fire Prevention and Fire Safety

To help prevent fires and reduce fire losses, local fire fighting services inspect public buildings.
They also teach people about fire safety. Many have a separate division that handles fire prevention and
fire safety programmes.

NOTES IN CDI
 5. Public Building Inspections

In consonance with the provisions of the Building Code (PD 1185), the Fire Bureau conduct
inspection buildings as theatres, stores, schools, and hospitals. The code specifies certain requirements
like portable fire extinguishers, a certain number of exits, and other fire safety features in public
buildings. Large buildings maybe required to provide built-in sprinkler systems and special water lines
to which fire hoses can be attached and to have fire alarm systems.
What is a Sprinkle System?
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed throughout a building. The pipes
carry water to nozzles in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the nozzles directly above the fire to
open and spray water.
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to enforce the local code. The officials
check the operating condition of the fire protection systems. They note the number and location of exits
and fire extinguishers. The inspection also covers housekeeping practices and many other matters that
affect fire safety. Fire inspectors may also review plans for a new building to make sure it meets the
safety code.

6. Public Education Program

Fire fighting services work with other local agencies to teach people how to prevent fires and
what to do during a fire. The fire fighting officials serve as instructors or advisers in fire safety courses
in schools.
They educate the public about deaths caused by fires that occur in private homes. Many home
fires are caused by leaving the kitchen when food is cooking, disposing of cigarettes improperly,
misusing portable heating equipment, and placing flammable or combustible items too close to heat
sources.
Fire fighting groups advise people to install smoke detectors in their homes.

What is a Smoke Detector?

Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small amount of smoke enters their
sensors. Smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home. Fire
protection experts recommend at least one detector for each floor of a residence.

Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire extinguishers in their homes. A
person must be sure, however, to call the fire fighting service before trying to extinguish a fire. It is also
important to use the right kind of extinguisher for the type of fire involved.

The Fire Extinguishments Theory

The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the
supply of any or all of the elements of fire.” Fire can be extinguished by reducing/ lowering the
temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical chain reaction.

4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment

1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction

 Cooling the temperature of the fire environment: usually done by using water.
 Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce
sufficient vapors that burn.
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal
 Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done by:
a. stopping the flow of liquid fuel
b. preventing the production of flammable gas
c. removing the solid fuel at the fire path
d. allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is consumed
3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution

NOTES IN CDI
 a. reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning area
b. by introducing inert gases
c. by separating oxygen from the fuel

4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition

 Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the production of
flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only on
burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering mode of combustion.

What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?

1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the best agent in cooling the burning solid
materials; water has a quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a burning material
below its ignition temperature; (Fire extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and
special solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher,
should be used for this type of fire.)

2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion). This type of fire is put or
controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing liquid.

3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to

always de-energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be used to put out these type
of fires are Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.

4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents marked specifically for metals. GE type,
meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires

5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.

Fire Extinguishers

A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids,
or gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire
(particularly small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.

It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.

What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of fight Class A and Class B fires
except class C fires.
2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to
fight class A, B, and C fires
3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical powder intended to fight all
classes of fires.
4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a larger
compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the
two solutions forms a stabilized foam of carbon dioxide bubbles
5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with water; a small
bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way that when the
extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the acid mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon
dioxide is formed by the reaction which results to the building of pressure inside the
extinguisher; this pressure forces the water solution out from the container through a hose.

6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting liquid, generalization

carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromethane; operation is by manual pumping or using a

NOTES IN CDI
 stored pressure; the stream of liquid that is expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and
forms a smothering blanket. This type is usually used in fires involving flammable liquids
or electrical equipment.
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning liquids and fires in live
electrical equipment; used mainly to put out Class C fires.

What are examples of extinguishing agents?

1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-Ammonium Phosphate ( NH H PO )

2. HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane

3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic foam-forming liquid designed for use
with fresh water.

4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick smothering action to the flames,
reducing the oxygen and suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates without leaving any
contamination or corrosive residue.

What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?

Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire extinguishers manufactured or sold in the
Philippines must be labelled or marked to show at least the following:

1. Date of original filling

2. Chemical Contents
3. Type of extinguisher
4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage
5. Name and address of the manufacturer
6. Name and address of the dealer.

What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?

Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the following types of fires extinguishers are
prohibited for manufacture or sale:

1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the container before the extinguisher’s
operation
2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless and air-aspiring nozzle is provided
4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any
concentration of formulation
5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one kilogram extinguishing agent
6. Glass bulb, “grenade” type, or “bomb” type of vaporizing liquid extinguishers which have to be
thrown to the fire or are mounted on specific location and which operate upon the melting of a
fusible link.
7. Thermatic special hazards single station extinguishers with extinguishing capability of less than
four and a half (4.5) cubic meters
8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.

What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?

NOTES IN CDI
 The general operating procedures in using a fire extinguisher may be modified by the acronym
PASS.

P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press
the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the
extinguisher body. Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The
handle can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent.

After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or possible re-flash of flammable liquids.
Make sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.

Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:

1. Communication Systems

They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a fire. Most fire alarms are
telephoned to the fire department. Many countries have introduced a simple, 3-digit number as the
telephone number to call in emergencies. This number can be dialed from almost any telephone and
from most pay phones without a coin. Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency line
is 166.

2. Fire Vehicles

Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are (1) engines, (2) ladder
appliances, and (3) rescue vehicles.

Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes water from a fire hydrant or
other source. The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses. Engines carry
several sizes of hoses and nozzles. Many also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line, which is
wound on a reel. The booster line is used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires.

Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder appliances--turntable ladders and hydraulic
platforms.

A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder
can be raised as high as 30 meters, or about eight storeys.

A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that can hold several people. The platform
is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting device consists of either a
hinged boom (long metal arm) or an extendable boom made of several sections that fit inside each other.
The boom on the largest vehicles can extend 46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the boom and
is used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump in a nearby engine generates the pressure needed
to spray the water.

Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes. They also
carry forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to let out
smoke. Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.

Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry
tools that ladder appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also carry additional equipment for unusual
rescues. They have such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic jacks,
for lifting heavy objects. They may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, fire
fighters can apply a large amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze them together or prise them
apart. The tool is often used to free people trapped in cars and other vehicles after an accident. Many

NOTES IN CDI
rescue vehicles also carry small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for
rescuing people from water or high places. In addition, they carry medical supplies and equipment.

Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and hazardous materials units. Airport
crash tenders are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is ineffective
against many aircraft fires, such as those that involve jet fuel or certain metals.

In addition to the above fire fighting equipment, fire fighters are also required to use protective
clothing.

Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, and other hazards.
They wear coats and trousers made of fire-resistant material. Other clothing includes special boots,
gloves, and helmets. Fire fighters also use a breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling smoke and toxic
gases.

Fire Prevention and Public Safety

As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the many safety measures used to keep
harmful fires from starting. Fires not only cause extensive damage to valuable property, but also
responsible for large numbers of deaths.

What are the methods of Fire Prevention?

Individuals, groups, and communities use three main methods to prevent fires:

1. Laws and Regulations - Many countries have codes and standards that require certain types
of fire retardant materials and electric wiring to be used in buildings.
2. Inspection of buildings and other property - Fire brigades and other public agencies inspect
public buildings for fire hazards and recommend corrective action. In some communities,
homeowners may agree to have their homes inspected for fire hazards.
3. Public education about fire safety and prevention - Education is a vital part of fire
prevention programmes because people cause to prevent--almost all fires. Fire brigades,
community groups, and schools teach children and adults about fire hazards and work to
reduce fires throughout the community.

FIRE INVESTIGATION

In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main government agency responsible for
the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and other structures, forest,
land transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major seaports,
petroleum industry installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of
the Fire Code and other related laws. It has the major power to investigate all causes of fires and
necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over the case (R.A.
no. 6975, sec. 54).

Why Fires should be investigated?

The very reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of the fire in order to
prevent similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is arrived at only after a
thorough investigation. Since basic investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of the fire,

NOTES IN CDI
an understanding of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a concern for successful
investigation.

Who are qualified to investigate fires?

A fire investigator should have the following traits:

1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.
2. He should have an insight of human behavior.
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire and its behavior
4. He should be resourceful.

Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?

Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the following reasons:

1. Fire destroys evidence
2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is discreet.
3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.

What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?

Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire investigators. Hence, they are valuable
sources of information. They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of the police before, during and after the
fire has been placed under control. The information taken from them may be categorize as:
1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene
2. Information available to the firemen at the scene
3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.

Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation

ARSON defined

Arson is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be
proved, otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal designs
must be shown. Fire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
negligence does not constitute arson.

What is Destructive Arson?

Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to
Death shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:

1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning, or
as a result of simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or different occasions.
2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general or
where people usually gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not limited to
official governmental function or business, private transaction, commerce, trade workshop,
meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose such as but not
limited to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops or terminals,
regardless of whether the offender had knowledge that there are persons in said building
or edifice at the time it is set on fire and regardless also of whether the building is actually
inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane devoted to
transportation or conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances thereto,
which are devoted to the service to public utilities.

NOTES IN CDI
 5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or destroying
evidence of another violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing bankruptcy or
defrauding creditors or to collect from insurance.

Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated qualifying circumstances, the penalty of
reclusion to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by two or
more persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy
the building or the building merely constitutes an overt act in the commission or another violation of
law.

The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be imposed upon any person who shall
burn:

1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or firework factory,

ordinance, storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or
explosives materials.

If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this Article, death results, the
mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed (sec. 10, RA 7659).

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

1. Kind and character of the building burned

2. Location of the building
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not.

What are other forms of arson?

Other forms of arson refer to those enumerated under Article 321 of the Revised Penal Code, as
amended like the following:

1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel

in port, knowing it to be occupied at the time by one or more person.
2. Building burned is a public building and value of damage exceeds six
thousands pesos (P6000.00).
3. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence
kept therein to be used in instituting prosecution for punishment of violators of law,
irrespective of the amount of damage.
4. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence
kept therein to be used in legislative, judicial or administrative proceeding, irrespective of
the damage, if the evidence is to be used against defendant of any crime punishable under
existing law.

Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)

Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or any other property, under
circumstances clearly excluding all danger of the fire spreading, value of the property not exceed 25.00
pesos.

Suggested Readings:
1. People vs. Alvarez, 52 Phil. 65
2. People vs. Herrera, (C.A) GR no. 5782-R, May 15, 1951
3. People vs. Camporedondo

Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)

NOTES IN CDI
The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:
1. explosion
2. discharge of electric current
3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
4. taking up the rails from a railway track
5. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving trains
6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any other communication
system
7. by using any other agency or means of destruction as effective as the above

Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson (Read Case of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil.
502) (Article 325, RPC)

Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively Owned By the Offender

This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:

1. Defraud or cause damage to another or
2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even if such purpose is absent or
3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.

Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson

Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson

1. If committed with intent to gain:

2. If committed with the benefit of another:
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned:
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored within the building
not necessary in the business of the offender or for house hold use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or
materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical,
or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the
foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time
of the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and / or
insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building
or property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of
business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or the safety of the person or property of the
victim.

What Constitutes Arson?

1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes place. In other words, there must be
burning or changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.

NOTES IN CDI
 2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally.
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

Methods of Proof in Arson

Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, Corpus Delicti must
be shown and identify of the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime) is the
fact of that crime was committed. The following must show it:

1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen
responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate
location.
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of
incendiary devices, flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is
not accidental.
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from the building before the fire, ill-
feeling between the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to
put off fire and such other indications.

What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?

The arson investigator must have to inquire on the following a) point of origin of fire b) motives
of arsonist c) prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.

1. Point of origin of fire

Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. In other words, at
what particular place in the building the fire started? This may be established by an examination of the
witness, by an inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of fire. The
fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves
upward on the walls leaving a bunt pattern.

Witnesses must be questioned as to:

1. His identity
2. What attracted his attention
3. Time of observation
4. His position in relation to the fire at the time of observation
5. Exact location of the blaze
6. Size and intensity
7. Rapidity of spread
8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this
9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness

Note fire setting mechanism

1. matches
2. candles
3. electrical system
4. mechanical means
5. chemical methods

2. Motive of Arsonist
To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following that fires
are set by:
Persons with Motives
a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer

NOTES IN CDI
 b. Employees or such other person who have a grievance (Fire revenge)
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
People without motives

a. Those who are mentally ill

b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros and the Psychos

Motives of Arsonist

1. Economic Gain

b. Insurance fraud – benefiting

c. Desire to dispose merchandise – lost of market value being out of season,
lack of raw materials, over supply of merchandise can be a big reason for arson.
d. Existing business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such as
impending liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash, prospective business
failure, and increase rentals
e. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Assured like insurance agents
wishing business with the assured, business competitors planning to drive others,
person seeking job as personnel protection, salvagers and contractors wishing to
contact another building

2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a crime or committing a crime, arson
was used as means.
3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to another due to hatred, jealousy and
revenge.

4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to

intimidate management or employer.
5. Pyromania

A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any

motivation. They do not run away from the fire scene since they love watching fire burning.

Types of Pyromania

a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons

b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the
alarm or make some rescue works to appear as “hero”
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts.

3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences)

The development of prime suspects - this involves identification results from the full
development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the development of
expert testimony, The following technique may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence:

a. Protection of the scene
b. Mechanics of search
c. Collection and preservation of evidences
d. Laboratory aids

2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other

person having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who turned
the first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.

NOTES IN CDI
 4. Surveillance

4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson

These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they maybe
so well concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be required.

1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a set fire under certain
circumstance. A fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene
is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete building.

2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is
certainly suspicious.

3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion, the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not
indicate the material used by the arsonist

a.) When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact
with the fire, it indicates humid material burning. Example – burning hay,
vegetable materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor).

b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing
indicates presence of chlorine.

c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates
petroleum products and rubber.

d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HN03, or HCI.

e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:

 Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics,
etc.
 Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
 White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
 Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
 Purple-violet flame – potassium products
 Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or Manganese products
 Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium products

8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an
important factor in determining incendiarism.
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000 degrees centigrade, a real bright
read about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate of petroleum. Blue flame indicates
use of alcohol as accelerant.
10. Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will determine the volume of smoke involved
at a fire and the character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks
have often been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire having more than one
place of origin.
11. Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time received
and the time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed a
normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after an examination of the material
burned the building and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and
the degree of headway by the flames become important factors to determine factors to
determine possible incendiarism.
12. Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it
can be shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials,
combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the

NOTES IN CDI
 sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread
abnormally fast.
13. Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes
indicate that some accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a
building and the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use of such
accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such
fluid as gasoline and kerosene.
14. Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are
often used as accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of
this telltale sign. Most of fire – setters are inclined to use substance which will make the
blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
15. Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects
of value either materially or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments
oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or replace valuable merchandise
without of style articles.

THE FIRE ORIGIN

One of the first things to look for is the origin of the fire. Usually, accidental fires have only one
origin; sometimes an arson fire will have several origins. That is, there will be two or more fires.
Normally, a fire burns outward laterally in all directions, the heat generated moves up, and fires seldom
burns down. Ventilation will also affects the burning pattern; but without unusual ventilation, fires burn
equally in all directions except down. It may be necessary to go to several spots and point back to the
most damaged areas; where the lines crosses probably will be the origin of the fire.

Explosions also feed in all directions; the heat effect is usually intense. The point of explosion is
usually easier to determine than the point of origin of other accelerants. Unless the investigator has ad
special training in this type investigation, it probably would be to his advantage to call in a specialist.

Alligator Pattern - The alligator pattern (checking of charred wood giving it the appearance of
alligator skin) caused by the fire often can be used to trace the fire to its origin. The pattern at the point
of origin is smaller and deeper than the rest of the areas. The pattern is also smaller and deeper at
points where flammable liquids were used.

Information from people - Many investigators have found that information from people help
them know what to look for the fire scene. The good investigator knows how to how to interview people
to get information that can help determine the origin of the fire, the cause of fire and even incendiary
origin of the fire. The owner, the family of the owner, person calling in the alarm, neighbors, witnesses,
or any person who might help in any way should be interviewed. If an investigator ever needed to be a
skilled interviewer, it is in arson investigation cases. Most people just do not like to talk about arson fire.
In general, they must be questioned as to the following.
a. His identity
b. His business in the arson of the fire.
c. What attracted his attention to it?
d. Time of observation and exact location of the blaze.
e. His position in relation to the fire at time of observation.
f. Size of intensity, rapidity of spread, and direct travel of flame.
g. Color of flame, and odor if he is in a position to observe these.
h. Other pertinent information.

METHODS OF ESTABLISHING ARSON

The usual methods involve examination of the fire scene. Although some of the most common
methods used are burn indicators, which are the effect on materials of heating or partial burning and
may be used to determine the point or points of origin of a fire. Fire accelerates the development of fire
and to increase the amount of devastation. If either multiple point of origin or traces of fire accelerants
are found arson is indicated.

Occasionally, detection of arson during a fire is done through a team of arson investigators in
the form of surveillance of the fire scene: suspicious behavior of spectators, an overzealous offer of

NOTES IN CDI
assistance by a spectator, or someone constantly driving over fire hoses are grounds for suspecting
arson. Behavior of owners, occupants, and other persons present as to their actions, excitements,
dresses, and other pertinent information are observed, which might be helpful later.

Observing people and vehicles as they approach and leave the scene. In a U.S. forest fire
scenerio, the detection of arson is aided by the practice of U.S. Forest Service firemen enroute to
configurations to take notice of the license numbers of vehicles departing from the scene, possible
incendiary fire. In at least one case, this procedure has led to the arrest of an arson suspect.

Gasoline was, by far, the most frequently found fire accelerant, possibly because it is readily
available. Its characteristic and familiar odor makes it easier to detect than most other flammable
liquids. To camouflaged the odor, incendiaries ordinarily used ammonia which has a pungent odor
easily recognized by firemen. Ammonia is also used to keep out firemen from the burning structure.
Other accelerants often used like kerosene, alcohol, firemen can easily distinguish rubber. Films have
pungent odors similar to camphor.

The size of fire, rapidity of spread and direction from the time of discovery to the arrival of the
firemen may indicate that certain flammable substance have been used to accelerate spread of fire.
Arsonist may also bore holes on walls and floors as a means for the fire to spread more rapidly.

Intensity of heat maybe an indication that flammable liquids or compounds could have been
used to spread the fire more rapidly. The firemen may experience sometimes that when a stream of
water are directed on such fire, instead of going out as might be ordinarily expected the fire will burn
with added intensity, and with a different color of flame such as red, blue, yellow or orange.

The color of the smoke, location, and size are all-valuables in determining the use of accelerant.
Although, some fires burns with little or no smoke, these are exceptions. The observation must be made
at the start of the fire, once the fire as assumed a major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost
because the smoke will not indicate the materials burning or used by the arsonist.

If white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it
indicates humid materials burning, such as hay, vegetables, phosphorus (with garlic odor). Black smoke
indicates lack of air, but if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum and rubber.

If biting smoke is encountered causing irritation of the nose and throat, lacrimation, and
coughings, presence of chlorine is indicated. Reddish-brown smoke might indicate nitrocellulose.

Arson is often used to conceal another crime. Documents and records that found purposely
exposed during a fire should be given particular attention, including doors, windows, and ventilators
that are open and provide cross-drafts. Locked and obstructed entrances or passageways to impede the
speedy transit of firemen and equipments.

GATHERING, PRESERVING, AND ANALYZING EVIDENCES

The arsonist expects the fire to destroy all of the evidence, and sometimes it does destroy most
of it. However, the investigator who digs hard enough many times comes up with evidence where
seemingly none exist. The cause of the fire should be investigated shortly after the fire is extinguished,
otherwise, very little can be done afterwards be-map-up and salvage operation. This is a crucial stage in
the detection and investigation of arson because cases rely on evidence that is recognized and preserved
at this point.

Finding and Preserving Evidence

As in all other investigations, only one person should pick up, mark and package all evidence,
and special care should be taken to maintain the chain of custody.

There are some special problems in arson investigation due to the types of accelerants that may
have been used. Accelerants used often are those of petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene,
mineral spirits, or anything containing volatile flammable liquid. Hydrocarbons of these products may
be found under the debris of the fire, at or near the point of the origin. These fluids, when originally

NOTES IN CDI
spread, flow outward and downward, hence evidence of these may be found in cracks in the floor or in
dirt under the fire. Just because the fire damage is extensive or there is no odor present does not mean
these types of accelerants were not used.

The crime lab in most cases would be needed to prove which type of accelerant was used. Wood
flooring and rugs are the most common substrates, followed by furniture and upholstery. These
materials are where the crime lab separates accelerant residues. Sections of the floors, the debris or
some dirt under the fire must be stored in glass or metal containers and sealed, to be of value to the
crime lab. Fumed from the accelerants or hydrocarbons would escape from plastic or open containers.

The predominant type of container used to preserve physical evidence from arson. Scenes are
the unused metal paint can. These containers are vapor-tight and unbreakable. Plastic bags, while
convenient and inexpensive, are easily punctured, are chemically attacked by some types of evidence,
and allow the loss of some volatile evidence by diffusing through the bag.

Time Delay Devices

Delayed action is achieved in setting incendiary fires by the used of certain mechanical,
electrical or chemical devices. They usually involve matches, candles, electric heating elements,
batteries and clock mechanisms coupled with flammable liquids, or chemicals that will spontaneously
ignite after a short delay. If none of these devices are found, the evidence, which should be the various
containers for them. The arsonist uses this delayed type of devices to establish an alibi.

Condition of Doors, Windows, Furniture

In cases where a building has burned to the ground, the hardware of doors and window remain.
They will fall straight down, unless moved by the water stream of the firemen. This may tell whether a
door or windows was opened or closed.

Metal parts of furniture may tell whether or not furniture has been moved from the building
before the fire. Ashes ay give the crime lb something to work with. For example, if extensive furniture
has bee moved from the house prior to the fire and inexpensive furniture move in, the crime lab can tell
from the ashes. Evidence of fraud fires should be carefully examined. This is tremendous problem and
should remain uppermost in the mind of the investigator.

Burn Indicator

Burn indicators are the effects on materials of heating or partial burning, which are used to
indicate various aspects of fire such as flammable liquids, and points of origin. Interpretation of burn
indicators is a principal means of determining the cause of the fire. Although burn indicators are widely
used to establish the causes of fires, they have received little scientific testing. Some of the burn
indicators used are the following:
Alligatoring effect: checking of charred wood, giving it the appearance of the alligator skin.
Large, rolling blisters indicates rapid, intense heat, while small, flat alligatoring indicates long, low heat.
Crazing of glass: formation of irregular cracks in glass due to rapid, intense heat, while small,
possible fire accelerant.
Depth of char: depth of burning wood – used to determine length of burn and thereby locate the
point of origin of the fire.
Line of demarcation: boundary between charred and uncharred material.On floors or rugs, a
puddle shaped line of demarcation is believed to indicate a liquid fire accelerant. In the cross section of
wood, a sharp, distinct line of demarcation indicates a rapid, intense fire.
Sagged furniture springs: because of the heat required for furniture springs to collapse from
their own weight (1150F) and because of the insulating effect of the upholstery, sagged springs are
believed to be possible only in either afire originating inside the cushions (as from a cigarette) rolling
between the cushions) or an extrnal fire intensified by a fire accelerant.
Spalling: breaking off of pieces of the surface of concrete, brick or cement due to intense heat.
Brown stains around the spall indicate the use of fire accelerant.

NOTES IN CDI
 Freezing of leaves: drying of leaves in a forest fire into their position at the time of the fire. Since
the leaves turn during the day. “Some persons regard this evidence as unreliable because of insufficient
clinical and research conformation and the influence of the fire wind.”
One of the authority, P.L.Kirk, cautions that puddle-shaped lines of demarcation may be due to
many causes which have nothing to do with flammable liquids. He also points out that depths of char is
strongly affected by factors other than burning time (such as temperature and species of wood) and that
much greater care must be taken in its interpretations than is frequently the case.

Olfactory Detection

Gasoline is a complex mixture of chemical compounds, the proportion of which vary with the
source of the crude oil and the type of process used in its manufacture. The sensitivity of the human nose
to gasoline vapor appears to be on the order of one part per ten million. So that, the nose is not sensitive.
Another problem, called olfactory fatigue, is the tendency of the nose to lose its sensitivity to an
odor after a prolonged or intense exposure to it. Further, the odor of fire accelerants may be masked by
other strong odor such as that of burnt debris or ammonia. In fact, in one case an arsonist attempted to
camouflage the presence of gasoline by mixing vanilla with it to mask the odor. Finally, it may be
inconvenient or impossible to search for accelerant odor with nose along with certain types of detector
equipment.

Other Types of Accelerant

Explosive types of accelerant usually leave little or no residue, but there maybesome types of
containers or parts of containers available; metal parts such as pieces of pipe, wire, batteries, and parts
of alarm clock. Evidence of forced entry, evidence of arson to cover up other crimes and evidence of
footprints or tire tracks (outside) should be carefully gathered and reserved. Do not take for granted
that fingerprints will be destroyed by the fire. Soot from the fire maybe perfect preservatives of
fingerprints.
The arsonist may use material on hand such as newspapers, overstuffed furniture, or anything
that burns easily. He may rearrange anything available to provide a quick burning situation. He may use
some type of petroleum accelerant on this material. If rearrange, fast-burning materials are use without
accelerants, a good photograph showing rearrangement may be sufficient. If some accelerant of
petroleum product is used, it will be necessary to place some of this material in glass or metal container
and sealed for the crime lab to examine.

TECHNICAL METHODS IN ARSON INVESTIGATION

The detection, recovery, and analysis of fire accelerants are of major concern to arson
investigators. The presence of flammable liquids can be used to establish that arson was committed and
can sometimes be used to link a suspect of fire. Although; objection is sometimes be raised that
identifiable amounts of liquid fire accelerants rarely survive a fire so that any effort or fund expanded
for their detection would be largely wasted. While there is not sufficient scientific investigation of this
subject, the day to day experience of arson investigation, is that accelerant residue are often found.
Furthermore, experiments have shown that accelerants can survive fires.

The areas most likely to contain residues of liquid fire accelerants are floors, carpets, and soil
since, like all liquids, they run to the lowest level. Also, these areas are likely to have the lowest
temperatures during the fire and may have insufficient oxygen to support the complete combustion of
the accelerant. Porous or cracked floors may allow accelerant to seep through the underlying earth.
Numerous instances have been recounted of the excellent retention properties of soil for flammable
liquids. Another place where accelerants, and the equipments sensitivities, limitations, advantages and
disadvantages.

Chemical Color Test Detectors

Chemical color test maybe used to detect both liquid accelerant residues and their vapors.
Certain dyes can spread in suspected areas and will indicate the presence of hydrocarbons by turning
red. This method is less sensitive and specific to flammable liquids than other methods which are

NOTES IN CDI
available. Also the dye may interfere with subsequent laboratory tests intended to identify the
accelerant. Hydrocarbon vapor scan be detected by pumping a suspected sample through a glass
container of reagent, which changes color in the presence of hydrocarbons. The reported sensitivity of
this method is on the order of one part per thousand. The detector will also react to hydrocarbons,
which are not fire accelerant.

Catalytic Combustion Detector

The most common type of flammable vapor detector used by arson investigators operates on
the catalytic combustion principle and is popularly known as sniffer, combustible gas indicator,
explosimeter, or vapor detector. In operation, vapor samples are pumped over a heated, platinum plated
coil of wire, which may cause any combustible gas present to oxidize. The heat from the oxidation raises
the electrical resistance of the coil and his changes in resistance are measured electronically. A
sensitivity to hexane vapor of a few parts per million can be achieved. Since oxygen is required for the
operation, the sensitivity is reduced in oxygen-deficient areas but these are unlikely in arson
investigations. (Also, an internal source of oxygen could be fitted to the detector if it were found to be
required. The other problem is the gradual loss of sensitivity when the detector is exposed to gasoline
containing lead. Lead deposits form on the platinum catalyst and interfere with its operation.

While the detector correctly indicate the presence of the more volatile fire accelerants
(gasoline, paint thinner), it gave low readings for less volatile accelerants (fuel oil, turpentine). This
situation might cause an investigator to overlook such an accelerant while searching a fire scene.

Flame Ionization Detector

In the flame ionization detector, the sample gas is mixed with hydrogen and the mixture is
burned. Ionized molecules are produced in the flame proportion to the amount of combustible organic
gases in the sample. (Pure hydrogen, air, and water vapor produce little ionization.) the degree of
ionization is then measured by using an electrometer to determine the resulting increase in the
electrical conductivity to methane is about one part per ten million.

Gas Chromatograph

The portable gas chromatograph adapted for field use, is sometimes called the arson
chromatograph. In the gas chromatograph, the sample is first separated into components based on the
speed with which the components travel though a tube filled with a packing material. The amounts of
each of the separated components are then measured with either a catalytic combustion of flame
ionization detector. The sensitivity rangers from a few hundredths of a part per million to a few parts
per million depending on the type of detector used. The main advantage is a great enhancement in
specificity because of the preliminary separation process: the distribution in the amounts of
components with various travel times tends to be unique characteristics of chemical compounds. The
principal disadvantages are the time required for the analysis of each sample of about one-half hour,
which can be a disadvantage in some situations. In addition, there is an initial setup time of about one
hour. The operation of the gas chromatograph is considerably more complex and requires a certain
amount of the technical training.

Infrared Spectrophotometer

Infrared spectrophotometers can achieved very high specificity to flammable liquids and high
sensitivity of about hundredths of part per million. In operation, infrared light of varying wavelengths is
directed through the sample and the amount of light passing through it is plotted on a pen recorder. The
recording can then be compared with those of known compounds determine the identity of the sample.
Since the chemical bonds in the compound determine the way in which infrared radiation, these
recording called spectrograms are unique for different compounds.

However, evidence mixed with impurities must be purified before it can be successfully
identified. In particular, since water vapor absorbs infrared light, it interferes with the identification of
flammable vapors. This is a disadvantage in arson investigation, where water is commonly present.

NOTES IN CDI
Ultraviolet Fluorescence

The operational procedure consists simply of illuminating the darkened fire scene with
ultraviolet lamp. Certain substances, including constituents of gasoline and its residue, absorbs the
ultraviolet light and release the energy as visible light. These substances appear to glow against the
darkened background. The color with which the substances glow is affected by exposure to heat, and
thus, the method can be used not only to locate accelerant residues but also to help locate the point of
origin of the fire. The only equipment required is an ultraviolet lamp and portable power supply.

Recovery of Fire Accelerant Residue

Accelerant residues must first be separated from the ashes, wood, carpeting, or other material
in which they are found before they can be analyzed. This extraction is usually accomplished by one of
three types. Of distillation: simple, steam, or vacuum. Both steam and vacuum distillation are capable of
extracting 64% of any gasoline from debris.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

1. GENERAL:

To know what question to ask and what to look for, you must have some fundamental
bearing on accidents and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows
what you mean – SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody
injured or possibly killed.

In this relation, as traffic law enforcers, you should have knowledge of traffic accidents
and their investigations.

2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION DETERMINES THE FOLLOWING:

a. WHAT happened?
b. WHO were involved?
c. WHERE did it happen?
d. WHY did it happen?
e. HOW did the accident occur?
f. WHEN did the accident happen?

3. PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:

Accidents are generally investigated for four (4) main reasons, depending on who does
the investigation:

a. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
b. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of law
violation in the accident to take enforcement action.
c. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers
involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
d. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know how to prevent
future accidents.

4. DEFINITIONS:

a. TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by

combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of
travel.
b. ACCIDENT – is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage.

NOTES IN CDI
 c. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
d. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – is any event that results in unintended injury or property
damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.
Included are:

1. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;

2. Fires;
3. Explosion;
4. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
5. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary
rails or tracks;
6. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.

Excluded are:
1. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
2. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth
surface);
3. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on
or unloaded from another conveyance.

e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is
propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated
upon rails.
f. TRAFFIC WAY – is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of
which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a
matter of right or custom.
g. ROADWAY – the portion of a traffic way which is improved, designed or ordinarily used
for vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.
h. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
i. DEBRIS – is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other
materials left at the scene of the accident by a collision.
j. SKID MARKS – are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate,
usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
k. SCUFF MARKS – are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while
the wheel is still turning.

5. KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

1. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
e.g. ordinarily collision between automobiles on a highway.

2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in
any place other than a traffic way.
e.g. accident on a private driveway.

3. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving
persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle
in motion.
e.g. pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO KEY EVENT:

Running off road 1

Non-collision on road: Overturning 2
Other non-collision 3
Collision on road with: Pedestrian 4
Other motor vehicle in traffic 5
Parked motor 6
Railroad train 7

NOTES IN CDI
 Bicycle 8
Animal 9
Fixed object 10
Other objects 11

7. CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY:

a. Property Damage Accident – is any motor vehicle accident where three is no fatal or
injury to any person but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property
including injury to animals.
b. Slight – accident causing slight damages to properties.
c. Non-Fata Injury Accident – any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other
than fatal to one or more persons.
c.1 Less Serious – accidents causing less serious injuries to persons.
c.2 Serious – causing serious injuries to persons.
d. Fatal – any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more persons.

8. TRAFFIC UNIT – is any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a
pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal, which he is using. It applies not only to
motor vehicle but also to:

a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination.

Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.

HAZARDS – A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic

unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both. Example: A
curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.

SAFE SPEED – The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic
situation ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the
particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it
is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.

PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – Seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the unusual or

unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as a sight of an accident about
to happen.

9. CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT:

For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may usually be described well enough as
a single occurrence but when accident is investigated, attention is directed to particular stages
of the occurrence.

In fact, an accident may be usually defined as a series of an expected events leading to

damage or injury. One event usually leads to another so that the series can be spoken of as a
“chain of events”. Some of these events are described below:

a. Perception of hazard – is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or

unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to
happen.

b. Start of evasive action – is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.

NOTES IN CDI
 c. Initial Contact – is a first accidental touching of an object collision course of otherwise
avoid a hazard.
d. Maximum Engagement – is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision the force between
the traffic unit and the object collided with - are greatest at maximum engagement.
e. Disengagement – is separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it
has collided. Force between the object ceases at this time.
f. Stopping – is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
g. Injury – is receiving bodily harm.

POINT OF NO ESCAPE – is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be
prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.

FINAL POSITION – is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to rest
without application of power.

FIVE (5) LEVELS OF ACTIVITY IN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

a. Reporting
b. At-scene investigation
c. Technical, preparation
d. Professional reconstruction\
e. Cause analysis

SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

SKIDMARKS - The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition
places such a great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at this
point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and the road surface. When this
condition exists, the wheels skid.

SKIDMARKS AS EVIDENCE IN ACCIDENT CASES

Skid marks are useful in several ways:

1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was travelling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM SKIMARKS:

Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed
of the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the ration of
the increase in speed.

EXAMPLES:

20 kph = 40

30 kph = 90

40 kph = 160

HIT AND RUN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The objectives of the investigation of motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the
participants in are two fold. First, responsibility for the collision must be determined and secondly, the
identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.

NOTES IN CDI
What is Hit and Run Case?

Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic accident in which a driver fails to
comply with any of the duties required (Sec. 55 of RA 4136). Further, it states that no driver of a motor
vehicle concerned in a vehicle accident shall leave the scene of the accident without aiding the victim,
except under any of the following circumstances:

a) If the driver is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or

persons by reason of the accident;
b) If the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
c) If the driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

ELEMENTS OF HIT-AND-RUN CASES

a. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of
the accident. Even if you have witnesses to prove this, get evidence to disprove his alibi.
b. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death,
personal injury or damage to property.
c. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his
identify to other person (s) involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or failed to
take reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged property other than a vehicle. Do not
overlook the possibility of a simulated second accident to explain damaged caused by the first
accident.
d. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.

1. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured

in the accident.
2. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to
vehicle would preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his
vehicle for several days since the accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
3. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen
to evade responsibility.

CLASSES OF HIT-AND-RUN DRIVERS

a. Drunk drivers
b. Criminals fleeing from the scene of the
crime.
c. Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers
with no license or with revoked or expired license.
d. Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e. Ignorance of the accident.
f. Driver who flees in panic
g. Drug addicts.
h. Insurance or financial reasons.
i. Juveniles.

DRUG EDUCATION AND VICE CONTROL

Definition of Terms

 Drug – is a chemical substance used as medicine or in the making of medicines, which

affects the body and mind and have potential for abuse.
 Chemical – is any substance taken into the body that alters the way and the mind and
the body work.
 Chemical Abuse – is an instance when the use of chemical has produced negative or
harmful consequences.
 Narcotic Drug – refers to illegally used drugs or dangerous drugs, which are either
prohibited or regulated drugs. It also refers to drugs that produces sleep or stupor and relieves

NOTES IN CDI
 pain due to its depressant effect on the CNS. The term Narcotic comes from the Greek word
“narcotikos”. It is sometimes known as “opiates”.
 Drug Abuse – is the illegal, wrongful or improper use of any drug.
 Drug Addiction – refers to the state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the
repeated consumption of a drug.
 Drug Dependence – refers to the state of psychic or physical dependence or both on
dangerous drugs following the administration or use of that drug. WHO defines it as the
periodic, continuous, repeated administration of a drug.
 Physical Dependence – an adaptive state caused by repeated drug use that reveals it
self by development of intense physical symptoms when the drug is stopped (withdrawal
syndrome).
 Psychological Dependence – an attachment to drug use that arises from a drug ability
to satisfy some emotional or personality needs of an individual.
 Tolerance – is the increasing dosage of drugs to maintain the same effect in the body.
 Pusher – any person who sell, administer, deliver or give away to another, distribute,
transport any dangerous drug.
 Use - the act of injecting, consuming, any dangerous drugs. The means of introducing
the dangerous drug into the physiological system of the body.
 Administer – the act of introducing any dangerous drug into the body of any person
with or without his knowledge.
 Manufacture – the production, preparation, compounding or processing a dangerous
drug either directly or indirectly or by extraction from substances of natural origin or by
chemical synthesis.
 Drug Experimenter – one who illegally, wrongfully, or improperly uses any narcotic
substances for reasons of curiosity, peer pressure, or other similar reasons.
 Drug Syndicate – It is a network of illegal drug operations operated and manned
carefully by groups of criminals who knowingly traffic through nefarious trade for personal or
group profit.

Drug Abuse Jargons

 “Opiate” - Narcotic
 “On-the-Nod/ “Nodding” - the state produced by opiates like being suspended on the edge of sleep.
 “Mainline’/ “to shoot” - injecting a drug into the vein
 “A Hit” - the street slang for injection of drugs
 “Work” - an apparatus for injecting a drug
 “A Fix” - one injection of opiate
 “Juni” - heroin
 “Junkie” - an opiate addict
 “Skin popping” - to inject a drug under the skin
 “A Bag” - a pocket of drug
 “Cold Turkey” - the withdrawal effect that occurs after a repeated opiate use
 “Track” - scars on the skin left from the repeated injection of opiate
 “Overdose” - death occurs because the part of the brain that controls breathing becomes paralyzed.
 “Speed” - amphetamines
 “Speed Freaks” - amphetamine addicts
 “Uppers” - street slang for amphetamines
 “Rush” - the beginning of a high
 “High” - under the influence of drugs
 “Coke” - street slang for cocaine
 “Flashback” - user can be thrown back into the drug experience months after the original use of drug.
 “Acid” - slang term for LSD
 “Acid Head” - LSD user
 “Drop” - taking drug orally
 “Joint” - an MJ Cigar
 “Roach” - butt end of a joint
 “Stoned” - the intoxicating effect of a drug
 “Trip” - the name for the reaction that is caused by drugs
 “Head” - drug user

NOTES IN CDI
  “Downer” - street slang for depressant

WHAT ARE DRUGS?

A drug, as defined, is a chemical substance used as a medicine or in making medicines, which

affects the body and mind and have potential for abuse. Without an advice or prescription from a
physician, drugs can be harmful.
A. THE PRESCRIPTIVE DRUGS

These are drugs requiring written authorization from a doctor to allow a purchase. They are
prescribed according to the individual’s age, weight and height and should not be taken by anyone else.
It is a personal requirement and self-medication that should be strictly avoided. The pharmacist should
never allow the consumer to request them knowingly without first consulting a doctor.

Once again strict emphasis of following directions needs to be stated. In addition to dosage, the
physician indicates both when and for how long the medicine should be taken. Theses directions are
intended to safeguard the patient from needlessly treating himself after his illness has been brought
under control or from prematurely stopping a drug because he thinks he is well. Since the chemistry of
the body is subtle and variable, only a physician should have the responsibility of prescribing and
directing the use of drugs in the treatment of illnesses.

B. THE OVER - THE COUNTER - DRUGS (OTC)

These are non-prescription medicines, which may be purchased from any pharmacy or
drugstore without written authorization from a doctor. They are use to treat minor and short term
illnesses and any persistent condition should be immediately referred to a physician. It should be
strongly emphasized that “directions” be closely followed and all precautions necessarily taken to avoid
complications.
OTC drugs are used for the prevention and symptomatic relief of minor ailments. The
precautions that must be observed when dispensing OTCs are the following:

1. the correct drug with the correct drug content is given to the correct patient in the correct
dosage form;
2. the pharmacist must counsel the patient to make sure that he/she takes the drugs correctly;
and
3. the pharmacist must be aware of and know about the possible toxicity’s possessed by the OTC
drugs to avoid food/drug incompatibilities and overdoses.

C. The “Self-Medication Syndrome”

The “self-medication” syndrome is found in users and would be users of drugs whose sources of
information are people or literature other than doctors, pharmacists and health workers. These could
be members of the family, relatives, and/or neighbors, all of whom may have previously used the drug
for their specific disease or disorder. Self-medication may work against the good of the user because it
can lead to intoxication and other adverse reactions.

HOW DRUGS WORK?

Most drugs act within a cell, rather than on the surface of a cell or in the extracellular fluids of
the body. Similar to normal body chemicals, a drug enters a cell and participates in a few steps of the
normal sequence of a cellular process. Thus, drugs may later, interfere with or replace chemicals of
normal cellular life, hopefully for the betterment of the person. The actual action of a particular drug
depends on its chemical make-up.

When two drugs are taken together or within a few hours of each other they may interact with
unexpected results. This is one reason a physician should always know the names of all drugs one is
using. A dose of a drug is the amount taken at one time. The doses taken become an extremely important
part of drug abuse. The amount of drug in a dose can be described as:

1. Minimal dose – amount needed to treat or heal, that is, the smallest amount of a drug that will
produce a therapeutic effect.

NOTES IN CDI
 2. Maximal dose – largest amount of a drug that will produce a desired therapeutic effect,
without any accompanying symptoms of toxicity.
3. Toxic dose – amount of d rug that produces untoward effects or symptoms of poisoning
4. Abusive dose – amount needed to produce the side effects and action desired by an
individual who improperly uses it
5. Lethal dose – amount of drug that will cause death

HOW DRUGS ARE ADMINISTERED?

1. Oral – this is the safest most convenient and economical route whenever
possible. There are however, drugs, which cannot be administered this way because they are
readily destroyed by the digestive juices or because they irritate the mucous lining of the
gastro-intestinal tract and induce vomiting.
2. Injection – this form of drug administration offers a faster response than the
oral method. It makes use of a needle or other device to deliver the drugs directly into the body
tissue and blood circulation.
3. Inhalation – this route makes use of gaseous and volatile drugs, which are
inhaled and absorbed rapidly through the mucous of the respiratory tract.
4. Topical – this refers to the application of drugs directly to a body site such as
the skin and the mucous membrane.
5. Iontophoresis – the introduction of drugs into the deeper layers of the skin by
the use of special type of electric current for local effect.

THE CONCEPT OF TOXICOLOGY

1. Overdose – when too much of a drug in taken, there may be an over extension of its effects.
2. Allergy – some drugs cause the release of histamine giving rise to allergic symptoms such as
dermatitis, swelling, fall in blood pressure, suffocation and death.
3. Idiosyncrasy – for unexplained reasons, morphine, which sedates all men, stimulates and
renders some women some maniacal. Perhaps the phrase “catty woman” has pharmacological
basis since most mammals are sedated by morphine but some cats become extremely excited by
it.
4. General Protoplasmic Poison Property – drugs are chemicals and some of them have the
property of being general protoplasmic poisons.
5. Side Effects – some drugs are not receptors for one organ but receptors of other organs as
well. The effect in the other organ may constitute a side effect, which is unwanted.

THE MEDICAL USE OF DRUGS

The best use of medicine depends upon the physician, the user or patient, and lastly, the
pharmacist. This idea was subscribed to by both Metro Manila Physicians (PNC Health Education Survey,
1983) and the Pharmaceutical Manufacturer’s Association of Washington, D.C. (U.P., MEC, DDB 1979).
Their common agreements on the intelligent use of drugs are presented below.

HISTORY OF DRUG ABUSE

The Holy Bible is a very reliable source in tracing the early use and abuse of narcotics. The Book
of Judges of the Old Testament revealed that the mighty Samson was put to sleep by Delilah by means of
a drug-laced wine before cutting his hair, the source of his strength, and subsequently gouged his eyes
before the feasting Philistines already “high spirited” with narcotics mixed with intoxicants. There are
also many allusions of drug abuse in the old cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which might have led to the
widespread adultery, bestiality and incest (Sotto, 1994).
Ancient Greek and Roman literature likewise are replete with stories alluding to drug abuse, as
in the lamentable and tragic romance of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. Cleopatra, in desperation over her
disprized love drank a narcotic-laden wine before allowing her self to be bitten to death by a poisonous
asp from the River Nile. Even in the practice of oracles and black magic during the Roman ancient times
were believed to be accomplished by “narcotics”(Sotto, 1994).
Historians credited that marijuana (Cannabis Sativa) is the world’s oldest cultivated plant
started by the Incas of Peru. Peruvian and Mexican Incas have also the common practice to use the coca
leaves during religious offering ceremonies. It was also known that marijuana was a “sacred tree” in the
belief of the Assyrians being used during religious rituals – some 9,000 years B.C. The use of marijuana

NOTES IN CDI
 is also deeply ingrained in the cultures of many countries such as India, Jamaica, Morocco,
Nepal, Mexico and Peru (Sotto, 1994). The first reference of introduction was in Northern Iran as an
intoxicant. And from there it spread throughout India by the Hindus used for religious rituals in the
belief that it is a source of happiness and “laughter provoker”. The word “hashis” (resin) of the
Marijuana plant was derived from the name Hasan or Hashasin, the Muslim cult leader who fed his
disciples a preparation made from the resin of the female hemp plant as a reward for their successful
activities in assassinations.
American Indians too are believed to use not only the stimulant tobacco but also opium in their
peace pipes in order to “narcotize” an oppositionist to their common objectives (Sotto, 1994).

Knowledge on the opium poppy plant (Papaver Somniferum) goes back about 7000 years B.C
cultivated and prepared by the Summerians. Even the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, the Father of
Medicine, prescribed the juice of the white poppy plant as early as 5,000 B.C in the belief that it can cure
many illnesses both in the internal and external use. The plant was first harvested in Mesopotamia and
its use spread through out the neighboring Mediterranean areas, then to Asia. From there, it was
introduced to Persia, India and China by the Arab came caravans (Dungo, 1988).

Opium use in China was stemmed out from India and became widespread in the 19 th Century.
From Middle East, the plant was cultivated in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Five centuries later, An
Opium trade between China and Portuguese merchants became a lucrative business. The British took
over the trade from the Portuguese and established the Opium Trade Monopoly through the British East
Indies Company.

In an Attempt to stop the extremely high rate of opium addiction in China, Emperor Yung Chen
prohibited the smoking of opium and attempted to close ports for its importation. This triggered the
“opium war” of 1840 which induced China to accept the British sponsored opium trade and forced to
sign a treaty permitting the importation of opium intro China after her defeat.

It was in 1806 that a German pharmacist in the name of Friedrich W. Serturner discovered
Morphine, the first derivative of opium. He called this new drug as “Morphium” and later changed to
Morphine after the Greek god of dream, Morpheus. This was the first attempt to cure opium addiction.
But morphine addictive properties came to prominence during the American Civil War vast numbers of
American soldiers became addicted to the drug – so much so that morphine addiction became known as
“soldiers disease”.

The second attempt of treating opium and morphine addiction started in 1896 when Heroin
(Diacetylmorphine), synthesized from the drug morphine, was discovered by a British chemist in the
name of Alder Wright. It was called the “miracle drug” because it is believed that it can cure both opium
and morphine addiction. It was named after the word “hero” due to its impressive power. So physicians
began to use heroin but it became a substitution of one addiction to another. It turns out later that
heroin is the most addictive of all drugs.

Meanwhile, codeine, the third derivative of opium was discovered in France while in the
process of discovering other drugs that could cure opium, morphine and heroin addiction but it also
ended in the same tragic result. Today, it is widely used as an ingredient in most cough syrup.

There are of course other historical events that would reveal drug abuse in the history of man,
the greatest influence of the modern medical practice today. In fact, physicians all over the world still
consider narcotics as the most effective pain reliever (Sotto, 1994).

HISTORY OF DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Very little known about drugs in the Philippines during the pre- Spanish era. The intoxicants
and stimulants used by the early Filipinos were fermented alcoholic beverages and the masticatory
preparations known as “nga-nga” in vernacular. Narcotics, including marijuana, were not in the list of
vices in the country at that time. The opium poppy plant and the coca bush were absent in the Philippine
vegetation prior to 1521.

During the Spanish era, drug control laws prohibited the use of opium by the native Filipinos
and other people except the Chinese. Chinese residents in the Philippines particularly in Manila and of
the more distant Chinese pariahs (ghettos) started smoking opium in 1780. As a vice, it was not

NOTES IN CDI
widespread and was particularly accepted and tolerated by the authorities. In 1844, The Spanish
colonial government laid down an opium monopoly, which entitled the importation by the Spanish
government and its sale to Chinese users. At this period, opium smoking became widespread among
Chinese as its use was forbidden to Indians, Mestizos and the Filipinos. This compromise policy
lasted up to 1896, a period of revolt and insurrection.

The Americans took over the rule of the country, and after establishing a civil government in
1901, a systematic survey was conducted and it was found out that there were 190 joints where the
Chinese smoke opium. It was observed that the habit had not yet gained foothold among Filipinos. In
1906, partial legislation allowed Chinese addicts to obtain a license to use opium in their homes for a fee
of P5.00. The opium sale was under the government control and the quality was limited.

In 1908, the total ban of opium was effected. The campaign continued until the Japanese
occupation in 1946, at which point all supplies of opium were cut of from the country and during that
period the number of opium addicts was probably the lowest in Asia.

In 1953, Republic Act No. 953 was enacted which provided for the registration of collection, and
the imposition of fixed and special taxes upon all persons who produce, import, manufacture,
compound, deal-in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium, marijuana, opium poppies, or coca
leaves or any synthetic drugs which may declared as habit forming. The law also declared as a matter of
national policy, the prohibition of the cultivation of marijuana and opium poppy.

Some time in 1955, the marijuana plant was introduced in Pasay City by foreigners for purpose
of producing “reefers”. These were sold in taverns in Pasay City and introduced into elite schools in the
same area. The PC Criminal Investigation on January 8, 1959 conducted the first marijuana raid in Pasay
City when several potted marijuana plants were seized.

The Philippines has been relatively heroin-free until the early 60’s when small heroin
laboratories opened in Manila. In 1963, new trends appear. There was a waning of opium addiction
among the Chinese but a concurrent increase among the Filipinos, just the latter contributed 63 percent
of the total arrests from drug offenses.

Recognizing the deleterious effect of drug abuse on the health and well-being of the Filipino
youth and the threat that it poses to national security, then President Ferdinand Marcos signed into law
Republic Act No. 6425 known as the “Dangerous Drug Act of 1972” on March 30, 1972. This law which
was amended by Presidential Decree No. 44, dated November 9, 1972 placed under control not only
narcotics by also psychotropic substances. On November 14, 1972, the Dangerous Drug Board was
organized to provide leadership, direction and coordination in the effective implementation of R.A.
6425. By early 1974, addiction to opiates and barbiturates had almost disappeared among the native
population.

During the period 1975-1980 the cultivation of marijuana increased and became geographically
widespread, thus the pattern of drug taking involved marijuana, abuse of pharmaceutical products
(especially cough syrup) and the inhalation of solvents. There was very little trafficking of heroin,
cocaine and LSD and the non-availability of narcotic drugs made the prices sour beyond the reach of
Filipino drug abusers.

THE INFLUENCES OF DRUG ABUSE

Concept of Drug Abuse

The term Drug Abuse most often refers to the use of a drug with such frequency that it causes
physical or mental harm to the user or impairs social functioning. Although the term seems to imply that
users abuse the drugs they take, in fact, it is themselves or others they abuse by using drugs.

Traditionally, the term drug abuse referred to the use of any drug prohibited by law, regardless
of whether it was actually harmful or not. This meant that any use of Marijuana, for example, even if it
occurred only once in a while, would constitute abuse, while the same level of alcohol consumption
would not.

NOTES IN CDI
 The term drug is commonly associated with substances that may be purchased legally with
prescription for medical use. Other substances that may be purchased legally without prescription and
are commonly abused include alcohol and the nicotine contained in tobacco cigarettes (Groiler, 1995).

Concept of Drug Dependence

Drug abuse must be distinguished from drug dependence. Drug dependence, which is
sometimes called drug addiction, is defined by basic three characteristics (Groiler, 1995).
The users continue to take a drug over an extended period of time. Just the long this period is dependent
on the drug and the user.

The users find it difficult to stop using the drug. They seem powerless to quit the drug use. Users
take extraordinary and often harmful measures to continue using the drug. They will drop out of school,
steal, leave their families, go to jail and lose their job to keep using drug.

The users stop taking their drug – only if their supply of the drug is cut off, or if they are forced
to quit for any reason – they will undergo painful physical or mental distress. The experience of
withdrawal distress, called the withdrawal syndrome, is a sure sign that a drug is dependency-producing
and that the user is dependent on the drug. Drug dependence may lead to drug abuse – especially the
illegal drugs

Concept of Drug Addiction

Drug addiction is a state of mind in which a person has lost the power of self-control in respect
of a drug. He consumes the drug repeatedly leaving aside all values of life. In other words a drug addict
will resort to crime even, to satisfy his repeated craving for the drug. The effects of addiction are mainly
deteriorative personality Changes. They include insomnia, instability, lack of self-confidence especially
when not under the influence of drug. The addict can not concentrate on any work. He avoids social
contacts. Slowly, mentally, physically, and morally he becomes from bad to worse and a burden to the
society.

One or more of the following attributes characterizes drug addiction:

1. Compulsion/ Uncontrollable Craving – the addict feels a compulsive craving to take drug
repeatedly and tries to procure the same by any means.
2. Tolerance – it is the tendency to increase the dose of the drug to produce the same effect as to
that of the original effect.
3. Addiction – the addict is powerless to quit drug use.
4. Physical Dependence – the addict’s physiological functioning is altered. The body becomes
sick, inactive and incapable of carrying out useful activity in the absence of the drug. The withdrawal
syndromes will occur once the drug use is stopped.
5. Psychological Dependence – Emotional and mental discomfort exist to the individual. The
drug addict feels he can not do without the drug, consequently if he does not take the drug his mental
processes are affected. He can not carryout his work efficiently.
6. Withdrawal Syndrome – The addict becomes nervous and restless when he does not get the
drug. After about 12 hours, he starts sweating. His nose and eyes becomes watery and continue doing so
increasingly for another twelve hours. It is followed by vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite and sleep.
Respiration, blood pressure and body temperature also rises. This will continue up to three days. After
which, the trouble starts subsiding and most of it is gone in about a week’s time. Complete recovery
takes place in three to six months.

D. The Psycho-Social Factors

1. Personality Disorder - Drug abuse is a manifestation of an underlying character of

personality disorder. Thus majority of the drug users are fundamentally immature, emotionally childish,
insecure or are suffering from problems of adolescence.

2. Social Disorder - A sign or symptom of family problem involving parent – child relationship,
peer pressures, unethical values.

The 7 Deadly Sins - Primary Causes of Drug Abuse

NOTES IN CDI
 1. Pride – excessive feeling of self-worth or self-esteem, sense of self-importance.
2. Anger - unexpressed, deep-seated anger against himself, his family, his friends or the society
in general.
3. Lust – burning sexual desire can distort the human mind to drug abuse.
4. Gluttony – “food trip” in the lingo of junkies
5. Greed – wealth, fame, recognition as exemplified by people under pressure in their work of
art, such as musicians, actors, athletes who indulge in drug abuse.
6. Envy – to get attention from someone: as a sign of protest envy is a major cause of drug abuse.
7. Laziness –“ I can’t syndrome”, incapacity to achieve – the breeding ground of drug abuse.
Boredom coupled with poor self-image.

Likewise, addiction may be acquired through:

1. Habituation – closely related to euphoric effect, and the relief of pain or emotional
discomfort.
2. Toleration – the necessity to increase the dose to obtain an effect equivalent to the
original dose.
3. Dependence – the altered physiological state brought about by the repeated
administration of the drug, which necessitates the continued use of the drug to avoid
withdrawal syndrome.

What are the Group Classifications of Drug Abusers?

1. Situational Users – those who use drugs to keep them awake or for additional energy to
perform an important work. Such individual may or may not exhibit psychological dependence.

2. Spree Users – school age users who take drugs for “kicks’, an adventurous daring experience,
or as a means of fun. There may be some degree of psychological dependence but little physical
dependence due to the mixed pattern of use.

3. Hard Core Addicts – those, whose activities revolve almost entirely around the drug
experience and securing supplies. They show strong psychological dependence on the drug.

4. Hippies – those who are addicted to drugs believing that drug is an integral part of life.

IDENTIFICATION OF DRUG ABUSER

The following markers can help in identifying them:

1. Change in interest – they lose interest in their studies and in their work. They fail in school, shift
from one course to another, transfer of school of lower standard until eventually drop out.

2. Frequent shifting of mood – they are euphoric, elated and sometimes even ecstatic when under the
influence of drugs. They would be indifferent, irritable and even hostile when the effect of drug is
waning from the system.

3. Changes in behavior – they usually spend a lot. They are usually in the company of known drug users
in the community. They come home late; they become disrespectful and would sell personal or
family valuables.

4. Changes in physical appearance – if they can be seen while still under the influence of drugs the
following can be noted:
1. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

a. Intelligence Test – the test is designed to cover a wide variety of mental functions with
special emphasis on adjustment comprehension and reasoning.
b. Personality Test – this type of test is used to evaluate the character and personality traits of
an individual such as his emotional adjustment, interpersonal relation, motivation and
attitude.
c. Aptitude Test – this test is to measure the readiness with which the individual increases his
knowledge and improves skills when given the necessary opportunity and training.

NOTES IN CDI
 d.
Interest Test – this is designed to reveal the field of interest that a client will be interested
in.
e. Psychiatric Evaluation – it is a process whereby a team of professionals composed of
psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric social workers conduct an examination to
determine whether or not a patient is suffering from psychiatric disorder.
THE GLOBAL DRUG SITUATION

Drug abuse has become not only a national issue or a problem of just a few countries but it is a
clear and present global danger.

Today, highly entrenched, well-organized drug syndicates are behind this menace. They employ
the most advanced and most sophisticated technology coupled with unlimited financial resources at
their command and disposal. Police agencies around the world, pooling their resources together are
more often than not, the losers in a game of hide-and-seek with the international drug syndicates (Sotto,
1994).

A. The 1st Important Drug Traffic Route

Middle East – discovery, plantation, cultivation, harvest

Turkey - preparation for distribution

Europe - manufacture, synthesis, refine

U.S. - Marketing

B. The 2nd Major Drug Traffic Route

A. Drugs that originates from the Golden Triangle

Burma/Myanmar

Laos Thailand

B. Drugs that originates from the Golden Crescent

- Iran
- Afghanistan
- Pakistan
- India

C. World’s Drug Scene

1. Southeast Asia – the “Golden Triangle” approximately produced 60% of opium in the world,
90% percent of opium in the eastern part of Asia. It is also the officially acknowledged source of
Southeast Asian Heroin.
2. Southwest Asia – the “Golden Crescent” is the major supplier of opium poppy, MJ and Heroin
products in the western part of Asia. It produces at least 85% to 90% of all illicit heroin channeled in the
drug underworld market.
3. Middle East – the Becka Valley of Lebanon is the biggest producer of cannabis in the Middle
East. Lebanon is also considered as the transit country for cocaine from South America to European
markets.
4. Spain – major transshipment point for international drug traffickers in Europe – known as
“the paradise of drug users in Europe”.

NOTES IN CDI
 5. South America – Columbia, Peru, Uruguay, and Panama are the sources of all cocaine supply
in the world.
6. Morocco – the number one producer of cannabis in the world. (2003 to 2006)
7. Philippines – the major transshipment point for the worldwide distribution of illegal drugs
such as shabu and cocaine from Taiwan and South America. The second world’s supplier of MJ and the
drug paradise of drug abusers in Asia.
8. India – center of the world’s drug map, leading to rapid addiction among its people.
9. Indonesia – Northern Sumatra has traditionally been the main cannabis growing area in
Indonesia. Bali Indonesia is an important transit point for drugs en route to Australia and New Zealand.
10. Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand – the most favorable sites of drug distribution from the
“Golden Triangle” and other parts of Asia.
11. China – the transit route for heroin from “Golden Triangle” to H.K.
12. Hong Kong – the world’s transshipment point of all forms of heroin.
13. Japan – the major consumer of cocaine and shabu from U. S. and Europe.

D. Organized Crime Groups behind the Global Drug Scene

Columbian Medellin Cartel

Founded during the 1980’s by Colombian drug lords in the name of Pablo Escobar Gaviria and
drug bosses Jose Gonzalo Rodriguez Gacha and the top aid cocaine barons Juan David and the Ochoa
Brothers.

The Medellin Cartel is reputedly responsible for organizing world’s drug trafficking network.
The Columbian government succeeded in containing the Medellin Cartel, which resulted in the
death, surrender, and arrest of the people behind the organization. This further resulted to the
disbandment of the Cartel led to its downfall.

Cali Cartel

The downfall of the Columbian Medellin Cartel is the rise of the Cali Cartel - the newly emerged
cocaine monopoly. Gilberto Rodriquez Orajuela –Don Chepe - “the chess player” heads the syndicated
organization. Under him, the Cali cartel was considered the most powerful criminal organization in the
world.
The cartel produces over 90% of cocaine in the world. Due to this, it was called the best and the
brightest of the modern underworld. “ They are professionals of the highest order, intelligent, efficient,
imaginative, and nearly impenetrable” – US - Drug Enforcement Agency.

The Chinese Triad

The Chinese Triad is also called the Chinese Mafia – the oldest and biggest criminal organization
in the world. It is believed to be the controller of the “Golden Triangle”.

Drug Syndicates in the Philippines

The Binondo-based Chinese syndicate has been identified as the nucleus of the Triad Society,
the Bamboo gang based in Taiwan and the 14K based in Hong Kong. The Bamboo Gang is the influence of
the Green Gang of the Chinese Triad while the 14K is the newest among the triads families established
only in 1947.

The most common “modus operandi” by the syndicates – posing as fishermen along Philippine
seas, particularly, the northern provinces of Luzon such as La Union, Ilocos, and Pangasinan where they
drop their loads of shabu to shoreline based members. The syndicates are famously involved in
marijuana cultivation and other drug smuggling including drug manufacture.

THE DANGEROUS DRUGS

A. According to Effects

1. Depressants – those that depress the CNS

NOTES IN CDI
 2. Stimulants – those that stimulate the CNS
3. Hallucinogens – those that distort perception, mind; alter moods

B. According to Medical Pharmacology

1. Depressants
2. Narcotics
3. Tranquilizers
4. Stimulants
5. Hallucinogens
6. Solvents/Inhalants

The Depressants (Downers)

These are group of drugs, which suppress vital body functions especially those of the brain or
central nervous system with the resulting impairment of judgment, hearing, speech and muscular
coordination. They dull the minds, slow down body reactions to such an extent that accidental deaths
and/or suicides usually happen. They include the narcotics, barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol and
other volatile solvents. These drugs, when taken in, generally decrease both the mental and the physical
activities of the body. They cause depression, relieve pain and induce sedation or sleep and suppress
cough.

1. Narcotics - are drugs, which relieve pain and produce profound sleep or stupor. Medically,
they are potent painkillers, cough depressants and as an active component of anti-
diarrheal preparations. Opium and it derivatives like morphine, codeine and heroin, as
well as the synthetic opiates, meperidine and methadone, are classified as narcotics.
2. Opium – derived from a poppy plant – Papaver somniferum popularly known as “gum”,
“gamot”, “kalamay” or “panocha”.
3. Morphine - most commonly used and best used opiate. Effective as a painkiller six times
potent than opium, with a high dependence – producing potential. Morphine exerts action
characterized by analgesia, drowsiness, mood changes, and mental clouding.
4. Heroin – is three to five times more powerful than morphine from which it is derived and
the most addicting opium derivative. With continued use, addiction occurs within 14 days.
It may be sniffed on swallowed but is usually injected in the veins.
6. Codeine – a derivative of morphine, commonly available in cough preparations. These
cough medicines have been widely abused by the young whenever hard narcotics are
difficult to obtain. Withdrawal symptoms are less severe than other drugs.
7. Paregoric – a tincture of opium in combination with camphor. Commonly used as a
household remedy for diarrhea and abdominal pain.
8. Demerol and Methadone – common synthetic drugs with morphine – like effects. Demerol
is widely used as a painkiller in childbirth while methadone is the drug of choice in the
withdrawal treatment of heroin dependents since it relieves the physical craving for
heroin.
9. Barbiturates – are drugs used for inducing sleep in persons plagued with anxiety, mental
stress, and insomnia. They are also of value in the treatment of epilepsy and hypertension.
They are available in capsules, pills or tablets, and taken orally or injected.
10. Seconal – commonly used among hospitality girls. Sudden withdrawal from these drugs is
even more dangerous than opiate withdrawal. The dependent develops generalized
convulsions and delirium, which are frequently associated with heart and respiratory
failure.
11. Tranquilizers – are drugs that calm and relax and diminish anxiety. They are used in the
treatment of nervous states and some mental disorders without producing sleep.
12. Volatile Solvents – gaseous substances popularly known to abusers as “gas”, “teardrops”.
Examples are plastic glues, hair spray, finger nail polish, lighter fluid, rugby, paint, thinner,
acetone, turpentine gasoline, kerosene, varnishes and other aerosol products. They are
inhaled by the use plastic bags, handkerchief or rags soaked in these chemicals.
13. Alcohol – the king of all drugs with potential for abuse. Most widely used, socially accepted
and most extensively legalized drug throughout the world. In the field of medicine, it is

NOTES IN CDI
 “valuable” as disinfectant, as an external remedy for reducing high fever among children,
and as preservative and solvent for pharmaceutical preparations like elixirs, spirits and
tincture.

The Stimulants (Uppers)

They produce effects opposite to that of depressants. Instead of bringing about relaxation and
sleep, they produce increased mental alertness, wakefulness, reduce hunger, and provide a feeling of
well being. Their medical users include narcolepsy – a condition characterized by an overwhelming
desire to sleep. Abrupt withdrawal of the drug from the heavy abuser can result in a deep and suicidal
depression.
1. Amphetamines – used medically for weight reducing in obesity, relief of
mild depression and treatment
2. Cocaine – taken orally, injected or sniffed as to achieve euphoria or an
intense feeling of “highness”.
3. Caffeine – it is present in coffee, tea, chocolate, cola drinks, and some wake-
up pills.
5. Shabu/ “poor man’s cocaine” – chemically known as methamphetamine. It is a central
nervous system stimulant and sometimes called “upper” or “speed”. It is white, colorless
crystal or crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste. It can be taken orally, inhaled
(snorted), sniffed (chasing the dragon) or injected.
6. Nicotine – an active component in tobacco, which acts as a powerful stimulant of the central
nervous system. A drop of pure nicotine can easily kill a person.

The Hallucinogens (Psychedelic)

Consists of a variety of mind-altering drugs, which distort reality, thinking and perceptions of
time, sound, space and sensation. The user experiences hallucination (false perception), which at times
can be strange. His “trips” may be exhilarating or terrifying good or bad. They may dislocate his
consciousness and change his mood, thinking and concept of self.
1. Marijuana – It is the most commonly abused hallucinogen in the Philippines because it can
be grown extensively in the country. Many users choose to smoke marijuana for relaxation
in the same way people drink beer or cocktail at the end of the day. The effects of marijuana
include a feeling of grandeur. It can also produce the opposite effect, a dreamy sensation of
time seeming to stretch out.
2. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) – This drug is the most powerful of the psychedelics
obtained from ergot, a fungus that attacks rye kernels. LSD is 1, 000 times more powerful
than marijuana as supply, large enough for a trip can be taken from the glue on the flab of
an envelope, from the paste of a postage stamp, or from the hidden areas inside one’s
clothes. LSD causes perceptual changes so that the user sees colors, shapes, or objects more
intensely than normal and may have hallucinations of things that are not real. To him real
objects seem to change, buildings seem to be crackling open, and walls pulsating. He
experiences frequent bizarre hallucinations, loss spatial perceptions, personality diffusion
and changes in values. Usually, users perceive distortion of time, colors, sounds and depth.
They experience “scent” music and sounds in “colors”.
3. Peyote – Peyote is derived from the surface part of a small gray brown cactus. Peyote emits
a nauseating odor and its user suffers from nausea. This drug causes no physical
dependence and, therefore, no withdrawal symptoms, although in some cases psychological
dependence has been noted.
4. Mescaline – It is the alkaloid hallucinogen extracted from the peyote cactus and can also be
synthesized in the laboratory. It produces less nausea than peyote and shows effects
resembling those of LSD although milder in nature. One to two hours after the drug is taken
in a liquid or powder form, delusions begin to occur. Optical hallucinations follow one upon
another in rapid succession. These are accompanied by imperfect coordination and
perception with a sensation of impeded motion, and a marked sense that time is still
standing. Mescaline does not cause physical dependence.
5. STP – It is a take-off on the motor oil additive. It is a chemical derivative of mescaline
claimed to produce more violent and longer effects than mescaline dose. Its effects are

NOTES IN CDI
 similar to the nerve gas used in chemical warfare. It is less potent than LSD although its
effects are similar to those of psychedelics.
6. Psilocybin – This hallucinogenic alkaloid from small Mexican mushrooms are used by
Mexican Indians today. These mushrooms induced nausea, muscular relaxation, mood
changes with visions of bright colors and shapes, and other hallucinations. These effects
may last for four to five hours and later may be followed by depressions, laziness, and
complete loss of time and space perceptions.
7. Morning Glory Seeds – The black and brown seeds of the wild tropical morning glory that
are used to produce hallucinations. The seeds are ground into flour, soaked in cold water,
then strained though a cloth and drunk. They are sold under the names of “heavenly blues”,
“flying dancers’, and “pearly gates”. The active ingredient in the seed is similar to LSD
although less potent. The reactions are likened to those resulting from LSD. Prolonged
psychosis is also one of its effects.

COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS

1. Sedatives – drugs which reduce anxiety and excitement such as barbiturates, non-
barbiturates, tranquilizers and alcohol.
2. Stimulants – drugs which increase alertness and activity such as amphetamines, cocaine and
caffeine.
3. Hallucinogens/Psychedelics – drugs which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness and
emotion. Changes in time and space perception, delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations) may be mild
or overwhelming, dispensing on dose and quality of the drug. This includes LSD, mescaline and
marijuana.
4. Narcotics – drugs that relieve pain and often induce sleep. The opiates, which are narcotics,
include opium and drugs derived from opium, such as morphine, codeine and heroin.

THE EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE

1. PHYSICAL EFFECTS
a. Malnutrition – The life of an addict revolves around drug use. He misses even his regular
meals. He losses appetite and eventually develops malnutrition. Likewise, the drug
dependent who has tried on his own to withdraw may suffer from severe gastrointestinal
disturbance that results to severe dehydration.

b. Skin Infections and Skin Rashes - Oftentimes the drug abuser neglects his personal hygiene,
uses unsterilized needles and syringes that result in skin infections or even ulceration at
the sites of the needle puncture. Skin rashes may even occur as a side effect or sensitivity
reaction to certain drugs of abuse.

Infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, viral hepatitis,

sequelae of drug abuse. Marijuana smoking can produce physical conditions like chronic
bronchitis and asthma. Physically ill persons, like a tuberculosis individual who has suffered so
much from his illness may resort to drug taking as a temporary measure for relief. A drug
abuser, because of his use of unsterilized paraphernalia, tends to develop lowered resistance
and becomes susceptible to various infections, among them are viral hepatitis, and HIV
infections/AIDS.

An individual suffering from arthritis or terminal cancer who experiences acute,

unbearable pains and insomnia is likely to become a drug dependent to opiates or sedatives.

1. DEPRESSANTS

a. Narcotics

1. lethargy, drowsiness
2. pupils are constricted and fail to respond to light
3. inhaling heroin in powder form leaves traces of white powder around nostrils causing
redness
4. injecting heroin leaves scars, usually on the inner surface of the arms and elbows
although user may inject drug in the body where needle marks will not be seen readily

NOTES IN CDI
 5. user often leaves syringes, bent spoons, bottle caps, eye droppers, cotton and needles
in lockers at school or hidden at home
6. user scratches self frequently
7. loss if appetite
8. sniffles, running nose, red watery eyes, coughing which disappears when user gets a
“fix”

b. Barbiturates/Tranquilizers

1. symptoms of alcohol intoxication without odor or alcohol on breath

2. staggering or stumbling
3. falling asleep unexplainably
4. drowsiness, may appear disoriented
5. lack of interest in school and family activities

c. Volatile Solvents

1. odor of substance on breath and clothes

2. excessive nasal secretions, watering of eyes
3. poor muscular control
4. increased preference for being with a group rather than being alone
5. plastic or paper bags or rags, containing dry plastic cement or other solvent, found at
home or in locker at school or at work
6. slurred speech

2. STIMULANTS

a. Amphetamines/Cocaine/Speed/Bunnies/Ups

1. pupils may be dilated

2. mouth and nose dry, bad breath; licks lips frequently
3. goes long periods without eating or sleeping; nervous; has difficulty sitting still
4. chain smoking
5. if injecting drug, user may have hidden eye droppers and needles among possessions

b. Shabu

1. produces elevations of mood, heightened alertness and increased energy

2. some individuals may become anxious, irritable or loquacious
3. causes decreased appetite and insomnia

3. HALLUCINOGENS

a. Marijuana

1. may appear animated with rapid, loud talking and bursts of laughter
2. sleepy or stuporous
3. pupils are dilated
4. odor(similar to burnt rope) on clothing or breath
5. remnants of marijuana, either loose or in partially smoked “joints” in clothing or
possessions

b. LSD/STP/DMT/THC

1. user usually sits or reclines quietly in a dream or trance – like state

2. user may become fearful and experience a degree of terror which makes him attempt
to escape from his group
3. senses of sight, hearing, touch, body image and time are distorted
4. mood and behavior are affected, the manner depending upon emotional and
environmental condition of the user

NOTES IN CDI
INDIVIDUAL EFFECTS OF THE DANGEROUS DRUGS

1. DEPRESSANTS
a. Death due to respiratory arrest.
b. In large doses can cause respiratory depression and coma, the combination of depressants and
alcohol can multiply the effect of the drugs, thereby multiplying the risks.
c. Babies born to mothers who abuse depressants during pregnancy may be physically dependent
on the drug and show withdrawal symptom shortly after they are born. Birth defects and
behavioral problems may also result.

2. STIMULANTS

a. Death due to infections, high blood pressures.

b. Extremely high doses can cause a rapid or irregular heartbeat, tremors, loss of coordination,
and even physical collapse.
Shabu
a. Overdosage leads to chest pains, hypertension, acute psychotic reaction, convulsions and
death due to cardiac arrest
b. Due to the appetite suppressing effects of shabu, pregnant mother may become
malnourished. This may affect the nutritional needs of the baby.
c. Babies born to shabu-using women show sever emotional disturbances.

3. HALLUCINOGENS
Marijuana
a. Can lead to serious mental changes (psychoses) like insanity, suicidal and/or homicidal
tendencies
b. Poor impulse control.
c. Damage to chromosomes, hence, affecting potentially the offspring.

Effects On The Body

a. Brain – impairs skills for driving cars and operating machinery, interferes with memory,
and intellect.
b. Eyes – lowers pressure inside eye ball
c. Heart – raises heart rate, potentially hazardous to heart patients
d. Lungs – impairs lung functions
e. Reproductive Organ – decreases sex hormones and sperm production in males
f. Immune System – impairs immunity of the body against infection and cancer

APPROACHES TO THE DRUG PROBLEM

The present nature and extent of drug abuse and misuse among the youth constitutes one of the
gravest health problems facing the nation and the world today. Public concern about drug abuse is
focused not only on drugs that can be abused but also on the individual who misuses them.

Today, there are many measures undertaken by both the private and the government sectors in
the fight against drug abuse as a disease of society. This includes the major approaches as follows:

A. The Law Enforcement Approach

B. The Treatment and Rehabilitation Approach
C. The Educational Approach
D. The International Efforts Against Drug Abuse

THE LAW ENFORCEMENT APPROACH

The Philippine government considers drug abuse as a multi-faceted problem that threatens the
health and well being of the Filipinos across all levels of society. The Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs
Act of 2002 or Republic Act No. 9165 was enacted to add more teeth on the government response to the
ongoing problem on drug abuse in the country. This is the major arm of the government in its law
enforcement approaches that derived from the supply and demand reduction strategies.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165: Important Features

NOTES IN CDI
 R.A. 9165 – COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002 (Approved on June 7, 2002 -
Effective July 4, 2002)

What is Dangerous Drug under this law?

Includes those listed in the schedules annexed to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs,
as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and the schedules annexed to the 1971 Single Convention on
Psychotropic Substances (Art 1, Sec. 3).

Ex. MMDA – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstacy), Tetrahydrocannabinol (MJ);

Mescaline (Peyote)
What are the Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals?
Include those listed in Tables I and II of the 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotrophic Substances (Art 1, Sec 3)
Ex. Table 1 – Acetic Anhydride, N- Acetyl Anthranilic Acid, Epedrine, Ergometrine, Lysergic Acid
Table 2 – Acetone, Ethyl Ether, Hydrochloric Acid, Sulfuric Acid, etc.
NOTE:
Under RA 6425 (Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972), Dangerous drugs refers to the Prohibited drugs,
Regulated drugs and Volatile substances.
Prohibited Drugs – ex. Opium and its derivatives, Cocaine and its derivatives, Hallucinogen
drugs like MJ, LSD, and Mescaline
Regulated drugs – ex. Barbiturates, Amphetamines, Tranquillizers
Volatile Substances – ex. rugby, paints, thinner, glue, gasoline

Table 8. What are the Unlawful Acts and Penalties?

Unlawful Acts Penalty

Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. 4) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Distribution and transportation of Dangerous Drugs and/or ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. 5)
Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort where dangerous drugs Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
are used or sold in any form (sec. 6) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
Being an employee or visitor of a den, dive or resort (sec. 7) Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and
1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Manufacture of dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. 8) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and
Essential Chemicals (sec. 9) 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument, Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and
Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals (sec. P100, 000 to P500, 000.
10)
Possession of Dangerous Drugs Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
(sec. 11) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million

Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Imprisonment ranging from 6 mos and
Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs 1 day to 4 yrs and a fine ranging from
(sec. 12) P10, 000 to P50, 000
Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social The maximum penalties provided for
Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13), and Sec. 11.
Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other
Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social

NOTES IN CDI
 Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 14)
Use of Dangerous Drugs (sec. 15) Minimum 6 mos rehabilitation (1st
offense),
Imprisonment ranging from 6 yrs and 1
day to 12 yrs and a fine ranging from
P50,000 to P200, 000 (2nd Offense)

NOTE:

Section 15 shall not be applicable where the person tested is also found to have in his/her
possession such quantity of any dangerous drug provided in sec.11, in which case the penalty provided
in sec. 11 shall apply.

Cultivation of Plants classified as dangerous drugs or are Life Imprisonment to Death and a fine
sources thereof (sec. 16) ranging from P500, 000 to P10 Million
Failure to comply with the maintenance and keeping of the Imprisonment ranging from 1 yr and 1
original records of transaction on any dangerous drugs day to 6 yrs and a fine ranging from P10,
and/or controlled precursors and Essential Chemicals on 000 to P50, 000
the part of practioners, manufacturers, wholesalers, Plus revocation of license to practice
importers, distributors, dealers, or retailers (sec. 17) profession.
Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (sec. 18) Imprisonment ranging from 12 yrs and 1
day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from
P100, 000 to P500, 000.
Plus revocation of license to practice
profession
Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs (sec.19) Life imprisonment to Death and a fine
ranging from P500, 000 to 10 Million
pesos

NOTE:

The Possession of Dangerous drugs in the following quantities, regardless of degree of purity:
10 grams or more of opium; morphine; heroin; cocaine; MJ resin; 10 grams or more of MMDA, LSD and
similar dangerous drugs; 50 grams or more of “shabu”/ Methamphetamine Hydrochloride; 500 grams or
more of Marijuana.

If the quantity involved is less than the foregoing, the penalties shall be graduated as follows:

1. Life imprisonment and a fine ranging from P400, 000 to P500, 000 if “shabu” is 10 grams or
more but less than 50 grams;

2. Imprisonment of 20 yrs and 1 day to Life imprisonment and a fine ranging from P400, 000 to
P500, 000 if the quantities of dangerous drugs are 5 grams or more but less than 10 grams of opium,
morphine, heroin, cocaine, mj resin, shabu, MMDA, and 300 grams or more but less than 500 grams of
marijuana

3. Imprisonment of 12 yrs and 1 day to 20 yrs and a fine ranging from P300, 000 to P400, 000 if
the quantities of dangerous drugs are less than 5 grams of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, mj resin,
shabu, MMDA, and less than 300 grams of marijuana.

The Unlawful Acts Punishable by Death Penalty

(Prior to the abolition of Death Penalty)

1. Importation or bringing into the Philippines of dangerous drugs using diplomatic passport or
facilities or any means involving his/her official status to facilitate unlawful entry of the same
(sec 4, Art II).
2. Upon any person who organizes, manages or acts as “financiers” of any of the activities
involving dangerous drugs (sec 4, 5, 6, 8 Art II).
3. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and transportation of
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals with in 100 meters
from the school (sec 5, Art II).

NOTES IN CDI
 4. Drugs pushers who use minors or mentally incapacitated individuals as runners, couriers and
messengers or in any other capacity directly connected to the dangerous drug trade (sec 5, Art
II).
5. If the victim of the offense is a minor or mentally incapacitated individual, or should a
dangerous drug and/or controlled precursors and essential chemical involved in the offense be
the proximate cause of death of the victim (sec 5, Art II).
6. When dangerous drug is administered, delivered or sold to a minor who is allowed to use the
same in such a place (sec 6, Art II).
7. Upon any person who uses a minor or mentally incapacitated individual to deliver equipment,
instrument, apparatus and other paraphernalia for dangerous drugs (sec. 10, Art II).
8. Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 13), and
Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous Drugs
during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings (sec. 14)

What is the Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB)?

The DDB is the policy-making body and strategy-making body in the planning and formulation
of policies and programs on drug prevention and control. (under the Office of the President) (sec. 77, Art
IX)

Composition: 17 members (3 as permanent, 12 as ex-officio, 2 regular members)(sec. 78, Art IX)

3 permanent members: to be appointed by the President, one to be the Chairman.

12 ex officio members:
Secretary of DOJ, DOH, DND, DOF, DOLE, DILG, DSWD, DFA, and DepEd, Chairman of CHED, NYC,
and the Dir.Gen of PDEA.

2 regular members: President of the IBP, and the Pres/Chaiman of an NGO involved in a
dangerous drug campaign to be appointed by the President.

The NBI Director the Chief of the PNP – permanent consultant of the Board.

What are the Powers and Duties of the DDB?

(sec. 81, Art IX)

1. Formulation of Drug Prevention and Control Strategy,

2. Promulgation of Rules and Regulation to carry out the purposes of this Act,
3. Conduct policy studies and researches,
4. Develop educational programs and info drive,
5. Conduct continuing seminars and consultations,
6. Design special training,
7. Coordination with agencies for community service programs,
8. Maintain international networking.

What is the PDEA?

PDEA means Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.

It is the implementing arm of the DDB and responsible for the efficient and effective law
enforcement of all the provisions on any dangerous drugs and/ or precursors and essential chemicals.

Head: Director General – appointed by the President

Assisted By: 2 Deputies Director General (one for Admin, another for Opns) – appointed by the
President (sec. 82, Art IX).

PDEA Operating Units:

It absorbed the NDLE-PCC (created under E.O. 61), NARCOM of the PNP, Narcotics Division of the
NBI, and the Customs Narcotics Interdiction Unit (sec. 86, Art IX).

NOTES IN CDI
What are the Powers and Functions of the PDEA?
(sec. 84, Art IX)

1. Cause the effective and efficient implementation of the national drug control strategy,
2. Enforcement of the provisions of Art II of this Act,
3. Undertake investigation, make arrest and apprehension of violators and seizure and
confiscation of dangerous drugs,
4. Establish forensic laboratories,
5. Filing of appropriate drug cases,
6. Conduct eradication programs,
7. Maintain a national drug intelligence system,
8. Close coordination with local and international drug agencies.

Other Features of R.A 9165

1. In the revised law, importation of any illegal drug, regardless of quantity and purity or any part
therefrom even for floral, decorative and culinary purposes is punishable with life
imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500, 000 to P10 million.

2. The trading, administration, dispensation, delivery, distribution, and transportation of

dangerous drugs is also punishable by life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500,
000 to P10 million.

3. Any person who shall sell, trade, administer, dispense, deliver, give away to another or
distribute, dispatch in transit or transport any dangerous drugs regardless of quantity and
purity shall be punished with life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from P500, 000 to
P10 million.
 But if the sale, administration, delivery, distribution or transportation of any
of these illegal drugs transpires with in 100 meters from any school, the
maximum penalty shall be imposed.
 Pushers who use minors or mentally incapacitated individuals as runners,
couriers, and messengers or in dangerous drug transactions shall also be
meted with the maximum penalty.
 A penalty of 12 yrs to 20 yrs imprisonment shall be imposed on financiers,
coddlers, and managers of the illegal activity.

4. The law also penalizes anybody found in possession of any item or paraphernalia used to
administer, produce, cultivate, propagate, harvest, compound, convert, process, pack, store,
contain or conceal illegal drugs with an imprisonment of 12 yrs to 20 yrs and a fine of P100, 000
to P500, 000.

5. Owners of resorts, dives, establishments, and other places where illegal drugs are administered
is deemed liable under this new law, the same shall be confiscated and escheated in favor of the
government.

6. Any person who shall be convicted of violation of this new law, regardless of the quantity of the
drugs and the penalty imposed by the court shall not be allowed to avail the privilege
provisions of the Probation Law (P.D. 968).

(sec.58, Art VIII) Filing of charges against a drug dependent for confinement and rehabilitation under
voluntary submission program can be made:

1. second commitment to the center

2. upon recommendation of the DDB
3. may be charge for violation of sec. 15
4. if convicted – confinement and rehabilitation

Parents, spouse or guardian who refuses to cooperate with the Board or any concerned agency
in the treatment and rehabilitation of a drug dependent may be cited for Contempt of Court (sec. 73, Art
VIII).

NOTES IN CDI
Anti-Drug Drives and Operational Concepts

The Operational Plans (OPLANS) against the Drug Problem are:

1. Oplan Thunderbolt I –operation to create impact to the underworld

2. Oplan Thunderbolt II –operations to neutralize suspected illegal drug laboratories
3. Oplan Thunderbolt III – Operations for the neutralization of big time drug pushers’ drug dealers
and drug lords.
4. Oplan Iceberg – Special operations team in selected drug prone areas in order to get rid of
illegal drug activities in the area.
5. Oplan Hunter – operations against suspected military and police personnel who are engage in
illegal drug activities.
6. Oplan Mercurion – Operations against drug stores, which are violating existing regulations on
the scale of regulated drugs in coordination with the DDB, DOH and BFAD.
7. Oplan Tornado – Operations in drug notorious and high profile places.
8. Oplan Greengold – nation wide MJ eradication operations in coordination with the local
governments and NGO’s.
9. Oplan Sagip-Yagit – A civic program initiated by NGO’s and local government offices to help
eradicate drug syndicates involving street children as drug conduit.
10. Oplan Banat – the newest operational plan against drug abuse focused in the barangay level in
cooperation with barangay officials.
11. Oplan Athena – operation conducted to neutralize the 14k, the Bamboo gang and other local
organized crimes groups involved in illegal drug trafficking.
12. Oplan Cyclops – operations against Chinese triad members involved in the illegal drug
operations particularly Methamphetamine Hydrocloride.

In the conduct of anti-drug operations, the following must be strictly considered:

1. Respect for Human Rights (Sec. 11, Art. 2, Phil. Constitution)

2. Respect for right of the people to due process and equal protection (Sec. 1, Art. 3, Phil.
Constitution)
3. Respect of Right of the people against unreasonable search and seizure. (Sec. 2, Art. 3, Phil.
Constitution).
4. Respect for right of the people to privacy of communication (Sec. 3, Art. 3, Phil. Constitution).
5. Respect for constitutional rights of the accused undergoing custodial investigation (RA 7438),
(Sec. 12, Art. 3, Phil. Constitution)
6. Respect for the statutory rights of the accused undergoing custodial investigation under RA
7438.

The Principles of Drug Operations are:

1. Knowledge on circumstances on when to use necessary force (Art. 11, Chapter 3, RPC).
2. Knowledge on the statutory provisions on arrest (Rule 113, Rules on Criminal Procedures).
3. Knowledge on the administrative guidelines on arrest, search and seizure.
4. The Miranda Doctrine (384 U.S. 346)
5. Warrantless Search and Search incidental to lawful arrest (Rule 126, Rules on Criminal
Procedure).

National Campaign Strategies

1. Demand Reduction Strategy

a. Preventive education and information campaigns to prevent further demand of

society particularly the youth.
b. Treatment and rehabilitation of drug dependents.

2. Supply Reduction Strategy

a. Dangerous Drug Law enforcement

b. Judicial and Legislative measures

NOTES IN CDI
Operational Plans against the Drug Problem

1. Oplan Thunderbolt I – operations to create impact to the underworld.

2. Oplan Thunderbolt II – operations to neutralize suspected illegal drug
laboratories.
3. Oplan Thunderbolt III – operations for the neutralization of big time drug pushers,
drug dealers and drug lords.
4. Oplan Iceberg – special operations team in selected drug prone areas in order to
get rid of illegal drug activities in the area.
5. Oplan Hunter – operations against suspected military and police personnel who
are engaged in illegal drug activities.
6. Oplan Mercurio – operations against drug stores, which are violating existing
regulations on the scale of regulated drugs in coordination with the DDB/DOH and BFAD.
7. Oplan Tornado – operations in drug notorious and high profile places.
8. Oplan Greengold –nationwide MJ eradication operations in coordination with the
local governments and NGO’s.
9. Oplan Sagip-Yagit – A civic program initiated by NGO’s and local government
offices to help eradicate drug syndicates involving street children as drug conduits.
10. Oplan Banat – the newest operational plan against drug abuse focused in the
barangay level in cooperation with barangay officials.

Rules on Narcotics Operations

General Rules and Procedures:

1. Only specially trained and competent drug enforcement personnel shall conduct
drug enforcement and prevention operations.
2. All drug enforcement and prevention operations shall be covered by a Pre-
Operations report.
3. All steps taken before, during, and after the conduct of the operation must be
documented and properly authenticated.
4. Operating units shall promptly submit written a report after the operation.
5. No apprehendee or seized item shall be released without authorization from the
duly designated authority.
6. All pieces of evidence confiscated will be deposited with the proper Evidence
Custodian for safekeeping and proper handling.
7. Each participating element must be given clear and do-able task.

Coverage of the Rules

1. Coverage: The rules covers the following anti-narcotics operations.

a. Buy-bust Operations
b. Search with warrant
c. MJ Eradication
d. Mobile Check point Operations
e. Airport/Seaport Interdiction
f. Controlled delivery
g. Undercover Operations
h. Narcotics Investigation

Buy-Bust Operations

a. Concept: It is a form of entrapment employed by peace officers as an effective way of

apprehending a criminal in the act of the commission of the offense. Entrapment has received
judicial sanction as long as it is carried with due regard to constitutional and legal safeguards.

b. Planning and Preparation: The operation must be preceded by an intensive surveillance, casing,
or other intelligence operations and gathering, evaluation and timely dissemination.

NOTES IN CDI
 Intelligence must be evidence-based and shall be supported by documents such as summaries
of info, maps, sketches, affidavits and sworn statements.

Search For Drug Evidence with Warrant

a. Concept: A search warrant is an order in writing issued in the name of the People of the
Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace officer, commanding him to search for
personal property described therein and bring it before the court. (Sec. 1, Rule 126, Revised
Rules of Court)

b. Planning and Preparation:

1. Prior to the procurement of search warrant, intensive intelligence data gathering

must be undertaken, evidence-based and supported by credible documents.
2. Conduct of surveillance, casing, and other intelligence operations.
3. Identification, movement, activities and location of suspects should be established.
4. Search warrant shall be applied with competent court
5. Conduct of Operation
6. Submission of reports

Marijuana Eradication

a. Concept: Marijuana eradication involves the location and destruction of marijuana plantations,
including the identification, arrest and prosecution of the planter, owner or cultivator, and the
escheating of the land where the plantations are located.

b. Planning and Preparation: The planning and operation shall be preceded by intelligence
gathering to verify the existence of marijuana plantation and the existence to be supported by
documentary evidence such as summary of information, maps, sketches, photographs and
others. The intelligence gathering must be appropriately documented by pre-operations orders
and after-casing reports.

c. Conduct of Operation:

1. Briefing, rehearsals, and proper formations.

2. Exact location of the plantation must be established.
3. Identify owner of the land or the cultivators.
4. Coordination with other operating units in the area.
5. Barangay eradication team should be organized.
6. Strict compliance with SOPs under Rules of Opns.

Mobile Checkpoint Operations

a. Concept: No other forms of checkpoints other than mobile checkpoints are authorized for drug
enforcement and prevention operations. They shall be established only in conjunction with on-
going operations/situation or when there is a need to arrest a criminal.

b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering supported by credible documents,

with proper pre-operations orders and after surveillance or after casing reports.

c. Conduct of Operations shall be in consonance with the existing SOPs on checkpoint operations.

Airport and Seaport Interdiction

a. Concept: Airport and seaport interdiction involves the conduct of surveillance, interception and
interdiction of persons and evidence during travel by air or sea vessels.

b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering supported by credible documents,

with proper pre-operations orders and after surveillance or after casing reports.

c. Conduct of Operations

NOTES IN CDI
 1. Coordination with airport and seaport authorities.
2. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing SOPs on airport and seaport
checks/operations.

Controlled Delivery

a. Concept: This is the technique of allowing illicit or suspect consignment of narcotic drugs,
psychotropic substances or substances substituted for them to pass out of, through or into the
territory of one or more countries, with the knowledge and under the supervision of their
competent authorities with a view to identifying persons involved in the commission of drug
related offenses. International cooperation in facilitating the controlled delivery of illicit drugs
is considered the most effective means to neutralize transnational criminal syndicates.

b. Planning and Operation: Intensive intelligence gathering and evaluation to determine the
applicability of controlled delivery operations. It must be supported by credible documents,
with proper pre-operations orders and after surveillance or after casing reports. A committee
or board shall be constituted to study the project proposal for the suitable employment of a
controlled delivery operation.

c. Conduct of Operations

1. Proper formation for accounting of personnel

2. Coordination with airport, seaport and other travel agency authorities.
3. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing SOPs on controlled delivery
operations.

Undercover Operations

a. Concept: Undercover operation is an investigative technique in which the personnel involve

assumes different identities in order to obtain the necessary information. This technique may
also be considered as a method of surveillance.

b. Planning and Operation: Undercover operations shall be resorted to only under circumstances
where evidence can be hardly obtained in an open investigation or when an open investigation
is unsuccessful.

c. Conduct of Operations

1. Proper briefing and rehearsals.

2. Identification of effective cover and undercover.
3. Buy-bust or search with warrant operations.
4. Operations shall be in consonance with the existing SOPs on Undercover operations.

Narcotic Investigation

a. Concept: Narcotic investigation is a necessary tool employed by drug enforcement agencies in

building up relevant and competent evidence, which are vital in the development of a drug case.
Several investigative techniques may be utilized for the successful attainment of the operation.
This include but not limited to use of informants, interviewing, interrogation, surveillance
operations and undercover operations.

b. Planning and Operation: The most effective way of investigative technique or combination of
two or more or all techniques under a given situation and setting that shall be determined by
considering the magnitude of drug law violations.

c. The conduct of investigation shall follow the basic steps in criminal investigation and detection.
The application of the following:

1. Initial Investigation

NOTES IN CDI
 2. Tactical Investigation (Follow-up)
3. Post Operations
4. Custodial Investigations
5. After Investigation and Inquest

d. Prosecution and filing of the case

e. Trial of the case

THE TREATMENT AND REHABILTITATION APPROACH

A. Assisting the Drug Abuser

1. Treatment - the medical service rendered to a client for the effective management of physical and
mental conditions related to drug abuse.

Aims of treatment

a. To prevent death from overdose.

b. To treat complications following drug dependency.
c. To make them comfortable during the withdrawal period.
d. To encourage confirmed drug dependent clients to undergo rehabilitation and other
specialized services.

Detoxification - it is a medically supervised elimination of drugs from the system of any

addicted person.

Methods of Detoxification includes:

1. Cold Turkey
2. Substitution – the use of methodex, catapres, haemasin, dextropropoxyphene,
tranquilizer, etc.
3. Reduction Method – using the same drug to which the patient is dependent. The
process could be gradual or rapid.
4. Acupuncture

2. Rehabilitation - the dynamic process directed towards the physical, emotional/psychological,

vocational, social and spiritual change to prepare a person for the fullest life compatible with his
capabilities and potentialities, and render him able to become a law abiding and productive member of
the community without abusing drugs.

Objectives:

To restore an individual to a state where he is physically, psychologically and socially

capable of coping with the same problems as others of his age group and able to avail of the
opportunity to live a happy, useful and productive life without abusing drugs.

Modalities:

a. Multi-disciplinary Team Approach

b. Therapeutic Community Approach
c. Primal Scream Therapy
d. Spiritual Approach
e. Eclectic Approach
f. The 12 Steps of AA/NA

Methods of Rehabilitation

1. Psychotherapeutic Methods

NOTES IN CDI
 a. Individual Therapy – This involves a one to one relationship whose aim is to help
the patient reduce his drug abusing behavior and develop insight into his
condition.

b. Group Therapy – This is a form of therapy where the individual is helped through
group process. Each member of the group receives immediate feedback from the
other members regarding his verbal and other forms of behavior. Group support
and encouragement are given to the subject on the premise that these are effective
devices, which can produce positive results toward behavioral modification.

c. Unstructured Group Therapy – The role of the therapist can be assumed by the
entire group or group members. In the therapeutic community, group therapy is
commonly used, among others, through (a) group encounter, (b) verbal haircut
(tongue lashing reprimand), (c) group games, and (d) family encounters.

The Family Therapy – This form of intervention is based on

recognition that while the family as a primary social unit, can be a
source of problem leading to drug abuse, can also be a powerful
factor in improving the behavior of the drug dependent. Family
therapy may include restructuring of the family, environmental
manipulation, strengthening family communication, and discovering
other means of family communication, and discovering potentials of
family members to help facilitate the rehabilitation of the drug
dependent.

2. The Spiritual and Religious Means - development of moral and spiritual values of the
user.

3. The Follow-up and After – Care

The process of rehabilitation does not end upon the release or discharge of client from
a center. After his discharge, he has to undergo follow-up and after-care services for a
period of not more than 18 months by the appropriate center personnel. The Department
of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) and the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
are deputized agents of the board to handle this. A Transfer Summary of the case from the
rehabilitation facility is necessary and should be forwarded to the entity undertaking the
follow-up and after-care services. The Social Worker of the receiving entity assigned to the
case shall maintain a close contact with the client, family, the accredited physician
attending to the case, and the police, for the purpose of assisting the client maintain his
progress towards adjusting to his new environment. He shall also see to it that a regular
laboratory examination of the client’s body fluids is made to ensure that the client remains
drug-free.

Duration of Rehabilitation - If the patient is found to be an opiate abuser, the treatment

prescribed shall be for a period of not less than six (6) months.

Criteria of Rehabilitation

a. The patient achieves a drug-free existence.

b. He becomes adjusted to his family and peers.
c. Socially integrated to the community.
d. The client is not involved in socially deviant behaviors.

THE EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES

Drug Abuse Prevention Education

Drug abuse prevention education is concerned with bringing about changes in the people’s
knowledge, attitudes and practices towards drug abuse. It utilizes a variety of approaches and methods
whereby people go through teaching-learning process, and which may be planned, implemented and

NOTES IN CDI
evaluated through the barangay organized groups and other organizations and agencies in the
community.
There are six known strategies in drug abuse prevention, which are the following:
1. Drug Education – learning situations during seminar-workshops, symposiums and lecture
forums, which take up values clarification, leadership training, coping skills and decision-making. It is a
movement, which utilizes humanistic techniques in both school-based and community oriented drug
abuse prevention programs.
2. Drug Information – it is an activity, which focused on the dissemination of basic facts of the
causes and effects of drug abuse with the objective of creating awareness and vigilance of the people in
the community.

It includes the following information drive activities:

a. Youth-Adult Communication
- parent-youth dialogues
- family encounters

b. Info-Oriented Classroom/Community Activities

- Contest in the school/community – essay, slogans, posters,
cartoon, play writing.

c. Broadcast Media: TV/Radio or Printed

- plugs, films, slides, spot announcement, music
programming, newsletter, comics, leaflets/brochures,
magazines, other publications.

3. Alternatives – this includes a number of ideas for stimulating meaningful involvements for
the youth that can compete successfully with the demands of drugs and alcohol. Primarily the emphasis
should be on service or constructive and productive pursuits and recreational activities that are usually
community-based such as:

a. Voluntary service works

b. Income producing activities
c. Sports, arts development: theater – choral/dance groups
d. Community fair/contest
e. Other recreational activities: development of physical, emotional interpersonal,
mental-intellectual, social, spiritual, and all aspects of behavioral development.

4. Interventions – this strategy is applied to experimenters and potential drug abusers.

Activities like peer or group counseling should be encouraged in every community. It is applied to the
individual/group, which needs specific assistance and support.

The techniques or activities recommended for intervention are:

a. Peer counseling
b. Hot lines
c. Cross-age tutoring
d. New peer group creation

B. Peer and Cross-age Tutoring and Counseling

Peer and cross-age tutoring and counseling enable the person/student to assume adult and
mature roles, to become actively involved in their own learning and in other’s learning and to take on a
“real world” responsibility. It can provide a meaningful “work” in the school setting to the students who
might otherwise suffer from low self-esteem and a general lack of involvement with school or cross-age
tutoring and counseling programs.

The program is focused on:

NOTES IN CDI
 a. Life Career Planning – the preparation towards a comprehensive career education helps
young people to make the right choices.
b. Parenting and Family Communication – activities that fosters better understanding and
wholesome family relationship.

C. Effective Techniques and Learning Activities

1. Values Formation or Development – the articulation of personal values. Its process includes
choosing from alternatives and repeatedly and consistently acted upon.
2. Role Playing – a technique used to help students identify more closely with historical
figures or characters in literature, which will help them at sensing problems and testing
solutions with out taking any great risk.
3. Decision Making and Problem solving – techniques using conflict resolutions focused on
group problems, which help the students in identifying possible alternatives to solve the
problem.
4. Individual Contact – the basic principles in working with an individual with the emphasis of
making him feel at ease, involving him by asking questions, supplying with the necessary
information and arriving at a decision that will end to action. It is carried out by:
a. person-to-person relationship or individual counseling
b. House/Office visits
c. Telephone calls or by letters
d. Information conversation or dialogues

5. Small Group Approach – involves contact with a number of people assembled in isolated
group or in one of a series of related groups. This technique can be carried out by:
a. Lecture – one way discussion
b. Small group discussion –mutual interchange of ideas or opinions between the
small group
c. Symposium – group of talks, speeches or lectures presented by several individuals
on various phases of a single subject.
d. Panel Discussion – discussion before an audience by a selected group of persons
expressing a variety of view points under a moderator
e. The Buzz Session – the count off procedure
f. Seminars, simulation games, debate, field trips

6.Community Approach – this involves working together about their common problems,
identify these and implement the kind of action patterns for the solution of the problems.
This technique can be carried out by:
a. Community assemblies and barangay fairs
b. Sport festivals or on test in the community
c. Church related activities
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION APPROACH

The UNDCP

The United Nation International Drug Control Program (UNDCP) was established in 1991
pursuant to General assembly Resolution 45/179 of 21 December 1990.

The UNDCP is mandated by the General Assembly with the exclusive responsibility leadership
for all United Nation Drug Control activities in order to ensure coherence of actions, coordination, and
non-duplication of such activities in the United Nation System.

The UNDCP assists government in fulfilling their obligation under the existing regulatory
structures so that they can become parties to these conventions.

The UNDCP Resources for Operations

The financial resources come from the regular budget of the United Nation and voluntary
contributions of the U.N members.

UNDCP in SEA

NOTES IN CDI
 UNDCP is created in the different field offices in Laos and Burma (Myanmar), which handles
national programs while Thailand, handles Regional programs.

Master Plan Approach

This involves encouraging and assisting governments in undertaking a thorough analysis of

drug problems with in a country or region, the identification and assessment of all anti-narcotics
intervention undertaken and planned. It also involves the identification of needs for new projects and
activities.

Measures Undertaken in SEA

1. Enhancement of Capital Punishment

2. ASIAN Drug Official group meetings/Conventions against Drug Abuse
3. Instant Urine Test Machine
4. Denial of Passport on all drug offenders upon released from prison
5. Use of Narcotic Drug Detector
6. ASEAN Cooperation on against Drug Trafficking

Drug Outlook in the ASEAN Countries (Major Contributors)

1. Thailand – the training center for:

a. undercover operations
b. investigations
c. informant handling
d. surveillance
e. other enforcement techniques

2. Philippines - the adoption of the Drug Demand Reduction Strategy and Supply Reduction
Strategy. The Drug Supply strategy is carried out by the conduct of anti- narcotics
operations (raids on plantations, laboratories, etc); arrest, search and seizure; surveillance
and other intelligence operations; legislative and judicial measures. The Demand
Reduction strategy is carried out by the conduct of information and educational drives and
the treatment or rehabilitation of drug addicts.

3. Malaysia - The Asian treatment and rehabilitation training center is sponsored by the
International Labor Union located in Malaysia. Malaysia then is considered as the training
center for treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers in Asia.

4. Singapore - Singapore is responsible in the area of research as part of the Asian anti-
narcotic work. The urine test project was adopted with the aim to train chemist from
ASEAN members in the techniques of mass urine screening.

SOCIETAL ROLE IN DRUG ABUSE PREVENTION

Different sectors of society play vital roles in preventing drug abuse. All should exert concerted
efforts to fight the spreading tentacles of this menace.

A. The Individual

The primary role of the individual is to improve his personality and develop traits and
characteristics that would help him build-up his self-concept, thereby making himself confident. He
should develop strong spiritual and moral values, sharpen his skills in making decisions, and strengthen
his will power. He should improve his physical qualities as well as his mental faculties.

A. ALCOHOL

Alcohol is colorless, tasteless clear liquid, which gives a burning sensation to the mouth,
esophagus and stomach. Like many drugs, alcohol is toxic. It can poison the human body if taken in large
amounts or in combination with other drugs. Alcohol is a depressant not stimulant.

NOTES IN CDI
 There are two kinds of alcohol – methyl and ethyl alcohol. Methyl alcohol is ver poisonous and
is not put in drinks but is use in some industries. Ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic drinks, which are
made by breweries. This occurs when germs called yeast act on sugars in food to produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide. Fermented brews and spirits contain different amounts of alcohol. The amount in beer is
less than in other drinks. It varies from 2.5% to 8% in different countries.

Types of Drinkers

1. Occasional Drinker – drinks on special occasions or uses alcohol as a home remedy, takes only a
few drinks per year.
2. Frequent Drinker – drinks at parties and social affairs. Intake of alcohol may be once a week or
occasionally reaches three or four times per week, uses beverages to release inhibitions and
tensions.
3. Regular Drinker – may drink daily or consistently on weekends, usually comes from cultural
background where wine or beer is used with meals to enhance the flavor of the food.
4. Alcohol Dependent – drinks to have good time, excessive drinking occurs occasionally but
drinker may not become alcoholic.
5. Alcoholic – has lost control of his use of alcohol. Alcohol assumes primary goal in his life, even to
the exclusion of physical health and interests of family and society in general.

Motives for Drinking

1. Traditional – social and religious functions.

2. Status – symbol of success and prestige.
3. Dietary – dining incomplete without wine, integral part of today’s way of “gracious living”.
4. Social – release tensions and inhibitions so user can tolerate and enjoy another’s company.
5. Shortcut to Adulthood – user unsure of maturity, drinks to prove himself.
6. Ritual – fosters group feeling, cocktail parties, toasts made to brides, wishes for good health.
7. Path of least Resistance - doesn’t want to drink but doesn’t want to abstain so goes along with
everyone else.

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE BODY

When a person drinks alcohol, it passes down to the stomach. Here, unlike foods we eat, it does
not need to be digested or broken down by juices in the stomach. It is absorbed easily into the blood
stream and most of it stays in the blood. While in the blood stream, the alcohol is carried around the
body many times as the heart pumps blood through the vessels. The alcohol stays in the blood and can
only be passed out of the body when the liver changes it. A healthy liver takes approximately one hour to
change the alcohol in one bottle of beer. While the liver is trying to remove the alcohol, the alcohol is
having effects on body functions.

The Brain and the Nervous System - The nerves are like telephone wires coming out of the
control system in the brain and spinal cord. They send and receive messages from all parts of the body.
Alcohol slows down the work of the brain cells and stops proper messages being sent to the rest of the
body. Alcohol stops people behaving correctly to other people. They may do whatever comes first into
their minds. They may say things that do not make sense or behave rudely to others. They may also have
feelings of increased personal or social power. This is because their thinking is slowed down and not
because it has sparked up. They are less able to cope with situations where drinking is needed.

As the level of alcohol becomes higher in the blood, brain and nerve cells die from the
poisonous or toxic effects of the alcohol. Unlike other body cells, once a brain cell is destroyed it is never
replaced. As more and more of these brain cells are destroyed from repeated drinking over a period of
years, the person’s thinking becomes cloudy. His feelings about things also change. He also will get a
burning feeling and pain or numbness in his hands and feet from the death of nerve cells. After heavy
drinking, and when the pain killing effects of the alcohol are removed, the person may suffer from a

NOTES IN CDI
hangover. A hangover is the word used to describe the terrible pain and horrible effects, which follow a
period of heavy drinking.

Stomach and Intestines - Alcohol damages the stomach and intestines and makes them sore.
This can cause a burning sensation, nausea and vomiting. Sometimes there is bleeding.

Liver

a. The first thing the liver does is to turn part of the alcohol into fat. Some of this goes into
the blood, but a lot builds up in the liver cells. After drinking six (6) medium-sized
glasses of beer everyday for a few days, fat is formed in the liver.
b. To cope with the extra work of getting rid of the alcohol, the liver becomes larger.
c. As the liver enlarges, the person gets more used to the effects of alcohol in the body. A
person can drink larger amounts of alcohol without getting drunk. This effect is called
tolerance to alcohol. However, the alcohol is still doing its damage.
d. As the liver enlarges, it changes they way other drugs and medicines work in the body.
So it can be dangerous to take medicines with alcohol.
e. While the liver enlarges, some of the liver cells are damaged.
The liver can become permanently damaged. As the alcohol poisons the cells of the
liver, they die. If many of these cells die, the person may get what is called “ALCOHOLIC
HEPATITIS”.
f. Scar tissue is formed where the liver cells die. This means the liver doesn’t work so
well. This is called “CIRRHOSIS”.
g. People with scarred livers can get a swollen abdomen, swollen feet and hands and may
bleeding from inside the body.
Waste products build up in the body and give a yellow color to the skin and eyes
(jaundice). This also affects the brain so that a person may become unconscious and
die.

Heart and Muscles - Alcohol affects the heart and other muscles so that they become weaker and
less effective. This makes people tired and breathless.

Blood - The activity of the liver I trying to get rid of the alcohol results in many changes to the
blood – for example – blood sugar is lowered and blood fats are increased.

Kidneys - Alcohol decreased the ability of the kidneys to get rid of some waste products.

Sexual Activities - After the excessive use of alcohol, the ability to have satisfactory sexual
activity is decreased.

Malnutrition - The illness that occurs when a person doesn’t have enough food to eat or eats the
wrong kind of food. The person who drinks alcohol may suffer from malnutrition because:
a. He spends his time, money and energy in drinking. He may not eat the proper foods.
b. Drinking alcohol decreases a person’s desire to eat.
c. Alcohol burns the stomach and bowel so that food eaten is not used well by the body.
d. If the liver is damaged, some important vitamins are not produced.

Malnutrition in itself causes further liver damage, which makes the condition even worse. The
result of all these are that the heavy drinker gets weak because of lack of energy and body
building food. His body defenses are weakened against infections such as pneumonia, tropical
ulcers and tuberculosis. The person may get severely emotional disturbed. The nerves in his
arms or legs may be damaged so that he may not feel what he is touching. He may not walk
properly and may keep falling over.

Alcohol effect on General Behavior

Drinking affects a person’s behavior. Most of the changes are due to the effect of alcohol on the
brain and nerves. The effects of alcohol depend on how much there is in the blood. A large person has to
drink more than small person to produce the same level of alcohol in the blood.

Alcohol Effects on the Community

NOTES IN CDI
 Because drinking affects people’s behavior, it has effects on the community as a whole.

a. Trouble in the Home – Heavy drinkers takes money needed for food,
clothes and furniture. This causes debts. Husbands and wife fight and accuse each other of being
unfaithful. There will be often be sexual problems. Children are badly treated and badly fed.
And drinking makes people lazy and they may not go to work. Women may have to steal food to
feed their families.
b. Trouble among Friends – The heavy drinker will often fight with his
friend and may even kill people.
c. Trouble at Work – The heavy drinker often does not go to work because
he feels sick. He sometimes works badly and hurts himself or others.
d. Trouble at Play – Heavy drinkers has a bad effect on sportsmen.
Because alcohol affects the brain, the drinker can not control his arms and legs well. A
sportsman who has been drinking can not play well as he should.
e. Trouble on Roads – The driver has lost his judgement, he is careless and
takes risks. Accidents result. A person who is drunk may walk onto the road and be killed by a
motor vehicle.
f. Trouble with Crime – excessive drinking is the biggest cause of crime.
People become aggressive, fight, break into houses and steal.
g. Trouble with the Economy and the Nation - The economy is badly
affected when people do not go to work and production falls. Heavy demands are made on
health services, the police force and correctional institutions. Alcoholism is burden to the
government.

Alcohol Dependence

A person who drinks a lot can become a dependent on alcohol. This means he can not live
without it. If he tries to stop drinking, he will have the shivers and shakes and feels very bad. He may
also experience acute anxiety or fear, delirium and hallucinations.

TOBACCO

Facts about Tobacco Smoking

The use of tobacco is one of the foremost public health problems in the world today. Tobacco
had for centuries been used all over the world as a way of increasing the enjoyment of life or as an aid in
coping with some of its problem. The World Health Organization estimates that around the world one
person dies every 13 seconds from tobacco-related diseases. Doctor’s cite 50,000 scientific studies from
various independent bodies that have proved beyond doubt that smoking is responsible for around 90%
of all cases of lung cancer, 95% of all cases of chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and 25% of heart
conditions in men under 65 years of age.

The World Health Organization Advisory Panel on Smoking and health estimates that at least
two million of 30 million Filipinos under 20 years of age today will eventually be killed by smoking.
Smoking threatens not only the adults, but also children – born and unborn. The Philippine Obstetrical
and Gynecological Society notes that premature in infants of mothers who smoke is three times more
common than in mothers. Spontaneous abortion is likewise more common in smoking mothers.

Too often, the smoking habit begins in the early teens or even earlier. Becoming a smoker may
have the immediate value to some teenagers of being accepted by their peers, feeling more mature
because smoking is an adult behavior to the child providing level of psychological stimulation and
pleasure and might even serve the function of an cat of defiance to authority figures.

General Effect of Tobacco Smoking

The effects of tobacco smoking consist primarily of ill-health and of human suffering. These
necessarily, too, the productivity of the work force, the need for medical care and other variables. Thus
smoking impairs society’s total well-being and posses substantial economic loss to the nation.

Properties of Tobacco

NOTES IN CDI
 Cigarette smoke contains over 2,000 different chemicals and gases whixh can produce
coughing, broncho spasm, increased mucus secretion.

NICOTINE – It is the most important active ingredient in controlled doses. It is an extremely

toxic substance. A typical cigarette contains 1-2 mg of nicotine. When smoked, less than 1 mg from each
cigarette is filtered or not depending on the characteristics of the filter, the depth and frequency of
inhalation and the length of the butt.

NARCOTIC INVESTIGATION

Since narcotic use has direct link with criminal activities, investigation of this must be
specialized. The following are some reasons why it has to be investigated in a specialized manner:

1. Illicit drug underworld is specialized and syndicated.

2. The underworld organization is composed of and operated by selected and highly
proficient members of the elite.
3. Drug addicts are clannish and they represent a rare group of individuals.
4. Drug abusers and or addicts have their own lingo and way of life.
5. The illicit drug trade is completely underworld in conception and operation capable to
espionage or subversive operations; it is a hidden crime where there is rarely a
complainant.

Considerations in Narcotic and Investigation

The Violation

a) Republic Act No. 9165 (The Comprehensive Dangerous Drug Act of 2002) - Under this law, the
following are punishable:

1. Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;

2. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and transportation of
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
3. Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and transportation of
Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
4. Maintenance of a Den, Dive or Resort where dangerous drugs are used or sold in any
form;
5. Being an employee or visitor of a den, dive or resort;
6. Manufacture of dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
7. Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
8. Manufacture or Delivery of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia
for Dangerous Drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals;
9. Possession of Dangerous Drugs;
10. Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous
Drugs; Possession of dangerous Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings;
11. Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for Dangerous
Drugs during Parties, Social Gatherings or Meetings;
12. Use of Dangerous Drugs; Cultivation of Plants classified as dangerous drugs or are
sources thereof;
13. Failure to comply with the maintenance and keeping of the original records of
transaction on any dangerous drugs and/or controlled precursors and Essential Chemicals
on the part of practioners, manufacturers, wholesalers, importers, distributors, dealers, or
retailers;
14. Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs;
15. Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs

NOTES IN CDI
 The Violators – The Persons of Importance

a) The Addict or User - A “user” is one who injects, intravenously or intramuscularly, or consumes,
either by chewing, smoking, sniffing, eating, swallowing, drinking, or otherwise introducing into
the physiological system of the body, any of the dangerous drugs. An “addict” is one who
habitually uses dangerous drugs.

b) The Pusher - “Pusher” refers to any person who sells, administers, delivers, or gives away to
another, on any terms whatsoever, or distributes or dispatches in transit or transport any
dangerous drug or who acts as a broker in any such transaction.

c. The Narcotic Evidence

These include opium and its active components and derivatives, the coca leaf and beta eucaine,
and the hallucinogenic drugs. It includes all preparations made from any of the foregoing and other
drugs and chemical preparations; whether natural or synthetics, with the physiological effects of a
narcotic or a hallucinogenic drug.

Opium and its derivatives

“Opium” refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy and embraces every kind, character
and class of opium, whether crude of prepared; the ashes or refuse of the same; narcotic prepared; the
ashes or refuse of the same, narcotic preparations thereof or therefrom; morphine or any alkaloid of
opium; preparations in which opium enters as an ingredient; opium poppy; opium seeds; opium poppy
straw; and leaves or wrapping of opium leaves, whether prepared for use or not.

Field test: Burn a small quantity of the suspected substance. The odor or smell is similar to burnt
banana leaves or has a sweetish odor.

Morphine – the drug varies in different forms such as:

Powder – white, odorless granulated powder with a very bitter taste. Sometimes however,
illicit traffickers add color to deceive investigators.

Block – with embossed marks like “999” “555” “AAA” “1A”, etc. with “Lion”, Elephant”,
“Tiger/Dragon” brands.

Licit morphine used for medical purposes invariably comes in powder form, tablets,
capsules with the brand name of the manufacturer.

Heroin (Dimorphine Hydrochloride/ Diacetylmorphine) is a white, odorless, crystalline powder

with a very bitter taste. Heroin is the hydrochloride of an alkaloid obtainable by the action of
acetic anhydride or morphine. The alkaloid base may be made by treating morphine with
acetyl chloride, washing the product with a dilute alkaline solution and crystallizing from
alcoholic solution.

NOTE: Both heroin and morphine may be sold by pushers in bundle containing about .03
gram of powder. The price will depend on supply and demand.

Cocaine (Methyl ecgonine). Cocaine (C12 H 21n O4) is an alkaloid obtained from the leaves of
Erythorxylon coca and the other species of Erthroxlon Linne, or by synthesis from ecgoine and its
derivatives.

Preparation - It may be made by moisturizing ground coca leaves with a sodium carbonate
solution, percolating with benzene or other solvents such as petroleum benzene, shaking the liquid with

NOTES IN CDI
diluted sulfuric acid, and adding to the separated acid solution and excess of sodium carbonate. The
participated alkaloids are removed with ether, and after drying with sodium carbonate, the solution is
filtered and the ether distilled off. The residue is dissolved in methyl alcohol and the solution heated
with sulfuric acid or with alcoholic hydrogen chloride. This treatment splits off any acids from the
ecgonine and esterifies the carbozyl group.

Uses - Cocaine was the first local anaesthetic to be discovered. At present, it is considered too
toxic for any anaesthetic procedure requiring injection, but is still extensively employed for anesthesia
of the nose and throat. For this purpose, a 10 % solution of the hydro – chloride is used.

Cocaine is a central stimulant, but is never employed clinically for this purpose. Addiction and a
certain amount of tolerance result from its use. Because of its properties, the sale of cocaine is
prohibited in the Philippines.
Cocaine also comes in the form of salt crystals, known as “crack” and usually sold in packets.
This is the American counterpart of the local “shabu” or methamphetamine hydrochloride.

Marijuana (Cannabis Sativa)

Marijuana is a seasonal plant grown from seed. Depending on soil and weather condition, it
grows approximately 20 feet. The leaves come in clusters of 3,5,7,9 to 13 leaflets. The leaflets are
elongated with the tip pointed and the sides serrated.

Manicured or grounded leaves and flowering tops – Although dried and grounded, they will
retain their greenish color.

Reefers or cigarettes known as “joints” and other names – These are hand-rolled in cigarette
paper, irregular and slim with both ends tucked in or twisted.

Hallucinogen Drugs

These are the drugs that are capable of creating hallucinations in the mind of the taker such as
Lysergic acid diethylamide commonly known as LSD and other drugs falling under this category are
DMT, STP, peyote and morning glory seeds.

Synthetic Drugs

Those having the same physiological action as a narcotic drug, such as methadone and demerol.

Other Dangerous Drugs

These include self-inducting sedatives, such as seconbarbital, phenobarbital, pentobarbital,

amobarbital, salt or a derivative of a salt of barbituric acid: and salt, isomer or salt of an isomer, of
amphetamine, such as benzedrine of dexedrine, or any drug which produces a physiological acting
simlar to amphetamine; and hypnotic drugs, such as methaqualone, nitrzepam or any other compound
producing similar physiological effects.

Barbiturates – Manufactured synthetically as salts of barbituric acid. All names of these drugs are
in al, such as pentobarbital, secobarbital (seconal), amobarbital, phenobarbital, barbital, etc.

Categories according to Effects

 Long acting barbiturates – take effect with in 30 to 60 minutes and last up to 8 hours,
e.i. Phenobarbital
 Intermediate acting barbiturates – take effect with in 15 to 30 minutes and last up to 6
hours, e.i. amobarbital and butabarbital.
 Short acting barbiturates – take effect with in 10 to 20 minutes and last up to 6 hours,
e.i. Pentobarbital and secobarbital.
 Ultra short barbiturates – take effect with in 45 seconds and last up to 30 minutes, e.i.
thiopental sodium.

NOTES IN CDI
 Note: Slang Terms of Barbiturates

Pentobarbital – “yellow jackets” - Secobarbital – “red devils” - Amobarbital – “ blue devils/ blue
birds”
Amosbarbital – “ rainbow/ double trouble”

Note: Under FDA law, it is illegal to sell these drugs without prescription. There is no illegal
possession charge under the FDA law, but under RA 6425, there is such a violation.

Amphetamines – Stimulate the central nervous system and have the ability to combat fatigue
and sleepiness. These are also known at uppers.

Chemical Names
a. Amphetamine Sulfate
b. Dextroamphetamine Sulfate
c. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride

Amphetamines come in varied forms, colors and shapes. Examples of amphetamines are
benzedrine or the “bennies”, dexedrine or the “dexies”, and the methedrine known as the “meatballs”.
Shabu is the most widely known amphetamine in the country today. The compound (methamphetamine
hydrochloride) is also known as “poor man’s cocaine”. The latter term, however, is misleading because
although cheaper than that cocaine, shabu is nonetheless expensive as compared to other drugs such as
marijuana or solvents.

The Volatile Substances – also called the Inhalants, Solvents or Deliriants. This are chemicals
which when sniffed can produce intoxication effects such as gasoline, kerosene, thinner, paint, etc. The
most popular among them is the solvent rugby. These chemical substances are significant in narcotic
investigation because of their intoxicating symptoms that do not produce alcoholic breath.

HANDLING NARCOTIC EVIDENCE

Evidence handling

Physical evidence of various types can do must to augment the inevitable oral evidence in a
prosecution involving drugs. The investigator should be constantly on alert to obtain physical evidence
during an inquiry for presentation in court.

Drug seizures - One officer, preferably the officer who made the seizure, should be detailed to
take charge of the drug found. The following procedure should guide him:

Photographs - A permanent written record should be kept relating to photographs taken in the
course of an investigation, noting the time, date and place of the photograph, its subject the weather
condition at the time it was taken. The technician might also note details of film and camera operations.
Several prints of each photograph should be obtained, and on one copy, these details should be recorded
together with the name of the officers who can “prove” the photograph. The other print copies be
retained unmarked for possible submission to court. Photographs of, for instance, a meeting between
two offenders can adduce valuable corroborative evidence.

Documents - Documents that may become evidence in a prosecution should be retained in their
original form. They should be treated in much the same manner as drug seizures with regard to
identification, and it is suggested that all under whose supervision this is done can later “prove” the
original, particularly incases where returned to a person for production later in court.

DRUG INVESTIGATIVE PROCESS

Roles of the PDEA

Drug investigation in the Philippines is under the concern of the Philippine Drug Enforcement
Agency (PDEA) being newly created and organized. The agency has one among its powers and functions

NOTES IN CDI
the initiation of all investigation proceedings concerning drug cases, absorbing all drug enforcement
units of the other governmental agencies like the National Bureau of Investigation, the Philippine
National Police, the Bureau of Customs and other agencies and bureaus with drug investigation
divisions.

As mandated by law and here quoted, the PDEA shall “create and maintain an efficient special
enforcement unit to conduct an investigation and file charges and transmit evidence to the proper
court”. Proper handling of drug evidence is necessary to obtain the maximum possible information upon
which scientific examination shall be based, and to prevent exclusion as evidence in court. Drug
specimens, that truly represent the material found at the scene, unaltered, unspoiled or otherwise
unchanged in handling, will provide more and better information upon examination. Legal
requirements make it necessary to account for all physical pieces of evidence from the time it is
collected until it is presented in court. With these, the following principles should be observed in
handling all types of evidence in narcotic investigation:

General Drug Tests

Drugs Test Used Color Reaction

Opium Marquis test Purple/Violet

Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow-Green
Morphine Nitric Acid Red Orange
Cocaine Cobalt Thiocyanate Blue
Barbiturates Dille-Kopanyi test Violet
Or the Zwikker test Blue color
Amphetamines Marquis test Red/Orange -Brown
LSD Para Amino BenZoic Acid(PABA) Purple
Marijuana Duquenois-Levine test or KN Test Red Bottom layer
Shabu Symone’s test Purple

CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING

Reporting- Reporting is knowingly passing along information to someone else

Reasons/Purposes of Writing Reports

1. Written reports are a permanent record of activities (preserves information of cases)

2. Make possible to transmit facts or essential data (provides accurate details of cases)
3. Aid top level intelligence experts in the interpretation and analysis of information
(coordinate investigation activities and serves as reference by competent authorities)

Pre-requires for good reporting

1. A precise understanding of the assignment

2. Ability to go where the desired information is
3. Ability to collect and retain accurately and in detail
4. Ability to transmit the collected information as soon as possible

Criteria/Standards used

1. It must not contain vague or unclear terms

2. It must be original and correct in both composition and grammar
3. Abbreviation must be used appropriately
4. Slang or unnecessary technical terms must be avoided
5. Erasures and alterations must be avoided
6. Duplicate copies must be clear, legible and officially authenticated

NOTES IN CDI
 7. Contents must be factual and free from bias or prejudices

“Tools” for reporting

1. Six basic questions: Who? - What? - When? - Where? - Why? - How?

2. Seven basic characteristics of good report
Pertinent (relevant, useful, important, significant)
Accurate (precise, exact, true)
Complete (total, entire, full, absolute)
Clearly phrased
Concise (brief, direct, short)
Unbiased (impartial, balance, fair)
Timely (apportune, appropriate, judicious, speedy)

Incidents to be reported

1. Violations of laws and ordinances,

2. All calls in which any member of the police force dispatched or takes official action,
3. All legal papers handled such as warrant of arrest, subpoenas, summonses, citations,etc
4. Cases of missing and found persons, animals and property,
5. Accidents which require police actions,
6. All personal injuries, bodies found and suicides, any damage to property
7. All cases in which a police officer is involved,
8. All arrests made, and miscellaneous cases, general and special orders and all other
incidents that needs to be recorded.

Mechanics of Good Report

It should present a chronological sequence of events.
1. It should be typed written or computerized.
2. It should provide complete data of victim or suspect.
3. Abbreviations should be avoided except those that are commonly known.
4. It should be brief but clear.
5. Every incident should be written in separate report.
6. It should be accurate and state facts and not opinions.
7. It should answer the 5W’s and 1H.

Reporting and Interpretation

1. Objective/factual reporting
2. Subjective/interpretive reporting
3. To report well, the competent and honest observer generally need not concern himself
interpreting what he observes.
4. Difference between fact and interpretation.

Note taking
1. Use one you find workable
2. Develop own system of abbreviations as in dates, etc.
3. Jot down facts only – get only the bones of the skeleton.
4. Omit articles, connectives – write key words of the information.
5. Write later the details when they are still fresh in your mind.

Organization and Expression of a report

1. Heading
2. Collection and source data
3. The information part.
4. The interpretative comments.

NOTES IN CDI
Qualities of Good Report Writing
1. Factual – because the report’s content are all based on facts, taken form one or any or
all of the investigator’s five senses, that of sight, smell ,taste, touch and hearing, thus it can be
proven.
2. Complete – means reporting all the facts, which were discovered in the course of
investigation. Hence, any relevant and pertinent information must be reflected in the report.
3. Objective – means presenting all facts with appropriate words, free from the writer’s
opinions, propaganda or emotional bearings.
4. Clear – means that the report should be as simple and direct as possible. The subject or
objective, or purpose of the report should be clearly stated.
5. Relevant – in the sense that the report should relate exclusively to the stated objective
of the report. However, if another topic or matter is to be introduced in the same report, as a
result of the follow-up investigation of the original case, the presentation or inclusion of the
newly discovered facts should be closely related and the relationship should be made clear.
6. Brief – this can be attained by avoiding sensationalizing the facts, which is the inclusion
of unnecessary details not related to the case under investigation. A report can be brief if the
facts are unified and coherent.
7. Accurate – means the contents of the report must be based on facts, which are known
through the use of any or all of the five senses; sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
8. Up-to-date – meaning reports should be submitted on time and possibly according to
schedule. Hence, it should be current as of the time it is needed.
9. Fair – which can only be done through the avoidance of formulated preconceived
theories that could possibly lead to twisting of the real facts that could affect the report. And
this can only be done by keeping an open mind.

Investigative Reports

1. Preliminary Investigation Report - this is the case report, which contains the
initial listing of the facts of the case. It contains: the offense, current date and time, date and
time of offense, identification date pertaining to victim or reporting party or suspect, location of
offense, MO, name of investigating officer.
2. Progress/ Follow-up Investigation Report – it describe the progress of the investigation from
time to time and ensure constant follow up. It contains: identification of evidences noted,
accurate and pertinent other facts
3. Final Investigation Report – the complete, more detailed report, which contains sufficient
evidence noted, identity of perpetrators, which warrant the filing of the case to court

Format Contents
1. Letterhead
2. Date
3. Addressee
4. I – Authority for Investigation
5. II – Details of Investigation/Matters Investigated/ Facts of the Case
6. III – Comments/Recommendation/Conclusions
7. Annexes (list of exhibits) (appendices)

Parts of an Information Report

Heading - The heading contains the reporting unit, date of report, the subject, date of
information. The date acquired, the place acquired, the report number, the reference, the evaluation, the
attachments (s) and the source (s).

 Reporting Unit-Indicate here the branch/Group or Station submitting the. Standard

abbreviations for the designated office may be used here.
 Date of report.- Refers to the date when the information report is accomplished by the
originating personnel.
 Subject- contains as succinctly as possible the name or description of the matter (s)
reported upon.
 Date of information- Give here the date (s) when each particular information was
obtained by the reporting officer.

NOTES IN CDI
  Date Acquired- Place here the date (s) when each item of information was obtained by
the reporting officer.
 Place Acquired- Give here the place (s) where each item of information was obtained
by the reporting officer.
 Report Number- Insert here the number of the report. These reports well be numbered
from one and so on which will be preceded by the project symbol and the letter I (demoting
information); e.g. CA/I/C42 will indicate Information Report Number 42 of Project “Cobra”
(Code Symbol CA).
 References (s)- State here any pertinent reference, whether to previously relate
information reports and/or reference material and/or operational reports from which the
information was taken.
 Evaluation – State here the degree of reliability of the information reported, both as to
source and as to contents by use of evaluation codes (letters and numbers).
 Attachment (s) – Enumerate here the different annexes appended and pertinent to the
information report.
 Source (s) – Describe the source to assist the reader in arriving at an evaluation of the
report, while at the same time, for security reason, protecting the source’s identity.

Body - This will contain a narrative discussion of the subject(s) of the information report. This
should cover the important points of the report proper. Always try to make the report specific (concise),
objective, complete, clear and accurate. No inclusions, opinions, analysis and the like should be included
here.

Comments - This should include the objective views of the reporting officer and/or P/A and/or
filed sources as to the significants of the information submitted.

CLEAR
CONCISE
CORRECT
COMPLETE

POLICE REPORTS

 It is any written matter prepared by the police involving their interaction with the
community.
 It is an exact narration of facts discovered during the course of investigation which serves
as a permanent written record for future reference.
 It is a permanent written record of police activities classified as informal and formal which
communicates important facts concerning people involved in criminal activities.

Types/Classifications

1. Informal Reports – is a letter of memorandum or any one of many prescribed or used

methods of communications, in a day-by-day police operations. It carries three items
besides the text proper, the data submitted, subject, and person or persons to whom
submitted, and it contain many items of administrative importance along with the subject
matter of the text. Most police reports are placed in this category.

2. Formal Reports – suggest a full-dress treatment, including cover, title page, letter of
transmittal, summary sheet, text, appendixes, and sometimes index and bibliography.
Informal Reports

 General Orders – used to publish matters relating to the modification of the skeleton of the
organization, shifting of functions from one command to another, changes of territorial
jurisdiction of police precincts, and those that requires execution of policies of the
administration.
 Special Orders – used to announce appointments of personnel, whether original or
promotional, reinstatements, rank promotions, salary increases, transfers, designations,
administrative fines and punishments, resignations, retirements and dismissals.

NOTES IN CDI
  Numbered Memoranda – it contains directives of general concern to, and for compliance by,
all units and offices on specific subjects concerning various phases of external and internal
police administration.
 Circulars – utilized in the publication of law, ordinances, executive orders, republic acts,
administrative orders, opinions and other valuable information which serve as convenient
guides and references for members in the performance of their official duties.
 Memoranda – used for the dissemination of specific orders for implementation/compliance
by certain units or individual members, usually of temporary nature or lasting for a certain
period only. This is also utilized for the publications of letters or appreciation and other
communications from various government and/or private offices and individuals.

Other Types of Police Reports

1. The Case Report

a. Complainant/Assignment Sheet which reflects all information regarding

complains and reports received by the police from the citizens and other agencies,
or actions initiated by the police.
b. Investigation Report, which contains the findings of an action taken by the
investigating officer based on inquiries made and by obtaining the available facts
of the incidents.

2. The Arrest and Booking Report - This record maintains the arrest and jail booking report,
which is required for all persons arrested. It shall bear an arrest number for each arrest made.

3. The Identification Report - Identification record is the third major division of police report.
Fingerprint records are the heart identification system. It provides positive identification and the
police must supplement it with a record of physical characteristics and in some cases a photograph of
the criminal. Identification reports have their own number series: an identification number is assigned
to each criminal to identify records relating to him.

4. The Administrative Report - These are reports required in the management of the
department personnel and designed to aid in assignment, promotion, and disciplinary actions. Such
records are so essentials in administering personnel matters that they must be maintained in a police
department.

5. The Miscellaneous Report - These are reports, which do not relate to recorded complaint and
investigation reports but are informational in character.

NOTES IN CDI