WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

La Paz, Iloilo City

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
HMPE 311- ASIAN CUISINE

MIDTERM PERIOD
TOPIC 2: NORTH-EAST ASIAN CUISINE

Learning Objectives:
After studying, you will be able to:
1. Learn the various dishes of China, Korea and Japan.
2. Describe the history and identify the specialty food of China, Korea and Japan.

NORTH-EAST ASIAN CUISINE

Northeastern Chinese cuisine includes many dishes and snacks from the Manchu people of
northeast China, and it is believed that the cuisine has been influenced by neighboring countries, notably
Russia, Korea, and Mongolia. Because of the harsh winters and relatively short growing season, this
region relies heavily on preserved foods and hearty fare.

Due to the region’s many rivers, the Heilongjiang style of the Northeastern cuisine is known for
its fish banquets, specializing in fish such as trout and the sturgeon. Because the area is also
mountainous, the Jilin style of the Northeastern cuisine is famed for its dishes that use game animals.

CHINESE CUISINE
Chinese cuisine is an important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisine originating from
the diverse regions of China, as well as from Overseas Chinese who have settled in other parts of the
world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has
influenced many other cuisines in Asia, with modifications made to cater to local palates. Chinese food
staples such as rice, soy sauce, noodles, tea, and tofu, and utensils such as chopsticks and the wok, can
now be found worldwide.
The preference for seasoning and cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences
in historical background and ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests and
deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering that the climate of China
varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the northeast. Imperial, royal and noble preference also
plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients
and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time.
Color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food, as well as
the meaning, appearance and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised with respect to the
ingredients used, knifework, cooking time and seasoning.
Chinese society greatly valued gastronomy, and developed an extensive study of the subject
based on its traditional medical beliefs. Chinese culture initially centered around the North China Plain.
The first domesticated crops seem to have been the foxtail and broomcorn varieties of millet,
while rice was cultivated in the south. By 2000 BC, wheat had arrived from western Asia. These grains
were typically served as warm noodle soups instead of baked into bread as in Europe. Nobles hunted
various wild game and consumed mutton, pork and dog as these animals were domesticated. Grain was
stored against famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The
flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was mostly restricted to
the wealthy.
By the time of Confucius in the late Zhou, gastronomy had become a high art. Confucius
discussed the principles of dining: "The rice would never be too white, the meat would never be too
finely cut... When it was not cooked right, man would not eat. When it was cooked bad, man would not
eat. When the meat was not cut properly, man would not eat. When the food was not prepared with the
right sauce, man would not eat. Although there are plenty of meats, they should not be cooked more
than staple food. There is no limit for alcohol, before a man gets drunk." During Shi Huangdi's Qin
dynasty, the empire expanded into the south. By the time of the Han dynasty, the different regions and
cuisines of China's people were linked by major canals and leading to a greater complexity in the
different regional cuisines. Not only is food seen as giving "qi", energy, but food is also about maintaining
yin and yang. The philosophy behind it was rooted in the I Ching and Chinese traditional medicine: food

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 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
was judged for color, aroma, taste, and texture and a good meal was expected to balance the Four
Natures ('hot', warm, cool, and 'cold') and the Five Tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty). Salt
was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not
at the table.
By the Later Han period (2nd century), writers frequently complained of lazy aristocrats who did
nothing but sit around all day eating smoked meats and roasts.
During the Han dynasty, the Chinese developed methods of food preservation for military rations
during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain. Chinese
legends claim that the roasted, flat bread shaobing was brought back from the Xiyu (the Western
Regions, a name for Central Asia) by the Han dynasty General Ban Chao, and that it was originally known
as hubing (lit. "barbarian bread"). The shaobing is believed to be descended from the hubing. Shaobing is
believed to be related to the Persian nan and Central Asian nan, as well as the Middle Eastern pita.
Foreign westerners made and sold sesame cakes in China during the Tang dynasty.
During the Southern and Northern Dynasties non-Han people like the Xianbei of Northern
Wei introduced their cuisine to northern China, and these influences continued up to the Tang dynasty,
popularizing meat like mutton and dairy products like goat milk, yogurts, and Kumis among even Han
people. It was during the Song dynasty that Han Chinese developed an aversion to dairy products and
abandoned the dairy foods introduced earlier.
The Han Chinese rebel Wang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing
from Southern Qi, at first could not stand eating dairy products like goat's milk and meat like mutton and
had to consume tea and fish instead, but after a few years he was able to eat yogurt and lamb, and the
Xianbei Emperor asked him which of the foods of China (Zhongguo) he preferred, fish vs mutton and tea
vs yogurt.
The great migration of Chinese people south during the invasions preceding and during the Song
dynasty increased the relative importance of southern Chinese staples such as rice and congee. Su
Dongpo has improved the red braised pork as Dongpo pork.
The Yuan and Qing dynasties introduced Mongolian and Manchu cuisine, warm northern dishes
that popularized hot pot cooking. During the Yuan dynasty many Muslim communities emerged in China,
who practiced a porkless cuisine now preserved by Hui restaurants throughout the country. Yunnan
cuisine is unique in China for its cheeses like Rubing and Rushan cheese made by the Bai people, and its
yogurt, the yogurt may have been due to a combination of Mongolian influence during the Yuan dynasty,
the Central Asian settlement in Yunnan, and the proximity and influence of India and Tibet on Yunnan.
As part of the last leg of the Columbian Exchange, Spanish and Portuguese traders began
introducing foods from the New World to China through the port cities of Canton and Macau.
Mexican chili peppers became essential ingredients in Sichuan cuisine and calorically-dense potatoes and
corn became staple foods across the northern plains.
During the Qing Dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as Yuan Mei focused upon a primary goal of
extracting the maximum flavor of each ingredient. As noted in his culinary work the Suiyuan shidan,
however, the fashions of cuisine at the time were quite varied and in some cases were flamboyantly
ostentatious, especially when the display served also a formal ceremonial purpose, as in the case of
the Manchu Han Imperial Feast.
As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like fried noodles, fried
rice and gaifan (dish over rice) become more and more popular.

REGIONAL CUISINES
There are a variety of styles of cooking in China, but Chinese chefs have classified eight regional
cuisines according to their distinct tastes and local
characteristics. A number of different styles contribute
to Chinese cuisine but perhaps the best known and
most influential are Cantonese cuisine, Shandong
cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine (specifically Huaiyang cuisine)
and Sichuan cuisine. These styles are distinctive from
one another due to factors such as availability of
resources, climate, geography, history, cooking
techniques and lifestyle. One style may favour the use
of garlic and shallots over chili and spices, while
another may favour preparing seafood over other
meats and fowl. Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking
techniques such as braising and stewing, while Sichuan cuisine employs baking. Zhejiang cuisine focuses
more on serving fresh food and is more like Japanese food. Fujian cuisine is famous for its delicious

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La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
seafood and soups and the precise use of scintillating spices. Hunan cuisine is famous for its hot and sour
taste. Anhui cuisine incorporates wild food for an unusual taste and is wilder than Fujian cuisine. 
Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural
differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the
country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of preservation such
as drying, salting, pickling and fermentation.
In addition, the "rice theory" attempts to describe cultural differences between north and south
China; in the north, noodles are more consumed due to wheat being widely grown whereas in the south,
rice is more preferred as it has historically been more cultivated there.

8 Famous Cuisine of China

Chinese cuisine is rich and diverse, varying in style and taste from region to region. Its
history dates back thousands of years, evolving according to changes in both the environment
(such as climate) and local preferences over time. Chinese cuisine also varies depending on class
and ethnic background, and it is often influenced by the cuisines of other cultures. All these factors
contribute to an unparalleled range of cooking techniques, ingredients, dishes and eating styles
that make up what is understood to be Chinese food today.
Of the various regional styles of Chinese cuisine, it is the Cantonese cuisine from
Guangdong that is the most widely recognized globally. Many Western Chinese restaurants have
adopted a style of Cantonese cooking due to the majority of Chinese emigrants from Guangdong
who moved to the United States and Europe in the 1800s. Indeed, Hakkasan’s menu is
predominantly Cantonese or Hakka, a cuisine developed by the Hakka people who lived within the
Guangdong province. However, there are a number of distinctive styles from different regions that
contribute to the whole of Chinese cuisine, and of these there are eight specific culinary traditions
that are recognized throughout Chinese society and around the globe.
These eight culinary cuisines are Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong,
Szechuan and Zhejiang.
1. Anhui (Hui)
Anhui cuisine is derived from the native cooking styles of the people located in the
Huangshan Mountains region in China. Although it is similar to Jiangsu cuisine, there is less
emphasis on seafood and more on a wide variety of locally grown herbs and vegetables from both
the land and the sea.
2. Cantonese (Yu)
Due to Guangdong’s proximity to the South China Sea, the people of the region have
access to a plentiful supply of imported food and fresh seafood. Cantonese cuisine incorporates
almost all edible meats, including chicken feet, duck’s tongue, snakes and snails. However, due to
availability, lamb and goat are rarely eaten. Many cooking techniques are used, including wok hei
(stir frying) and steaming. Spices are used moderately, and fresh herbs are seldom added to the
food. Dishes include dim sum, small morsels of food typically served at breakfast or lunch
alongside tea; barbequed char siu, sticky and burnt red in color; and clear broths flavored with
meat stock.
3. Fujian (Min)
Fujian cuisine is influenced by its coastal position and mountainous terrain, and ingredients
such as woodland mushrooms, bamboo shoots, fish, shellfish and turtles are used regularly. The
cuisine in this area is known to have particular emphasis on umami taste; the dishes are
notoriously light and flavorful.
4. Hunan (Xiang)
Like Szechuan cuisine, Hunan food is renowned for being hot and spicy, with garlic, chili
peppers and shallots used liberally. However, unlike Szechuan cuisine, it is known for being purely
hot as opposed to the searing, numbing heat of Szechuan cooking.
5. Jiangsu (Su)
Jiangsu cuisine consists of a several different styles of Chinese cooking, namely Huaiyang,
Yangzhou, Nanjing, Suzhou and Zhenjiang. The food in Jiangsu cuisine is known as being soft, but
not to the point of falling apart: the meat tastes tender but wouldn’t separate from the bone when
picked up.
6. Shandong (Lu)
Derived from the native cooking styles of Shandong, a northern coastal province of China,
Shandong cuisine consists of two predominant styles: Jiaodong, characterized by light seafood
dishes; and Jinan, a style that features the use of soup in its dishes. Although it is less available in

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La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
the West, Shandong cuisine is often considered one of the most influential styles of cooking in the
Chinese culinary history.
7. Szechuan (Chuan)
Szechuan cuisine is renowned for its use of bold flavors; chili, garlic and Szechuan pepper
are used liberally throughout the dishes. Szechuan pepper has a unique taste: it is intensely
fragrant, citrusy and causes a numbing sensation in the mouth. Szechuan cuisine often contains
food that has been preserved through pickling, salting and drying.
8. Zhejiang (Zhe)
In general, Zhejiang food is fresh and light rather than greasy. It consists of at least four
styles of cooking: Hangzhou, characterized by the use of rich foods and bamboo shoots; Shaoxing,
specializing in poultry and fish; Ningbo, specializing in seafood; and Shanghai, with xiao long bao.

Chinese cuisine-Popular dishes include:

 Kung pao chicken
 Spring rolls/egg rolls
 Szechuan hotpot
 Szechuan chicken
 Mushu pork
 Fried rice
 Beef with broccoli
 Fried dumplings
 Chinese dumpling – jiaozi
 Hot and sour soup
 Dim sum
 Beef fried noodles
 Hunan fried tofu
 Chow mein
 Wontons
 Peking duck.

STAPLE FOODS
Chinese ancestors successfully planted millet, rice, and other grains about 9,000 and 8,000 years
ago. As for wheat, another staple, it took another three or four thousand years. For the first time, grains
provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of food, Chinese people have to adapt
to the new eating habits. The meat was scarce at that time, so people cooked with small amounts of
meat and rice or noodles. 

Rice
Rice is a major staple food for people from rice farming areas in southern China. Steamed rice,
usually white rice, is the most commonly eaten form. People in southern China also like to use rice to
make congee as breakfast. Rice is also used to produce beer, baijiu and vinegars. Glutinous rice ("sticky
rice") is a variety of rice used in specialty dishes such as lotus leaf rice and glutinous rice balls.

Wheat
In wheat-farming areas in Northern China, people largely rely on flour-based food, such
as noodles, bing (bread), jiaozi (a kind of Chinese dumplings), and mantou (a type of steamed buns).

Noodles
Chinese noodles come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served
in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (literally noodles of longevity), is an
avatar of long life and good health according to Chinese traditions. Noodles can be served hot or cold
with different toppings, with broth, and occasionally dry (as is the case with mi-fen). Noodles are
commonly made with rice flour or wheat flour, but other flours such as soybean are also used in minor
groups.
Tofu is made of soybeans and is another popular food product that supplies protein. The
production process of tofu varies from region to region, resulting in different kinds of tofu with a wide
range of texture and taste. Other products such as soy milk, soy paste, soy oil, and fermented soy
sauce are also important in Chinese cooking.

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La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
There are many kinds of soybean products, including tofu skin, smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried
tofu.
Stinky tofu is fermented tofu. Like blue cheese or durian, it has a very distinct, potent and strong
smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty
spice. Soft stinky tofu are usually used as a spread on steamed buns.
Doufuru is another type of fermented tofu that has a salty taste. Doufuru can be pickled together
with soy beans, red yeast rice or chili to create different color and flavor. This is more of a pickled type of
tofu and is not as strongly scented as stinky tofu. Doufuru has the consistency of slightly soft blue
cheese, and a taste similar to Japanese miso paste, but less salty. Doufuru can be used as a spread on
steamed buns, or paired with rice congee.

Vegetables
Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique vegetables used in Chinese
cuisine include baby corn, bok choy, snow peas, Chinese eggplant, Chinese broccoli, and straw
mushrooms. Other vegetables including bean sprouts, pea vine tips, watercress, lotus roots, water
chestnuts, and bamboo shoots are also used in different cuisines of China.
Because of different climate and soil conditions, cultivars of green beans, peas, and mushrooms can be
found in rich variety.
A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions
where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season.

Herbs and Seasonings

Ingredients of Wu Xiang Fen (Five Spice powder) are Sichuan peppercorn, cloves, cinnamon,
fennel seed, and star anise.
Seasonings such as
fresh ginger root, garlic, scallion, cilantro and sesame are widely used in
many regional cuisines. Sichuan peppercorns, star
anise, cinnamon, fennel, cloves and white peppers are also used in
different regions.
To add extra flavors to dishes, many Chinese cuisines also
contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimp, dried tangerine
peel, and dried Sichuan chillies.
When it comes to sauces, China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soybeans
and wheat. A number of sauces are also based on fermented soybeans, including hoisin sauce, ground
bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. There are also different sauces preferred by regional cuisines, oyster
sauce, fish sauce and furu (fermented tofu) are also widely used. Vinegar also has a variety with different
flavors: clear rice vinegar, Chinkiang black rice vinegar, Shanxi vinegar, Henghe vinegar etc.

Desserts and Snacks

Different gāo diǎn (traditional Chinese pastry) with different stuffing,
including lotus seed, rose, and mixture of pea and jackbean
Egg custard tart is a type of xī diǎn (Western pastry) originally from
Portugal and gain its popularity through Hong Kong.
Generally, seasonal fruits serve as the most common form of dessert
consumed after dinner.
Dim sum, originally means small portion of food, can refer to dessert,
pastries. Later to avoid the disambiguation, tian dian and gao dian are used to
describe desserts and pastries.
Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal, or
at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine.
Besides served as a dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional
festivals. The most famous one is moon cake, used to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival.
A wide variety of Chinese desserts are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet
snacks. Bing is an umbrella term for all breads in Chinese, also including pastries and sweets. These are
baked wheat flour based confections, with different stuffings including red bean paste, jujube and various
of others. Su is another kind of pastry made with more amount of oil, making the confection more friable.
Chinese candies and sweets, called táng are usually made with cane sugar, malt sugar, honey, nuts and
fruit. Gao or Guo are rice based snacks that are typically steamed and may be made from glutinous or
normal rice.

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 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Another cold dessert is called baobing, which is shaved ice with sweet syrup. Chinese jellies are
known collectively in the language as ices. Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are
flavored with fruits, though gelatin based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts.
Chinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot.
There are also western pastries in China, like mille-feuille, crème
brûlée and cheesecake, but they are generally not as popular because the
Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily.
Bāozi are steamed buns containing savory or sweet combinations of
meat, vegetables, and mushrooms, traditionally associated with breakfast.
Many types of street foods, which vary from region to region, can be
eaten as snacks or light dinner. Prawn crackers are an often-consumed snack in Southeast China.

Dairy products
Chinese in earlier dynasties evidently drank milk and ate dairy products, although not necessarily
from cows, but perhaps koumiss (fermented mare's milk) or goat's milk.
Many Chinese have until recently avoided milk, partly because pasturage for milk producers in a
monsoon rice ecology is not economic, and partly because of the high rate of lactose intolerance among
the Chinese population. As such the use of dairy products in Chinese cuisine has historically been rare,
with regional exceptions such as the "double skin milk" dessert in Guangdong Province or the Rubing
(milk cake) cheese in Yunnan. Today ice cream is commonly available and popular throughout China.

Cold Dishes
Stewed pig’s ear as lou mei is usually served cold.
Cold dishes are usually served before the main meal. Besides salad and pickles as appetizers,
they can range from jelly, beancurd, noodle salad, cooked meat and sausages, to jellyfish or cold soups.
Chinese sausages vary from region to region. The most common sausage is made of pork and pork fat.
Flavor is generally salty-sweet in Southern China. In other parts of China, sausages are salted to be
preserved. Chinese sausage is prepared in many different ways, including oven-roasting, stir-fry, and
steaming.

Soups
Dōngguā xiārén fěnsī tāng (winter melon, shrimp and cellophane
noodle soup)
In some part of South China, soups are served between the cold dishes and
the main dishes. In other parts of China, soups are served between the main
dish and staple foods, before desserts or fruit salad. There are many
traditional Chinese soups, such as wonton soup, herbal chicken soup, hot and
sour soup, winter melon soup and so on.

Drinks
Tea plays an important role in Chinese dining
culture. Baijiu and huangjiu as strong alcoholic beverages are preferred by many
people as well. Wine is not so popular as other drinks in China that are consumed
whilst dining, although they are usually available in the menu.

Tea
Longjing tea, also known as Dragon Well tea, is a variety of roasted green tea
from Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China, where it is produced mostly by hand and has been renowned
for its high quality, earning the China Famous Tea title.
As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried
fruit (in particular jujube), small sweets, melon seeds, and waxberry. China was the earliest country to
cultivate and drink tea, which is enjoyed by people from all social classes. Tea processing began after
the Qin and Han Dynasties.
The different types of Chinese tea include black, white, green, yellow, oolong, and dark tea.
Chinese tea is often classified into several different categories according to the species of plant from
which it is sourced, the region in which it is grown, and the method of production used. Some of these
types are green tea, oolong tea, black tea, scented tea, white tea, and compressed tea. There are four
major tea plantation regions: Jiangbei, Jiangnan, Huanan and the southwestern region. Well known types
of green tea include Longjing, Huangshan, Mao Feng, Bilochun, Putuofeng Cha, and Liu'an
Guapian. China is the world's largest exporter of green tea.

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La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
One of the most ubiquitous accessories in modern China, after a wallet or purse and an umbrella,
is a double-walled insulated glass thermos with tea leaves in the top behind a strainer.

KOREAN CUISINE
Korean cuisine is the customary cooking traditions and practices of the culinary arts of Korea.
Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from
ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Korean cuisine has evolved
through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.
Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, vegetables, and meats. Traditional Korean meals are
named for the number of side dishes (banchan) that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Kimchi is
served at nearly every meal. Commonly used ingredients include sesame oil, doenjang (fermented bean
paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, gochugaru (pepper flakes), gochujang (fermented red chili paste)
and napa cabbage.
Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national, and dishes
that were once regional have proliferated in different variations across the country. Korean royal court
cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Foods are
regulated by Korean cultural etiquette.

Grains
Grains have been one of the most important staples of the Korean diet.
Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains.
One foundation myth relates to Jumong, who received barley seeds from
two doves sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo. Yet
another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island, who were to
Dolsotbap, cooked rice in a stone
be wed to the three princesses of Tamna; the deities brought seeds of five pot (dolsot)
grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first
instance of farming.
During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples. They were
supplemented by wheat, sorghum, and buckwheat. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea and millet
was likely the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the
Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the Silla and Baekje Kingdoms in the southern regions of the
peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The Sino-
Korean word for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference
for rice escalated into the Joseon period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged
that would help increase production.
As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, the grain was likely mixed with
other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as boribap (rice with barley)
and kongbap (rice with beans). White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred
form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has
been to cook it in an iron pot called a sot or musoe sot . This method of rice cookery dates back to at
least the Goryeo period, and these pots have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The sot is
still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.
Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is
commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called tteok in over two hundred varieties. It
is also cooked down into a congee (juk) or gruel (mieum) and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood.
Koreans also produce a number of rice wines, both in filtered and unfiltered versions.

Legumes
Legumes have been significant crops in Korean history and cuisine,
according to the earliest preserved legumes found in archaeological sites in
Korea. The excavation at Okbang site, Jinju, South Gyeongsang province
indicates soybeans were cultivated as a food crop circa 1000–900 BCE. They are
made into tofu (dubu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable
(kongnamul) and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are
also made into soy milk, which is used as the base for the noodle dish
called kongguksu. A by product of soy milk production is biji or kong-biji, which Kongguksu, a cold noodle dish with a
broth made from ground soy beans
is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans
in kongbap, boiled together with several types of beans and other grains, and they are also the primary
ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to as jang, such as soybean

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pastes, doenjang and cheonggukjang, a soy sauce called ganjang, chili pepper paste or gochujang and
others.
Mung beans are commonly used in Korean cuisine, where they are called nokdu (Korean: Hanja:
lit. '"Green bean"'). Mung bean sprouts, called sukju namul, are often served as a side
dish, blanched and sautéed with sesame oil, garlic, and salt. Ground mung beans are used to make a
porridge called nokdujuk, which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill
patients.A popular snack, bindaetteok (mung bean pancake), is made with ground mung beans and fresh
mung bean sprouts. Starch extracted from ground mung beans is used to make transparent cellophane
noodles (dangmyeon). The noodles are the main ingredients for japchae (a salad-like dish)
and sundae (a blood sausage), and are a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews. The starch can be
also used to make jelly-like foods, such as nokdumuk and hwangpomuk. Tangpyeongchae, a dish
The muk have a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil made with nokdumuk (a
mung bean starch jelly) and
and crumbled seaweed or other seasonings such as tangpyeongchae.
Cultivation of azuki beans dates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-
ri, Hoeryong, North Hamgyong Province, which is assumed to be that of Mumun period (approximately
1500-300 BCE). Azuki beans are generally eaten as patbap, which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans,
or as a filling and covering for tteok (rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans,
called patjuk, is commonly eaten during the winter season. On Dongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday
which falls on December 22, Korean people eat donji patjuk, which contains saealsim (a ball made from
glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition, patjuk is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.

Vegetables
Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often
served uncooked, either in salads or pickles, as well as cooked in various
stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes. Commonly used vegetables
include Korean radish, napa cabbage, cucumber, potato, sweet potato,
spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers, seaweed, zucchini,
mushrooms, lotus root. Several types of wild greens, known collectively
as chwinamul (such as Aster scaber), are a popular dish, and other wild Miyeok guk, a soup made from
the sea seaweed, miyeok
vegetables such as bracken fern shoots (gosari) or Korean bellflower root
(doraji) are also harvested and eaten in season. Medicinal herbs, such
as ginseng, lingzhi mushroom, wolfberry, Codonopsis pilosula, and Angelica sinensis, are often used as
ingredients in cooking, as in samgyetang.

Meat
In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through hunting and fishing. Ancient records
indicate rearing of livestock began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was
consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were
able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing
more meat.

Beef
Beef is the most prized of all, with the cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean
home. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling ( gui) or boiling in soups. Beef
can also be dried into yukpo, a type of po, as with seafood, called eopo.
The cattle were valuable draught animals, often seen as equal to human servants, or in some
cases, members of the family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of
the lunar New Year. The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef,
however, as the cattle were valued as beasts of burden and slaughtering one would create dire issues in
farming the land. Pork and seafood were consumed more regularly for this reason. The Buddhist ruling
class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. The Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef
during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production
continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and
quality of beef. Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare.

Pork
Pork has also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has
been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.
A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork,
including Chinese bellflower (doraji) and lotus root (yeonn ppuri), as the
combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are

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used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidney and other internal organs. Koreans
utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.
Koreans especially like to eat grilled pork belly, which is called samgyeopsal .

Chicken
Chicken has played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of
myths. One myth tells of the birth of Kim Alji, founder of the Kim family of Gyeongju being announced by
the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with
preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture. Chicken is often
served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine,
including the gizzard, liver, and feet. Young chickens are braised with ginseng and other ingredients in
medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called samgyetang. The feet of the
chicken, called dakbal , are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy gochujang-based sauce and
served as an anju, or side dish, to accompany alcoholic beverages, especially soju.

Fish and seafood

Fish and shellfish have been a major part of Korean cuisine because
of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century
illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such
as shrimp, clams, oysters, abalone, and loach, while sheep and hogs were
reserved for the upper class.
Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, A bowl of gejang, marinated crabs in
grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish soy sauce and plates of
include mackerel, hairtail, croaker and Pacific herring. Smaller fish, shrimp, various banchan (small side dishes)

squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented
as jeotgal. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as banchan. Fish is often dried naturally to
prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried include yellow
corvina, anchovies (myeolchi) and croaker. Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common
soup stocks.
Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare broth,
eaten raw with chogochujang, which is a mixture of gochujang and vinegar, or used as a popular
ingredient in countless dishes. Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve
and vary the flavor. Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known as saeujeot, for the
preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled as daeha gui  or dried, mixed with
vegetables and served with rice. Mollusks eaten in Korean cuisine include octopus, cuttlefish, and squid.

Condiments and Spices

Seasonings draw out the unique flavors of a dish’s ingredients, and various seasonings are used
to create unique flavor combinations. Seasonings primarily consist of condiments and spices. Condiments
are ingredients that contain salty, sweet, sour, spicy and bitter flavors. Spices lend their own scent to a
dish, and spicy, bitter and crispy pastes can remove certain odors or enhance an ingredient’s original
flavor.

The Wisdom of Korean cuisine, Jang(sauces) and Jeotgal

Sauces are the foundation taste of Korean food. Koreans’ ancestors created various types of
sauces to salt, add flavor, and season food. Ganjang (soy sauce), doenjang (soybean paste),
cheonggukjang (rich soybean paste), and other sauces are used to flavor kimchi, pickles, rice cakes,
braised food, soups, and almost every other type of Korean dish. All Koreans grow up on the savory,
aromatic taste of their mothers’ sauces.
Korean soy sauce is made by further fermentation of fermented soybean paste bricks. There are
many single - step fermented foods such as tempe in Indonesia and natto in Japan, but these are not
analogous to double-fermented Korean soy sauce. Korean soy sauce is one of the few natural, double-
fermented foods in the world. Various types of molds, and yeasts appear not only when the soybean
paste bricks are fermented; but also as they are matured in salt water, and both the bricks and soy sauce
are fermented.
Jeotgal (salted seafood) is made of the fillets, eggs and guts of sea animals. Some types are
made of the whole animal – such as anchovies, shrimp, clams, and spicy oysters – whereas others use
only specific parts – such as shad intestines and pollack roe. Salting kills all the bad organisms in the
animal and retains the salt - loving organisms that ferment seafood. This prevents it from going bad and
adds flavor. On average, the amount of salt used to make the pickles is equal to 20 percent of the total
weight of the main ingredients. Each type of seafood has different fermenting organisms and nutritional

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contents. Jeotgal has a long history in Korea, and is a food arousing many feelings in Korean hearts and
stomachs. From raw fish to highly - fermented foods, jeotgal makes a long journey to achieve its intense
flavor. Jeotgal is often used as a fermenting and flavoring agent for kimchi.
The fermentation of foods with salt, ganjang, and doenjang to make fermented foods with lactic
acid is also common in the neighbouring Northeast Asia countries of China and Japan. However, Koreans,
in common with Southeast Asians, use salted seafood for fermentation, notably to make kimchi, thereby
creating a very complex, unparalleled flavor. The use of jeotgal and red chili powder for kimchi started
around the same time. Red chili powder protects kimchi from developing bad bacteria and decomposing;
while jeotgal makes kimchi more nutritious and gives it a strong, sophisticated flavor. Among the
different types of jeotgal, those made with anchovy and shrimp are the most preferred for making
kimchi. People living near the South Sea use pickled anchovy to add more flavor to kimchi, whereas
people living near the West Sea add salted shrimp to create a cleaner and more refreshing taste. In this
way, every region in Korea has developed its own distinct kimchi.

Gomyeong (Granish)
Garnishes are used to decorate food and give it a pleasing appearance and color. In Korea,
garnishes are sometimes referred to as utgi or kkumi . A basic garnish consists of 5 colors: red, green,
yellow, white and black. This combination is based on the philosophy of YinYang and the Five Phases and
relies on the garnishes’ natural colors.

Dishes
Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of "main staple foods", "subsidiary dishes",
and "dessert". The main dishes are made from grains such as bap (a bowl of rice), juk (porridge),
and guksu (noodles).
Many Korean banchan rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy,
salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city
of Jeonju with bibimbap) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will
often use these famous names on their signs or menus (e.g. "Suwon galbi").

Soups and Stews

Soups are a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is
served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an
accompaniment to rice along with other banchan. Soups known as guk are often made with meats,
shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made into more formal soups known as tang, often served as the
main dish of the meal. Jjigae are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.
Some popular types of soups are:
 Malgeunguk , are flavored with ganjang. Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the
soup, or seafood both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for
the clear soup.
 Tojangguk  are seasoned with doenjang. Common ingredients for tojang guk include seafood such
as clams, dried anchovies, and shrimp. For a spicier soup, gochujang is added.
 Gomguk  or gomtang , and they are made from boiling beef bones or cartilage. Originating as a
peasant dish, all parts of beef are used, including tail, leg and rib bones with or without meat
attached; these are boiled in water to extract fat, marrow, and gelatin to create a rich soup. Some
versions of this soup may also use the beef head and intestines. The only seasoning generally used
in the soup is salt.
 Naengguk, which are cold soups generally eaten during the summer months to cool the diner. A light
hand is usually used in the seasoning of these soups usually using ganjang and sesame oil.
 Shin-Son-Ro (or Koo-Ja Tang), the name of it came from its special cook pot with chimney for
burning charcoal. The meaning is a hearth or furnace or a pot for fire or incense burning that always
contains nineteen fillings. The nineteen fillings were including beef, fish, eggs, carrot, mushrooms,
and onion.
Stews are referred to as jjigae, and are often a shared side dish. Jjigae is often both cooked and
served in the glazed earthenware pot (ttukbaegi) in which it is cooked. The most common version of this
stew is doenjang jjigae, which is a stew of soybean paste, with many variations; common ingredients
include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and
which ingredients are available. Other common varieties of jjigae contain kimchi (kimchi jjigae) or tofu
(sundubu jjigae).

Kimchi

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Kimchi refers to often fermented vegetable dishes usually made
with napa cabbage, Korean radish, or sometimes cucumber. There are 4
types of raw materials which are major ones: spices, seasonings, and
other additional materials. Red and black pepper, cinnamon, garlic,
ginger, onion, and mustard are the example of spices. There are endless
varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked
into soups and rice dishes. In the late 15th century, it depicted Korean's
custom that Korean ancestors buried kimchi jars in the ground for storage for the entire winter
season, as fermented foods can keep for several years. These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots
known as jangdokdae, although with the advent of refrigerators, special kimchi freezers and commercially
produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is a vegetable-based food which includes
low calorie, low fat, and no cholesterol. Also, it is a rich source of various vitamins and minerals. It
contains vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin K and minerals which are calcium,
iron, phosphorus, and selenium. South Koreans eat an average of 40 pounds of kimchi each year.

Noodles
Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively
referred to as guksu in native Korean or myeon in hanja. While noodles
were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less
than other crops, so wheat noodles did not become a daily food until
1945. Wheat noodles (milguksu) were specialty foods for birthdays, Japchae, a kind of Korean noodle dish
weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued made with marinated beef and
vegetables in soy sauce and sesame oil.
shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and
long-lasting marriage.
In Korean traditional noodle dishes are onmyeon or guksu jangguk (noodles with a hot clear
broth), naengmyeon (cold buckwheat noodles), bibim guksu (cold noodle dish mixed with
vegetables), kalguksu (knife-cut noodles), kongguksu (noodles with a cold soybean
broth), japchae (cellophane noodles made from sweet potato with various vegetables) and others. In
royal court, baekmyeon (literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles and pheasant broth,
was regarded as the top quality noodle dish. Naengmyeon with a cold soup mixed with dongchimi 
(watery radish kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.
 Jajangmyeon, a staple Koreanized Chinese noodle dish, is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-
out food. It is made with a black bean sauce usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of
vegetables, including zucchini and potatoes. It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-
out food in other parts of the world.
 Ramyeon refers to Korean instant noodles similar to ramen.

Banchan
Banchan is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean
cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered banchan.
Gui are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as
their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled
vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats
are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by
various banchan and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into
small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced Bulgogi, a grilled Korean dish; the
meat and vegetables shown here
garlic, ssamjang (a mixture of gochujang and dwenjang), and other have not yet been grilled.
seasonings. The suffix gui is often omitted in the names of meat-
based gui such as galbi, the name of which was originally galbi gui.

 List of grilled dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine

Jjim and seon (steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean
cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in gochujang
or ganjang while seon is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.

 List of steamed dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine

Hoe (raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally
used to refer to saengseonhweh, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in gochujang, or soy sauce with wasabi,
and served with lettuce or perilla leaves.

 List of raw dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine

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Jeon (or buchimgae) are savory pancakes made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or
seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish tastes best when it is
dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder.

 List of jeon dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine

Namul may refer to either saengchae  (literally "fresh vegetables")
or sukchae (literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates
the latter. Saengchae is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper powder and
salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, sukchae is
blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, chopped garlic, or
sometimes chili pepper powder.

Desserts
Traditional rice cakes, tteok and Korean confectionery hangwa are eaten as
treats during holidays and festivals. Tteok refers to all kinds of rice cakes made from
either pounded rice (metteok), pounded glutinous rice (chaltteok), or glutinous rice
left whole, without pounding. It is served either filled or covered with sweetened
mung bean paste, red bean paste, mashed red beans, raisins, a sweetened filling
made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts or honey).
Tteok is usually served as dessert or as a snack. Among varieties, songpyeon is a chewy
stuffed tteok served at Chuseok. Honey or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or
black beans are used as fillings. Pine needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming
process. Yaksik is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other
ingredients, while chapssaltteok is a tteok filled with sweet bean paste.
On the other hand, hangwa is a general term referring to all types of Korean
traditional confectionery. The ingredients of hahngwa mainly consist of grain flour,
honey, yeot, and sugar, or of fruit and edible roots. Hangwa is largely divided
into yumilgwa (fried confectionery),  suksilgwa,  jeonggwa,  gwapyeon, dasik (tea
food) and yeot. Yumilgwa is made by stir frying or frying pieces of dough, such as 
maejakgwa and yakgwa. Maejakgwa is a ring-shaped confection made of wheat
flour, vegetable oil,  cinnamon, ginger juice, jocheong, and pine nuts, while yakgwa,
literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of honey, sesame
oil and wheat flour.
Suksilgwa is made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the
original fruit's shape, or other shapes. Gwapyeon is a jelly-like confection made by boiling sour fruits,
starch, and sugar. Dasik, literally "eatery for tea", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various
types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes. Jeonggwa, or jeongwa, is made by boiling fruits,
plant roots and seeds in honey, mullyeot (liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar to  marmalade or
jam/jelly. Yeot is a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from steamed rice, glutinous
rice, glutinous kaoliang, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly
fermented and boiled in a large pot called sot for a long time.

JAPANESE CUISINE

Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have

developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes.
The traditional cuisine of Japan, washoku, lit. "Japanese eating" (or kappō), is based on rice
with miso soup and other dishes; there is an emphasis on seasonal ingredients. Side dishes often consist
of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth. Seafood is common, often grilled, but also
served raw as sashimi or in sushi. Seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter,
as tempura. Apart from rice, staples include noodles, such as soba and udon. Japan also has many
simmered dishes such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga.
Dishes inspired by foreign food—in particular Chinese food—like ramen and gyōza, as well as
foods like spaghetti, curry, and hamburgers have become adopted with variants for Japanese tastes and
ingredients. Traditionally, the Japanese shunned meat due to Buddhism, but with the modernization of
Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu and yakiniku have become common. Japanese
cuisine, particularly sushi, has become popular throughout the world. In 2011, Japan overtook France to
become the country with the most 3-starred Michelin restaurants; as of 2018, the capital Tokyo has
maintained the title of the city with the most 3-starred restaurants in the world.

Overview of Traditional Japanese Cuisine

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Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed white rice or gohan,
with one or more okazu or main dishes and side dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso
soup and tsukemono (pickles). The phrase ichijū-sansai (one soup, three sides”) refers to the makeup of
a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūshoku cuisine. The term is also used
to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays. A Japanese meal
Rice is served in its own small bowl (chawan- tea bowl), and each including tempura, sash
imi, and miso soup
main course item is placed on its own small plate ( sara) or bowl (hachi) for
each individual portion. This is done even in Japanese homes. It contrasts
with the Western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large serving
dishes of food presented at the middle of the dining table. Japanese style traditionally abhors
different-flavored dishes touching each other on a single plate, so different dishes are given their own
individual plates as mentioned, or are partitioned using, for example, leaves. Placing main dishes on top
of rice and "soiling" is also frowned upon by old-fashioned etiquette.
Breakfast at a ryokan (Japanese inn), featuring grilled mackerel, Kansai style dashimaki egg, tofu
in kaminabe (paper pot)

Though this tradition originated from Classical Chinese dining formalities, especially after the
adoption of Buddhism with its tea ceremony, it became most popular and common during and after the
'Kamakura period, such as the kaiseki. Japanese cuisine keeps such tradition still, whereas in modern
times such practice is in sharp contrast to present day Chinese cuisine, where placing food on rice is
standard. However, an exception is the popular donburi.
The small rice bowl or chawan (lit. "tea bowl") doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea
ceremonies. Thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the
purpose of distinction. In the olden days, among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal
would be brought on serving napkins called zen, which were originally platformed trays or small dining
tables. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be seen used in zashiki,
i.e. tatami-mat rooms, for large banquets or at a ryokan type inn. Some restaurants might use the
suffix -zen as a more sophisticated though dated synonym to the more familiar teishoku, since the latter
basically is a term for a combo meal served at a taishū-shokudō, akin to a diner. Teishoku means a meal
of fixed menu (for example, grilled fish with rice and soup), a dinner à prix fixe served
at shokudō ("dining hall") or ryōriten ("restaurant"), which is somewhat vague (shokudō can mean a
diner-type restaurant or a corporate lunch hall); writer on Japanese popular culture Ishikawa
Hiroyoshi defines it as fare served at teishoku dining hall (teishoku-shokudō), and comparable diner-like
establishments.

Japanese Cuisine- Popular dishes include:

 Sashimi – thin slices of raw fish
 Sushi – raw fish, served on vinegared rice
 Sushi roll – filling is rolled in rice with a covering of nori.
 Tempura – seafood or vegetables dipped in batter and deep-fried
 Kare raisu – curry rice
 Soba, udon and ramen noodles
 Teppanyaki – meat, seafood and vegetables prepared in front of guests
 Donburi – bowl of rice covered with one of a variety of toppings

History
Rice is a staple in Japanese cuisine. Wheat and soybeans were introduced shortly after rice. All
three act as staple foods in Japanese cuisine today. During the Kofun period, Buddhism became the
official religion of the country. Therefore, eating meat and fish were prohibited. In 675 AD, Emperor
Tenmu prohibited the eating of horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens. In the 8th and 9th century, many
emperors continued to prohibit killing many types of animals. The number of regulated meats increased
significantly, leading to the banning of all mammals except whale, which were categorized as fish. During
this period, chopsticks were introduced to Japan. Initially they were only used by nobility. The general
population used their hands, as utensils were quite expensive.

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 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Due to the lack of meat products Japanese people minimized spice utilization. Spices were rare to
find at the time. Spices like pepper and garlic were only used in a minimalist amount. In the absence of
meat, fish was served as the main protein, as Japan is an island nation. Fish has influenced many iconic
Japanese dishes today. In the 9th century, grilled fish and sliced raw fish were widely popular. Japanese
people who could afford it would eat fish at every meal; others would have to make do without animal
protein for many of their meals. In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided within the
cooking process, because Japanese people were trying to keep a healthy lifestyle.
Preserving fish became a sensation; sushi was originated as means of preserving fish by
fermenting it in boiled rice. Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved by lactic acid
fermentation, which helps prevent proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction. During the
15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to
two weeks. Sushi thus became a popular snack food and main entrée, combining fish with rice. During
the Edo period (mid-15th century), sushi without fermentation was introduced. Sushi was still being
consumed without fermentation till the end of 18th century, when the hand-rolled and nigri-type sushi
was invented.
In 1854, Japan started to gain new trade deals with Western countries when a new Japanese
ruling order took over (known as the Meiji Restoration). Emperor Meiji, the new ruler, staged a New
Years feast designed to embrace the Western world and countries in 1872. The feast contained food that
had a lot of European emphasis. For the first time in a thousand years, people were allowed to consume
meat in public. After this New Years feast, the general population from Japan started to consume meat
again.

Seasonality
Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of
the four seasons or calendar months.
Seasonality means taking advantage of the "fruit of the mountains" (yama no sachi, alt. "bounty
of the mountains") (for example, bamboo shoots in spring, chestnuts in the autumn) as well as the "fruit
of the sea" (umi no sachi, alt. "bounty of the sea") as they come into season. Thus the first catch
of skipjack tunas (hatsu-gatsuo) that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly
prized.
If something becomes available rather earlier than what is usual for the item in question, the first
crop or early catch is called hashiri.
Use of tree leaves and branches as decor is also characteristic of Japanese cuisine. Maple leaves
are often floated on water to exude coolness or ryō ; sprigs of nandina are popularly used.
The haran (Aspidistra) and sasa bamboo leaves were often cut into shapes and placed underneath or
used as separators.

Traditional Ingredients
A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use of red meat, oils and fats, and
dairy products. Use of ingredients such as soy sauce, miso, and umeboshi tends to result in dishes with
high salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available.

Meat Consumption
As Japan is an island nation surrounded by an ocean, its people have always taken advantage of
the abundant seafood supply.It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied
mainly on "grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with poultry secondary, and red meat in slight
amounts" even before the advent of Buddhism which placed an even stronger taboo. The eating of "four-
legged creatures" (yotsuashi) was spoken of as taboo, unclean or something to be avoided by personal
choice through the Edo period. The consumption of whale and terrapin meat were not forbidden under
this definition. Despite this, the consumption of red meat did not completely disappear in Japan. Eating
wild game—as opposed to domesticated livestock—was tolerated; in particular, trapped hare was
counted using the measure word wa, a term normally reserved for birds.
In 1872 of the Meiji restoration, as part of the opening up of Japan to Western
influence, Emperor Meiji lifted the ban on the consumption of red meat. The removal of the ban
encountered resistance and in one notable response, ten monks attempted to break into the Imperial
Palace. The monks asserted that due to foreign influence, large numbers of Japanese had begun eating
meat and that this was "destroying the soul of the Japanese people." Several of the monks were killed
during the break-in attempt, and the remainder were arrested. On the other hand, the consumption of
meat was accepted by the common people. Gyūnabe(beef hot pot), the prototype of Sukiyaki, became
the rage of the time. Western restaurants moved in, and some of them changed their form to Yōshoku.

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 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Vegetable consumption has dwindled while processed foods have become more prominent in Japanese
households due to the rising costs of general foodstuffs. Nonetheless, Kyoto vegetables, or Kyoyasai, are
rising in popularity and different varieties of Kyoto vegetables are being revived.

Cooking oil
Generally speaking, traditional Japanese cuisine is prepared with little cooking oil. A major
exception is the deep-frying of foods. This cooking method was introduced during the Edo period due to
influence from Western (formerly called nanban-ryōri ) and Chinese cuisine, and became commonplace
with the availability of cooking oil due to increased productivity. Dishes such as tempura, aburaage,
and satsuma age are now part of established traditional Japanese cuisine. Words such
as tempura or hiryōzu (synonymous with ganmodoki) are said to be of Portuguese origin.
Also, certain rustic sorts of traditional Japanese foods such as kinpira, hijiki, and kiriboshi daikon
usually involve stir-frying in oil before stewing in soy sauce. Some standard osōzai or obanzai dishes
feature stir-fried Japanese greens with either age or chirimen-jako, dried sardines.

Seasonings
The use of soy sauce is prevalent in japanese Cuisine.
Traditional Japanese food is typically seasoned with a combination of dashi, soy
sauce, sake and mirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt. These are typically the only seasonings used when
grilling or braising an item. A modest number of herbs and spices may be used during cooking as a hint
or accent, or as a means of neutralizing fishy or gamy odors present. Examples of such spices
include ginger and takanotsume  red pepper. This contrasts conceptually with barbecue or stew, where a
blend of seasonings is used before and during cooking.
Once a main dish has been cooked, spices such as minced ginger and various pungent herbs may
be added as a garnish, called tsuma. With certain milder items, a dollop of wasabi and
grated daikon (daikon-oroshi), or Japanese mustard are provided as condiments. A sprig of mitsuba or a
piece of yuzu rind floated on soups are called ukimi. Minced shiso leaves and myoga often serve
as yakumi, a type of condiment paired with tataki of katsuo or soba.
Finally, a dish may be garnished with minced seaweed in the form of crumpled nori or flakes
of aonori. Shichimi is also a very popular spice mixture often added to soups, noodles and rice cakes.
Shichimi is a chilli-based spice mix which contains seven spices: chilli, sansho, orange peel, black sesame,
white sesame, hemp, ginger, and nori.

Dishes
In the aforementioned stock phrase ichijū-sansai ("one soup, three sides"), the word sai has the
basic meaning of "vegetable", but secondarily means any accompanying dish (whether it uses fish or
meat), with the more familiar combined form sōzai which is a term for any side dish, such as the vast
selections sold at Japanese supermarkets or depachikas.
It figures in the Japanese word for appetizer, zensai; main dish, shusai ; or sōzai (formal
synonym for okazu, but the latter is considered somewhat of a ladies' term or nyōbō kotoba.

Salads
Japanese vegetable salads often add seafood.
The o-hitashi or hitashi-mono  is boiled green-leaf vegetables bunched and cut to size, steeped
in dashi broth, eaten with dashes of soy sauce. Another item is sunomono  ("vinegar item"), which could
be made with wakame seaweed, or be something like a kōhaku namasu ("red white namasu") made
from thin toothpick slices of daikon and carrot. The so-called vinegar that is blended with the ingredient
here is often sanbaizu  ("three cupful/spoonful vinegar") which is a blend of vinegar, mirin, and soy
sauce. A tosazu ("Tosa vinegar") adds katsuo dashi to this. Note sparing use of oil, compared with
Western salads.
An aemono is another group of items, describable as a sort of "tossed salad" or "dressed"
(though aemono also includes thin strips of squid or fish sashimi (itozukuri) etc. similarly prepared). One
types are goma-ae where usually vegetables such as green beans are tossed with white or
black sesame seeds ground in a suribachi mortar bowl, flavored additionally with sugar and soy
sauce. Shira-ae  adds tofu (bean curd) in the mix. An aemono is tossed with vinegar-white miso mix and
uses wakegi scallion and baka-gai (a trough shell (Mactra  sinensis) as standard.

Cooking Techniques
Different cooking techniques are applied to each of the three okazu; they
may be raw (sashimi), grilled, simmered (sometimes called boiled), steamed, deep-
fried, vinegared, or dressed.

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 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Below are listed some of the most common dishes:
 grilled and pan-fried dishes (yakimono)
 stewed/simmered/cooked/boiled dishes (nimono )
 stir-fried dishes (itamemono ), Tempura battered and
 steamed dishes (mushimono ) deep fried seafood and
 deep-fried dishes (agemono ) vegetables
 sliced raw fish (sashimi )
 soups (suimono  and shirumono ) Yakitori grilled chicken
 pickled/salted vegetables (tsukemono )
 dishes dressed with various kinds of sauce ( aemono )
 vinegared dishes (su-no-mono)
 delicacies, food of delicate flavor (chinmi )

Vegetarian
Strictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi
stock, usually made with katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes), and are therefore pescetarian more
often than carnivorous. An exception is shōjin-ryōri , vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks.
However, the advertised shōjin-ryōri at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements.
Vegetarianism, fucha-ryōri  was introduced from China by the Ōbaku sect (a sub-sect of Zen Buddhism),
and which some sources still regard as part of "Japanese cuisine". The sect in Japan was founded by the
priest Ingen (d. 1673), and is headquartered in Uji, Kyoto. The Japanese name for the common green
bean takes after this priest who allegedly introduced the New World crop via China. One aspect of the
fucha-ryōri practiced at the temple is the wealth of modoki-ryōri , ("mock foods"), one example being
mock-eel, made from strained tofu, with nori seaweed used expertly to mimic the black skin. The secret
ingredient used is grated gobō (burdock) roots.
Dr. Masakazu Tada, Honorary Vice-President of the International Vegetarian Union for 25 years
from 1960, stated that "Japan was vegetarian for 1,000 years". The taboo against eating meat was lifted
in 1872 by the Meiji Emperor as part of an effort towards westernizing Japan. British journalist J. W.
Robertson Scott reported in the 1920s that the society was still 90% vegetarian. 50–60% of the
population ate fish only on festive occasions, probably more because of poverty than for any other
reason.

Rice
Rice has been the staple food for the Japanese historically. Its fundamental importance is evident
from the fact that the word for cooked rice, gohan and meshi, also stands for a "meal". While rice has a
long history of cultivation in Japan, its use as a staple has not been universal. Notably, in northern areas
(northern Honshū and Hokkaidō), other grains such as wheat were more common into the 19th century.
In most of Japan, rice used to be consumed for almost every meal, and although a 2007 survey
showed that 70% of Japanese still eat it once or twice a day, its popularity is now declining. In the 20th
century there has been a shift in dietary habits, with an increasing number of people choosing wheat-
based products (such as bread and noodles) over rice.
Japanese rice is short-grained and becomes sticky when cooked. Most rice is sold
as hakumai ("white rice"), with the outer portion of the grains (nuka) polished away. Unpolished brown
rice (genmai) is considered less desirable, but its popularity has been increasing.

Noodles
Japanese noodles often substitute for a rice-based meal. Soba (thin, grayish-brown noodles
containing buckwheat flour) and udon (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles, while
ramen is a modern import and now very popular. There are also other, less common noodles.
Japanese noodles, such as soba and udon, are eaten as a standalone, and usually not with a side
dish, in terms of general custom. It may have toppings, but they are called gu. The fried battered shrimp
tempura sitting in a bowl of tempura-soba would be referred to as "the shrimp" or "the tempura", and
not so much be referred to as a topping (gu). The identical toppings, if served as a dish to be eaten with
plain white rice could be called okazu, so these terms are context-sensitive.
Hot noodles are usually served in a bowl already steeped in their broth and are
called kakesoba or kakeudon. Cold soba arrive unseasoned and heaped atop a zaru or seiro, and are
picked up with a chopstick and dunked in their dip sauce. The broth is a soy-dashi-mirin type of mix; the
dip is similar but more concentrated (heavier on soy sauce).
In the simple form, yakumi (condiments and spices) such as shichimi, nori, finely chopped
scallions, wasabi, etc. are added to the noodles, besides the broth/dip sauce.

DR. LONEY FARILLON-PULMONES| 16

 WESTERN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
La Paz, Iloilo City
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Udon may also be eaten in kama-age style, piping hot straight out of the boiling pot, and eaten
with plain soy sauce and sometimes with raw egg also.
Japanese noodles are traditionally eaten by bringing the bowl close to the mouth, and sucking in
the noodles with the aid of chopsticks. The resulting loud slurping noise is considered normal in Japan,
although in the 2010s concerns began to be voiced about the slurping being offensive to others,
especially tourists. The word nuuhara (from "nuudoru harasumento", noodle harassment) was coined to
describe this.

Sweets
Traditional Japanese sweets are known as wagashi. Ingredients such as red bean
paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes includes green tea ice cream, a very popular flavor.
Almost all manufacturers produce a version of it. Kakigōri is a shaved ice dessert flavored with syrup or
condensed milk. It is usually sold and eaten at summer festivals. A dessert very popular among the
children in Japan are dorayaki. They are sweet pancakes filled with a sweet red bean paste. They are
mostly eaten at room temperature but are also considered very delicious hot.

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