A DICTIONARY

OF BASIC
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR

Seiichi Makino
and
Michio Tsutsui

TheJapanTimes
First cloth-bound edition: March 1986
First paperback edition: March 1989
18th printing : January 1994

ISBN 4-7890-0454-6
Copyright © 1986 and 1989 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

Cover: CADEC Inc.

All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book

or portions thereof in any form.

Published by The Japan Times, Ltd.

5-4, Shibaura 4-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108, Japan

Printed in Japan
 Preface

This is a dictionary of basic Japanese grammar designed primarily for first

and second year Japanese students and for teachers of Japanese. After having
examined major textbooks being used in Japan and the United States we have
chosen what we believe to be basic grammatical items. Our descriptions and
explanations have incorporated the recent findings in Japanese linguistics which
we felt were of practical significance.
We have spent three years and a half preparing this dictionary. Each of us
initially prepared half of the original draft: approximately 200 entries. Upon
completion of the first draft of the dictionary (i.e., Entries, Appendixes, Char¬
acteristics of Japanese Grammar, and Grammatical Terms), we closely examined,
discussed and improved our individual drafts. Therefore, every part of this
dictionary has virtually been written by both of us.
Naturally we owe a great deal to our predecessors whose works are listed
in the references. Our heart-felt thanks go to them, although we could not ac¬
knowledge them individually in each entry where we used their insightful ex¬
planations. We would also like to acknowledge many profitable discussions
with our colleagues at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign and at the
Summer Japanese School of Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont. For
fear of omission, we would rather not attempt a comprehensive listing of names.
Even so we would like to mention four individuals whose technical assistance
has made it possible to publish this dictionary: First, Mr. Burr Nelson of the
University of Illinois and Mrs. Sharon Tsutsui, who have edited our English
and provided us with valuable comments and suggestions from the user’s view¬
point; also, Mr. Mamoru Yoshizawa, who has patiently and conscientiously as¬
sisted with the proofreading; and, last but not least Mr. Masayuki Ishida of
The Japan Times, who has done such conscientious editing: he has been a
perfect midwife for the birth of our progeny and our special thanks go to him.

Spring 1986

Seiichi Makino
Michio Tsutsui
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface . v

To the Reader. viii

List of Abbreviations . x

List of Symbols. xi

Grammatical Terms . 1

Characteristics of Japanese Grammar . 16

1. Word Order . 16

2. Topic . 21

3. Ellipsis . 23

4. Personal Pronouns . 28

5. Passive . 33

6. Politeness and Formality . 36

7. Sentence-final Particles . 45

8. Sound Symbolisms—giseigo and gitaigo . 50

9. Viewpoint . 57
• • •

Main Entries . 61 ~ 573

• • •

Appendixes . 575

1. Basic Conjugations . 576

2. Semantic Classification of Verbs and Adjectives . 582

 TABLE OF CONTENTS Vll

3. Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive Verbs. 585

4. Connection Forms of Important Expressions. 589

5. Ko-so-a-do. 600

6. Numerals and Counters. 602

7. Compound Words . 608

8. Improving Reading Skill by Identifying an ‘ Extended Sentential

Unit ’ . 612

Grammar Index . 619

English Index. 621

Japanese Index . 626

References . 632
 To the Reader

This dictionary consists of the following parts:

A. Grammatical Terms contains brief explanations or informal definitions of
the grammatical terms frequently used in this book. If the reader finds that
he is not familiar with these terms, we suggest he read this section carefully.
B. Characteristics of Japanese Grammar introduces the reader to the major
characteristics of Japanese grammar and the important concepts involved.
The reader should read through this section before he starts to consult the
dictionary. Some entries from the Main Entries section refer the reader to
topics in this section which provide broader perspectives on those entries.
C. Main Entries constitutes the core of this book. Each entry is organized
as follows:

® [entry name] (5) [part of speech]

' (D [meaning / function] ® [English counterpart(s)]

-- [antonym]
© [related expression(s)]
©♦Key Sentence(s)

©Formation

©Examples

©Note(s)

^[Related Expression(s)]

© [entry name]: Each entry is given in romanized spelling followed by its

hiragana version. Entries are alphabetically ordered based on their ro¬
manized spellings.
© [part of speech]: Each entry is followed by its part of speech.
© [meaning / function]: The general meaning or function of the entry is
given in the box below the entry name.
© [English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry are
given to the right of the box. When the entry has an antonym, it is
provided, as in (ANT. xxx).
 IX

(D [related expression(s)]: Items which are related semantically to the entry

are listed as [REL. aaa; bbb; ccc (ddd)]. Expressions in non-bold type
like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related Expression(s)] ((g)).
Expressions in bold type like ccc contain comparisons to the entry under
[Related Expression(s)] for ccc. Parenthesized expressions like (ddd) are
explained in the ccc entry.
(f) 4 Key Sentence(s): Key sentences present basic sentence patterns in
frames according to sentence structure. The parts in red color are
recurrent elements. The same is true of Formation.
(Z) Formation: The word formation rules / connection forms for each item
are provided with examples.
® Examples: Example sentences are provided for each entry.
(D Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the item.
(g) [Related Expression(s)]: Expressions which are semantically close to
the entry are compared and their differences are explained.
D. Appendixes contains information such as tables of verb / adjective conju¬
gations, a list of connection rules for important expressions and a list of
counters.
E. Indexes contains three indexes: the grammar index, the English index and
the Japanese index. The reader, therefore, has three means of access to the
word he is looking up.
 List of Abbreviations

Adj(/') = /-type adjective (e.g. takai ‘high, expensive’, yasui ‘inexpensive’)

Adj(/7a)=/7a-type adjective (e.g. genkida ‘healthy*, shizukada ‘quiet’)
Adv. = adverb
Aff. = affirmative
ANT. = antonym
Aux. = auxiliary
Conj. = conjunction
Cop. = copula ( = da I desu, datta / deshita)
Fml. = formal ( = -des-t -mas-)
Gr. = Group
Inf. = informal
Irr. = Irregular (e.g. kuru ‘come’, suru ‘do’)
KS = Key Sentence
LS V = Location + Subject 4- Verb
N = Noun
Neg. = negative
Nom. = nominalizer (= no and koto)
NP = Noun Phrase
Phr. = phrase
PI. = plural
Pot. = potential
Pref. = prefix (e.g. o-, go- ‘politeness markers’)
Pro. = pronoun
Prt. = particle
REL. = Related Expression
S = Sentence
Sinf= Sentence that ends with an informal predicate (e.g. Nihon ni iku of Nihon
ni iku n desu ‘ It is that I am going to Japan.’)
SLV = Subject + Location + Verb
S.o.=someone
S.t.=something
SO V = Subject + Object 4- Verb
SV = Subject + Verb
Str.=structure
 XI

Suf. =suffix (e.g. -sa ‘-ness’, -ya ‘store’)

V = Verb
Vcond=conditional stem of Gr. 1 Verb (e.g. hanase of hanaseba ‘ if s.o. talks’)
Vinf= informal form of verbs (e.g. hanasu ‘talk’, hanashita ‘talked’)
Wmasu=masu-stem of Verb (e.g. hanashi of hanashimasu ‘talk’)
Vneg = informal negative form of Gr. 1 verb (e.g. hanasa of hanasanai ‘s.o.
doesn’t talk *)
Vstem=stem of Gr. 2 Verb (e.g. tabe of taberu ‘eat’)
Vre = ?e-form of Verb (e.g. hanashite ‘talk and ~’, tabete ‘eat and ~’, kite
‘come and ~’, shite ‘do and ~’)
Vvol = volitional form of Verb (e.g. hanaso ‘ let’s talk *, tabeyo ‘ let’s eat *, koyo
‘ let’s come ’, shiyo ‘ let’s do it ’)
WH-word = an interrogative word (e.g. nani ‘ what *, doko ‘ where *, dare ‘ who’,
itsu ‘ when ’, do ‘ how ’, naze ‘ why ’)

List of Symbols

«=> = See or refer to.

?=The degree of unacceptability is indicated by the number of question marks,
three being the highest.
* = ungrammatical or unacceptable (in other words, no native speaker would
accept the asterisked sentence.)
{A/B}C = AC or BC (e.g. {V/Adj(/)}inf = Vinf or Adj(/)inf)
d = zero (in other words, nothing should be used at a place where 0 occurs.
Thus, Adj(na) [0 / datta] kamoshirenai is either Adj(/7a) kamoshirenai or
Adj(/7a) datta kamoshirenai.)
 Grammatical Terms

The following are brief explanations of some grammatical terms most

frequently used in this dictionary.

Active Sentence A sentence which describes an action from the agent’s point
of view. (Cp. Passive Sentence) In active sentences, the subject is the agent.
Sentences (a) and (b) below are an active and a passive sentence, respectively.

(a) 'J a y £: L o
Sensei wa Jon o shikatta.
(The teacher scolded John.)

(b) v a Lfrbiitc0
Jon wa sensei ni shikarareta.
(John was scolded by the teacher.)

Agent One who initiates and / or completes an action or an event. The

agent is not always in the subject position. Compare the positions of the agent
Bill in (a) and (b).
(a)
Biru wa Masa o butta.
(Bill hit Martha.)

(b) YZ
Masa wa Biru ni bu tar eta.
(Martha was hit by Bill.)

Appositive Clause (Construction) A clause which modifies a noun (or noun

phrase) and explains ivhat the modified noun is. In (a), Mean ga Tomu ni atta
‘ Mary met Tom’ is an appositive clause, and is what jijitsu ‘the fact’ refers
to.

(a) 7 V — ri* b 2*
Watashi wa Meari ga Tomu ni atta jijitsu o shitte iru.
(I know the fact that Mary met Tom.)

Auxiliary Adjective A dependent adjective that is preceded by and at-

2 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

tached to a verb or another adjective. The bold-printed parts of the follow¬

ing sentences are typical auxiliary adjectives.

(a) >fcfTo*C&U\,
Watashi wa Jon ni itte hoshii.
(I want John to go there.)

(b)
Kono jisho wa tsukaiyasui.
(This dictionary is easy to use.)

(c)
Watashi wa sushi ga tabetai.
(I want to eat sushi.)

(d) Ll'o
Besu wa daigaku o deta rashii.
(Beth seems to have graduated from college.)

(e) o

Hanako wa sabishii yoda

(Hanako looks lonely.)

(f) d (ifc v' V% o t'o

Kono o-kashi wa oishisoda.
(This cake looks delicious.)

Auxiliary Verb A verb which is used in conjunction with a preceding verb

or adjective. The bold-faced words of the following sentences are typical aux¬
iliary verbs.

(a)
Biru wa ima tegarni o kaite iru.
(Bill is writing a letter now.)

(b) &aw-c<fc£0
Mado ga akete aru.
(The window has been opened. ( = The window is open.))

(c) lx lz
Boku wa shukudai o shite shimatta.
(I have done my homework.)

(d)
Watashi wa tomodachi ni o-kane o kashite ageta.
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 3

(I loaned money to my friend.)

(e) z<D=iy
Kono konpyuta wa takasugiru
(This computer is too expensive.)

(f)
Joji wa supotsuka o hoshigatte iru.
(Lit. George is showing signs of wanting a sports car. ( = George wants
a sports car.))

(g) fco! Hfj&SftoT**:!

A! Ame ga futte kitaf
(Gee! It’s started to rain!)

Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but
functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite wa
consists of the particle to, the re-form of suru and the particle wa, but it is used
like a single particle to mean ‘ for ’. (Cp. Double Particle)

Compound Sentence A sentence which consists of clauses combined by

coordinate conjunctions such as ga meaning ‘ but * or by the fe-forms of verbs,
adjectives or the copula meaning ‘ ~ and *.

(a) ^
Boku wa oyoida ga Sumisu-san wa oyoganakatta.
(I swam but Mr. Smith didn’t.)

(b)
Yoshida-san wa Tokyo ni itte Suzuki-san ni atta.
(Mr. Yoshida went to Tokyo and met Mr. Suzuki.)

Contrastive Marker A particle which marks contrast. For example, when

X is contrasted with Y, it is typically marked by the particle wa. X and Y
usually appear in Si and S2, respectively in Si ga S2, as shown in (a).

(a) i? 3

Jon wa kita ga, Biru wa konakatta.

(John came here. But Bill didn’t.)

Coordinate Conjunction A conjunction that combines two sentences without

subordinating one to the other. A typical coordinate conjunction is ga ‘but*.
Example:
4 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Hashitte imasu ga, chitto mo yasemasen.

(Pm running, but I haven’t lost any weight at all.)

Direct Object The direct object of a verb is the direct recipient of an action
represented by the verb. It can be animate or inanimate. An animate direct
object is the direct experiencer of some action (as in (a) and (b) below). An
inanimate direct object is typically something which is created, exchanged or
worked on, in short, the recipient of the action of the verb (as in (c), (d) and
(e) below).

(a) J: <
Yamaguchi-sensei wa gakusei o yoku homeru.
(Prof. Yamaguchi often praises his students.)

(b) 0 J±—Lfc0
Kaori wa Ichiro o damashita.
(Kaori deceived Ichiro.)

(c)
Boku wa hon o kaita.
(I wrote a book.)

(d) —D fcxa —
Ichiro wa Midori ni sukafu o yatta.
(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)

(e)
Watashi wa doa o akete oita.
(I kept the door open.)

Although direct objects are marked by the particle o, nouns or noun phrases
marked by o are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g). («=> o2; o4)

(f)
Hanako wa Ichiro no daigakunyugaku o yorokonda.
(Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)

(g) h
Tomu wa sono toki kden o aruite ita.
(At that time Tom was walking in the park.)
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 5

Double Particle A sequence of two particles. The first particle is usually

a case particle and the second is an adverbial particle such as wa ‘ topic / con¬
trast marker mo 4 also, even and shika ‘ only

(a)
Tokyo kara wa Tanaka-san ga kita.
(Lit. From Tokyo Mr. Tanaka came.)

(b)
Watashi wa Mira-san to mo hanashita.
(I talked with Mr. Miller, too.)

Embedded Sentence A sentence within another sentence is an embedded

sentence. The bold-faced part of each sentence below is the embedded sen¬
tence. An embedded sentence is marked by a subordinate conjunction such
as kara ‘ because ’, keredomo ‘ although ’, node ‘ because ’, noni ‘ although ’,
to ‘if’, the quote marker to ‘that’, a nominalizer (no or koto) or the head
noun of a relative clause.

(a)
Yamada wa atama ga itai to itta.
(Yamada said that he had a headache.)

(b)
Yamada wa atama ga itai node gakko o yasunda.
(Yamada didn’t go to school, because he had a headache.)

(c) UJ ffltt ft® |Z?K «***#££.

Yamada wa gaikoku ni iku no ga dai-sukida.
(Yamada loves to go to a foreign country.)

(d)
Yamada wa karate o naratta koto ga aru.
(Yamada has learned karate before.)

Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this

dictionary the term “ hearer ” is used in a broader sense to mean the person
to whom the speaker or the writer communicates.

Imperative Form A conjugated verb form that indicates a command, as

in Hanase! ‘ Talk! ’, Tabero! ‘ Eat it! ’, Shiro! ‘ Do it! * or Koi! ‘ Come! ’.
6 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun which does not refer to something specifi¬

cally. No in B’s sentence in (a) is an indefinite pronoun. Here, no is used for
jisho ‘ dictionary ’, but does not refer to a specific dictionary.
(a) A:
Donna jisho ga hoshii n desu ka.
(What kind of dictionary do you want?)

B : /b£ V><7)a^LV'A/-C't'o
Chisai no ga hoshii n desu.
(I want a small one.)

Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The
action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the subject
of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta ‘ ran’ in (a) is an intransitive
verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.
(Cp. Transitive Verb)

(a)
Suzuki-san wa hashitta.
(Mr. Suzuki ran.)

Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku ‘go’, kuru ‘come*,
aruku ‘ walk ’, tobu ‘ fly ’, noru ‘ get onto ’), spontaneous change (such as naru
‘ become *, kawaru ‘ change ’, tokeru ‘ melt *, fukuramu ‘ swell ’, hajimaru ‘ be¬
gin *), human emotion (such as yorokobu ‘ rejoice *, kanashimu ‘ feel sad *, omou
‘ feel *), and birth / death (such as umareru ‘ be born ’, shinu ‘ die ’).
(«=> Appendix 3)

/-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with /.

Examples of /-type adjectives are takai ‘ high, expensive* and tsuyoi ‘ strong ’,
as seen in (a). (Cp. Na-type Adjective)

(a)
takai hon
(an expensive book)

tsuyoi hi to
(a strong person)

/-type adjectives are further subdivided into two types: /-type adjectives which
end with shi-i and those with non-s/?/-/ endings. Most adjectives with Shi-i
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 7

endings express human emotion (such as ureshii ‘happy’, kanashii ‘sad’,

sabishii ‘ lonely ’, kurushii ‘ painful ’); the non-shi-i adjectives are used for ob¬
jective descriptions (such as kuroi ‘ black ’, shiroi1 white ’, hiroi ‘ spacious ’, takai
‘ high, expensive ’).
Na-type Adjective An adjective whose nonpast prenominal form ends with
na. For example, shizukada ‘ quiet * and genkida ‘ healthy ’ are /73-type adjec¬
tives, as in (a). (Cp. /-type Adjective)

(a)
shizukana ie
(a quiet house)

7CM&A
gen kin a hi to
(a healthy person)

A/3-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some /73-type adjectives can
be used as real nouns as shown in (b). All /73-type adjectives behave as nouns
when they are used before the copula da} as shown in (c).

(b) io
Kenko wa daijidesu yo.
(Health is important, you know.)

Cp. {ij^fcA
kenkona hi to
(a healthy person)

Go-shinsetsu wa wasuremasen.
(I’ll never forget your kindness.)

Cp. A
shinsetsuna hito
(a kind person)

(c) CcoAliTE^/$*£ [tz 1 X'-f I / T-Lfc / :W

/v I I
Kono hito wa genki / gakusei [da / desu / datta / deshita / janai / jaari-
masen / janakatta / jaarimasendeshita.}
(This person {is / was / isn’t / wasn’t} healthy / a student.)

Nominalizer A nominalizer is a particle that makes a sentence into a noun

phrase or clause. There are two nominalizers no and koto: the former rep-
8 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

resents the speaker’s empathetic feeling towards an event / state expressed in the
nominalized noun phrase / clause; the latter represents the speaker’s relatively
anti-empathetic feeling towards an event / state. (<=>/»o3; koto2)

Noun Phrase / Clause

Particle Predicate
Sentence Nominalizer

HWS&Ktf <D / £ t it J®Lv\,

Nihongo o yomu no 1 koto wa muzukashii.

(Reading Japanese is difficult.)

The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary noun
or a noun phrase / clause can be used.

Passive Sentence A sentence which describes an action by someone from

the viewpoint of someone else who is affected by that action. (Cf. Active
Sentence) (a) and (b) are passive sentences.

(a) % fi f )V \Z.tttz\xtzQ
Watashi wa Biru ni butareta.
(I was beaten by Bill.)

(b) ±mt^icm^tc0
Taro wa Akiko ni nakareta.
(Lit. Taro was annoyed by the fact that Akiko cried. ( = Taro was an¬
noyed by Akiko’s crying.))

Potential Form A verb form that expresses competence in the sense of

‘ can do s.t.’ The formation is as follows:

Gr. 1 Verbs Vcond+ £ e.g. ‘can talk’

ru hanase-ru
Gr. 2 Verbs Vstem+ e-g- ‘ can eat'
rareru ta be-rareru
Vstem + ii/£ e-g- ‘ can eat ’
reru tabe-reru
Irr. Verbs can come ’
kuru korareru

koreru
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 9

‘can do’
suru dekiru

Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the sub¬
ject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or a
noun followed by a form of the copula da. Optionally, objects and other adjec¬
tival and / or adverbial modifiers may be present. In (a), (b) and (c) the predi¬
cates are printed in bold type.

(a)
Matsumoto-san wa yoku eiga o miru.
(Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.)

(b)
Watashi no ie wa Sumisu-san no yori atarashii.
(My house is newer than Mr. Smith’s.)

(c)
Jon wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
(John is a student of Japanese language.)

Prenominal Form The verb / adjective form which immediately precedes

a noun and modifies it. The bold-faced verb and adjectives in (a), (b), (c) and
(d) are prenominal forms.

(a) mn
watashi ga yomu / yonda shinbun
(the newspaper I read)

(b)
okii I okikatta ie
(a big house / a house which used to be big)

(c) tufcu I
rippana / rippadatta tatemono
(a magnificent building / a building which used to be magnificent)

(d)
oishisona / oishisodatta keki
(a delicious-looking cake / a cake which looked delicious)
10 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Punctual Verb A verb that represents a momentary action which either

occurs once, as in (a), or can be repeated continuously, as in (b).

(a) %S\Z> ‘get to know’

shiru
‘ die *
shinu
‘begin’
hajimaru
‘get married’
kekkonsuru
■^#><5 ‘stop s.t.’
yameru
iff <5 ‘ resemble ’
niru

(b) Kbi- ‘ drop *

otosu
4 pluck off’
mogiru
4 kick ’
keru
‘ jump ’
tobu
‘hit’
utsu

With the auxiliary verb iru (i.e., iru2\ the punctual verbs in (a) express a state
after an action was taken, and those as in (b) express either a repeated action or
a state after an action was taken. (i=> Appendix 2)

Stative Verb A verb which represents a state of something or someone at

some point in time, as in (a). (<=> Appendix 2)

(a) & <5

aru
(exist (of inanimate things))

iru
(exist (of animate things))
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 11

iru
(need)

dekiru
(can do)

Subject The subject is an element of a sentence which indicates an agent

of an action in active sentences (as in (a)) or an experiencer of an action (as in
(b)) or someone or something that is in a state or a situation (as in (c), (d), (e)
and (f)). The subject is normally marked by the particle ga in Japanese unless
it is the sentence topic.

(a) v a ytlf)
Jon ga ringo o tabeta.
(John ate an apple.)

(b) ^7U b titz0

Mean ga sensei ni homerareta.
(Mary was praised by her teacher.)

(c) ± — tlV'tlo
Nanshi wa kireida.
(Nancy is pretty.)

(d) H7^V'fc0
Doa ga aita.
(The door opened.)

(e)
Tsukue ga hitotsu aru.
(Lit. One table exists. ( = There is a table.))

(f)
Sora ga aoi.
(The sky is blue.)

Subordinate Clause A clause which is embedded into a main clause with

a subordinate conjunction. Typical subordinate conjunctions are ba ‘if’, kara
* because *, node ‘ because *, keredo ‘ although ’ and noni ‘ although *. Thus,
in (a) below, the bold-faced clause with the subordinate conjunction node is
embedded into the main clause Nakayama-san wa gakko o yasunda, ‘Mr.
Nakayama was absent from school.*
12 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

(a) h\$Wftfefrr>tz<r)T:¥\k$:foht£o
Nakayama-san wa atama ga itakatta node gakko o yasunda.
(Mr. Nakayama was absent from school because he had a headache.)

The informal form of a verb / adjective is usually used in a subordinate clause.

Transitive Verb A verb that requires a direct object. It usually expresses

an action that acts upon s.o. or s.t. indicated by the direct object. Actions in¬
dicated by transitive verbs include real causatives (such as ikaseru * make /
let s.o. go ’, korosu ‘ kill miseru * show nakasu ‘ make s.o. cry ’, noseru
‘ put, place ’), exchange (such as ageru ‘ give morau ‘ receive kureru ‘ give ’),
creation (such as tsukuru * make ’, kaku ‘ write ’, kangaeru * think ’), communica¬
tion (such as hanasu ‘ speak ’, oshieru ‘ teach tsutaeru ‘ convey a message ’)
and others. Note that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese.

(a)
Watashi wa kuruma ga aru.
(Lit. With me a car exists. ( = 1 have a car.))

(b)
Boku wa o-kane ga iru.
(Lit. To me money is necessary. ( = 1 need money.))

(c)
Sumisu-san wa chugokugo ga wakaru.
(Lit. To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable. ( = Mr. Smith understands
Chinese.))

(d) !§^'>LttS3fc£0
Watashi wa furansugo ga sukoshi dekiru.
(Lit. To me French is a bit possible. ( = 1 can speak French a little.))

(e)
Kinoshita-san wa Tokyo de o-to-san ni atta.
(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.)

(f)
Watashi ni wa beru ga kikoenakatta.
(Lit. To me the bell wasn’t audible. ( = 1 wasn’t able to hear the bell.))

(g) r
Koko kara wa Fujisan ga miemasu yo.
(Lit. From here Mt. Fuji is visible. ( = We can see Mt. Fuji from here.))
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 13

(h)
Watashitachi wa shinkansen ni norimashita.
(We rode a bullet train.)

(i)
Watashi wa haha ni niteiru rashii.
(It seems that I resemble my mother.)

Volitional Sentence A sentence in which a person expresses his will. The

main verb in such sentences is in the volitional form, as in (a).

(a) {HtffrCS/*7«L*5o
Boku ga iko / ikimashd.
(I will go.)

WH-question A question that asks for information about who, what, where,
which, when, why and how, as exemplified by (a) through (f) below.
(Cp. Yes-No Question)

(a)
Dare ga kimashita ka.
(Who came here?)

(b)
Nani o tabemasu ka.
(What will you eat?)

(c) E
Doko ni ikimasu ka.
(Where are you going?)

(d)
itsu Osaka e kaerimasu ka.
(When are you going back to Osaka?)

(e) E3
Doshite kawanai n desu ka.
(How come you don’t buy it?)

(f)
Tokyo eki e wa do ikimasu ka.
(How can I get to Tokyo Station?)
14 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

WH-word An interrogative word which corresponds to English words such

as who, what, where, which, when, why and how. The following are some ex¬
amples.
(a) |{£ ‘ who ’
dare
fsj ‘ what ’
nani /nan
if £ * where ’
doko
V'-o ‘when’
itsu
if 5 Ut / ‘ how come / why ’
doshite / naze
if 5 ‘ how ’
do
Note that Japanese WH-words are not always found in sentence-initial position;
they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b) and (c)
below.

(b) £co? -fciitij&Sjfe* Lfcj&\>

/C/'/io no pad ni wa dare ga kimashita ka.
(Lit. To yesterday’s party, who came there? ( = Who came to yesterday’s
party?))
Cp.
Dare ga kino no pad ni kimashita ka.
(Who came to yesterday’s party?)

(c)
Nihon de wa nani o shimashita ka.
(Lit. In Japan what did you do? ( = What did you do in Japan?))

Cp.
Nani o nihon de shimashita ka.
(What did you do in Japan?)

Yes-No Question A question that can be answered by hai / e ‘yes’ or

ie ‘no’. (Cp. WH-question) Examples follow:

(a) A:
Ueda-san wa kimashita ka.
(Did Mr. Ueda come?)
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS 15

B: fiV\
Hai. kimashita.
(Yes, he did.)

(b) A:
Suzuki-san wa gakusei desu ka.
(Is Mr. Suzuki a student?)
B : V'V'x., *5 titAso
fe, so ja arimasen.
(No, he isn’t.)
 Characteristics of Japanese Grammar

1. Word Order

Japanese is typologically classified as an SO V (Subject + Object + Verb)

language, whereas English is classified as SVO. An important fact about
Japanese word order is that each sentence ends in a verb, an adjective or a
form of the copula, and that the order of the other sentence elements is rela¬
tively free, except for the topic noun or noun phrase, which normally comes
at sentence-initial position. A sample sentence follows.

Subject Location
(topic) Direct Object Verb (transitive)

x^ x£h j B* ! X- j & &&L-CV'50

Sumisu-san \ wa Nihon | de nihongo j o benkyoshite iru.

(Mr. Smith is studying Japanese in Japan.)

The Location and the Direct Object can be switched, but the Subject (topic)
and the Verb must normally be in sentence-initial and sentence-final positions,
respectively.

The word order principle for Japanese is the modifier precedes what is mod¬
ified. This principle holds whether the modified word is dependent or fully
independent. The function of the modifier is to specify the meaning of the
modified word. Thus, in (1), the verb benkyoshite iru * is studying’ is modified
by the preceding elements Subject, Location and Direct Object. Observe the
following phrases and clauses.

(3)
Adjective Noun Noun Phrase

Relative Clause Noun

akai kuruma
*
(a red car) chichi ga kino yonda hon

(a book which my father read yesterday)

 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 17

(5)
Noun Particle Subordinate Clause

7 ^ 7 £h Sentence Conjunction
Sumisu-san wa
0# — ff<
(Mr. Smith (topic)) Nihon e iku kara

7 ^ 7 £h (Because I go to Japan)
Sumisu-san ga
^ fr< It ft if
(Mr. Smith (subject)) Nihon e iku keredo

7 ^ 7 £ k> £ (Although I go to Japan)

Sumisu-san 0
t
(Mr. Smith (object)) Nihon e iku to

7 ^ 7 £h (When I go to Japan)
Sumisu-san mo
0* ~ f?< &h
(Mr. Smith also) Nihon e iku nara

7 \ 7 £h \z. (If you go to Japan)

Sumisu-san ni
Note: A subordinate clause precedes
(to / by / from Mr. Smith) a main clause.

7 5 7 £h i5*
Sumisu-san kara (6) Nominalized Noun Phrase

(from Mr. Smith) Sentence Nominalizer

7 ^ 7 £^ J: 9 Sr Bfl< <D 1 zb
Sumisu-san yori ongaku o kiku no / koto

((more ~) than Mr. Smith) (to listen / listening to music)

In (2) and (3) where the modified word is an independent noun the basic
principle holds; in (4) (5) and (6) where the second element is a dependent word,
such as a particle, conjunction, or nominalizer, the basic modificational principle
also holds, because the meaning of the modified word is fully specified by the mod¬
ifier. Unlike independent words, however, dependent words require modifiers.
It is important for students of Japanese to recognize and understand some
of the most basic Japanese sentence types and their word order. Examples of
these basic sentence types are given below:
18 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(7) a. X wa Y da / X ga Y da ‘ Speaking of X, X is Y / It is X that is Y ’

X (subject / topic) Prt Y Copula

fi u i v-ra
Tanaka-san wa gakusei da 1 desu.

(Mr. Tanaka is a student.)

(In answer to the question: Who is a student?)

X (subject) Prt Y Copula

ti / T'1-o
Tanaka-san ga gakusei da / desu.

(Lit. It is Mr. Tanaka who is a student.

( = Mr. Tanaka is a student.))

b. =(1) SOV

c. S Adj

Subject (topic) Prt Adj (/)

Uijll £ k> li
Yamakawa-san wa wakai / wakaidesu.

(Mr. Yamakawa is young.)

Subject (topic) Prt Adj (na)

fi 7G%t£ / TC^’C'f'o
Yamakawa-san wa gen kid a / genkidesu.

(Mr. Yamakawa is healthy.)

d. X wa Y ga ~ * Speaking of X, Y

X (topic, experiencer) Prt Y Prt Predicate

n *5
Honda-san wa tenisu 5-5 jozuda / jozudesu.

(Mr. Honda is good at tennis.)

 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 19

X (topic, possessor) Prt Y Prt Predicate

it a* / gV'T'-t-o
16 wa 93 nagai / nagaidesu.

(An elephant has a long trunk.)

e. SV ( = Subject + Verb)

Subject (topic) Prt Verb (intransitive)

x^ * $h it ic ff<
Sumisu-san wa gakko ni iku / ikimasu.

(Mr. Smith goes to school.)

f. LSV ( = Location + Subject + Verb)

Location (topic) Prt Prt Subject Prt Quantity Verb (existence)

C <DWf OO it tn Ho hz> / hv $1-0

Kono machi (ni) wa daigaku 93 futatsu aru / arimasu.

(In this town there are two universities.)

g. SLV ( = Subject 4- Location-f Verb)

Subject (topic) Prt Location Prt Quantity Verb (existence)

it Z<D\BT \c Ho hz> / h 9
Daigaku wa kono machi ni futatsu aru 1 arimasu.

(Speaking of universities, there are two of them in this town.)

Finally, as shown in the following diagram, any major element listed ver¬
tically in (1) through (8) can be a topic marked by wa. The element with a
lower number tends to be used towards the beginning of a sentence. The order
of elements within the predicate is usually much more complex than that
shown below. An adverb, which is omitted in the chart, can be positioned
at any place before the Core Predicate, as long as it is positioned before or after
NP + Prt. The normal position for an adverb, however, is right before the
word it modifies.
NP (ni)
[Time]

[Direct Object]
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 21

2. Topic

Topic is a key concept in understanding Japanese. Roughly speaking, the

topic of a sentence is what the sentence is about. For example, in (1), the topic
is Hanako and the rest of the sentence provides information about Hanako.

(1)
Hanako wa gakusei desu.
(Hanako is a student.)
[(Speaking of Hanako,) Hanako is a student.]

Topics are presented using various topic-marking devices. Among these,

wa is the most frequent marker. (For other topic-markers, see wa1 02).)
When a topic is presented it must be something both the speaker and the
hearer can identify from their knowledge. Usually a topic is something that
has been mentioned in a previous discourse, something the speaker and the
hearer perceive through their five senses, a proper noun or a generic noun,
as seen in (2).

(2) a. fcet'SA/ttfcT
X'Lfro (O-jf-san was mentioned previously.)
Mukashimukashi. hitori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita. O-ji-san
wa totemo binbodeshita.
(Once upon a time, there lived an old man. The old man was very
poor.)

b. Zkllt.%<D'<yX'i~0 (Kore is what the speaker and the hearer see.)

Kore wa watashi no pen desu.
(This is my pen.)

c. A/12 (Suzuki-san is a proper noun.)

Suzuki-san wa nihonjin desu.
(Mr. Suzuki is Japanese.)

d. < Cbl21i?L]®!j$7't*'J“o (Kujira is a generic noun.)

Kujira wa honyuddbutsu desu.
(Whales are mammals.)

In general, any noun phrase (NP) can be topicalized, although subject NPs
are the ones most frequently topicalized. (3) presents additional examples. As
seen below, when an NP is topicalized, the particle which follows may or may
not be retained depending on the particle.
22 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) a. 7s &/vlt
^ 7 $ & Lfco
Sumisu-san wa Nihon e ikimashita.
(Mr. Smith went to Japan.)
b.
Sono eiga wa mo mimashita.
(I already saw the movie.)
c. t
Nihon (e / ni) wa mada itta koto ga nai.
(I haven’t been to Japan yet.)
d. 0
Mariko ni wa hon o ageta.
(To Mariko, I gave a book.)
e. 7/ y
Amerika kara wa Smisu-san ga kita.
(As for ((lit.) from) America, Mr. Smith came (from there).)

Finally, in discourse, once a topic is established, it does not need to be re¬

peated unless another topic is presented. Consider the following passage, con¬
sisting of four sentences (a) - (d) in (4).

(4) a. V
Taro wa mada Amerika ni itta koto ga nai.
(Taro has not been to America yet.)
b. V'o kff cf/iV' i:® ot V'5 V'j&» bff ft&V'0
itsumo ikitai to omotte iru ga o-kane ga nai kara ikenai.
(He always thinks he wants to go, but since he has no money, he
cannot go.)

O-to-san wa hataraite o-kane o tamenasai to iu.

(His father tells him to work and save money.)
d. A,LTIi LV'(0£fo
Demo Taro wa o-to-san ni o-kane o dashite hoshii no da.
(But Taro wants his father to give him money.)
Here, (4a) introduces a topic, Taro. Since (4b) is a statement about Taro and
Taro is an established topic at this point, Taro wa does not have to be repeated
here. (4c), however, presents a new topic, o-to-san. Since this topic is still
in effect when the topic returns to Taro in (4d), Taro wa has to be reintroduced.
A topic must also be presented if a sentence is the first sentence of a new para¬
graph, even if the last sentence of the preceding paragraph has the same topic.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 23

3. Ellipsis

In language it is universally observed that strategies exist to minimize the

effort of conveying messages. The most common strategies are ellipsis, contrac¬
tion, abbreviation and the use of pronouns. Of these, ellipsis (i.e., the omission
of words) is the most efficient and occurs frequently in Japanese.
Generally speaking, elements which can be understood from the context
and / or from the situation can be omitted in Japanese unless ellipsis makes the
sentence ungrammatical. For example, in (1), B does not repeat Taro wa and
sono mise de because they can be understood.
(1) A: Lfcfro
Taro wa sono mise de nani o kaimashita ka.
(What did Taro buy at the store?)

B: Ltz0
Pen o kaimashita.
(He bought a pen.)

Kaimashita, however, cannot be omitted in normal conversation even though

it can be understood here, because Japanese sentences (or clauses) must end with
a core predicate (that is, either a verb, an adjective or a noun phrase which is
followed by a form of the copula). Therefore, without the core predicate kai¬
mashita, this sentence is ungrammatical. (In informal conversation, B might
reply “ pen ” in answer to A’s question, but an answer of this sort is con¬
sidered abrupt.)
The following are some general rules of ellipsis in Japanese.

(A) If X is the topic of a sentence (often marked by wa) and it is also the
topic of the sentence which follows it, X can be omitted in the second
sentence. (See (4) in 2. Topic.)
(B) In question-and-answer discourse, if an element X is shared in the
question and the answer, X can be omitted in the answer unless X is
the core predicate. Example:

(2) A:
Tanaka-san wa mukae ni kite kuremashita ka.
(Did Mr. Tanaka come to pick you up?)

B : f2V\ MX < Lfco

Hai. kite kuremashita.
(Yes, he did.)
24 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) A: htetclir* y fcfilV'fcH#,

Anata wa Amerika ni ita toki gakusei deshita ka.
(Were you a student when you were in America?)

B : fiV\ *9 l T'Lfco (So is more commonly used.)

Hai. so / gakusei deshita.
(Yes, I was.)
(Refer again to (1). In yes-no question situations, even predicates can be
omitted in very informal conversation.)

(C) If the referent of X is something very close to the speaker and the
hearer, and X can be understood from the context and / or the situation,
X can be omitted as in (4) - (6). (The parenthesized words can be
omitted.)

(4) A: (&&fcfi)ff
CAnata wa) ikimasu ka.
(Are you going?)

B: fiv\
Hai. (watashi wa) ikimasu.
(Yes, I am.)

(5) A: (&3ili)fTt* Li
(Watashitachi wa) ikimasho ka?
(Shall we go?)

B : V^, (fidifi) 4 t & L J: 9 0

!ya. (watashitachi wa) yoshimasho.
(No, let’s not.)

(6) A: (£*U4 /
(Kore wa / Sore wa) nan desu ka.
(What is this / that?)

B: (**1,14 / ZtU±)1£+frb<D7'l'je>' hT'fo

(Sore wa / Kore wa) Hanako kara no purezento desu.
(That / This is a present from Hanako.)

(A) - (C) concern the ellipsis of content words such as nouns and verbs.
However, ellipsis in Japanese is not limited to content words. The following
are some general rules regarding the ellipsis of particles in conversation.

(D) If the referent of X in X wa is psychologically close to the speaker and

the hearer, wa tends to drop unless X is under focus. Examples:
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 25

(7) a.
Watakushi (wa) Yamada to mdshimasu.
(Lit. I call myself Yamada. ( = 1 am Yamada.))

b. f£(fi)^\ {p
Kimi (wa) ima nan-nensei desu ka.
(What year (in school) are you in now?)

c. r. o#(!*):&{> L5V'<£0
Kono hon (wa) omoshiroi yo.
(This book is interesting.)

d. h<nX(\*)t%Xlri)\
Ano hito (wa) dare desu ka.
(Who is that person?)

(E) The subject marker ga can be omitted if the sentence conveys informa¬
tion which is expected by the hearer or which is very closely related to
the hearer. Examples:

(8) a. h, W(tf>)3fefc0
A. densha (ga) kita.
(Oh, here comes the train.)

b.
Minasan, o-shokuji (ga) dekimashita.
(Folks, the meal is ready now.)

Kyo Tanaka-san kara kimi ni denwa (ga) atta yo.

(There was a phone call for you today from Mr. Tanaka.)

d. (,M>U
Moshimoshi, kutsu no himo (ga) hodokete masu yo.
(Excuse me, your shoelace is untied.)

(F) The direct object marker o can be omitted unless the NP o is under
focus. (O drops more frequently in questions.) Examples:

(9) a. n-l:-(&)|fc;fc£-t!:^\,
Kohi (o) nomimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like coffee?)

b.
Ja. sore (o) moraimasu.
(Then, I’ll take it.)
26 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

c. ^Bfe®f£(£)
Konban denwa (o) kudasai.
(Please give me a call tonight.)
Rules (A) - (F) concern the ellipsis of parts of simple sentences or clauses.
There are, however, cases in which entire clauses are omitted. (G) is a general rule
regarding this sentential ellipsis.
(G) If the message conveyed by a main clause can be understood from the
context and / or the situation, the main clause can be deleted. Examples:

(10) A:
Kind pati ni konakatta ne.
(You didn’t come to the party yesterday.)

Un. chotto isogashikatta kara (ikenakatta).

(Yeah, (I couldn’t come) because I was busy.)

(11)

Tanaka-sensei ni kiitara (do desu ka)?

(Lit. (How will it be) if you ask Prof. Tanaka? (=Why don’t you ask
Prof. Tanaka?))

( 12)
O-cha ga hairimashita kedo (ikaga desu ka).
(Lit. Tea is ready now, but (how would you like it?))
Additionally, ellipsis can take place for psychological reasons. That is, the
speaker may omit a part of a sentence either because he considers it rude, because
he feels uncomfortable saying it or because he doesn’t know how to say it, etc.
For example, if he is offered food he cannot eat, he may say, Sore wa chotto,
‘ (lit.) That is, a little,’ implying Sore wa chotto taberaremasen, ‘ I can hardly
eat it.* Or, if the speaker hears someone’s unhappy news, he may say, Sore
wa domo, ‘ (lit.) That is, very,’ meaning Sore wa kanashii koto desu ne, ‘ That
is a sad thing.’
Finally, it is noted that since ellipsis is common in Japanese, Japanese sen¬
tences are often ambiguous in isolation. They are interpreted correctly only if
they are in proper contexts and / or situations. Examples:

(13) a. L*»L(I3:< tt)

Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai. Shikashi (boku wa)

Haruko wa sukida.
(I don’t like Yukiko very much. But, I like Haruko.)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 27

b. it < LfrL^Tlt
Boku wa Yukiko wa amari sukijanai. Shikashi Haruko wa
o

(Yukiko ga) sukida.

(I don’t like Yukiko very much. But, Haruko likes her.)

(14) a. fjdiV'V'A&jlottfc©-?, $ o-t <

Watashi wa ii hito o mitsuketa node. sassoku Tanaka-san ni

(50/70 hito ni) atte moratta.

(I found a good man, so I asked Mr. Tanaka to see him right
away.)

Watashi wa ii hito o mitsuketa node, sassoku (sono hito ni)

Tanaka-san ni atte moratta.

(I found a good man, so I asked him to see Mr. Tanaka right away.)
28 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

4. Personal Pronouns

One of the peculiarities of Japanese personal pronouns is that there is more

than one pronoun for the first and second person and that traditionally there
have been no third person pronouns. The most frequently used first and second
person pronouns are listed below:
Personal Singular
Pronouns
Levels of
Formality First Person ‘ I ’ Second Person ‘ You ’
Informal-Formal

Very Formal L none

watakushi
iotz L htz < L htetz
Formal watashi atakushi anata
(female)
Informal \t< htz L
boku atashi kimi
(male) (female) (male)
Very Informal <£> hjtz.
ore omae anta
(male) (male)

Personal
Pronouns Plural
Levels of
Formality First Person ‘ We * Second Person ‘You*
Informal-Formal

Very Formal ;bfc< Lift

none
wa takushidomo
iotz< Ltz*> htetzh'tz
Formal watakushitachi anatagata
frtzLtz*
w atashi tachi
it <tz*> htzLtz*> ht£tztz*>
boku tachi atashi tachi kimi tachi anata tachi
(male) (female) (male)
Informal
(3: < P> j)fclb c? b
boku ra atashir a kimira
(male) (female) (male)
Very Informal &$.x.tz*> hhtztz%
ore tachi omaetachi antatachi
(male) (male)
hhtzb
omaera antara
(male)

Note : (Male) / (female) means that the particular pronoun is used by a

male / female speaker, respectively.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 29

The first person singular pronoun watakushi has at least six contracted forms.
The way the contraction (i.e., omission of sounds) takes place is as follows:

wata/i/shi —» watashi (formal)

yrtitakushi -* atakushi (formal, female)
yvcitajtt/shi —»atashi (informal, female)
y/StaW0i —► atai (very informal / vulgar, female)
wafffl/shi-* washi (informal, older male)
yfaffll/shi -* agshi (very informal, adult male of the
Bay area of Tokyo)

The fact that there is more than one pronoun for the first and second
person leads us to suspect that Japanese first and second person pronouns are
not pure pronouns but are a kind of noun. In fact, these ‘ pronouns ’ can be
freely modified by adjectives or by relative clauses as in (1) and cannot be re¬
peated in a single sentence as in (2), which supports the idea that they are
similar to regular nouns.

(1) a. ttlLV'f.Uix ^
Isogashii watashi wa terebi mo mirarenai.
(Lit. Busy me cannot see even TV. ( = 1 cannot even watch TV
because I’m so busy.))

Ongaku ga sukina watashi wa ichinichiju ongaku o kiite iru.

(Lit. I who like music is listening to music all day long. ( = Because
I like music, I listen to it all day long.))

c. k&V'*C' L J: 50
Wakai anata ni wa mada wakaranai desho.
(Lit. Young you probably won’t understand it. ( = Since you are
young, you probably won’t understand it.))

(2) a.
* Watashi wa watashi no hey a de watashi no tomodachi to
hana shite ita.
(I was talking with my friend in my room.)
— fAtt 0 0 &3i£fSL-Ck'fco
Watashi wa 0 heya de 0 tomodachi to hanashite ita.

b. *fot£tz\$%<n 9 Ik LTV'& Ltzfro

* Anata wa kino anata no heya de anata no tomodachi to nani o
shite imashita ka.
30 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(What were you doing yesterday with your friend in your room?)
— 0 0 IxMbfilfc ITV'f
An at a wa kino 0 hey a de 0 tomodachi to nani o shite imashita
ka.

It is also important to note that Japanese first and second person pronouns
are deleted unless it is necessary to emphasize me-ness or you-ness. Under
normal communicative situations, who is speaking to whom is obvious, so
Japanese speakers simply omit these pronouns. Students of Japanese, therefore,
should avoid using first and second person pronouns whenever possible.
In addition to first and second person pronouns, there are other ways to
refer to the speaker or the addressee, as summarized in the following chart.

Kinds &
Self-address Forms Alter-address Forms
Conditions

Kinship terms (your father)

o-td-san o-td-san
c? A/ (your mother) *3© $ A/
o-ka-san o-ka-san
(your grandpa) *5LV'£ A,
o-ji-san o-ji-san
*3{i'&£A/ (your grandma) 4b‘f
o-ba-san o-ba-san
*51 (your uncle) *3 L $ A/
oji-san oji-san
(your aunt) *3ff £A,
oba-san oba-san

Social role terms (your teacher)

sensei sensei
(president of a company)
shacho
(section chief)
kacho

Occupational terms none &I!£A/ (fish monger)

sakana-ya-san
l^litcFA/ (butcher)
niku-ya-san

First / Last names -m- it?

Hanako Hanako-san
P9 *4* c? A/
Tanaka-san
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 31

Within a family, if the speaker is considered superior (primarily in terms

of age) to the addressee (Speaker> Addressee), he may use a kinship term as a
form of self-address, but if not, he can use only a first person pronoun in self¬
address. If the addressee is considered superior to the speaker (Addressee>
Speaker), the speaker has to employ the kinship term of the addressee when
addressing him, or he must use a second person pronoun or the addressee’s
name (optionally with -san or -chan). Outside the family, in an Addressee >
Speaker situation, the speaker has to employ the addressee’s social role term
when addressing him. If the situation is Speaker>Addressee, the speaker
cannot use his own social role term as a form of self-address, except for the
term sensei when it refers to elementary and junior high school teachers.
Occupational terms such as sakana-ya ‘fish monger’, niku-ya ‘butcher’
and hana-ya ‘florist’ are used as address forms by attaching -san to them.
(«=i> -ya) Also, a female first name is employed by a young girl as a self-address
form in very informal speech as in (3).

(3) h<Dte, — E|$£ Ay br— h Ltz<D

Ano ne. Kyoko kino Ichiro-san to deto shita no yo.
(You know what? I ( = Kyoko) had a date with Ichiro yesterday!)

There is no real third person pronoun in Japanese. As shown in (4), all

English third person pronouns have no corresponding forms in Japanese.

(4) a. !J tz<Dtz0
Yamada-san wa kyonen Amerika ni itta. Eigo ga benkydshitakatta
no da.
(Mr. Yamada went to America last year. He wanted to study English.)

Ueda-san wa junen mae ni katta kuruma ni mada notte iru.

(Mr. Ueda is still driving the car which he bought ten years ago.)

c. A:
Bobu wa kino kimashita ka.
(Did Bob come see you yesterday?)

B : x.x., LtzX0
E. kimashita yo.
(Yes, he did.)

d. A: SiV';b;tex.o
Tanaka-san-tachi, osoi wa ne.
(Miss Tanaka and the people with her are late, aren’t they?)
32 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Wasurete iru n ja nai ka shira.

(I wonder if they have forgotten about this.)

Koko kara Osaka made kuruma de ichijikan kakaru.

(It takes one hour from here to Osaka.)

f. 3*-t;n$T'i-0
Ima shichiji desu.
(It is seven now.)
During the past century or so, however, the third person pronouns kare
‘ he kanojo ‘ she karera ‘ they (male) ’ and kano/ora ‘ they (female) * have
begun to be employed primarily in novels translated into Japanese and in
Japanese novels. These pronouns are also fairly widely used in current spoken
Japanese. Like first and second person pronouns, they are treated very much
like nouns, as seen in (5).

(5) a. $|cotX t>

Boku no kanojo. totemo kireina n da.
(My girl friend is very pretty, you know.)

b.
Daigaku o deta kare wa sugu kekkonshita.
(Lit. He who finished college got married right away. ( = He got
married right after graduation from college.))

There is one condition governing the use of third person pronouns:

The speaker / writer is psychologically somewhat distant from the ref¬

erent of the pronoun.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 33

5. Passive

The concept of passive in Japanese, which is called ukemi (5£#) (lit. body
which receives something), is considerably different from its English counter¬
part. The Japanese passive contains two elements: an event (i.e., an action by
someone / something) and a person or thing which is affected by that event.
For example, if someone runs away and it affects someone else, that action
can be expressed by the passive construction. Or, if someone smokes and it
affects someone else, that can be a passive situation. In other words, the common
characteristic of the Japanese passive is that the event is not under the control
of those affected by it. Note that the person in the first situation above has no
control over someone’s running away and the one in the second has no control
over someone’s smoking.
Passive situations are expressed in various ways according to the situation.
The most common way is to use the passive forms of verbs. (=> rareru1) For
instance, the above situations can be expressed as in (1), using passive verb
forms.

(1) a. lUmtSAslt&Z/vfci&tfbtltZo
Yamada-san wa okusan ni nigerareta.
(Lit. Mr. Yamada’s wife ran away on him.)

b. o
Taro wa Haruko ni tabako o suwareta.
(Lit. Taro had a cigarette smoked by Haruko on him.)

Notice here that in (la) the verb nigeru ‘run away’ is intransitive and in (lb)
there is a direct object tabako ‘ cigarette Neither (la) nor (lb) can be ex¬
pressed using the English passive construction “ fce + past participle”. This
type of construction, however, is frequently found in Japanese and is called
‘ the indirect passive ’. In indirect passive sentences the thing affected by the
event is usually human and how the person is affected is interpretable only
from the context. The sentences in (1) show situations where someone is
negatively affected. The following is an example where the person is positively
affected.

Kimura-san wa bijin ni yoko ni suwararete ureshi soda.

(Lit. Mr. Kimura, having a pretty woman sit beside him, looks happy.)
In indirect passive sentences the agent of the event is usually animate and
the action is volitional. Therefore, the following examples are all unacceptable.
34 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(3) a.
*Watashi wa ishi ni atama ni ochirareta.
(*My head was fallen on by a rock.)

b. * h
*Tomu wa kosaten no mannaka de kuruma ni tomarareta.
(*Tom was stopped in the middle of the intersection by his car.)

There are, however, a very few exceptions, as seen in (4).

(4)
Boku wa ame ni furareta.
(Lit. It rained on me.)

The passive forms of verbs can also express what is called direct passive.
(5) presents some examples.

(5) a. ls\Z\£tv\z.J£Tz.Mz0
Jon wa Biru ni butareta.
(John was hit by Bill.)

b. £
Kono e wa jukyu-seiki ni kakareta.
(This picture was painted in the nineteenth century.)

c.
Sake wa kome kara tsukurareru.
(Sake is made from rice.)

As seen in (5), direct passive sentences have passive equivalents in English. It

is noted that in direct passive sentences, too, the conditions mentioned above are
satisfied. That is, in (5a) there is a person, John, who was affected by an event,
Bill’s hitting, and the event was not under John’s control. The difference between
direct passive and indirect passive is that in direct passive sentences a person /
thing is directly affected by an event (i.e., a person / thing is the direct receiver
of someone’s / something’s action) as in (5), while in indirect passive sentences
the effect of an event on a person is indirect (i.e., a person is not the direct
receiver of someone’s / something’s action), as seen in (1) - (4).
In general, when a passive sentence is used, it is about the person / thing
which is affected by the event, and when what is affected is human, the sentence
takes the viewpoint of the person rather than the agent of the event.
(See 9. Viewpoint.)
Some passive situations are also expressed by the verb morau ‘ get ’, as in (6).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 35

(6) a. — /Islcj -Y V ibotzo

Magaretto wa Poru ni iyaringu o moratta.
(Margaret got a pair of earrings from Paul.)

b. /TV/ —T\Z.Ts°—
Mean wa Sutibu ni apato ni kite moratta.
(Mary had Steve come to her apartment. ( = Steve came to Mary’s
apartment for her.))

c.
Watashi wa chichi ni kamera o katte moratta.
(I had my father buy me a camera. ( = My father bought a camera
for me.))

When morau is used, the event always affects the person positively. (This is
not the case with sentences with rareru.) In this case, also, the speaker’s view¬
point is that of the person affected by the event. (■=> morau1’2)
Naru * become ’ can also express some passive situations. Compare the fol¬
lowing pairs of sentences with suru ‘ do ’ and naru.

7
( ) a. v
Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni iku koto ni shita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi has decided to go to America.)

b. V < - tfct£-otz0
Yamaguchi-san wa Amerika ni iku koto ni natta.
(It’s been decided that Mr. Yamaguchi is going to America.)

(8) a. vy Lf-o
Sensei wa Fureddo o teigaku ni shita.
(The teacher suspended Fred from school.)

b. y uy
Fureddo wa teigaku ni natta.
(Fred was suspended from school.)

Here, again, the viewpoint in the (b) sentences is that of the person affected by
the event, and the agent of the event is not the speaker’s main concern.
(■=> koto ni naru\ naru)
36 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

6. Politeness and Formality

All languages are equipped with polite expressions and Japanese is no

exception. What makes Japanese polite expressions distinctly different from
those of other languages is that the Japanese system involves grammar as well
as lexical items. Basically, there are two ways to be polite in Japanese; one is
to elevate the speaker’s superior, i.e., a person who is older and higher in social
status than the speaker. Expressions of this type are called Honorific Polite
Expressions. The other method is to lower the speaker or his in-group members,
and thus elevate his superior indirectly. Expressions of this type are called
Humble Polite Expressions.
With Honorific Polite Expressions, the subject of the sentence is the speaker’s
superior and the form of the main predicate is an honorific form, as shown
below:

(A) Honorific Polite Verbs

Regular Formation

Honorific Polite
Nonpolite
(Dictionary Form)
o- Wmasu ni naru Passive Form

tit (talk) fcfgL 1C ft* <?F

hanasu o-hanashi ni naru hanasareru
ifcx.6 (teach) foifcx. Ic ft* »tbtii
oshieru o-oshie ni naru oshierareru
Irregular Forms

Nonpolite
Honorific Polite
(Dictionary Form)
.1,6 (see) fc ft 6
miru goran ni naru (Gr. 1)
£flof V'6 (know) ti
shitte iru gozonji da
(be /come /go)
iru / kuru j iku irassharu (Gr. 1)
<4x6 (give (to me)) <
kureru kudasaru (Gr. 1)
^6 (eat) ^ L_ti)lZ>
taberu meshiagaru (Gr. 1)
i~Z> (do) ft£6
suru nasaru (Gr. 1)
fT < / H6 (come / go / be) ioV'-C (c ft 6 (Gr. 1)
kuru 1 iku / iru oide ni naru
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 37

(wear) L (C & <5 (Gr. 1)

kiru omeshi ni naru
(die) 9 lc <C5 (Gr. 1)
shinu o-nakunari ni naru
#5 (say) *5 o L * 5 (Gr. 1)
iu ossharu

The following are typical examples of sentences using honorific polite verbs:

(i) a. fruiter/ y

Sensei wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo o o-oshie ni narimasu.

(The professor will teach Japanese at an American college.)

b. %±\±r f ) X & o
Sensei wa Amerika no daigaku de nihongo o oshieraremasu.
(The professor will teach Japanese at an American college.)

c. Lfco
Sensei wa gorufu o nasaru to osshaimashita.
(The professor told me that he’s going to play golf.)

Sentence (la) with its longer honorific expression, is more polite than (lb),
which has a shorter honorific expression. Notice also that the honorific form
in (lb) is the same as the passive form. An important characteristic of the
honorific and passive form is indirectness, the origin of honorific politeness.
Sentence (lc) includes the irregular verbs nasaru ‘ do’ and ossharu * say *. Such
verbs as nasaru and ossharu which are irregular must be memorized one by one.
Note that the following honorific polite verbs are Gr. 1 verbs, but are irregular
in their conjugations of formal nonpast and imperative forms.

Inf Neg Fml Nonpast Inf Nonpast Conditional Imperative

V' b o L V' ip o V' o L V' o

irassharanai irasshaimasu irassharu irasshareba irasshai

< fcfcV' < < fits* < < 7i£l'

kudasaranai kudasaimasu kudasaru kudasareba kudasai

ft £ k&V' &
nasaranai nasaimasu nasaru nasareba nasai

ioo io o L 5 io o L o L ■$» L'

ossharanai osshaimasu ossharu osshareba osshai
38 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The honorific polite form of Vte iru is formed as shown in the following
chart.
Honorific Polite Forms of Vte iru.

Nonpolite Honorific Polite

Vte irassharu o- Vmasu da / de irassharu

If A/T'V'6 (be reading)
yonde iru If A/-CI' £> o L * £
yonde irassharu o-yomi da / de irassharu

be teaching) ffcx. *C l' b> o L %>

oshiete iru oshiete irassharu o-oshie dal de irassharu

The use of the honorific polite Vte iru is exemplified by (2) below. Here again
the longer version is more polite than the shorter one. Thus, the hierarchy of
politeness is: o- Vmasu de irassharu>Vte irassharu>o- Vmasu da.

(2) a.
Sensei wa ima go-hon o o-yomi de irasshaimasu.
(The professor is reading a book.)

Sensei wa ima go-hon o yonde irasshaimasu.

c. 14 4^*
Sensei wa ima go-hon o o-yomi da.

(B) Honorific Polite Adjectives

Regular Formation (Adj(/))

Nonpolite Honorific Polite

(Dictionary Form) o- Adj (/) inf

(young)
wakai o-wakai

3&V' (strong)
tsuyoi o-tsuyoi

Irregular Forms

Nonpolite Honorific Polite

V'V'/iV' (good)
// / yoi o-yoroshii
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 39

Regular Formation (Adj(rta))

Honorific Polite
Nonpolite
o- Adj(na)stem {da l de irassharu}

7C (healthy)
genkida o-genki [da / de irassharu)

(pretty)
kireida o-kirei {da / de irassharu}

There are additional polite adjectival forms (such as o-wako gozaimasu

(from wakai ‘young’), o-tsuyd gozaimasu (from tsuyoi ‘strong’)), but such
hyperpolite forms are now seldom used by younger native speakers, except in
greetings such as o-hayo gozaimasu (from hayai ‘ early ’), o-medeto gozaimasu
‘ Congratulations! ’ (from medetai ‘ auspicious ’) and arigato gozaimasu ‘ Thank
you very much ’ (from arigatai ‘ grateful ’). Adjectives which can be used in
honorific polite sentences are limited to those which refer to personal charac¬
teristics. Examples follow:

(3) a.
O-wakaidesu ne.
(You are young, aren’t you?)

O-td-san wa o-genkide irasshaimasu ka.

(Lit. Is your father healthy? ( = How is your father’s health?))

In terms of humble polite expressions, the subject of the sentence is the

speaker or someone in his in-group rather than the speaker’s superior. The
humble polite predicates are listed below:

(C) Humble Polite Verbs

Regular Formation

Nonpolite Humble Polite

(Dictionary Form) o- Vmasu suru / itasu

t£i- (talk) £ /1'tzt

hanasu o-hanashi suru / itasu

WLZ-Z> (teach) 11'tzt

oshieru o-oshie suru / itasu
40 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Irregular Formation

Nonpolite
Humble Polite
(Dictionary Form)

(see) ffE+5 / V'fc+

miru haiken suru / /fast/ (Gr. 1)

fa 9 S (borrow) fffiW-5 / V'fc-f

kariru haishaku suru / /fast/

fots / / t> h 0 (drink / eat / receive) V'fc£<

nomu / taberu / morau itadaku (Gr. 1)

(do) V'fc-f
suru /fast/ (Gr. 1)

&S/fT< (go)
kuru 1 iku mairu (Gr. 1)

■§* 5 (say)
iu most/ (Gr. 1)

£9 (meet) &g
au o-me o/ kakaru (Gr. 1)
(2o^V'-t“5 / V'fc-f)
(o-ai suru / itasu)

V'S (be) <5

iru ort/ (Gr. 1)

(give) $ LfclfS
yarn / ageru sashiageru (Gr. 2)

(know)
s/z/fte iru zonjite iru (Gr. 2)

Typical sentences containing humble polite expressions follow:

(4) a.
Watashi ga sono o-nimotsu o o-mochi shimasu.
(I will carry your luggage.)

b. SflSfcSM'fc
Haha ga o-tsure itashimasu.
(My mother will take you there.)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 41

Sentence (4b) with its longer humble expression is more humble than (4a)
with a shorter humble expression.

In addition to the two major polite expressions (i.e., Honorific Polite and
Humble Polite Expressions), there is what might be called Neutral Polite Ex¬
pression. It is called ‘ neutral ’ because its predicate de gozaimasu can be
honorific-, humble- or neutral-polite, as shown in the following chart.

(D) Neutral Polite Form of Copula ‘ da ’

Nonpolite Neutral Polite

Speaker’s superior wa / ga o- / go- ~ de go¬

(a) o zaimasu.
Sensei wa byoki da. (Honorific)
(The professor is ill.)
Sensei wa go-byoki de gozaimasu.

Speaker wa 1 ga ~ de gozaimasu.
(b) %m^tz0 (Humble)
Watashi wa gakusei da.
(I am a student.)
Watakushi wa gakusei de gozaimasu.

Inanimate object wa 1 ga ~ de gozaimasu.

(c) (Neutral)
Are wa gijido desu.
(That’s the Diet building.)
Are wa gijido de gozaimasu.

In (Da) the speaker is being polite to the person referred to by the subject.
In (Db) the speaker is being humble towards the addressee and in (Dc) the
speaker is just using polite speech; it is not directed towards the inanimate
object referred to by the subject.

In the case of honorific polite expressions in general, the polite prefix o-

or go- is attached to someone or something belonging to the human subject of
a sentence. Although the prefixes o- and go- are normally attached to Japa¬
nese and Sino-Japanese nouns, respectively, the prefix o- can be attached to
highly Japanized nouns such as benkyd ‘study’, cha ($j) ‘ tea* and den-
wa OHM) ‘telephone*. Go-, however, is never attached to traditional Japanese
nouns. Example sentences in which o- or go- are used are given below:
42 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(5) a.
Sensei wa o-kuruma o o-mochi desu ka.
(Do you have a car, Professor?)

b.
Tanaka-sensei wa go-hon o o-kaki ni natta.
(Prof. Tanaka has written a book.)

The prefixes o- and go- can also be attached to things which are not related
to the speaker’s superior, especially to basic items related to clothing, food and
housing. The purpose of such usage is to make a sentence sound more elegant.
Female speakers tend to use o- and go- in this way more frequently than males.
Example sentences follow:

(6) a. J: D
Konban wa o-sashimi to o-suimono ni shimasho ka.
(Shall we make it sashimi and clear soup tonight?)

O-tearai wa doko desu ka.

(Where is the washroom?)

It is also important to note that there is a stylistic distinction between the

informal and formal styles, independent of the honorific-, humble-, and neutral-
polite distinctions. The formal style is normally used when one is NOT speak¬
ing intimately or personally with someone who belongs to his in-group. The
informal style is used when one is speaking with one’s own in-group or when a
verb, an adjective or the copula is used in specific grammatical positions, such
as right before hazu da ‘ be expected to * or tsumori da ‘ intend to’, as shown in
(7). (■=> Appendix 4 (C), (D), (E), (I), (J) and (K))

(7) a. /* I'bo tt-f-C-i-o

Sensei wa kyo kenkyushitsu ni irassharu / *irasshaimasu hazu
desu.
(The professor is expected to be at his office today.)

b. 9-Ci-o
Watashi ga sensei ni go-renrakusuru / *go-renrakushimasu
tsumori desu.
(I intend to contact you, Professor.)

The formal style is marked by -mas- or -des- as shown in the following

chart.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 43

Styles Informal Formal

Predicates Nonpast Past Nonpast Past

Verb taberu tab eta tabemasu tabemashita

(eat) (ate) (eat) (ate)
Verbals
ISV'T-I-
Adj (/) hiroi hirokatta hiroidesu hirokattadesu
(is wide) (was wide) (is wide) (was wide)

L tz
Adj (na) kireida kireida tta kireidesu kireideshita
(is pretty) (was pretty) (is pretty) (was pretty)
Nominals
#T-1- L tz
Noun hon da hon da tta hon desu hon deshita
(is a book) (was a book) (is a book) (was a book)

Students of Japanese will usually be exposed to the formal style in their

beginning textbook, because it is the proper stylistic register for adults. They
should be aware, however, that the informal style is more basic than the formal
style, as evidenced by the fact that native children master the informal style
first.

It is interesting to note that whenever the speaker takes a speaker-oriented

position he switches his style from formal to informal, even in a formal situation.
For example, a student speaking with his professor would use the formal style
during conversation. But, if he were stung by a bee while talking, he would use
the informal itai * ouch ’, rather than the formal form itaidesu, because getting
stung is purely a speaker-oriented matter. This is an extreme case, but there
are many situations where the informal style must be used due to speaker-
orientation. This results in a formal discourse interspersed with informal ver¬
bals and nominals.

Finally, in practical terms, what are the appropriate situations for polite
sentences? Generally speaking, an inferior uses polite speech to an addressee
or to the person presented as the topic of a sentence. Typical situations are
the following:
44 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

You are: Your addressee is:

student teacher, professor

subordinate boss

salesperson customer

junior senior

Sometimes, an older person uses polite expressions when he is asking a favor

of a younger person. Under such circumstances, the older person feels psy¬
chologically inferior to the person he is addressing.
Another appropriate situation for polite speech involves discourse among
adults of equal status who do not know each other well. Formal Japanese is
also used at such occasions as ceremonies, public speeches and public announce¬
ments. The informal style, then, is normally reserved for communication among
equals who are on intimate terms.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 45

7. Sentence-final Particles

In Japanese there is a group of particles called sentence-final particles. In

non-inverted sentences, sentence-final particles are placed at the end of a main
clause and indicate the function of the sentence or express the speaker’s emotion
or attitude toward the hearer in a conversational situation. (Personal letters,
which are a sort of conversation between the sender and the receiver, may also
contain sentence-final particles.) Some of these particles are used exclusively
by male or exclusively by female speakers, so they also function to mark the
speaker’s sex. In what follows, we will take some common sentence-final par¬
ticles and see how they are used.

(1) is a declarative sentence. If the sentence-final particles ka and ne are

affixed to (1), as in (2) and (3), the sentence becomes a question ((2)) and a
sentence of confirmation ((3)).

(1)

Yamada-san wa sensei desu.

(Mr. Yamada is a teacher.)

2
( )

Yamada-san wa sensei desu ka.

(Is Mr. Yamada a teacher?)

(3)
Yamada-san wa sensei desu ne.
(Mr. Yamada is a teacher, isn’t he?)

Ne is also used to soften requests and invitations, and it often expresses the
speaker’s friendliness.

(4) 5feT(< £V')fe0

Kite (kudasai) ne.
(Please come.)

(5) —l «fc 5 too

/sshoni ikimasho ne.
(Let’s go together, shall we?)

Ne can be used with polite imperatives but not with plain imperatives.

6
( )

Gakko e ikinasai ne.

(Go to school, okay?)
46 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(7) o
*Gakkd e ike ne.

Na functions as the negative imperative marker when it is used with

informal nonpast verbs.

(8) a.
Kotchi e kuru na.
(Don’t come this way.)

b. IKfco
Ugoku na.
(Don’t move.)

When na is affixed to informal declarative or invitational sentences, it some¬

times functions like ne, with the limitation that it is used only by men.

(9) a. —gpi±—
Ichiro wa ichi-nensei da na.
(Ichiro is a freshman, isn’t he?)

b.
Isshoni iko na.
(Let’s go together, shall we?)

Na is also used by men in monologue situations.

(10) a.
Okashii na. Dare mo inai. Do shita n daro.
(It’s strange. There’s nobody. What’s wrong, I wonder?)

Sometimes na is used with formal sentences in older men’s speech. This na

conveys the feeling of weak assertion.

(11) a. ^kMLV'X'1-tZo
Sore wa chotto muzukashii desu na.
(That’s a bit difficult.)

Yo, zo and ze are used for assertion. Some English equivalents are “ I tell
you ”, “ you know ”, “ believe me ”, and “ I’d say ”. Zo and ze are exclusively
used in informal male speech.

(12) a.
Watashi wa shirimasen yo.
(I don’t know. Believe me.)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 47

Ore wa makenai zo.

(I won’t lose!)
c.
Kore wa kin da ze.
(Hey, this is gold!)

Yo and ze are also used with invitational sentences.

(13)
Konban wa nomo yo / ze.
(Let’s drink tonight!)

Wa is affixed only to declarative sentences by female speakers. It gives

sentences a feminine flavor and sometimes expresses a light assertion. It is
used in both formal and informal speech.

(14) a. AT'tfro
Watashi wa mada juhachi desu wa.
(I am still eighteen.)

b. hfz L, oilLV'foo
Atashi. ureshii wa.
(I’m happy.)

Wa can be used with ne and yo but not with ka, as in (15).

(15) a. itjV'frfeo
Kore. takai wa ne.
(This is expensive, isn’t it?)

b.
Watashi mo iku wa yo.
(I’m going, too.)

c.
*Tanaka-san mo kuru wa ka.
(Is Mr. Tanaka coming, too?)

Ne, na and wa are used in exclamatory sentences. Ne can also convey the
idea of confirmation. Na is usually used by men, but can be heard in conversa¬
tions by younger women. Wa is used only by women.

(16) a. (Male)
Kireida ne.
(Isn’t it pretty!)
48 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

b. (Female)
Kireida wa ne.
(Isn’t it pretty!)

c. (Male)
Suzuki-kun wa yoku hataraku na.
(Boy, Mr. Suzuki works hard!)

d. 'fXfZfzlbfoo (Female)
Sutekida wa.
(It’s wonderful!)

Some sentence-final particles appear in questions in informal speech. For

example, in informal male speech kai and dai mark yes / no questions and WH-
questions, respectively. («=> dai\ kai)

(17) a. (Male)
Kore wa kimi no hon kai.
(Is this your book?)

b. (Male)
Kore wa dare no hon dai.
(Whose book is this?)

In informal female speech the sentence-final n{o) desu ka becomes no spoken

with rising intonation. In this use no is almost a female question marker. Ex¬
amples follow:

(18) a. ^ (Female)
Tomoko-san. pati ni ikanai no?
(Aren’t you going to the party, Tomoko?)

b. fsi£|t9 0)? (Female)

Nani o kau no?
(What are you going to buy?)

Kashira and kana also appear in sentence-final position and express the
speaker’s uncertainty about a proposition. The former is usually used by female
speakers and the latter by male speakers.

(19) a. %\z L£o (Female)

Watashi ni mo dekiru kashira.
(Can I do it, too, I wonder?)

b. fcLfcttHfJ&'&fco (Male)
Ashita wa a me kana.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 49

(Will it rain tomorrow, I wonder?)

As we have seen in the various examples above, sentence-final particles

play an important role in determining the function of a sentence. Also, by
using these particles in conversation, a speaker expresses his / her emotion
or attitude toward the hearer as well as his / her masculinity / femininity.
50 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

8. Sound Symbolisms—giseigo and gitaigo

Japanese is abundant in sound symbolisms in the form of phonomimes ( =

onomatopoeia, giseigo), phenomimes ( — gitaigo) and psychomimes ( = gitaigo).
All languages have phonomimes or direct phonetic representations of actual
sounds in every day life, such as the English bang, bowwow, cock-a-doodle-do
and meow. English phonomimes are normally considered children’s language
and are not fully integrated into adult language. In Japanese, however, not
only phonomimes but also phenomimes (phonetic representations of phenomena
perceptible by non-auditory senses) and psychomimes (phonetic representations of
human psychological states) are an integral part of adult spoken and written
Japanese. Therefore, it is of vital importance that students of Japanese learn
these sound symbolisms as part of their ordinary vocabulary.
A summary of sound symbolisms is given below. Each sound symbolism
is an adverb associated with a specific verb. The adverb is normally followed
by the quote marker to, because the sound symbolism is perceived as a quotation.
The examples contain the verb that typically co-occurs with the given sound
symbolism.

(A) Voiceless and Voiced Consonants

Voiced consonants tend to represent something big, heavy, dull or dirty;
whereas voiceless consonants represent something small, light, sharp or
pretty.

a. % b((b)yt%) ((shine) sparklingly)

kirakira ((to) hikaru)
b. Z5C6((i:)^i‘5) ((small object) rolls)
korokoro ((to) korogaru)
c. \£tz.\£t£((b)1&hZ>) ((small amount of liquid) drips)
potapota ((to) ochiru)
d. cF < $ < ((£)#J6) ((cut) a thin, light object)
sakusaku ((to) kiru)
a'. ((b)ytZ>) ((shine) dazzlingly)
giragira ((to) hikaru)
b'. ((b)%&t)*Z>) ((heavy object) rolls)
gorogoro ((to) korogaru)
c'. 15: fell: fc ((£)$££> <5) ((large amount of liquid) drips)
botabota ((to) ochiru)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 51

d'. £?< ^ < ((<t)#J<5) ((cut) a thick, heavy object)

zakuzaku ((to) kiru)

(B) Velar Consonants—k and g

The velar consonants [k] and [g] tend to represent hardness, sharpness,
clear-cutness, separation, detachment or sudden change.

a. (f^£) ((freeze) hard)

kachikachi (ni koru)
b. <o^P((^)^x.6) ((be visible) clearly)
kukkiri ((to) mieru)
c. ((£))}lJ;fa/<5) ((separate from people) once and for all)
kip pari ((to) wakareru)
d. o (b%lb>£) ((completely) change)
garat (to kawaru)
e. <*o(£^K) ((pull) with a jerk)
gut (to hiku)
f. l£o < 9 ((b)~fcfc0 ((die) suddenly)
pokkuri ((to) shinu)

(C) Dental Fricative Consonant—s

The dental fricative consonant [s] tends to represent a quiet state or a quiet
and quick motion, [sh] in particular seems to represent some quiet human
emotion.

a. £ o (b£hhfil&) ((stand up) quickly)

sat (to tachiagaru)

b. f %>'$%> ((b) Vi ((slide) smoothly)

surusuru ((to) suberu)

c. Lb Lb ((b) P$£) ((it rains) quietly)

shitoshito (to furu)

d. LhH 9 ((b)thir) ((talk) quietly and intimately)

shinmiri ((to) hanasu)

e. LM£-f£) ((be) quiet)

shin (to suru)

f. L jz/v\£*) ({b)1-Z>) ((be) despondent)

shonbori ((to) suru)
52 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

g- r^Jl^((t)J|lf-5) ((escape) secretly)

kosokoso ((to) nigeru)
h. L h (t i~ <5) ((be) dispirited)
shun (to suru)
i. ((*))1“5) ((be) quiet)
hissori ((to) suru)
(D) Liquid Consonant—r

The liquid consonant [r] tends to represent fluidity, smoothness or slip¬

periness.

a. o (t L TV'S) ((figure) is slim)

surat (to shite iru)
b. -f'h'i'b ((b)^Z-£) ((answer) with great ease)
surasura ((to) kotaeru)
c. < £ < %> ((h) £;b<5) ((turn) round and round)
kurukuru ((to) maw aw)
d. o5o§(LtV'^) ((be) slippery)
tsurutsuru (shite iru)
e. (LTV'£) ((be) slimy)
nurunuru (shite iru)
f. £ b $ b ((k)ffitl5) ((flow) smoothly)
sarasara ((to) nagareru)
g. ((£)'#& ft-<5) ((sweat or blood) drip continuously)
taratara ((to) nagareru)
(E) Nasal Consonants—m and n

The nasal sounds tend to represent tactuality, warmth and softness.

a. t? < tj < (LtV'S) ((of a dog or a cat) is plump)

mukumuku (shite iru)

b. LTV'S) ((be) plump)

muchimuchi (shite iru)

c. &<£&<£ ((£) LTV'<5) ((be) slender and delicate)

nayonayo ((to) shite iru)

d. (*f-S) ((be) sticky)

nichanicha (suru)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 53

e. [Cri> ZlZtp £ (fCV'£) ((be) slimy)

nyurunyuru (shite iru)
f. (LtV'£) ((be) slimy)
nurunuru (shite iru)
g- ((be) sticky)
nechinechi (shite iru)

(F) Voiceless Bilabial Plosive-p

The voiceless bilabial plosive ( = stop) [p] tends to represent explosiveness,

crispiness, strength and suddenness.

a. If o (t < t£ %) ((become bright) suddenly)

pat (to akaruku naru)
b. t£t •$> 9 (£ PP < ) (whack)
pishari (to tataku)
c. tSk>(h < £) (come to (me) in a flash)
pin (to kuru)
d. b ((t) L •^'<'5) (gibber, speak fluently)
perapera ((to) shaberu)
e. tS/^JSh(LXV'§) ((be) peppy)
pin pin (shite iru)
f. ✓S'V' (t tHTtf <) ((leave) suddenly)
pui (to dete iku)
g. (btytl&) ((break) suddenly)
putsut (to kireru)
h. ((fc)^W) ((float) suddenly)
pokkari ((to) ukabu)

(G) Semi-vowel—y

The semi-vowel [y] tends to represent weakness, slowness and softness.

a. (lift £) (have locomotor ataxia, loss of reflexes)

yoiyoi (ni naru)
b. J; {£<!:{£ (l£ft<5) ((become) senile)
yoboyobo (ni naru)

c. <); ft <£ ft (!£&£) ((become) worn-out)

yore yore (ni naru)
54 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

d. J4> btp b ((t) tytlZ) ((sway) like waves)

yurayura ((to) yureru)
e. < 9 (tBi~) ((speak) slowly)
yukkuri (hanasu)
f. (i;f p) ((tell) softly)
yanwari (to iu)

g. <fct>J:M(£)^<) ((walk) totteringly)

yochiyochi ((to) aruku)
(H) Back High Vowel—u

The back high vowel [u] tends to represent something that has to do with
human physiology or psychology.

a. obok(i~Z>) (doze)
utouto (suru)
b. 9 # 9 % (i“£) ((be) buoyant)
ukiuki (suru)
c. 9i"9i“(^o<) ((perceive) dimly)
usuusu (kanzuku)
d. 9 *t* 9 *1* £) (itch for action)
uzuuzu (suru)
e. 9 0^9 of>(t£) (doze)
utsurautsura (suru)
f. ?o^5(t6) ((be) off guard)
ukkari (suru)
g. 3oH(t5) ((be) enchanted)
uttori (suru)
h. 9*b(£tKLV') (somewhat (lonely))
ura (sabishii)
i. 9/^9 (’tZ>) ((be) fed up with)
unzari (suru)
(I) Back Vowel—o

The back vowel [o] tends to represent something basically negative with
regard to human psychology.

a. (LT V'<5) ((be) nervous and timid)

ozuozu (shite iru)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 55

b. fc£fc£(LTV>6) ((be) very nervous)

odoodo (shite iru)

c. J$6fc5(i“S) ((be) in a dither)

orooro (suru)

d. tStziStz. (i~Z>) (don’t know what to do)

otaota (suru)

e. &abfcab(££f:££;fi/3) ((be deceived) in a shameless manner)

omeome (to damasareru)

(J) Front Vowel—e

The front vowel [e] tends to represent something vulgar.

a. ((become) dead drunk)

hebereke (ni naru)

b. ^b^b((t)^b) ((laugh) meaninglessly when embarrassed)

herahera ((to) warau)

c. TbTh(JbZ>) (be glossy)

ter a ter a (hikaru)

d. *>**>*((£)&<) (sob)
mesomeso ((to) naku)

In addition to the regular sound symbolisms there are some basic words that
can be explained in terms of (B) and (E) above. Consider the following se¬
mantically similar words that are indispensable in Japanese grammar.

Velars Nasals

O
no
93
(subject marker in relative
(subject marker)
and nominalized clauses)

OX 1 itO
kara node 1 mono
(because) (because)

A'M K5) l=(*5)

kara (morau) ni (morau)
((receive) from) ((receive) from)
56 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

A' (D
ka no
(or) (a particle for combining nouns)

1 fivi: /b< <D\Z

keredo / ga noni
(although / but) (although)

Zb O
koto no
(nominalizer) (nominalizer)

Zb t<D
koto mono
(an intangible thing) (a tangible thing)

The words with the nasal [n] sound more personal, subjective and speaker-
oriented than their counterparts with the velar [k] or [g].
It is also to be noted that (C) above would tend to explain why /-type
adjectives that end in -shi as in kanashii * sad*, sabishii ‘ lonely *, tanoshii ‘ en¬
joyable *, ureshii ‘ happy * represent human emotive psychological states.
Also note that the glottal stop is often used to create more emphatic and /
or more emotive versions of a given sound, as in pitari vs. pittari ‘tightly*, ya-
hari vs. yappari ‘ as expected ’, bakari vs. bakkari ‘ only ’, yohodo vs. yoppodo
‘to a great extent’, to vs. tte ‘that’, /-type adj. stem-f/ri/re (e.g., sabishi/rt/fe
‘be lonely and ~ *) vs. /-type adj. stem+kutte (e.g., sabishi/ri/ffe), etc.
It is important for students of Japanese to learn basic sound symbolisms,
(especially, phenomimes and psychomimes) relatively early in their Japanese
language study. These words are an indispensable part of the basic vocabulary
of any adult speaker. More importantly, the acquisition, use and understanding
of Japanese sound symbolisms allow the student to appreciate the keen sensibility
of Japanese language and culture toward directly perceptible objects.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 57

9. Viewpoint

There is more than one way to describe a state or an event, and the choice
of expressions depends, in part, on the viewpoint from which the state or event
is described. To illustrate this, let us suppose that a person A hit a person B.
This event can be expressed by either (la) or (lb).

(1) a. A hit B.
b. B was hit by A.

Both (la) and (lb) state the same fact, but the speaker’s (or writer’s) viewpoint
is different. That is, when (la) is chosen, the speaker is describing the event
from A’s point of view or a neutral viewpoint, and when (lb) is used, the speaker’s
description is from B’s point of view.
There are several principles and rules concerning viewpoint; some are
universal and others are specific to Japanese. The following are rather universal
principles:

(A) Within a single sentence (excluding coordinate sentences) the viewpoint

should be consistent.

(B) When a sentence includes the structure A’s B, (e.g., John’s wife) the
speaker is taking A’s viewpoint rather than B’s.

(C) When the speaker (or writer) empathizes with someone, the speaker tends
to take that person’s viewpoint.

(D) The speaker usually describes a situation or an event from his own view¬
point rather than from others’ when he is involved in the situation or the
event.

(E) It is easier for the speaker to take the viewpoint of the person in a sen¬
tence subject position than to take the viewpoint of a person in other
positions.

(F) It is easier for the speaker to take the viewpoint of the person who has
been established as a discourse topic than to take the viewpoint of some¬
one who has just been introduced in the discourse.

(G) Under normal circumstances the speaker cannot take the viewpoint of a
dead person.

Although many of the grammatical principles concerning viewpoint are rather

universal, as seen above, there are a number of viewpoint-related expressions
which are important and specific to Japanese. Some rules concerning these
58 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

expressions are listed below:

(H) The following giving / receiving verbs require the viewpoints shown
in (2).

(2) a. i £.L(give): the giver’s or a neutral viewpoint

yaru ageru sashiageru (when they are used as auxiliary verbs,
only the giver’s viewpoint)
b. <£:$<5 (give): the receiver’s viewpoint
kureru kudasaru
c. iybo, V'fcfcX (get; receive): the receiver’s viewpoint
morau itadaku
(H), together with (A) and (D), explains the unacceptability of the following
sentences. (<=» ageru1*2; kureru1*2; morau1*2)

(3) a.
*!chiro wa watashi ni pan o ageta.
(Ichiro gave me some bread.)

b. <tltz0
* Watashi wa Kazuo ni pen o kureta.
(I gave Kazuo a pen.)

*Hanako wa watashi ni enpitsu o moratta.

(Hanako received a pencil from me.)

(I) The passive construction, whether direct or indirect, requires the view¬
point of the referent of the subject. (Cp. (E))

Together with (A), (B) and (D), this explains the unnaturalness of sentences like
(4). (■=> rareru1)

(4) a. Lri'kftfco
* Watashi no musuko wa watashi ni shikarareta.
(My son was scolded by me.)

* Watashi no kanai wa watashi ni himitsu no tegami o yomareta.

(My wife had her secret letter read by me.)

(j) When the verb kuru * come * is used, the speaker’s viewpoint is some¬
where close to the arrival point. When kuru is used as an auxiliary verb,
the viewpoint is the point to which an action is directed or a change
proceeds.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR 59

(K) When the verb iku ‘ go ’ is used, the speaker’s viewpoint is somewhere
close to the departure point. When iku is used as an auxiliary verb,
the viewpoint is the point from which an action is directed or a change
proceeds.

(J) and (K) explain the unacceptability of the sentences in (5) and (6) under the
given conditions. (<=> iku1’2; kuru*>2)

(5) a. [The speaker is in Japan.]

*Watashi wa rainen Amerika e kimasu.

(I will come to America next year.)

b. [The speaker is in America.]

y Lfco
*Watashi wa kyonen Amerika e ikimashita.
(I went to America last year.)

(6) a. 0
*Watashi wa dorobo ni osoikakatte kita.
(Lit. I came to attack the robber.)

* Dorobo wa watashi ni osoikakatte itta.

(Lit. The robber went to attack me.)

(L) When adjectives like hoshii * want ’ (lit. desirable), ureshii ‘ happy * and
kanashii ‘ sad * which describe one’s personal feelings are used with the
third person subject, the speaker empathizes with that person, which
usually implies that the speaker is taking the viewpoint of that person.
(Cp. (Q)

Thus, if the subject is someone the speaker is unable to empathize with, the
adjectives mentioned in (L) cannot be used, as in (7). (garu, hoshii; tai)

(7) a.
*Mishiranu hito ga tabako ga hoshii.
(A stranger wants a cigarette.)

b. *ii y tH* y oAflofi Li\,

*Torigakari no hito ga ureshii.
(A passerby is happy.)

(M) Kinship terms can be used for the first person and (less commonly) the
second person. In this case the proper kinship term for the first person
60 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(or the second person) is selected from the viewpoint of someone X with
whom the speaker empathizes. The person X is usually lower in status
than the person for whom a kinship term is used, (e.g., one's little
brother) (Cp. 4. Personal Pronouns)

(8) a. [From an elder brother to his younger brother]

5i£/u\Z.$ll£XZb/vo
Ni-san ni misete goran.
(Let me see it.)

b. [From an uncle to his niece]

Oji-san ga shite ageyo.

(I’ll do it for you.)

c. [Spoken by a mother to her daughter Yoshiko from the viewpoint

of the daughter’s little brother Hiroshi]

O-ne-chan, Hiroshi ni kashite agenasai.

(Yoshiko, let Hiroshi have it.)

(N) When a reflexive pronoun jibun ‘self’ is used, the speaker tends to em¬
pathize with the referent of jibun, which implies that the speaker’s view¬
point is that of the referent. (=» Jibun1)

In (9) the referent of jibun is Hanako and the speaker is taking Hanako’s
viewpoint.

(9) tfiC-CVNfco
Hanako wa Taro ga jibun o aishite iru to shinjite ita.
(Hanako believed that Taro loved her.)
(10) is unnatural because the viewpoint is inconsistent.

do)
*Tsuma wa watashi ga jibun o ima demo aishite iru to shinjite iru.
(My wife believes that I still love her.)
 A DICTIONARY
OF
BASIC
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
(Main Entries)
Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui

SCESBm
 ageru1 63

ageru1 $>116 v. (Gr. 2)

) S.o. gives s.t. to a person who is not > give

^ a member of the giver’s in-group but S [REL. kureru1 (morau1)]
| whose status is about equal to that j
) of the giver.

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object

nu i t± fc ft I * if L tz0
Watashi i wa Yoshiko ni hana \ ° ageta / agemashita.

(I gave Yoshiko flowers.)

(a)
Ono-san wa Yamamoto-san ni hon o ageta.
(Ms. Ono gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.)

(b) gttrvfcfiTSr&tfSLfcjK
Kimi wa An ni nani o agemashita ka.
(What did you give to Ann?)

1. Ageru is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is

‘ give ’. However, ageru cannot be used when the indirect object is the
first person (i.e., / or we) or a person with whom the speaker em¬
pathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (la) and
(lb) are ungrammatical.

(1) a.
*Hanako wa watashi ni hon o ageta.
(Hanako gave me a book.)

b. z\z*Zto\itz0
*Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon o ageta.
(Hanako gave my son a book.)

The reason for this is as follows: Ageru requires the giver’s point of
view or a neutral point of view when describing an event. When an
event involves the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with,
64 ageru1

however, the event is normally described from that person’s point of

view. (See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 9. Viewpoint.) There¬
fore, if the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is a re¬
cipient in as'enz-sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences
ungrammatical. The grammatical sentences for (la) and (lb) are (2a)
and (2b), respectively. (■=> kureru1)

(2) a.
Hanako wa watashi ni hon o kureta.
(Hanako gave me a book.)

b. <tltz0
Hanako wa watashi no musuko ni hon o kureta.
(Hanako gave my son a book.)

2. The humble polite version of ageru is sashiageru. Example:

(3) Lfclf£ Lf-o

Watashi wa sensei ni hon o sashiagemashita.
(I gave my teacher a book.)

The degree of politeness expressed in sashiageru is higher than that

of kudasaru and itadaku, which are the polite versions of kureru and
morau, respectively. (<=> kureru\ REL. II)

3. When the giver is in a higher position than the recipient or the recipient
is a person very close to the speaker, yaru is used instead of ageru.
Examples:

(4) a.
Watashi wa ototo ni hon o yatta.
(I gave my little brother a book.)

Hiroshi wa neko ni miruku o yatta.

(Hiroshi gave milk to the cat.)

c. [Tom is the speaker’s intimate friend.]

Watashi wa Tomu ni keki o yarimashita.

(I gave a cake to Tom.)
 ageru2 65

ageru2 aux. v. (Gr. 2)

lAI
\ S.o. gives some action as a favor to j do s.t. for s.o.; do s.o. a favor
j a person who is not a member of the } by doing s.t.
X giver’s in-group but whose status is > [REL. kureru2 (morau2)]
about equal to that of the giver. \
i >

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vte

% \ ft j& lot h\ftcl htft. Lfco

Watashi'i wa Nobuo-san j ni nekutai j o katte ageta / agemashita.

(I bought a tie for Nobuo.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vte

m | « 1 & btfls. 1 bifi L-fc.

Boku j wa Haruko-san \ o nagusamete ageta / agemashita.

(I consoled Haruko.)

Vte h\f%
ageru
I^LT (talk for s.o.’s sake)
hanashite ageru
(eat for s.o.’s sake)
tabete ageru

(a) LTfctf %.
Kimi wa o-ka-san ni nani o shite agemashita ka.
(What did you do for your mother?)

Tanaka-san wa Sumisu~san ni hon o kashite ageta.

(Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith.)
66 ageru2

^222^
1. Ageru is used as an auxiliary verb with the re-form of verbs. The
meaning of Vte ageru is ‘do s.t. for s.o.* or ‘do s.o. a favor by doing
s.t.’ The restriction which applies to ageru1 also applies to ageru2.
Namely, sentences with Vte ageru are descriptions from the viewpoint
of the benefactor (i.e., the person in subject position); therefore, the
indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker
empathizes with. (■={> ageru1, Note 1) Thus, (la) and (lb) are ungram¬
matical.

(1) a.
*Hanako wa watashi ni nihongo o oshiete ageta.
(Hanako taught me Japanese.)

b. */r V '-te&totitltolZ'OZn^xfolftzo
*Meari wa watashi no musume ni pen o katte ageta.
(Mary bought a pen for my daughter.)

The grammatical sentences for (la) and (lb) are (2a) and (2b), respectively.
0=> kureru2)
(2) a.
Hanako wa watashi ni nihongo o oshiete kureta.

b. /TV <titz0
Meari wa watashi no musume ni pen o katte kureta.

2. As in KS (B), if the person receiving the benefit is the direct object of

the sentence, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b)
are ungrammatical.

(3) a. *mte%=?ZA,lz^£/v$:te<*£bbXh\ftz0
*Boku wa Haruko-san ni Haruko-san o nagusamete ageta.

*Boku wa Haruko-san ni nagusamete ageta.

3. When the main verb is intransitive, ageru is not used along with ni.
The following sentence is ungrammatical,

(4) 3

*Watashitachi wa Jon ni hataraite ageta.

(We worked for John.)

In this case, no tame ni ‘ for the sake of* is used, as in (5). («=> tame(ni))
 ageru2 / aida (hi) 67

(5) ftiifiv? XDtz^lzm^o

3

Watashitachi wa Jon no tame ni hataraita.

(We worked for John’s sake.)

4. The humble polite version of Vte ageru is Vte sashiageru. Example:

(6) Lfclf£ Ltz0

Watashi wa sensei ni piano o hiite sashiagemashita.
(I played the piano for my teacher.)

The degree of politeness expressed in Vre sashiageru is higher than that

of Vte kudasaru and Vte itadaku, which are the polite versions of Vte
kureru and Vte morau, respectively. (<=> kureru1, REL. II)

5. When the benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of

equal status and his relationship to the recipient is close, Vfe yaru is used
instead of Vte ageru. Examples:

(7) a. fj;ttttfci/a-KS:Ro-C4f»ofco
Watashi wa imoto ni rekodo o katte yatta.
(I bought my little sister a record.)

b.
Jun wa neko ni sakana o yaite yatta.
(Jun roasted fish for his cat.)

c. [John is the speaker’s close friend.]

Watashi wa Jon ni rajio o kashite yarimashita.

(I lent John my radio.)

aida (ni) ((c) phr.

\ the space between two temporal or j during (the time when); while
^ physical points ( [REL. nagara\ uchi ni]
w
68 aida (ni)

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vte

1
ft re* £
Watashi ga gohan o tabete M tilffl£k>
Yamada -san wa
(2 ri
terebi o
JLT Wc /
mite ita / imashita.

(While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada was watching TV.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vte

ft r«s £ ffl (c mmzAs & Mtti

Watashi ga gohan o tabete iru aida ni Yamada-san ga kita /

kimash ita.

(While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came in.)

(i) Vte M ((c)

iru aida (ni)
fUj ((c) (while s.o. is talking)
hanashite iru aida (ni)
l'<5 fa] ((c) (while s.o. is eating)
tabete iru aida (ni)
(ii) Adj (/) pg ((c)
aida (ni)
^ ((C) (while s.t. is expensive)
takai aida (ni)
(iii) Adj (na) stem fUj ((c)
na aida (ni)
 aida (ni) 69

RQ (Id) (while s.t. is quiet)

shizukana aida {ni)

(iv) N to m (Id)
no aida {ni)
cO frl ((d) (during the summer vacation)
natsuyasumi no aida {ni)

(a) ^ * 7, Lfc0
Sumisu-san wa Nihon ni iru aida eigo o oshiete imashita.
(Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in
Japan.)

Kodomotachi ga terebi o mite iru aida watashi wa hon o yonde ima¬

shita.
(I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were
watching TV.)

(c) ]) rtldV'S^c^V^^^L/do
Takahashi-san wa Amerika ni iru aida ni gorufu o oboemashita.
(Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.)

(d) WISA/O 9 £L
/do
Nakagawa-san no o-ka-san wa Nakagawa-san ga Pari ni ryugakushite
iru aida ni byoki ni narimashita.
(Mr. Nakagawa’s mother became ill while he was studying in Paris.)

(e)
Akiko wa kodomo ga inai aida ni hon o yomu.
(Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.)

1. The subjects for the a/c/a-clause (^subordinate clause) and the main
clause can be different as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e) or can be the same as
in Exs. (a) and (c). When the subjects are different, the subject in the
aida-clause is marked not by wa but by ga.

2. The verb before aida is normally nonpast Wte iru or irut regardless of
the tense of the main clause.
70 aida (ni)

3. Aida, if followed by ni, a particle of specific time point, means that

the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within
the time span of an event identified by the aida-clause, as in Exs. (c),
(d) and (e). Aida without ni, as in Exs. (a) and (b), indicates that the
two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the
main verb is a punctual verb, aida should be used with ni. The fol¬
lowing sentence, therefore, is ungrammatical.

*Yamada-san ga Pari ni ryugakushite iru aida o-ka-san ga byoki

ni natta.
(*Mr. Yamada’s mother became ill (all during the time) while he
was studying in Paris.)
The difference between aida ni and aida can be diagrammed as follows:

Event 1
<->

(main clause)
aida ni
Event 2

(subordinate clause)
Event 1

(main clause)
aida
Event 2

(subordinate clause)
4. A noun or an adjective can be used before aida.

(2) X h bfrL'&LtZo
Natsuyasumi no aida resutoran de arubaito o shimashita.
(During the summer vacation I worked part time at a restaurant.)

(3)
Natsuyasumi no aida ni garufurendo ga dekimashita.
(During the summer vacation I found a girl friend.)

(4)
Nagai aida haha ni tegami o kaite imasen.
(I haven’t written to my mother for a long time.)

(5)
Wakai aida ni hon o dekiru dake takusan yominasai.
(Read as many books as you can while you are young.)
 aida (hi) 71

5. The non-temporal aida which means ‘ space between ’ or ‘ relationship ’

is used in the structure A to B (to) no aida ‘between A and B ’ as in:

(6) y
Nihon to Amerika (to) no aida ni wa umi shika nai.
(There is only ocean between Japan and America.)

(7) Ujp
Yamaguchi to boku (to) no aida wa kesshite warnkunai.
(The relationship between Yamaguchi and me is not bad at all.)

The usage of aida meaning ‘ relationship ’ in (7) is a metaphorical ex¬

tension of physical space between two persons.

6. The verb iru * (an animate object) exists ’ can be used by itself, as in
Ex. (c), due to its stative nature. Some adjectives such as takai * expen¬
sive ’, yasui * cheap atatakai ‘ warm suzushii ‘ cool ’, wakai ‘ young’
can also be used in this way, as follows:

8
( )

Wakai aida ni supotsu o iroiro shita ho ga iidesu.

(It’s better to do various sports while you are young.)

These adjectives, however, sound a little more natural with uchi ni

‘ while ’. («=> uchi ni)

[Related Expression]

If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are identical and if the
verbs are action verbs, aida can be replaced by nagara, but with different
meaning.

[1] f ^li V'5Hr t'fc.

Yukiko wa gohan o tabete iru aida terebi o mite ita.
(Yukiko was watching TV while she was eating her meal.)

[2]
Yukiko wa gohan o tabenagara terebi o mite ita.
(Lit. Yukiko was primarily watching TV, although simultaneously she
was eating her meal. ( = Yukiko was eating her meal while watching
TV.))

[1] and [2] focus on ‘ duration of some action/state ’ and ‘ accompanying minor
action ’, respectively. 0=> nagara)
72 amari

amari 36 £ 0

; The degree of s.t. is not great. | (not) very much; (not) very

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Predicate (negative)

Z.<D %L 11 h* 0 «fc < fcv' /£<&!) o

Kono hon wa amari yokunai / yokuarimasen.

(This book is not very good.)

(a)
Suzuki-san wa amari tabenai.
(Miss Suzuki does not eat much.)

(b)
Watashi wa amari hayaku hashiremasen.
(I cannot run very fast.)

1. The adverb amari usually occurs in negative sentences, meaning ‘ not very
(much)’. Amari is one of a group of adverbs which co-occur with nega¬
tive predicates. They include:

(1) zenzen ‘(not) at all’; mettani ‘rarely, seldom’; kesshite ‘never,

by no means'; sappari ‘ (not) at all ’; sukoshimo ‘ (not) a bit ’;
chittomo ‘ (not) a bit ’
2. Anmari is a phonological variant of amari and usually used in conversation.

3. In limited situations, amari can be used in affirmative sentences, too. In

this case, it means ‘very; too’ with a negative implication. Examples:

(2) a. ^ a y h i: if 5 Ot'f !) -ligo tiot b

Sukotto ga amari shitsureina koto o iu node Sari wa okotte

kaette shimatta.
(Since Scott was very rude (lit. said very rude things), Sally
got mad and went home.)

/noue-san wa amari sake o nonda node byoki ni natta.

 amari / aru1 73

(Mr. Inoue drank too much and became ill.)

c. y V-to
Sore wa anmari desu.
(You’re (lit. That’s) too cruel.)

aru1 V. (Gr. 1)

j An inanimate thing exists. j be; exist; have

— [REL. iru1; motte iru]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (location) Subject Quantifier

d co Ifff (t) n tn Ho hz / hv $.-to

Kono machi (ni) wa daigaku 93 mittsu aru 1 arimasu.

(Lit. In this town are three universities. ( = There are three universities
in this town.))

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun (location)

Mg : {± 1 bot-i-c
Efferutd \ wa Pari ni aru 1 arimasu.

(The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.)

(a) Mfcjlirufcfj&s—ilhZo
Watashi no a pa to (ni) wa terebi ga nidai aru.
(There are two TV sets in my apartment.)

(b) x
Detoroito wa Mishigan-shu ni arimasu.
(Detroit is in the State of Michigan.)
74 aru1

(c) p --7 —
Wada-san no uchi {ni) wa kura ga nai.
(There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada’s.)

1. Aru expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things

including abstract things such as events and problems. Thus, (1) is
ungrammatical.

1
( )

*Kono machi ni wa nihonjin ga aru.

(There are Japanese in this town.)

For animate things, irux is used. (■=> irux)

2. The negative informal form of aru is not aranai but nai.

3. Two sentence patterns can be used with aru. The KS (A) pattern is
used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what exists is
under focus. In this pattern, the location marker ni can optionally drop.
The KS (B) pattern is used when something which exists is presented as
a topic. In this case, where it exists is under focus. Compare the two
patterns in (2).

(2) A:
Waseda Daigaku wa doko ni arimasu ka.
(Where is Waseda University?)

B : 9 t.’to
Waseda Daigaku wa Tokyo ni arimasu.
(Waseda University is in Tokyo.)

Tokyo ni wa Waseda Daigaku shika arimasen ka.

(Lit. Are there no universities in Tokyo but Waseda Uni¬
versity? (= Is Waseda University the only university in To¬
kyo?))

B: V'V'x, V t.'to
le. Tokyo ni wa daigaku ga takusan arimasu.
(No, there are many universities in Tokyo.)

4. A thing (whether animate or inanimate) can also occur in the location

position of KS (A). In this case, the sentence expresses possession rather
than existence. Examples:
 aru1 75

(3) a. C<D^:(lz)li # — • TsT- \sjr$Mh%>0

Kono kuruma (ni) wa ka sutereo ga aru.
(Lit. There is a car stereo in this car. ( = This car has a car
stereo.))

b. &(fz)f*jfL^feS0
Wat as hi (ni) wa kuruma ga aru.
(Lit. There is a car with me. ( = 1 have a car.))

Note that even if aru expresses the idea of possession, possessed things
are marked not by o but by ga. This is because aru essentially indicates
existence.

5. When aru is used to express the idea of having and the object is animate,
that object must be someone who maintains a very close relationship
with the possessor, such as a family member, a relative or a friend.
Thus, (4) is acceptable, but (5) is odd.

(4) &(fc)li*&j&SHAfcS0
Watashi (ni) wa kodomo ga sannin aru.
(I have three children.)

(5)
UWatashi (ni) wa untenshu ga aru.
(I have a chauffeur.)

Since aru in this usage is a possessive expression, it cannot be used in

situations where the idea indicates existence. Thus, (6) is unacceptable.

(6)

*Watashi (nf) wa haha ga mo arimasen.

(I don’t have my mother now.)

In this case, iru must be used.

6. When aru is used for events such as parties and concerts, the particle
marking locations must be de as in (7). (f=>delm, nin)
(7)
Kyd Samu no uchi de I *ni pati ga aru.
(There is a party at Sam’s today.)

[Related Expressions]

I. There is another possessive expression, motte irut which is the re-form

of motsu ‘ hold ’ followed by the auxiliary verb iru. However, motte
iru is used only when the possessor is animate and the possessed thing
76 a/'t/1 / aru2

is inanimate. Thus, [1] is acceptable, but [2] and [3] are not.

[1] V a
Jon wa ii kuruma o motte iru.
(John has a good car.)

[2] *'J 3 TL'So

*Jon wa imoto o motte iru.
(John has a younger sister.)

[3]
*Kono kuruma wa kura o motte iru.
(This car has an air-conditioner.)

Groups and organizations of people such as political parties, countries,

institutions and companies can also be possessors in sentences with motte
iru, as in [4],
[4]
Kono daigaku wa ii toshokan o motte iru.
(This university has a good library.)

II. !rux is also used to express existence. However, iru1 is used only for
animate objects. (See Note 1.)

aru2 <5 <5 aux- v- (G>. l)

S.t. has been done to s.t. and the have been done; be done
resultant state of that action remains. [REL. iru2\ oku]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Vte

Ii t, ') V 3 > d s£LX hz> 1 h 9 £.i~0

Sore wa mo Jon n’t hanashite aru / arimasu.

(It’s been told to John already.)

 aru2 77

Vte
aru
MVX h%> (has been told)
hanashite aru
i^^X h%> (has been eaten)
tabete aru

(a)
Nomimono wa mo katte arimasu.
(Drinks have already been bought.)

(b) mmvxkZo
Mado ga akete aru.
(The window has been open / is open.)

1. Aru is used with Vte as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by
the Vte aru expression:

(A) Someone did something to X. (Thus, Vte is usually a transitive

verb.)

(B) X is still in that state.

X is most frequently marked by the topic marker wa or the subject

marker ga\ occasionally it is marked by the direct object marker o.

2. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or

obvious.

[Related Expressions]

There are expressions similar to Vte arut namely, Vte iru and Vte oku. Let
us compare [1] and [2] with Ex. (b).

[1]
Mado ga aite iru.
(The window is open.)

[2]
Watashi wa mado o akete oku.
(I open / will open the window (in advance).)
78 aru2 / a to de

[1] simply means that the window is open. It doesn’t imply that someone
opened it. Aite> the re-form of aku ‘ open is an intransitive verb. As seen
in [2], Vfe oku means ‘do s.t. in advance for future convenience*. An im¬
portant difference between Vre aru and Vre oku is that the former expresses a
state, while the latter expresses an action. Note that in Vre oku sentences,
the agent is not omitted unless it is known.

ato de 25 tV conJ-

Some state or action takes place at a after

time (not always immediately) after [REL. rare; re kara]
\ another state or action has taken £ (ANT. mae ni)
< /
\ place.

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause
Topic (subject) Predicate
Vinf*past

J 4 yy£/v 11 *7 ofc fob X

Meison-san wa Nihon e itta ato de byoki ni natta /

ft 9 & Lfco
narimashita.

(Mr. Mason became ill after he went to Japan.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun (event)

% (1 <D fob X MU ffofc/

Watashi wa jug yd no ato de toshokan ni itta /

frt £ Lfco

ikimashita.

(After the class I went to the library.)

 a to de 79

€ZEEQ9
KS(A):
Vinf*past fob X*
a to de

fgL'jfc fob X (after s.o. has talked/had talked)

hanashita a to de

fob X (after s.o. has eaten/had eaten)

tabeta a to de

KS(B):
N (D fob X
no ato de
0 fob X (after study)
benkyo no ato de

(a) (■?)**“ Lfc0

Gohan o tabeta ato (de) sugu benkyoshimashita.
(I studied right after I had eaten my meal.)

(b) \\\&Zh\±V-;v$:&htifob (t*)|TL^f;0

Yamada-san wa biru o nonda ato (de) nete shimatta.
(Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.)

(c)
Senso ga owatta ato (de) Tokyo ni modorimashita.
(I went back to Tokyo after the war ended.)

(d) &&0$>i:XT‘=-x£L'f£o
Shokuji no ato de tenisu o shita.
(I played tennis after my meal.)

The particle de may be omitted in informal speech.

[Related Expressions]

I. Vinf*past ato de is crucially different from Wte kara in two respects: Vte
kara is very awkward if the main clause expresses something beyond
the control of the subject or the speaker of the sentence. Vinf*past ato
de is free from such restriction.
80 a to de

[1] / ??? iotil'bWofco

Watashi ga uchi e kaexta ato del IHkaette kara ame ga futta.
(It rained after I came home.)

Secondly, Wte kara indicates ‘the space of time following after’, but
Vinf’past ato de indicates ‘any space of time after’. Thus,

[2]
Nihon e kite kara / *kita ato de nannen ni narimasu kal
(How many years have passed since you came to Japan?)

(«=> kara2)

II. Vinf*past ato de can be replaced by Vinf*past ra when the latter is used
with a purely temporal meaning (i.e., ‘ after ’, ‘ when ’). Thus, Exs.
(a), (b) and (c) can be rephrased as [3a], [3b] and [3c], respectively.

[3] a.
Gohan o tabetara sugu benkyoshimashita.
b. [Ijffl £ A,It Ltofc0
Yamada-san wa biru o nondara nete shimatta.

Senso ga owattara Tokyo ni modorimashita.

However, if Vinf«past ra has a non-temporal meaning (i.e., ‘if’), it can¬
not be replaced by Vinf«past ato de, as illustrated by [4].

[4] a. / *ff L J; b 0
Nihon e ittara / *itta ato de ii desho.
(Lit. It would be nice if you go to Japan. (=You should
go to Japan.))

b. UtittiLAslih I *%tAst£1b tV Z 5 TH-fro

Kore o yondara / *yonda ato de do desuka.
(Lit. How would it be if you read this. ( = Why don’t you
read this?))
(<=> tar a)
 ba 81

ba |£ conj.

j a conjunction which indicates that if

£ the preceding clause expresses a con- [REL. tar a (nara, to4)]
j dition

♦ Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause (condition) Main Clause

m z if X< ft 5 / ft t)
Kono kusuri o nome ba yo/rty naru / narimasu.

(If you take this medicine, you’ll get well.)

(23SS9
( i ) Gr. 1 verbs: Vcond fi'
ba
g’S-frii' (if s.o. talks)
hanaseba
(ii) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem tl/(f
reba
(if s.o. eats)
tabereba
(iii) Irr. verbs: 5^5 (if s.o. comes)
kuru kureba
(if s.o. does)
suru sureba
(iv) Adjs (/): Adj (/) stem
kereba
(if s.t. is expensive)
takakereba
(v) Adjs (na): Adj (na) stem {ft b Of) / X*
[nara(ba) / de a reba)
{»J&>ftMtf) hiUt) (if s.t. is quiet)
[shizukanara(ba) / shizukade areba}
(vi) N + cop.: N {ft £>(#)/ X
{/7ara(£a) / de areba]
 82 ba

[%£. h (f±') / %%L X* htitf} (if s.o. is a teacher)

Illlllllllllllll

Bl [sensei nara{ba) / sensei de areba}

(a)
Kore wa Matsumoto-sensei ni kikeba wakarimasu.
(You’ll understand it if you ask Prof. Matsumoto.)

(b)
Sono machi wa kuruma de ikeba sanjuppun de ikeru.
(You can get to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.)

(c) gtftLtfgV'&i-o
Yasukereba kaimasu.
(I’ll buy it if it’s cheap. / I would buy it if it were cheap.)

(d) cffcV'o
Jikan ga areba Kyoto e mo ikitai.
(If I have time, I want to go to Kyoto, too. / If I had time, I would want
to go to Kyoto, too.)

(e)
Mi takereba minasai.
(If you want to see it, see it.)

(f) < t* £V'o

Dekireba kore mo yatte kudasai.
(Please do this, too, if you can.)

1. “Si ba S2” basically expresses a general conditional relationship between

the two propositions represented by Si and S2. Si represents a condition
and S2 a proposition which holds or will hold true under the condition.
{Ba is, in fact, the origin of the topic marker wa.)
2. S2 can be a statement of the speaker’s volition or hope, as in Exs. (c)
and (d). 0=> to*)

3. S2 can be a command, a request or a suggestion, as in Exs. (e) and (f).

In this case, however, Si cannot be an action. Thus, in (1) and (2) ba
is ungrammatical. 0=> nara\ tar a)

1
( )

Yamamoto-san ga kitara / *kureba shirasete kudasai.

(If Mr. Yamamoto comes in, please let me know.)
 ba 83

2
( ) 'yjj=r^7< I*a\i\£s<7sX*'fiH ox*i~fr0
Shikago e iku (no) nara / *ikeba basu de ittara do desu ka.
(If you go to Chicago, why don’t you go by bus?)

4. Si can express both factual and counterfactual conditions. Thus, Exs.

(c) and (d) can be either factual or counterfactual statements.
(«=> ba yokatta)
5. Si can be a state or an event in the past if it is counterfactual or habitual.
Examples:

(3)
Motto yasukereba kaimashita.
(I would have bought it if it had been much cheaper.)

(4) <mr^m^tzi,<Dtz0
Ame ga fureba yoku ie de hon o yonda mono da.
(When it rained, I often read at home.)

However, Si cannot be a single factual event in the past even if it rep¬

resents a condition, as seen in (5). (<=> tar a)

(5) 0 o tz b /**7lt It 0 * o fc„

Nihon e ittara / *ikeba nihongo ga jozuni natta.
(I became good at Japanese when I went to Japan.)

6. “ Si ba S2 ” does not mean more than a conditional relationship; therefore,

this construction cannot be used when the speaker wants to suggest some
thing by a conditional sentence. For example, (6) does not suggest that
one should not approach the cage. It is acceptable only when it means,
as a mere conditional statement, that one is in danger under the condition
that one gets close to the cage.

(6) *) <fc0
Sono ori ni chikazukeba abunaidesu yo.
(It is dangerous if you get close to the cage.)

(In order to suggest that one should not approach the cage, chikazuku to
or chikazuitara is used instead of chikazukeba.)

7. There are some idiomatic expressions which utilize the “ Si ba S2 ”

construction. (■=> ba yokatta; nakereba naranai; to ieba)
 84 bakari

bakari prt.
Illllllllllllllll

B a particle which indicates that s.t. is < only; just; be ready to do s.t.;
the only thing or state which exists, have just done s.t.; just did s.t.;
or the only action s.o. will take, takes, be just doing s.t.; about
is taking or took [REL. hodo (kurai); shika
(dake); tokoro t/a2]
♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast

ff“ h n Ufa 9
Dezato wa taberu bakari ni natte iru imasu.

(Lit. The only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it. ( = The
dessert is ready to eat.))

(B)

Topic (subject) Vte

tc* i « &A,V Ufa p

Tomoko j wa asonde bakari iru 1 imasu.

(Lit. The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing. ( = Tomoko is doing

nothing but playing.))

(C)

Topic (subject) Vinf* past

% U ELZm £ ^tz Ufa V ti 1 T't\,

Watashi wa hirugohan o tabeta bakari da 1 desu.

(Lit. I had my lunch and haven’t done anything else since then. (= 1
have just eaten my lunch.))

(D)

Topic (subject) Adj

1 f± si' Ufa9 ti 1 ft.

Kono resutoran \ wa yasui bakari da / desu.

(Lit. The only merit of this restaurant is that the food is inexpensive.
( = This restaurant is just cheap.))
 bakari 85

(E)

Topic (subject) Noun

X— X : it d.-)V x v'S /
Denisu j wa biru nonde iru j imasu.

(Dennis is drinking only beer.)

(F)
Topic (subject) Quantifier

% it Utft 9 V'fc / Ltzo

Watashi wa hitotsuki bakari Pari ni ita / imashita.

(I was in Paris for about a month.)

(i) Vinf*nonpast
bakari
IS“t" 9 (be ready to talk)
hanasu bakari
^^<5 (be ready to eat)
taberu bakari
(ii) Vfe
bakari
15It (be just talking)
hanashite bakari
ft^X itfi'9 (be just eating)
tabete bakari
(iii) Vinf’past
bakari
MLtz it.ti'9 (have just talked)
hanashita bakari
k^tz {tfr 9 (have just eaten)
tabeta bakari
(iv) {Adj (/) inf*nonpast / Adj (na) stem &} 9
na bakari
86 bakari

(just expensive)
takai bakari
(just quiet)
shizukana bakari
(v) N
bakari
li'fi*!) (only teachers)
sensei bakari
(vi) N Prt fi>!)
bakari
(d fi*#51 H) (only to students)
gakusei ni bakari
(vii) Quantifier 0
bakari
—U#fU1 V (about an hour)
ichijikan bakari

(a)
Kono repoto wa a to ketsuron o kaku bakari da.
(The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.)

Harue wa naite bakari ite nanimo hanaso to shinai.

(Harue is just crying and won’t talk about anything.)

(c) ft 9 vi~0
Matsuyama-san wa ima Shikago ni tsuita bakari desu.
(Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.)

(d) 9
Kono shigoto wa mendona bakari de amari mokarimasen.
(This job is just troublesome and doesn’t bring us big profits.)

(e) ti0
Kono ryo ni sunde iru no wa danshi gakusei bakari da.
(The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.)

(f) yj v y
Fissha-sensei wa Risa to bakari hanashite iru.
(Prof. Fisher is talking only with Lisa.)
 bakari / ba yokatta 87

Junin bakari no tomodachi ga tetsudatte kuremashita.

(About ten friends helped me.)

1. The basic idea which bakari expresses is that there is nothing except
what is stated. When Vinf* nonpast precedes bakari, the whole expres¬
sion means there is nothing left to do (to complete something) but what
is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf* nonpast bakari means
that someone does nothing but what is stated. Example:

1
( )

Kare wa warau bakari de nanimo setsumeishite kurenai.

(He just laughs and doesn’t explain anything to me.)

2. When Vinf• past precedes bakari, the whole expression means that there
has been almost no time for anything to happen since what is stated
took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just
done something.

3. When bakari follows “ N ga ” or “ N o ”, ga or o drops. The directional

e and ni may be either deleted or retained. Other case particles do not
drop when they are followed by bakari.

4. Bakari in classical Japanese expressed the speaker’s conjecture and this

usage is still seen in the “ Quantifier bakari” pattern, where bakari
means ‘ about ’.

ba yokatta [Z&frntz Phr•

a phrase which expresses the speak I wish ~ had done s.t.

er’s regret [REL. te yokatta]

♦ Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause (condition) Main Clause

f- HIt
Sensei ni kike ba yokatta / yokattadesu.
(I wish I had asked my teacher.)
88 ba yokatta

(i) Gr. 1 verbs: Vcond (f

ba yokatta
f±* (I wish s.o. had talked)
hanase ba yokatta
(ii) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem ftfi'
reba yokatta
Sit'otc. (I wish s.o. had eaten)
tabereba yokatta
(iii) Irr. verbs: J(I wish s.o. had come)
kuru kureba yokatta
~t5 (I wish s.o. had done)
suru sureba yokatta

(a) h<7)#$:%ttb\
Ano hon o yomeba yokatta.
(I wish I had read that book.)

(b) (f £ fro
Ueruzu-san wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta ne.
(I wish Mr. Wells had gone to Japan, don’t you?)

(c) hh,
A, motto eigo o benkyoshite okeba yokatta na.
(Oh, I wish I had studied English harder!)

1. Vcond ba yokatta is an idiomatic expression which means ‘ I wish ~ had

done s.t.* It consists of a conditional clause with ba and yokatta ‘ was
good ’ and literally means ‘ It would have been good if ~ had done s.t.’

2. When there is no subject in a /ba-clause sentence, the first person is

the implicit subject.

3. This expression is often used with exclamatory words such as a ‘ oh ’

and the sentence-final particle of exclamation nat as in Ex. (c).

4. “ S.o. (other than the first person) wishes — had done s.t.” is expressed
using this phrase and the verb omou ‘ think', as in (1).
(■=> iru1 2, Note 4; fo3 4)
 ba yokatta 89

(1) fc*/Wi
Biru wa Nihon e ikeba yokatta to omotte iru.
(Lit. Bill thinks that it would have been good if he had gone
to Japan. (= Bill wishes he had gone to Japan.))

[Related Expression]

In “ Vcond ba yakatta ”, Vcond ba expresses a counterfactual action or

state in the past. In a similar expression “ Vfe yokatta yyy Vte expresses a
factual action or state in the past. Compare [1] with Ex. (a).

[1]
Ano hon o yonde yokatta.
(Lit. It was good that I read that book. ( = I’m glad I read that book.))
90 dai

dai fz l' prt.

\ a sentence-final particle which indi- \ [REL. ka2\ kail

£ . *
( cates a WH-question in informal male j
> speech \

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subject Adj {na) stem / N

Hr | ^ ft*' *fv>0
Doko \ ga shizuka dai.

(What place is quiet?)

(B)

Sentence (informal)f

tin & fj < A/

Dare ga iku n dai.

(Who is going?)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

fflBBBI
( i) {Adj (na) stem / N} V'
dai
jftr/p tzV' (s.t. is quiet?)
shizuka dai
%f-*sL tzV' (s.o. is a teacher?)
sensei dai
(ii) {V / Adj (/)} inf A/
n dai
{fj§-f /ISb/i}h /’iV'* (s.o. talks / talked?)
{hanasu / hanashita) n dai
I h tz^ (s.t. is / was expensive?)
[takai / takakatta} n dai
(iii) {Adj {na) stem / N} {& / ^ofc} A/ fiV'
{/7a / datta} n dai
 dai 91

laM'4 / fM'fc'ofc} h fc'V> (s.t. is / was quiet?)

[shizukana I shizukadatta} n dai
{9c£. 4 / 7fc£ fiofc} /u 4'V' (s.o. is / was a teacher?)
{se/7se/‘ na / sensei datta) n dai
Examples

(a)
Atarashii shigoto wa do dai.
(How’s your new job?)
(b)
Ano hi to wa dare dai.
(Who is that person?)
(c) fpJ^&^LV'/k/-iV'0
Nani ga okashii n dai.
(What’s funny?)
(d) E co A h f£v\
Dono hito ga Sato-sensei na n dai.
(Which person is Prof. Sato?)

1. Dai can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys’
speech, as in (1)
(1) a.
Kore wa boku no dai.
(This is mine.)
b.
Boku mo iku n dai.
(I will go, too.)
2. When dai is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be
WH-questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
(2) a. *h<nA
*Ano hito wa sensei dai.
(Is that person a teacher?)
b.
*Murata-san mo iku n dai.
(Is Mr. Murata going, too?)
For yes-no questions, kai is used. (<=> kai)
92 dai

3. Questions with dai, as in KS (A), and those with n dai, as in KS (B), cor¬
respond to questions without no desu and those with no desu in formal
speech, respectively. (ci> no da)

4. Dai actually consists of the copula da and the particle i. Thus, it can
follow only na-type adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents. The
following sentences are ungrammatical because dai follows a verb or an
/-type adjective.

(3) a.
*Dare ga iku dai.
(Who is going?)

b.
*Dore ga omoshiroi dai.
(Which one is interesting?)

N dai can follow verbs and /-type adjectives, as in KS (B) and Ex. (c),
because n is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of no3) and it changes the
preceding sentence into a noun equivalent.

5. In informal male speech, questions as in (3) are expressed as in (4), with

rising intonation.

(4) a. ?
Dare ga iku?
(Who is going?)

b. L5V'?
Dore ga omoshiroi?
(Which one is interesting?)

6. The past form of dai is dattai, but it is not frequently used. The
more frequently used past form of dai is datta with rising intonation,
as seen in (5).

(5) a.
Atarashii shigoto wa do datta?
(How was your new job?)

b. Zz&fM'fcofc?
Doko ga shizukadatta?
(What place was quiet?)
[Related Expression]

In informal speech, the question marker ka (i.e., ka2) is not usually used.
 dai I dake 93

The following chart summarizes the endings for informal questions.

Female,
Formal Male, informal Note
informal

yes-no Sinf Sinf Sinf Da after Adj (na)

question kai stem and N drops.

yes-no Sinf co ; Sinf co Sinf co Da after Adj (na)

question no kai no no stem and N changes
with no desu to na.

WH-question Sinf; Sinf Da after Adj (na)

{Adj (na) stem / N} ti stem and N drops.
dai

WH-question Sinf A/ AfV'; Sinf co Sinf co Da after Adj (na)

with no desu n dai no no stem and N changes
to na.

Sinf ka is used in very informal speech or in vulgar speech. Female informal

endings can also be used by male speakers.

dake fctt prt.

\ a particle which expresses a limit im- ; only; just; alone; merely; that’s
posed upon something that is grow- } all
) ing and expanding [REL. shika (bakari)]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subject Predicate

X= fc'it (a*)
Sumisu-san dake (ga) kita / kimashita.

(Only Mr. Smith came.)

94 dake

(B)

Number-Counter

% li 0* - -S tilt
Watashi wa Nihon e ichido dake itta 1 ikimashita.

(I went to Japan only once.)

(C)

Sentence Vinf

t li h Ltl ti It ti 1 X'to
Yukiko-san to wa deto shita dake da / desu.

(I just dated Yukiko, that’s all.)

(D)

Sentence Adj (/) inf

z<d m it ti It ti 1 X*i~ o
Kono ie wa okii dake da / desu.

(This house is big, that’s all.)

(E)

Sentence Adj (na) stem

li & & #*H' tiit ti IX'to

Kono o-kashi wa iro ga kirei dake da 1 desu.

(This cake has pretty colors, that’s all.)

(i) N ti\t (**)/(§:)

dake (ga) / (o)
fc'lt (/$*)/(£:) (the teacher alone (subject) / (direct object))
sensei dake (ga) / (o)
(ii) N Prt / Prt fitt} (where Prt = particles other than c?a, o, and
{c/a/re Prt / Prt dake} wa)

{fi(i 1^ / l£ filt} (only to the teacher / to the teacher alone)

sensei [Jake ni j ni dake)
 dake 95

(iii) {V/Adj (/)} inf f-'ft {ti I Xi~]

dake {da / desu}
[t$i~ I fSLfc} tfft {Ai I Xi~] (s.o. talks / talked, that’s all)
[hanasu / /?ans/?/fa} da/re {da / desi/}
(i^V' / fift {fi / *C't"} (s.t. is / was expensive, that’s all)
{ra/ra/ / takakatta} dake [da / desi/}
(iv) Adj (na) stem {& /tfofc} fift {fi /
{na/darra} dake [da / desu}
{&frt£ I fM'tfofc} fift {fi /T'-f) (s.t. is / was quiet, that’s
[shizukana / shizukadatta} dake {da I desu) all)

(a) t/i0
Sato-san dake (ga) kaigi ni demashita.
(Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.)
(b)
Chisai waeijiten dake (o) kaimashita.
(I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.)

(c) ^fifift / fiftf£fgLTT£V\

Boku ni dake / dake ni hanashite kudasai.
(Please tell it only to me / to me alone.)

(d) / KVxm%'&1r0
Kono kuruma wa arukoru de dake / dake de ugokimasu.
(This car runs only on alcohol (and on nothing else) / on alcohol alone
(so it needs nothing else).)

(e) h<Ltc0

A no sensei ni wa ichido dake aimashita.

(I met that professor only once.)
(f)
Asa wa kohi o ippai nomu dake desu.
(In the morning I just drink a cup of coffee, that’s all.)

(g) £ O^lii^V'Afft'Tr&tj 15 <&V'0

Kono hon wa takai dake de omoshirokunai.
(This book is just expensive and is not interesting.)

(h) -r = 7s % te tz ft T* Jh# C ^ tn V'0

Tenisu wa sukina dake de jozuja nai.
(I just like tennis, and I’m not good at it.)
96 dake

(i) J -Tz'itz.v
Sore wa gakusei dake no pati datta.
(It was a party for students only.)

(j) 9f£LTT£v\
Dekiru dake yukkuri hanashite kudasai.
(Please speak as slowly as possible.)

1. When dake modifies a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c), and (d),
the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after
dake, except for the particles ga, o and wa, which can be optionally
used only after dake.

2. The optional positionings of the particles other than ga, o and wa create
a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is placed on the
particle, yielding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N + Prt +
dake. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N + dake
+ Prt.

3. If dake is used in:

| {V / Adj (/)} inf

+dake [da / desu]
\ {Adj (na) stem [na / datta]

as illustrated by KSs (C), (D) and (E), dake modifies the entire pre¬
ceding part and means * ~, that’s all.’
Compare (la) and (lb) below:

(1) a.
Sakana dake (o) tabeta.
(I ate only fish.)

b. ikZ'k'<Tz.ti\itl0
Sakana o tabeta dake da.
(I ate fish, that’s all.)

In (la) dake modifies only the preceding noun sakana ‘ fish ’, while
in (lb) dake modifies the entire preceding part of the sentence sakana
o tabeta ‘ I ate fish.’
4. V(Potential)+c/a/re as in Ex. (j) means ‘as much as one can ~ ’.

(2) a.
Taberareru dake tabetai.
(I’d like to eat as much as I can (eat).)
 dake / dake de {wa) naku ~ (mo) 97

b. mti&t-imzio
Odoreru dake odor6.
(Let’s dance as much as we can (dance).)

dake de (wa) naku — (mo) fctf’COi)#: < — (fc) Phr•

not only X but also Y, where X and not only ~ but also ~
Y can be either a noun, a verb, an [REL. bakari de {wa) naku ~
adjective {mo) ]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf

h<D A it «£ < Cl# T- (l±) ft < i. <

A no hi to wa yoku benkyosuru dake de (wa) naku yoku

i&P/j® *>•£#-„
asobu 1 asobimasu.

(He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.)

(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (/) inf

h<D A it m & t'l' ti.it x* {it) <t<

A no hi to wa atama ga // dake de {wa) naku yoku benkyo

(1.) / L£1-0
{mo) suru / shimasu.

(He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.)

98 dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo)

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (/7a) stem

wO 5 h Ii #*H' t*tt x- (ft) f£< ixt

Kono uchi wa kirei dake de (wa) naku totemo
(•?+)„
yast// (desu).

(This house is not only beautiful but it is also inexpensive.)

(D)
Subject
Predicate
Noun Noun

^3 > tztt X (fl) &< t &tz 1 Ltz0

Jon dake de {wa) naku mo kita / kimashita.

(Not only John but also Mary came here.)

(i) {V / Adj (/)} inf *c* (fi) ft < (not only ~)

dake de {wa) naku
/ISL/i:} tzIt X (fi) &< (s.o. not only speaks/
[hanasu j hanashita} dake de {wa) naku spoke ~)
tztf X (f±) &< (s.t. is / was not only
{/a/ra/ / takakatta} dake de {wa) naku expensive ~)

(ii) Adj (/7a) stem {& / fift X (fi) fc< (not only ~)
{/7a/ atef/a} dake de {wa) naku
{j!fMsfr I ffrfi'tz'itz) tztf X (f±) & < (s.t. is / was not only
[shizukana / shizukadatta) dake de {wa) naku quiet ~)

(iii) N {0/ fiofc} A:It T? ((±) &< (not only ~)

{0 / c/ar/a) dake de {wa) naku
/j: o/t} -c (fi) &< (not only teachers / not
{sense/ / sensei datta} dake de (wa) naku only s.o. was a teacher)
 dake de (wa) naku ~ {mo) 99

(a)
Ano hito wa shosetsu o yomu dake de wa naku kakimasu.
(He not only reads novels but also writes them.)

(b) y*7 d HfcO $.i~0

Buraun-san wa Nihon e itta dake de wa naku sunda koto mo arimasu.
(Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has also lived there.)

(c) — b < A^$£V'T'1“0

Kono a pa to wa takai dake de naku taihen semaidesu.
(This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.)

(d) fc’C’b&gj’C-Lfco
Sachiko wa atama ga yokatta dake de wa naku, totemo shinsetsu-
deshita.
(Sachiko was not only bright but was also very kind.)
(e)
Kono kuruma wa kireina dake de wa naku, yoku hashirimasu.
(This car is not only pretty but also runs well.)

(f) < r / y tfAt <fc

Nihonjin dake de naku amerikajin mo yoku hatarakimasu.
(Not only Japanese but also Americans work hard.)

i~o

Nakamura-san wa Amerika ya Yoroppa dake de wa naku Tonan Ajia

ni mo yoku shutchoshimasu.
(Mr. Nakamura makes a business trip not only to America and Europe
but also to Southeast Asia.)
(h) 3 f£ ir*c u ft < * m& i> ® * £i"o
Jonson-san wa nihongo dake de wa naku chugokugo mo hanasemasu.
(Mr. Johnson can speak not only Japanese but also Chinese.)

In “ Noun ~ dake de {wa) naku Noun ~ mo ”, the two nouns can be fol¬
lowed by various particles.

(1) X (i* <

Ob'b) bt^Lfco
Tegami wa tomodachi {kara) dake de wa naku sensei kara mo
kimashita.
(Letters came not only from my friends but also from my teachers.)
100 dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) / daro

(2) 3Mfttt££(l=) Jftt-Cfifc < &3ZIZ Lfc0

Tegami wa tomodachi (ni) dake de wa naku sensei ni mo kakimashita.
(I wrote letters not only to my friends, but also to my teachers.)
[Related Expression]

In the majority of cases dake can be replaced by bakari. When one needs
to define limitation in a rigid way, however, dake is preferable. For example:
[1] [Teacher to his student.]
fcLfcS-tfte+RfcIf /??
Ashita made ni jukka dake / ?? bakari de naku juikka mo benkyo-
shite okinasai.
(Study not only Lesson 10 but also Lesson 11 by tomorrow.)
(t=> dake)

daro fd -5 o oux.

J an auxiliary indicating the speaker’s \ probably

' conjecture which is not based on any [REL. kamoshirenai (ni chi-
particular information or evidence < gainai); yd da (rashii. soda2)]

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)t

ryf-yy&As it 0# ^ 'a< £5 5 / tUi 5.

Andason-san wa Nihon e iku daro 1 desho.

(Ms. Anderson will probably go to Japan.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

 daro 101

(i) {V/Adj (/)} inf t**,?

daro
U£i~ 1Lfc} ti5 5 (s.o. will probably talk / probably talked)
[hanasu / hanashita) daro
(s.t. is / was probably expensive)
[takai / takakatta} daro
{Adj (na) stem / N) {& / fiof:}
{0 / datta} daro
{»#' /fM'Eofc) (s.t. is / was probably quiet)
[shizuka / shizukadatta} daro
{9c± /5fc£ t* o tz] tih o (s.o. is / was probably a teacher)
[sensei / sensei datta} daro

(a)
Ano apato wa takai desho.
(That apartment is probably expensive.)

(b) p s; * - wt * * - as±#*f 5 5 o

Roja wa ski ga jozu daro.

(Roger is probably good at skiing.)

(c) &oA(iT®A£f5 90
/4/?o /7/7o tva chugokujin daro.
(That man is probably Chinese.)

1. Daro is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula day but it
is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is desho.
2. Probability adverbs such as tabuny osoraku and kitto are sometimes
used with daro or desho. The speaker’s conjecture sounds more certain
with tabun or osorakuy and even more certain with kitto. Examples:
(1) T V*?— V A/ittz&Aj 0 < t£5
Andason-san wa tabun Nihon e iku daro.
(Ms. Anderson will most probably go to Japan.)
2
( )

Andason-san wa kitto Nihon e iku daro.

(I’m almost certain that Ms. Anderson will go to Japan.)
 102 dard / ~dasu

3. Dard / desho with the question marker ka makes questions softer or

less direct. Compare (3) and (4).

(3)
Daijobu desu ka.
(Is it all right?)

(4) -X E x 9 L «fc 5 fro

Daijobu desho ka.
(I wonder if it’s all right.)
4. S dard / desho with rising intonation asks for the hearer’s agreement.

(5) a. mtft
Kimi mo iku dard?
(You will go too, (am I) right?)

b. L J: 5 ?
Kore. kirei desho?
(Isn’t this pretty?)
The sentence-final particle ne also asks for the hearer’s agreement, but
S dard / desho with rising intonation is softer or less direct. («=> ne)
Compare (5a) with (6).

(6) 1^4f<:tea
Kimi mo iku ne.
(You will go too, won’t you?)

~dasu aux. v. (Gr. 1)

\ S.t. that has been latent is realized. { out; begin to; start to
[REL. ~hajimeru\
(ANT. ~owaru)
 ~dasu 103

+ Key Sentence

Subject Vmasu

lUlllllll
Wit un-t/muLt.
Kuruma ga ugoki dashita / dashimashita.

(The car started to move.)

Vmasu tti't'
dasu
(s.o. starts to talk)
hanashidasu
(s.o. starts to eat)
tabedasu

(a) &fcjff*Sft!)ajLfc0
Kyuni ame ga furidashita.
(Suddenly it began to rain.)

(b)
Issai ni natte hajimete arukidashita.
(Lit. He started to walk only after he became a year old. ( = He didn’t
start to walk until he was a year old.))
(c) ^cor-f
Sono aidia wa dare ga kangaedashita n desu ka.
(Who thought out that idea?)

(d) 9 t
Ichijikan gurai kakete toto sono hon-ya o sagashidashita.
(After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.)

1. Dasu in Vmasu+dasu is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as

a full verb, it means ‘ cause something to become visible

2. Vmasu+dasu is normally ambiguous; one meaning is ‘~ out' and the

other is ‘begin to ~*. Thus, tsukuridasu means ‘turn out* or ‘begin
to make *.
104 ~dasu

3. Vmasu+dasu conjugates as a Gr. 1 Verb.

(inf, neg, nonpast)

sanai

L£1- (fml, nonpast)

shimasu

i- (inf, nonpast)

tstm- su
hanashida- (conditional)
seba
tabeda• (volitional)
so

LX (re-form)
shite

L fc (inf, past)
< shita
4. Vmasu+owaru ‘ finish ~ing’ is an antonym of Vmasu+dasu / hajimeru.

[Related Expression]

~dasu in the sense of ‘begin to ~* is different from ~hajimeru in that

the former indicates a non-volitional and abrupt beginning while the latter
is more broadly used. Thus,

[1]
Sorosoro arukihajimemasho / *arukidashimashd ka.
(It’s getting late. Shall we begin to walk?)

[2] nmLfcRsmwiitfjfefco
Watashitachi ga arukihajimeta / arukidashita toki Yamada-tachi ga
kita.
(When we started to walk, Yamada and his company came.)

[3] HiitJCfccydJL*: /?? fccyjfiAbfco

Doshite ka wakaranakatta ga. otoko wa kyuni okoridashita / Wokori-
hajimeta.
(I don’t know why, but the man suddenly started to get angry.)
 del 105

de1 v Prt-

l a particle which indicates location, > at; in; on

\ except for location of existence j [REL. ai/4; ai/'6; o2]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (location) Predicate (non-existential)

MM \ tt jX Ltz0
Watashitachi \ wa kissaten j de kohl o nonda / nomimashita.

(We drank coffee at a coffee shop.)

(a) bXffl}V'X\t't.'to
Yuriko wa depato de hataraite imasu.
(Yuriko is working at a department store.)

(b) Jr-* h 7 y 7-ctt+—

Osutoraria de wa junigatsu wa natsu da.
(In Australia it is summer in December.)

(c)
Shimazaki-san wa Nihon de wa genkideshita.
(Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.)

(d) ^ 1/
Heren wa hajimete butai de utatta.
(Helen sang on the stage for the first time.)

De1 cannot be used to indicate location of existence. nP) However, if

the existential verb aru ‘ (inanimate things) exist ’ occurs with an event, de
is used, as in (1).

(i) a.
Konban Jimu no ie de j *nt pati ga arimasu.
(There’s a party at Jim’s tonight.)

b. ^9 ZO&MiV I
Kind kono heya de / *ni Puraisu-sensei no koen ga atta.
(We had Prof. Price’s lecture in this room yesterday.)
106 de2

de2 “C prt-

\ a particle which indicates the use of > by; for; from; in; on; using;
? s.t. for doing s.t. ^ with
[REL. o tsukatte]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (means)

h X ^ ff< /
Miyamoto-san wa mainichi de kaisha e iku / ikimasu.

(Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.)

(a)
Nihonjin wa hashi de gohan o taberu.
(Japanese people eat rice with chopsticks.)

(b) «dittB*S-ef&Lfc0
Watashitachi wa nihongo de hanashita.
(We talked in Japanese.)

(c)
Watashi wa sono eiga o terebi de mimashita.
(I saw the movie on TV.)

(d) t 9 D £1"„
Tofu wa daizu de tsukurimasu.
(We make tofu from soybeans.)

(e) ?y-iuov'tt;+h>*eiofc0
Ran wa kono isu o judoru de katta.
(Larry bought this chair for ten dollars.)

(f) 4b Sr — tzQ 9
Bettsi wa sono repoto o ichinichi de kaita soda.
(I heard that Betsy wrote the report in one day.)

1. In general, de2 indicates something which is used when someone or

something does something. Typically, it indicates means and instruments
as in KS and Exs. (a) - (c).
 de21 de3 107

2. Since de also indicates reason and cause, the phrase nan de, which con¬
sists of nan ‘ what ’ and de, is ambiguous: One meaning is ‘ by means
of what ( = how)’ and the other is ‘ for what reason ( = why)’. Thus, (1)
can be interpreted in two ways.

(1)

Honda-san wa nan de Osaka e iku n desu ka.

(How / Why is Mr. Honda going to Osaka?)

[Related Expression]

De2 can be used instead of the phrase ~ o tsukatte ‘by using except
when the preceding noun refers to a human being. Examples:

[1] /V&'&LtZo
Watashitachi wa takushi o tsukatte / de kimashita.
(We came by taxi.)

Watashi wa kodomo o tsukatte / *de kagu o ugokashita.

(Lit. I moved the furniture using my children.)

I
de3 T Prt-

a particle (apparently derived from

the fe-form of desu) that indicates
a weak causal relationship
and;
because
because of;

[REL. kara2; node]

due to;

+ Key Sentence

\h p $ l n
Noun (cause)
■
T? & He
Yamaguchi-san wa byoki de gakko o yasunda / yasumimashita.

(Lit. Mr. Yamaguchi was ill and absented himself from school. ( = Be¬
cause Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn’t come to school.))

(a)
Ashita wa kimatsushiken de taihen desu.
(I’m having an awful time because of tomorrow’s final exam.)
108 de3

(b) *greffiascfr*ifc0
Oame de hashi ga kowareta.
(Lit. Because of heavy rain the bridge broke down. ( = Heavy rain
destroyed the bridge.))

(c) t X i>$£txfc.0
Kino wa yoru. shigoto de totemo tsukareta.
(Lit. Because of my work I got very tired last night. ( = 1 worked so
hard last night that I got very tired.))

(d) £t±£ii*&’T*Al£LSLfco
Chichi wa kotsOjiko de nyuinshimashita.
(My father was hospitalized due to a traffic accident.)

1. Some of the uses of de3 (such as KS and Ex. (a)) are very close to the
re-form of desu. For example, KS can be paraphrased into two sentences
(la) and (lb):

(1) a. UjPSMi^CT'Lfco
Yamaguchi-san wa byoki deshita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi was ill.)

b. UJP Lfc0
Yamaguchi-san wa gakko o yasumimashita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi was absent from school.)

And KS can be considered to be the result of combining the two sen¬

tences using the re-form of desu which basically means ‘ be ~ and ’.

2. A noun that precedes c/e3 expresses something that is beyond human

control (such as illness, flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be
noted that c/e3 co-occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses some¬
thing that is beyond human control. If the co-occurring predicate
expresses something that is controllable, the particle de is no longer
de3; it is de2 of means. (<=> de2) Compare (2a) and (2b) below:

(2) a. 9PVT —{£&60

Tamago de arerugi ni naru.
(Lit. Eggs cause me allergy. ( = I’m allergic to eggs.))

b.
Tamago de omuretsu o tsukuru.
(I make an omelette with eggs.)
 de3 / de4 109

(2a) and (2b) contain a noncontrollable predicate arerugi ni naru ‘ be¬

come allergic * and a controllable predicate omuretsu o tsukuru ‘ make
an omelette respectively. Therefore, de in (2a) and (2b) are c/e3 and
c/ez, respectively.
[Related Expression]

The particle c/e3 is a very loose marker of cause due to its origin; in contrast,
kara3 and node are clear subordinate conjunctions of cause / reason.
0=>/cara3; node)

de4 V Prt•

J a particle which indicates the time ; at; on; in

; when s.t. terminates or the amount $ [REL. ni!]
( of time a period of activity has taken !>
^ ^ _ ___'

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (time)

it +H X*
Harugakki wa gogatsu toka de owaru / owarimasu.

(The spring term ends on May 10.)

(a) y-f- hti+NTCi&fr 9

Kono konsato wa juji de owarimasu.
(This concert will be over at ten o’clock.)

(b) —
Watashi no pasupoto wa rokugatsu de kireru.
(My passport expires in June.)

(c) t/ y 60
Amerika ni kite kara kyd de sannen ni naru.
(It’s been three years since I came to America.)
 110 deK

1. In general, X dei indicates that something lasts for a period of time up

to X.
imiiHiiiiHi

Dj 2. When X in X de refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it is the de

of means rather than the de of termination time. (<=> de2)

(1) 0JP3£/U2:—iiWh?*© u*9- h £1|V'fc0

Yamada-san wa isshukan de sono repo to o kaita.
(Mr. Yamada wrote the report in a week (lit. using a week).)

[Related Expression]

Nil can be used in place of c/e4 in KS and Exs. (a) and (b), as in [1].
[1] + So
Harugakki wa gogatsu toka de / ni owaru.
(The spring term ends on May 10.)
When de is used, the nuance is that the spring term lasts up to May 10.
When ni is used, however, the sentence simply indicates the time when the
spring term ends.

* Semantic Derivations of De
 dek I demo 111

demo Tt> Prt-

j the fe-form of desu plus mo * even * even

(
112 demo

+ Key Sentences

(A)

Subject Predicate

Xt
Sensei demo machigau f machigaimasu.

(Even a teacher makes mistakes.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Verb

% fi IS LI' ft* T't +3 /

Watashi wa muzukashii shigoto demo suru / shimasu.

(I will even do a difficult job.)

(C)

Noun Prt

L. L. Xt *±uu
Koko kara demo Fujisan ga mieru / miemasu.

(Even from here you can see Mt. Fuji.)

(i) N Xi>
demo

If* (subject) —» X& (even a teacher)

sensei ga sensei demo

& (object) —» t? (even a teacher)

sensei o sensei demo

(ii) N + Prt xt
demo

t X{> (even with a teacher)

sensei to demo

jfpiC Xi> (even from Tokyo)

Tokyo kara demo
 demo 113

.Examples

(a)
Kodomo demo sonna koto wa wakarimasu yo.
(Even a child can understand that sort of thing.)

O-ai shitai n desu ga, nichiyobi demo kamaimasen ka.

(I’d like to see you, but is it all right to see you even on Sunday?)

(c)
Ano hito wa sakana demo niku demo tabemasu.
(Lit. He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat. ( = He eats both
fish and meat.))

1. WH-word + c/emo yields the following meaning depending on which WH-

word is used.

dare demo (no matter who it is; anyone)

fpJ'Ct nan demo (no matter what it is; anything)
V'otJt itsu demo (no matter when; any time)
k'ZVtj doko demo (no matter where it is; any place)
HtlVii dore demo (no matter which it is)

(1) fcoiftllifihtUhtto
Ano toshokan wa dare demo hairemasu.
(Anyone can enter that library.)

2
( )

Itsu demo kamaimasen yo.

(Any time will be fine.)

2. The particle demo should not be confused with the particle combination
de + mot as in (1) below where de is a particle of location (=c/e1), and
in (2) where de is a particle of means (= de2).

1
( ) >7
Nihon de mo infure ga 6kina mondai ni natte iru.
(In Japan, too, inflation is a big problem.)

(2)

Soko wa basu de mo ikemasu ka.

(Can you also get there by bus?)
0=> de1; de2)
114 do

do a o adv.

an interrogative adverb which asks \ how; in what way

about the state of s.o. / s.t. or the
way of doing s.t.

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)

it if o (t?i“ h')0
O-ka-san wa do (desu ka).

(How’s your mother?)

(a) gfLV'T/”- Hi£

Atarashii a pa to wa do desu ka.
(How’s your new apartment?)

(b) 3 — t — it if y
Kohi wa do desu ka.
(How is the coffee? / Would you like coffee? / How about coffee?)

(c)
Doyobi wa do?
(How about Saturday?)

1. The polite version of do is ikaga. In very informal speech desu ka

is omitted after do or ikaga.

2. Do and ikaga are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Exs.

(b) and (c). In this case, do or ikaga are asking about the state of the
hearer’s mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather than about the
state of what is being offered or suggested.

3. Do is also used to ask the way of doing something. In this case, ikaga
is usually not used. Example:

1
( )

Kono kotoba wa do yomimasu ka.

(How do you read this word?)
 do 115

4. The idiomatic expression do shite ‘ lit. doing what ’ is used to ask

manners, reasons or causes. Examples:

(2) if i LX R#a£$:%l$kLXV'Z>/vXl-fr0
Do shite nihongo o benkydshite iru n desuka.
(How ( = In what way) are you studying Japanese? / Why are you
studying Japanese?)

(3) X<Dif.\tifb LXtefttzA;X1rfr0

Kono ki wa do shite kareta n desu ka.
(Why did this tree die?)

As seen in (2), unless the context is clear, do shite is sometimes am¬

biguous. (The interrogative adverb naze ‘ why ’ is unambiguous but
less colloquial than do shite.)
 116 e

0 prt.

j a particle that indicates the direction s to; towards

> toward which some directional move- ( [REL. made; /7/4; /7/7]
^ ment or action proceeds j

lEj 4Key Sentence

Noun (location)

% tt /s 1 Ltc0
Watashi wa senshu Kyoto e ryoko ni itta / ikimashita.

(I went on a trip to Kyoto last week.)

Examples

(a)
Watashi wa Sapporo no uchi e hikoki de kaetta.
(I went back home to Sapporo by plane.)

(b)
Jishin datta node isoide soto e deta.
(It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.)

Chichi e tegami o dashita ga, mada henji ga konai.

(I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.)

[Related Expressions]

I. The particles e, made, and nP focus on direction, course (up to

and point of contact, respectively. Thus,

[1] / ?IC /
Harubaru Tokyo made I Ini / ?e kita.
(I came all the way to Tokyo.)

[2] ^
Tokyo ni I e I *made juniji ni tsuita.
(I arrived in Tokyo at 12:00 o’clock.)

[3] —a— o h 9 S-frA/o

Nyuydku e / made / *ni no bin wa mo arimasen.
(There isn’t any flight to / as far as New York any more.)
 e 117

[4] ZZ&T*5o
Afo/ro made / *e / *ni no michi wa warukatta desho.
(Your way here must have been rough.)

In actuality, native speakers use e and ni1 (of point of contact) almost
interchangeably except in the case of [3] (i.e., ni cannot be followed by
no).
II. Even the ni4 of direct contact meaning ‘ into; onto’ can be replaced by
e as in:

[5] :fcfflgl:/'vAofc0
O-furo ni / e haitta.
(Lit. I entered into a bath. ( = 1 took a bath.))

[6] #lco±IC /
Tsukue no ue ni / e notta.
(I got onto the table.)

[7]
Kokuban ni / e kanji o kaita.
(I wrote kanji on the blackboard.)
118 gal

ga1 A'C prt.

) a particle which indicates the subject ' [REL. wa1 (fi)J

♦ Key Sentence

Subject Predicate

m j |S$ot lr'5 / V'i-T.

Ame | ga futte iru / imasu.

(Lit. Rain is falling (= It’s raining.))

(a) 7,=r ujrfrh V &-f0

Watashi no heya ni wa sutereo ga arimasu.
(There is a stereo in my room.)

(b) fo, <D 9 X

A. Noriko ga hashitte iru.
(Oh, Noriko is running.)
(c) A : £co ux b y
Kono resutoran wa nani ga oishiidesu ka.
(What is good in this restaurant?)

Suteki ga oishiidesu.
(Steak is good.)

1. Ga marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by

the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is
presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been intro¬
duced into the discourse), however, the topic marker wa replaces ga.
(<=> wa1 ((£)) Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in
folktales, which illustrates the different uses of ga and wa.

(i) 1^—Lfc0

Lfc0
Mukashimukashi hitori no o-ji-san ga sunde imashita. O-ji-san
wa totemo binbodeshita.
(Once upon a time there lived an old man. He (lit. the old man)
was very poor.)
 ga1 119

In the first sentence, o-Ji-san ‘ old man ’ appears for the first time in the
discourse; o-ji-san is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. There¬
fore, it is marked by ga. The second sentence tells something about
the old man introduced in the first sentence. O-ji-san is now the topic;
therefore, it is marked by wa rather than ga. Note the parallelism here
between ga and wa in Japanese and a and the in English.

2. Ga is also replaced by wa if the subject is in contrast with another

element. For example, in Ex. (c), B could also say:

(2) *t- — fi&V' LV'-C'1“o

Suteki wa oishiidesu.
(Steak is good (but other food is not). / (I don’t know about other
food but at least) Steak is good.)

Here, suteki ‘ steak ’ is newly introduced in the discourse and is not the
topic; yet it is marked by wa. This is because suteki, in this case, is
being contrasted with other food.

3. Since WH-words like nani ‘what’, dare ‘who’ and doko ‘what place’
can never be topics, they are never marked by wa, as in (3).

(3)
Konban dare ga / *wa kimasu ka.
(Who is coming tonight?)

4. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is a con¬

trasted element, as seen in (4).

(4) a. / *lty? ff < z t

Watashi wa Debi ga / *wa Furansu e iku koto o shiranakatta.
(I didn’t know that Debbie was going to France.)

b. v?-b
Jin wa boku gal *wa apato o deta toki mada nete ita.
(Gene was still in bed when I left my apartment.)

c. JLfcttiiiW; hV
Watashi ga / *wa kind mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga datta.
(The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.)

Note that topics are not presented in subordinate clauses.

5. In relative clauses, the subject may be marked by no, as in (5).

(i=> Relative Clause, Note 3)
120 ga1 I ga2

(5)
Watashi no kino mita eiga wa Doitsu no eiga datta.
(The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.)

6. In some expressions, elements which are considered to be direct objects

are presented as subjects and are marked by ga. (■=> ~ wa ~ ga)

(6) a.
Boku wa supotsuka ga hoshii.
(I want a sports car. (Lit. To me, a sports car is desirable.))

b.
Haruko wa supeingo ga wakaru.
(Haruko understands Spanish. (Lit. To Haruko, Spanish is
understandable.))

7. To sum up the important rules concerning ga>

(A) Ga marks the subject when it is newly introduced in a discourse.

(B) Wa replaces ga when the subject is a topic or a contrasted element.
(C) WH-words are always marked by ga when they are the subject of
a sentence.
(D) The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by ga unless it is
a contrasted element.
(E) When predicates are transitive adjectives or stative transitive verbs,
the elements which correspond to the direct object in English are
marked by ga.

[Related Expression]

The topic marker wa is often mistaken for a subject marker. It appears

to be a subject marker because it often replaces ga. (See Notes 1 and 2,
and Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 2. Topic.) («=> wa1 ((i))

ga2 & conj.

\ a disjunctive coordinate conjunction but

\ that combines two sentences [REL. dag a; dakedo\ demo\
keredomo; shikashi]
 ga1 2 121

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence! Sentence2

is 3 y it a* J T U — it
Jon wa kita / kimashita ga Meari wa konakatta / kimasendeshita.

(John came but Mary didn’t (come).)

€ZlEBff!!>
Si a» s2
ga
A6P it a* #;f!P (± (Taro swam but Jiro didn’t
Taro wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta. swim.)

Watashi wa biru wa nomu ga sake wa nomanai.

(I drink beer but don’t drink sake.)

(b) j&fcfxS:
Ryoko o shitai ga o-kane ga nai.
(I want to travel but I don’t have money.)

1. Ga2, like but in English, combines two sentences which express contrastive
ideas. However, ga is much weaker than but in that it is sometimes
used simply to combine two sentences for stylistic reasons even if those
two sentences do not represent contrastive ideas. For example, the ga
in (1) is used simply as a transition word to connect two sentences.
(1) a. x4
Pati o shimasu ga kimasen ka.
(We’ll have a party. Wouldn’t you like to come?)
b. Ayfi&o 5 hie
Tanaka-san wa watashi no uchi ni mo tokidoki kimasu ga
omoshiroi hito desu ne.
(Mr. Tanaka sometimes comes to my place, too. He is an
interesting person, isn’t he?)
2. Ga2 makes a sentence unit with the preceding sentence, not with the
following sentence. Thus, it is wrong to place a comma before ga or to
start a sentence with ga, as in (2) and (3).
122 gaz

(2)
*Jon wa kita, ga Mean wa konakatta.
(John came, but Mary didn’t come.)

(3) *$?3 yfi&fco

*Jo/7 iva Ar/fa. Ga Meari wa konakatta.
(John came. But Mary didn’t come.)

3. Si and S2 in “ Si ga S2 ” must be in the same form whether formal or

informal, because they are both independent clauses. (4) and (5) are
stylistically awkward. («=> keredomo)

(4) Ltzfrlfc&mzWtefr'otza
V.Tard wa oyogimashita ga Jiro wa oyoganakatta.
(Taro swam but Jiro didn’t (swim).)

(5) Ltz0
iTaro wa oyoida ga Jiro wa oyogimasendeshita.
(Taro swam but Jiro didn’t (swim).)

4. S2 in “ Si ga S2 ” is often omitted when it is understandable from the

context and / or the situation, or when the speaker doesn’t want to con¬
tinue for some reason (e.g., the sentence is too direct, impolite, embar¬
rassing, etc.). Examples:

(6) J:
Daijobuda to omoimasu ga.
(I think it’s all right but. . .)

(7)
Tomu wa yoku benkydsuru n desu ga.
(Tom studies hard but. . .)

5. When “ Si ga S2 ” expresses contrastive ideas, the contrastive wa typi¬

cally appears in Si and S2, as in KS and Ex. (a). 0=> wa1 ({£))

[Related Expressions]

Dagat dakedo, demo, shikashi and keredomo express the same idea as ga.
However, the first four cannot make compound sentences like ga does; they
must occur at the beginning of a sentence, as in [1]. (See Note 2.)

[1] a. Si ga S2.
b. *Si daga / dakedo / demo / shikashi S2.
c. Si. Daga / Dakedo / Demo / Shikashi S2.
Keredomo differs from ga in that keredomo is a subordinate conjunction
 ga2 / ~garu 123

meaning ‘ although That is, in “ Si keredomo S2 ”, Si keredomo is a

subordinate clause and S2 is a main clause. In “ Si ga S2 ”, on the other
hand, both Si and S2 are independent clauses.

~garu aux. v. (Gr. 1)

l an auxiliary verb attached to a psy- > show signs of ~

\ chological / physiological adjective ;
s meaning a person other than the
<! speaker shows signs of — ^

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Adj (/) stem

-H It k fr'itc/fryt.L tz o
Kazuo wa supotsuka 0 hoshi gatta / garimashita.

(Lit. Kazuo showed signs of wanting a sports car. ( = Kazuo wanted a

sports car.))

(B)

Adj (/') stem

Topic (subject) Direct Object
Vmasu

| n r>r v “A i k m
Ueda-san j wa aisukurimu \ o tabe gatta j garimashita.

(Lit. Mr. Ueda showed signs of wanting to eat ice cream. ( = Mr. Ueda
wanted to eat ice cream.))

Adj (/ / na) stem &

garu
(s.o. shows signs of being glad)
ureshigaru
'thhk (s.o. shows signs of being bothered)
mendogaru
124 ~garu

(a) x— yit— At'iL^oTV'tfo

Suzan wa hitori de sabishigatte imasu.
(Susan feels lonely by herself.)
(b)
Kodomo ga nemutagatte iru.
(My child wants to go to sleep.)

1. There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually re¬

quires the first person (or a person with whom the speaker can empathize)
as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur
is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize),
then garu is attached to the adjective. Observe the accompanying change
of particles from ga into o.

(1) a.
Boku wa inu ga kowai.
(Lit. To me dogs are scary. ( = 1 am scared of dogs.))
b.
Fukada-san wa inu o kowagatte iru.
(Mr. Fukada fears dogs.)
(2) a.
Boku wa supotsuka ga hoshii.
(I want a sports car.)
b. —
Kazuo wa supotsuka o hoshigatte iru.
(Kazuo wants a sports car.)
If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized
clause), the garu attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast
and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize.
Thus,
(3) a.
Fukada-san wa inu ga kowai to itta.
(Mr. Fukada said that he is scared of dogs.)
b. —
Kazuo wa supotsuka ga hoshii soda.
(I heard that Kazuo wants a sports car.)
(>=> hoshii1 y Note 3)
 garu 125

2. Garu conjugates as a Gr. 1 verb. Thus,

' k&V' (inf, neg, nonpast)

ranai
t) ft (fml, nonpast)
rimasu
5 (inf, nonpast)
ru
tilt' (conditional)
hoshiga- reba
6 b (volitional)
ro
ox (re-form)
tte
o tz (inf, past)
,tta
3. The following psychological and physiological adjectives are commonly
used with garu.

Psychology Physiology

(Adj (/)) (Adj (/))

(want)-*$;L#<& (painful)-*?!# £
hoshii hoshigaru itai i tagaru
(happy)—* o ti L# (painful)-* ^ L# -S
ureshii ureshigaru kurushii kurushigaru
(lonely)-* (itchy)-*
sabishii sabishigaru kayui kayugaru
~ /c V' (want to)- (cold)—*^#£
~tai ~ tagaru samui samugaru
(scary )-*rb^5 (hot)-*f|#3
kowai kowagaru atsui atsugaru
(envious)-*f| tzZ>\' (languid)—* <5 # -S
urayamashii urayamashigaru darui darugaru
L5V' (amusing)-* & L6#£ < (ticklish)-* < -f* <' o
omoshiroi omoshirogaru kusuguttai kusuguttagaru
 126 ~garu / goro

(Adj (na))

(troublesome)-*,^# $
meiwakuda meiwakugaru
(dislike)-*
iyada iyagaru

4. A limited number of ~garu forms have derived noun forms. The form
is ~gari (ya\ meaning ‘ a person who shows signs of being ~ \
0=> -ya)

#1x365 9 (g)
sabishigari (ya)
(a person who always feels lonely)

(g)
kowagari (ya)
(a person who is easily frightened)

£j6S0 (S)
samugari (ya)
(a person who is sensitive to cold)

gtf 9 (g)
atsugari (ya)
(a person who is sensitive to heat)

goro d' 5 ««/•

j approximately (with a specific point about; around

> of time) [REL. kurai / gurai]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (time) Predicate

$h It $! -bB# d'6 bh * MZ IMZi-o

Suzuki-san wa asa shichiji goro uchi o deru / demasu.

(Mr. Suzuki leaves home at about 7:00 o’clock in the morning.)

 goro 127

CZBSSB9
N (time) ^5 (l£)
goro (ni)

HRrp ({£) (at about 3 o’clock)

sanji goro (ni)

(a) A :
Itsu goro Pekin ni ikimasu ka.
(About when are you going to Beijing?)

B : T££-fo
Rainen no rokugatsu goro ikimasu.
(I’m going there around June of next year.)

(b) A:
Kesa wa.nanji goro made nete imashita ka.
(Until about what time were you asleep this morning?)

B : Lfc0
Juji goro made nete imashita.
(I was asleep until about 10 o’clock.)

(c)
Kyonen no ima goro wa oyuki deshita ne.
(About this time last year it snowed heavily, didn’t it?)

1. Goro is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the following sentence
is unacceptable.

(1) ^u5fwt'$:MTV^Lfc0
*Yoru goro terebi o mite imashita.
(*I was watching TV about at night.)

2. Depending on the speaker’s perspective, time expressions other than

exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time. Thus, in Ex.
(a), the month of June is a point in time from the speaker’s viewpoint.
In these cases, goro seems easier to use grammatically if there is some
distance between the time of the event and the time of speech, as seen
in the following examples.
128 goro / goto ni

(2)
V.Rainen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimasu.
(*I will see Mr. Yamanaka around next summer.)

(3) yU^V'$-t-0
Sarainen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimasu.
(I will see Mr. Yamanaka in the summer in a couple of years.)

(4) ??
UKyonen no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimashita.
(*I met Mr. Yamanaka around the summer of last year.)

(5) t
Ototoshi no natsu goro Yamanaka-san ni aimashita.
(I met Mr. Yamanaka sometime during the summer of the year
before last.)
[Related Expression]

Goro is different from kurai / gurai ‘ about ’ in that the latter is used with
specific quantity expressions. Thus,

[1]
Boku wa sanji goro ni nemashita.
(I went to sleep at about 3 o’clock.)

[2] =
Boku wa sanjikan gurai nemashita.
(I slept about three hours.)

goto ni zl t fc prt.

\ S.t. takes place regularly in succession j every

< after a certain temporal or spatial ^ [REL. mai\ oki ni]
interval. (
 goto ni 129

+ Key Sentences

(A)

■
Topic (subject) Number-Counter

% Ji =ish 31
Watashi wa san-jikan kusuri o nonda / nomimashita.

(I took medicine every three hours.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun

JEft it £ &T3 /4TSt.

Shogatsu wa ie goto ni kadomatsu o tateru / tatemasu.

(They put up pine tree decorations at every house on New Year’s Day.)

(a) —HzTfcfcfttfcj&SfcSo
Ikka goto ni shiken ga aru.
(There is a test after every lesson.)

(b)

Gakki goto ni sensei ga kawaru.

(Every semester teachers change.)

(c) AsltgiAZk LTVn£0

Kimura-san wa au hito goto ni aisatsushite iru.
(Mr. Kimura greets every one he meets.)

(d)

Mikka goto ni tenisu o shite imasu.

(I’m playing tennis every third day.)

[Related Expression]

Oki ni indicates that something is repeated at certain intervals. Although its

usage is comparable to goto nit note the distinct difference in meanings in ex¬
amples [la] and [lb].

[1] a.
Kono densha wa futa eki oki ni tomaru.
(This train stops at every third station.)
 130 goto ni

b. d (i II j|^ C? h. l-_Lh£ <3 0

Kono densha wa futa eki goto ni tomaru.
(This train stops at every other station.)

When a time expression precedes oki ni or goto ni, there is no difference

in meaning, if an event takes place at one point in time as in [2a]. But
there is difference in meaning, if an event takes place within a certain
period of time as in [2b].
Iiiiiiinimiiil

g| [2] a. / crtKttlSo
Densha wa gofun oki ni / goto ni deru.
(The train leaves every five minutes.)
b.
Watashi wa futsuka oki ni / goto ni Hanako to atte iru.
(I’m seeing Hanako every third day / every other day.)
 ~ hajimeru 131

~hajimeru aux. v. (Gr. 2)

S.o. / s.t. begins to do s.t. or begins \ begin to

is______<
to be in some state. < [REL. ~dasu; kuru2]
(ANT. ~owaru)

4 Key Sentence

Vmasu

h Ltz frb I'd?- b £

Ashita kara repo to o kaki hajimeru / hajimemasu.
(I’ll begin to write my paper tomorrow.)

Vmasu (i C &
hajimeru

fSL{±£#>5 (s.o. begins to talk)

hanashihajimeru

(s.o. begins to eat)

tabehajimeru

£5333^9
Watashi wa hachigatsu kara Genjimonogatari o yomihajimemashita.
(I began to read The Tale of Genji in August.)

(b) 0 ii 1964 i£<n>nr&jr y 'st°y ? \± Zibtz0

Nihon no keizai wa sen-kyuhyaku-rokujuyo(n)nen no Tokyo Orinpikku no
koro kara tsuyoku narihajimeta.
(The Japanese economy began to strengthen about the time of the 1964
Tokyo Olympics.)

(c) A:
Itsu kara kitte o atsumehajimeta n desu ka.
(When did you start to collect stamps?)

B : LtZo
Kodomo no toki kara atsume hajimemashita.
(I started to collect them when (lit. since) I was a child.)
132 ~ hajimeru

1. Vmasu+hajimeru conjugates exactly like the Gr. 2 Verb hajimeru.

(inf, neg, nonpast)

nai
(fml, nonpast)
masu

5 (inf, nonpast)
fgUifcfc- ru
hanashihajime- tiif (conditional)
<
reba

tabehajime- (volitional)
yd
X (re-form)
te

fc (inf, past)
v ta

2. For the sentence (1) below, there are two honorific versions, depending
on which part of Vmasu-\-hajimeru is changed into an honorific form; if
the Vmasu is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2a) and if
the entire Vmasu+hajimeru is changed into an honorific form, it will be¬
come (2b).

1
( )

Sensei wa hon o kakihajimeta.

(The teacher began to write a book.)

(2) a.
Sensei wa go-hon o o-kaki ni narihajimeta.

b.
Sensei wa go-hon o o-kakihajime ni natta.
(<=J> o ** ni naru)

3. —hajimeru is normally attached to a non-punctual verb (such as yomu

‘ read ’, kaku ‘ write ’ and miru ‘ see ’). If the subject is plural, however,
the verb can be a punctual verb (such as tsuku ‘ arrive ’, kuru * come *
and shinu ‘ die *). (<=S> Appendix 2D) Thus,
 hajimeru / hazu 133

(3)
Ueda-san wa shin bun o yomihajimemashita.
(Mr. Ueda began to read a newspaper.)

(4) A* Lfco

Hitobito I *Hanako ga kaijo ni tsukihajimemashita.

(People / *Hanako began to arrive at the meeting room.)

iiiiiiiiuiiiiiii
hazu lit* n.

a dependent noun which expresses I expect that ~; It is expected

the speaker’s expectation that s.t. will that — ; — is expected to; I am
take place or took place or that s.o. / fairly certain that ~ ; should;
s.t. is or was in some state ought to; It is natural that ~;
No wonder ~

4 Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)t

? 7 — s? £ fu it 17 < li-f ti l
Kuraku-san wa pati ni iku hazu da / desu.

(I expect that Mr. Clark will go to the party.)

after Adj (na) and N changes to na and no, respectively.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf |±-f tz

hazu da
{I Ltz.) (ii5 tz (It is expected that s.o. will talk / talked.)
\hanasu / hanashita] hazu da
/ iUrt* ryfz.) tz (It is expected that s.t. is / was expensive.)
[takai / takakatta} hazu da
(ii) Adj (na) stem {& / fiofc} tz
{na I datta} hazu da
[nfr'h'te I jfrfi'tz^tz] fi-f tz (It is expected that s.t. is / was
[shizukana / shizukadatta} hazu da quiet.)
 134 hazu

(iii) N [<D I ti'Dtz] (i-f ti

[no I datta) hazu da
[%']£ O / tiotz.) f±*f ti (It is expected that s.o. is / was a
[sensei no / sensei datta} hazu da teacher.)

Examples

(a) K 7 5:^0 TV'S Iii4,T'-fo

Ono-sensei wa Sandora o shitte iru hazu desu.

(I expect that Prof. Ono knows Sandra.)

(b)
■Hill

Ano hon wa takakatta hazu da.

(I expect that book was expensive.)

(c) hiiffrftv'fcti-f't?i-0
Sono a pa to wa kireina hazu desu.
(I expect that apartment is clean.)

(d) Ii-jvv tiQ

Karuson-san wa mukashi sensei datta hazu da.
(Pm fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.)

cmm
1. “ S hazu ” expresses the speaker’s expectation, not in the sense of hoping
or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition
expressed by S should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker
uses hazu, he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on
reliable information or knowledge. («=t>dard\ rashii\ soda2; yoda)

2. Hazu is a dependent noun and cannot be used alone. It is always

modified by a sentence or a demonstrative such as sono ‘ that * and
konna ‘ like this ’. “ Demonstrative hazu ” is used when a proposition
is known to the hearer from the context, as in (1).

(1) A : -r — f- ii&'&i-tK
Masa mo kimasu ka.
(Is Martha coming, too?)

B : f*v\ -toii-f *C*f0

Hai. sono hazu desu.
(Yes, I expect so.)

3. Negative expectations can be expressed in two ways:

(A) S (negative) hazu da
 hazu I hodo 135

(2) ? 7-*
Kuraku-san wa pati ni ikanai hazu da.
(Lit. I expect that Mr. Clark is not going to the party.
( = 1 don’t expect that Mr. Clark is going to the party.))

(B) S hazu wa / ga nai

(3) ? l£i*lt I tffcV'o

Kuraku-san wa pati ni iku hazu wa / ga nai.
(Lit. I have no expectation that Mr. Clark is going to the party.
( = It is improbable that Mr. Clark will go to the party.))

The assertion in (3) is stronger than that in (2).

4. “ S hazu ” can also be used^hen the speaker has discovered the reason
for an event or a state. In this case, hazu means “ It is natural that
or “ No wonder and can be paraphrased as “ S wake da” 0=>
wake da) Example:

(4)
Takai hazu da. Kore wa kin da.
(No wonder this is expensive. It’s gold.)

5. When “ S hazu ” modifies a noun, that is, when “ S hazu ” is a relative

clause, no follows, as in (5). (=> Relative Clause)

Yamaguchi-san ni dashita hazu no tegami ga yuka ni ochite ita.

(I found the letter I thought I had sent to Mr. Yamaguchi on the
floor.)

I
hodo (5 E Prt-

a particle which indicates an extent

or a degree to which s.o. / s.t. does
to the extent of; to the extent
that ~; (not as) ~ as ~; about
s.t. or is in some state [REL. hakari\ kurai]
136 hodo

4 Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Noun Predicate (negative)

% n h-y lit' / !&<£>?)

Watashi wa Ken hodo tsuyokunai / tsuyokuarimasen.

(Lit. I’m not strong to Ken’s extent. ( = I’m not as strong as Ken.))

(B)

Topic (subject) Sentence (informal)f Predicate

Z<7) tfc^ Ii vi lit' LV' / LV'T'-fo

Kono shigoto wa kodomo demo dekiru hodo yasashii / yasashiidesu.

(Lit. This job is easy to the extent that even a child can do it. ( = This
job is so easy that even a child can do it.))

tDa after Adj(na) and N changes to na and de aru> respectively.

, Formation

( i) N jit'
hodo

% Iit' (as you)

kimi hodo

(ii) Demonstrative |J }£
hodo

lit' (to that extent)

sore hodo

(iii) Sinf
hodo

^ 75* li t' (to the extent that houses would fall down)
ie ga taoreru hodo

Examples

(a) l!li^lit'il<^lt£-fr/Lo
Boku wa kimi hodo hayaku arukemasen.
(I can’t walk as fast as you can.)
 hodo 137

Jenifa hodo yoku benkydsuru gakusei wa inai.

(There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.)

(c) fJdiMffl $ Ayithti fi H b°T / Z> t ItEb&fao fro

Watashi wa Nishida-san ga are hodo piano ga hikeru to wa omowana-
katta.
(I didn’t think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well (lit. to
that extent).)

(d) yu ^ wb a * ffl ^ A ^ fc o fc « h-e i-o

Ruisu-san no nihongo wa Ota-sensei mo gaikokujin da to kizukanakatta
hodo jozudesu.
(Mr. Lewis’s Japanese is so good that even Prof. Ota didn’t notice he
was a foreigner.)

1. When hodo is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as

in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b). The following sentences are ungrammatical.

(1) *&tt*JU5K£3&v\,
* Watashi wa Taro hodo tsuyoi.
(I am as strong as Taro.)

(2) *7y Jifc < 0

*Futtoboru hodo omoshiroi supotsu wa takusan aru.
(There are many sports which are as interesting as football.)

If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies hodoy however, the predicate

of the main clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in KS(B),
Ex. (d) and (3).

(3) LV'/y-C-fflv,
Sono shigoto wa sore hodo yasashii n desu ka.
(Is that job that easy (lit. easy to that extent)?)

2. When hodo is used with a quantifier, it means ‘about*. Example:

4
( ) ££<*:** Lfco

Biru o sanbon hodo nomimashita.

(I drank about three bottles of beer.)

[Related Expressions]

Bakari and kurai also mean ‘ about ’ when they are used with a number and
a counter. The difference among the three is that bakari and hodo can be
138 hodo I ho ga ii

used with an exact number or amount of something, whereas kurai cannot,

as seen in [1].

[1] / [%E /*< £>U< fi£v'0

Sono ringo o futatsu bakari / hodo / *kurai kudasai.
(Please give me two of those apples.)

In the situation in [1] the speaker does not want about two apples but
exactly two apples, and, in this case, kurai cannot be used. It is a very
common practice in Japanese to avoid asking for exact numbers or amounts,
and the practice comes from the idea that being straightforward or direct is
impolite. This can be observed in many verbal and nonverbal expressions
in Japanese and also in the manners of the Japanese people.

ho ga ii phr.

| It is strongly suggested that s.o. do \ had better do s.t.

s.t. | [REL. tara do desu ka]

♦ Key Sentence

Vinf»past

<n # & m/otz Ii 5 it* V'V' / V'V'*C'i~0

Nihongo no hon o yonda ho ga ii / iidesu.

(You’d better read Japanese books.)

Formation

Vinf*past Ii b ft* V'V'

ho ga ii

fSb/i Ii 9 ii* V'V' (had better talk)

hanashita ho ga ii

\^<tz Ii 5 ii* V'V> (had better eat)

tabeta ho ga ii
 ho ga ii 139

(a) 9 J&W'V'X0
Yasai mo tabeta ho ga ii yo.
(You’d better eat vegetables, too.)

(b) t> 9 ilfofcli 9

Mo kaetta ho ga iidesu ka.
(Had I better go home now?)

(c) fniHiko ?r>V'V'*a0

Kazuko wa motto eigo o benkydshita ho ga ii ne.
(Kazuko had better study English harder.)

1. Vinf* past ho ga ii is an idiomatic expression of the comparative structure

and expresses a strong suggestion. (■=> ~ ho ga ~ yori)

2. The second person subject in declarative sentences and the first person
subject in interrogative sentences are usually omitted. (KS and Exs.
(a) and (b)) When the subject is the third person, it is not omitted
unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In this case, the
speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for the third
person. (Ex. (c))

3. Vinf* nonpast can be substituted for Vinf*past, as in (1).

1
( ) o
Nihongo no hon o yomu ho ga ii.
(You’d better read Japanese books.)

The meaning of Vinf* nonpast ho ga ii is almost the same as that of

Vinf*past ho ga ii if it is used in situations of suggestion. However,
Vinf*past ho ga ii may express a stronger suggestion than Vinf*nonpast
ho ga ii. For instance, in the following example, Vinf* past ho ga ii is
more appropriate.

-6 ') frW'Mo
Omae, konogoro mayaku o yatteru so da na. Sonna mono ya¬
rn eta I llyameru ho ga ii ze.
(I heard you are taking drugs these days. You’d better stop such
things, I tell you.)

4. “Had better not do s.t.” is expressed by Vneg nai ho ga ii. Example:

 140 ho ga ii / ~hd ga ~ yori

(3) 3-t b ^V'V'0

/Co/?/ o nomanai ho ga ii.
(You’d better not drink coffee.)

Note that the verb must be in the nonpast negative form in this expression.
The following is ungrammatical.

(4)
*K6hi o nomanakatta ho ga ii.
(You’d better not drink coffee.)

~ho ga —yori — lil-5 0 Phr-

; In comparing two entities, one is in l ~ be more (Adj.) than —; ~

! some state or does s.t. more than the > do s.t. more (Adv.) than ~ do
other. I [REL. yori]
<

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Nouni Noun? Predicate

5B3 A/ <D (5 b fn fA «k D
Ish ida-s an no ho ga watashi yori wakai / wakaidesu.

(Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.)

<D lib a* ±.B$ A/ J: 9 i.<

Watashi no ho ga Ueda-san yori yoku taberu / tabemasu.

(I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.)

(B)

Sentencei Sentence2
Predicate
(informal)t (informal)t

$ V ff< ii b 1? tT< £ 9
Kuruma de iku ho ga basu de iku yori yasui / yasuidesu.

(Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.)

tDa after Adj(/7a) and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.

 ho ga ~yori 141

KS(A):
N <r> li o if N X V
no ho ga yori
<D li o if X !) (Teachers are more ~ than students.)
sensei no ho ga gakusei yori
KS(B):

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf li 9 {V / Adj (/')} inf*nonpast «£ V

ho ga yori
{pi§'f~ /fj§L;fc} II 9 i>* (Talking / Having talked is more ~);
[hanasu / hanashita) ho ga
fkl < <£ V (than hearing)
kiku yori
li 9 if* (Eating / Having eaten is more ~);
[taberu / tabeta} ho ga
X V (than sleeping)
neru yori
{ftJV' / fc} li 9 if (Being / Having been expensive is more ~);
[takai / takakatta} ho ga
35:1' X V (than being cheap)
yasui yori

(ii) Adj (na) stem {& / tzotz] li 9 if\ Adj (na) stem fc <£ })
{na I datta) ho ga na yori
{fH‘ ti. I ffii)* Tz o fc} li 9 i)* (Being / Having been quiet is more
[shizukana / shizukadatta) ho ga ~);

i£ XV (than being pretty)

kirei na yori

(iii) N [V hZ/tz^tz) Ii9 J&»; N V &Z «£ V

[de aru I datta] ho ga de aru yori

T* h Z> I ti o fc} li 9 if (Being / Having been a

[sensei de aru / sensei datta} ho ga teacher is more ~);

V h 6 J; V (than being a student)

gakusei de aru yori
142 ~/7o ga ~ yori

(a) C<Dh/ y<D\Z?frh<Djj/ y£

Kono kamera no ho ga ano kamera yori sukidesu.
(I like this camera better than that camera.)

(b) ifx.ycHZ?#fA«t
Jefu no ho ga watashi yori hayaku hashireru.
(Jeff can run faster than I can.)

(c) 9 V v>v'T' li
Watashi ga hanasu ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori ii desho.
(It’s probably better for me to talk than for you to talk.)

(d) ii'b'bA;, 9 ytiLi'Vto

Mochiron, yasui ho ga takai yori ureshiidesu.
(Of course, I’m happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.)

(e) 9 c J; 9
Kodomo wa gen kina ho ga shizukana yori anshinda.
(Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than
when they are quiet.)

(f) X. 0sfcLV'£Il9o
Watashi wa onna de aru ho ga otoko de aru yori tanoshii to omou.
(I think it’s more enjoyable to be a woman than to be a man.)

1. In Japanese there are no comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs.

The idea of comparison is expressed by the “ X no ho ga Y yori ”
pattern. Y yori may be omitted if it is clear from the context or the
situation. Example:

(1) A: h J» t 'J a ^ t ¥ h
Tomu to Jon to dochira ga tsuyoidesu ka.
(Who is stronger, Tom or John?)

B: h 9 ^(v? a 9)
Tomu no ho ga (Jon yori) tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is stronger (than John).)

2. In the “ Si ho ga S2 yori ” pattern (KS(B)), Si can be either nonpast or

past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of Si and
the main clause. There are two cases in which Si is past. First, St
can be past when the whole sentence is about a present or future action
or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. Example:
 ~/7o ga ~ yori 143

(2) L/cfJ 9 9 V'V'T'L* ?o

LYaras/7/ ga hanashita ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori ii desho.
(It would probably be better if I talk rather than if you talk.)

Si can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state.
In this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example:

Watashi ga hanashita ho ga kimi ga hanasu yori yokatta.

(It would have been better if I had talked rather than you.)

3. Y yori can precede X (no) ho ga> as in (4).

4
( ) } 7 «£ *) / y(Dti y
Ano kamera yori kono kamera no ho ga sukidesu.
(I like this camera better than that camera.)

4. X no ho is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an

indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than
the subject, the “ Y yori X no ho (o, ni, etc.) ” order is preferable.
Examples:

(5) a.
Watashi wa biru yori sake no ho o yoku nomu.
(I drink sake more than beer.)

b. J: V 2 5 fc £ < RfSfcff < •

Gakusei wa Kawada-sensei yori Kimura-sensei no ho ni yoku
shitsumon ni iku.
(Students go to Prof. Kimura to ask questions more often
than to Prof. Kawada.)

[Related Expression]

The idea of comparison can be expressed by the “ X wa Y yori ” pattern, too.

(=> yori) However, when this pattern is used, X must have already been
established as a topic. Thus, in a context like [1], the “ X wa Y yori ” pat¬
tern cannot be used.

[1] A: tK
Tomu to Jon to dochira ga tsuyoidesu ka.
(Who is stronger, Tom or John?)

B: 9)8iV'T*1-0
Tomu no ho ga / *Tomu wa (Jon yori) tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is stronger (than John).)
144 —/7d ga ~yori / hoshii1

On the other hand, in a context like [2], the “ X wa Y yori” pattern is pref¬
erable, because X has already been established in the previous sentence.

[2] h -Mi t X a 9
Tomu wa totemo tsuyoidesu. Kare wa f ? iKare no ho ga Jon yori
tsuyoidesu.
(Tom is very strong. He is stronger than John.)

hoshii1 (3 LI'

l S.t. is desired by the speaker. ) want (s.t.)

[REL. tai\

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (experienced Desired Object

% * ftLV'f li LV'^-fo
Watashi wa kuruma 93 hoshii 1 hoshiidesu.

(I want a car.)

(B)

Topic (experienced Desired Object

Ji & n ge*: £
Ototo wa boku no jitensha 0 hoshigatte iru / imasu.

(My little brother wants my bike.)

(a)
Watashi wa nihonjin no tomodachi ga hoshii.
(I want a Japanese friend.)

(b) LV'T?i"d»o
Anata wa ima nani ga hoshiidesu ka.
(What do you want now?)
 hoshii1 145

(c)
Pamu wa sutereo o hoshigatte iru.
(Pam wants a stereo.)

1. The /-type adjective hoshii expresses a person’s desire for some object.
Like other stative transitive adjectives, hoshii takes the wa-ga con¬
struction, where the experiencer is marked by wa and the desired
object by ga. (In subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked
by ga.) (■=> ~ wa ~ ga)

2. Since hoshii expresses a very personal feeling, the experiencer is usually

the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in inter¬
rogative sentences, as in KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b). The third person’s
desire is usually expressed by hoshigatte iru ‘ Lit. be showing the sign
of wanting (s.t.) ’, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c). (■=> garu) It is noted that
when hoshigatte iru is used, the desired object is marked by o.

3. It is, however, acceptable to use hoshii in connection with the third

person experiencer in the following situations:

(1) In the past tense

Mdrisu wa ii sutereo ga hoshikatta.

(Maurice wanted a good stereo set.)

(2) In indirect / semi-direct speech

a.
Joi mo hoshii to itte iru.
(Joy says she wants it, too.)

b.
Osuka mo hoshii soda.
(I heard that Oscar wants it, too.)

(3) In explanatory situations

Pamera wa iyaringu ga hoshii n desu.

((The explanation is that) Pamela wants a pair of earrings.)
(<=> no da)
146 hoshii1 / hoshii2

(4) In conjecture expressions

a. 7y Ll\>
Furanshisu wa udedokei ga hoshii rashii.
(It seems that Francis wants a wrist watch.)

b. LV'«J; 9££0
Koni wa ningyo ga hoshii yoda.
(It appears that Connie wants a doll.)

hoshii2 laLL' aux. adj. (/)

want s.o. (who is not higher in status want (s.o.) to do (s.t.)

than the speaker) to do s.t. [REL. moraitai\ fa/]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Indirect Object

& i± htetz (c litW litV'T'1-c

Watashi wa anata ni

(I want you to teach me English.)

Formation

Vre fiLV'
hoshii
riitLT (iLV' (want (s.o.) to talk)
h ana shite hoshii
liLV' (want (s.o.) to eat)
tabete hoshii

Examples

(a)
Watashi wa kodomotachi ni watashi to isshoni sunde hoshii.
(I want my children to live together with me.)
 hoshii2 147

Anata wa dare ni kite hoshiidesu ka.

(Who do you want to come?)

1. Hoshii is used as an auxiliary with Vte to mean ‘ want (s.o.) to do (s.t.)’.

When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked
by ni. Hoshii is not used if X has a higher status than the experiencer.
Thus, the following sentence is not appropriate when the speaker is a
student of Prof. Yoshida’s. (See Related Expression, [2] for the correct
sentence in that situation.)

(1) LV\,

Watashi wa Yoshida-sensei ni kite hoshii.

(I want Prof. Yoshida to come.)

2. When Vte hoshii is used, the experiencer is usually the first person in
declarative sentences (KS, Ex. (a)) and the second person in interrogative
sentences (Ex. (b)). If the experiencer is the third person, Vte moraita-
gatte iru ‘ (lit.) be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor
of doing s.t. from s.o.* is used, as in (2). (■=> morau2; tai; garu)

(2) 7 As\t7 y
Adamusu-san wa Furanshisu ni kono shigoto o shite moraita-
gatte iru.
(Mr. Adams wants Francis to do this job.)

[Related Expression]

The same idea can also be expressed by Vte moraitai. (■=> morau2; tai) Ex¬
ample :

Watashi wa anata ni eigo o oshiete moraitai.

(I want you to teach me English.)

This pattern can be used when the experiencer wants someone who has
higher status to do something. In this case, itadaku, the humble version of
morau, is used instead of morau. Example:

[2]
Watashi wa Yoshida-sensei ni kite itadakitai.
(I would like Prof. Yoshida to come.)
148 i chi ban

ichiban —H adv.

; a superlative marker ^ most

♦ Key Sentence

Noun Subject Adjective

(O#) "C *JI| \ & M tn V'V\,

Kurasu (no naka) de Okawa-san j ga ichiban atama ga ii.

(Mr. Okawa is the brightest in the class.)

( i) —# Adj (/ / na)
ichiban
—# IrijV' (s.t. is / was the highest)
ichiban {takai / takakatta]
—# (s.t. is / was the most quiet)
ichiban {shizukada / shizukadatta}
(ii) — # {Adj (/) stem < / Adj (/?a) stem (c|
Ichiban ku ni
—# iEj< (most highly)
ichiban takaku
—# (most quietly)
ichiban shizukani

(a) A:
Kono naka de done eiga ga ichiban omoshiroidesu ka.
(Among these, which movie is the most interesting?)

B: CicD0#<DRfc®-e L J: ?0
Kono Nihon no eiga desho.
(This Japanese movie, I guess.)

(b) A : ft* § h h $ h h flf* $ h<r>(i < )

Matsumoto-san to Ikeda-san to Shimizu-san no naka de. dare ga
ichiban (yoku) dekimasu ka.
(Among Mr. Matsumoto, Mr. Ikeda and Mr. Shimizu, who is the
best student (lit. can do best)?)
 i chi ban / iku1 149

B :
Ikeda-san desu.
(Mr. Ikeda is.)

(c) #£;hA'&0r{;i }:Z.Vl-f)>0

Nihon de ichiban kireina tokoro wa doko desu ka.
(Lit. Where is the most scenic place in Japan? ( = Which place is the
most scenic in Japan?))

ichiban cannot be affixed directly to a noun as in *ichiban sensei, meaning

‘ the best teacher ’. It should precede an adjective, as in ichiban ii sensei.
If the meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives,
esp. yoku ‘ well, frequently ’, may be omitted, as in Ex. (b).

ikll1 ?t< v. (Gr. 1)

£ S.o. or s.t. moves in a direction away j go; come

\ from the speaker or the speaker’s ( [REL. kuru*]
^ viewpoint.

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun (direction)

cF A/ : (i MM 7* V ^ / fc
Tanaka-san j wa raishu Amerika e 1 ni iku / ikimasu.

(Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.)

150 iku1

■
(B)

N N N
Topic (subject)
(location) (location) (means)

% n t*h &T* X* ffofc. /

Watashi wa Tokyo kara Osaka made basu de itta 1
ffZtLLtZo
ikimashita.

(I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.)

(a)
Watashi wa maiasa hachiji ni kaisha ni iku.
(I go to work (lit. my company) at eight every morning.)

(b) A:
Konban watashi no uchi de pati o shimasu ga kimasen ka.
(We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn’t you
like to come?)

B : Jiv\ fft£1%
Hai. ikimasu.
(Yes, I’ll come (lit. go).)

(c) Lfcfro
Anata ni mo sono shirase wa ikimashita ka.
(Lit. Did the notice go to you, too? ( = Did you get the notice, too?))

(d)
Sono mura ni mo basu wa itte iru.
(The bus goes to the village, too.)

1. Iku1 is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from

the speaker or in a direction away from the speaker’s viewpoint, which
is not necessarily the speaker’s position. (■=> kuru1) For example, in
the following situation, iku is used when the speaker (point C) places
his viewpoint near point A.

(1) X B
X-san wa B ni itta.
(Mr. X went to B.) C
 iku11 iku2 151

2. When someone goes to his own “ home base ” (e.g., uchi ‘ home ’), uchi
ni iku is ungrammatical. In this case, kaeru ‘ return ’ is used as in
uchi ni kaeru ‘ go home \
3. There are cases where both kuru and iku can be used with different shades
of meaning. Examples:

2
( ) liitZitAsVLtifro
Kimi no uchi ni musuko ga kimasendeshita / ikimasendeshita
ka.
(Didn’t my son go to your house?)

(3) [The speaker lives in San Francisco and is calling his friend in
New York who is coming to Los Angeles.]
* ^ n XT fcJfe-S / ff < * 5
Sumisu-san wa raigetsu Rosuanjerusu ni kuru / iku sodesu ne.
(Mr. Smith, I was told that you’re coming to Los Angeles next
month.)

In (2), when the speaker uses kurut he is putting himself psychologi¬

cally in the addressee’s location; when he uses ikuy he is not. In (3),
kuru is more appropriate than iku because, in general, a speaker is
more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of iku
here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with
his neighboring location.

iku2 mx. v. (Gr. 1)

Some action or state keeps chang¬ go on ~ing; continue; grow;

ing from the point in time at which become
the speaker first describes the action. [REL. kuru2}
152 iku2

4 Key Sentence

Vte

Zti frb fi $$< tr< X0

Kore kara wa samuku iku / ikimasu yo.

(It will get colder (and continue to be that way) from now on.)

vte n<
iku
fSLT ff < (s.o. continues to talk)
h ana shite iku
ff < (s.o. continues to eat)
tabete iku

(a) <5i> V V-f0

Kore kara wa mainichi hon o issatsu yonde iku tsumori desu.
(I intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.)

(b) X0
Kore kara wa atatakaku natte ikimasu yo.
(It will grow warmer (and continue in that way) from now on.)

(c) !!'<&{*!>&< fco-cfr^tc0

Sono koro kara Nihon no keizai wa tsuyoku natte itta.
(The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that way)
from that time on.)

(d) b
Wakaranai koto o no to ni kaite itta.
(I went on taking notes on things I didn’t understand.)

1. The point in time at which the action starts is the present time in
Exs. (a) and (b) and the past in Exs. (c) and (d), respectively.

2. The following examples use iku as a full verb meaning ‘ to go and

are not the usage of iku1.

(i)
Mainichi kaisha ni basu ni notte iku.
 iku2 / iru1 153

(Lit. I ride a bus every day and go to my company. ( = 1 go to

work every day by bus.))

( ) 2 btoux 50
Ano resutoran de kohl o nonde ikimasho.
(Lit. Let’s drink coffee at that restaurant and go. ( = Let’s drink
coffee at that restaurant and then continue on our way.))
[Related Expression]

When a change of state is expressed by iku2, as in Exs. (b) and (c), iku2 can
be replaced by kuru2, as in [la] and [lb] below.

[1] a. /.CotUflo
Kore kara wa atatakaku natte kimasu yo.
(It will grow warmer from now on.)

b. £&&(*»}&<
Sono koro kara Nihon no keizai wa tsuyoku natte kita.
(The Japanese economy grew stronger from that time on.)

The iku2 versions here are more impersonal and objective than the kuru2 ver¬
sions. The latter versions stress that some change is going to involve or has
involved the speaker himself, while the former versions are impersonal state¬
ments.

iru1 l'<5 v. (Gr. 2)

| An animate thing exists. j be; exist; stay

~ ' [REL. art/1]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (location) Subject Quantifier

z.<d »r I ((c) n h^a j t>* fc<

Kono machi j (ni) wa nihonjin j ga takusan iru / imasu.

(Lit. In this town are many Japanese. ( = There are many Japanese in
this town.))
154 iru1

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun (location)

y - j li Z<D % \ \C V'5 / V'£-f0

Ri j wa kono ryd \ ni iru j imasu.

(Lee is in this dorm.)

(a) ^
Kono dobutsuen ni wa panda ga imasu.
(There are pandas in this zoo.)

(b) ;/fiV'&p
— h (CV'-So
Suchibu wa ima Robin no a pa to ni iru.
(Steve is in Robin’s apartment now.)

1. Iru1 expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for

plant life or inanimate things. Thus, the following sentence is ungram¬
matical.

(1) <D* * £/U,n£c

*Kono kyanpasu ni wa ki ga takusan iru.
(There are many trees on this campus.)

For plants and inanimate things, aru is used. (<=£ aru1)

2. Two sentence patterns can be used with iru1. In the KS(A) pattern,
a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus.
In this pattern the location marker ni can optionally drop. In the KS(B)
pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and
where it exists is under focus. (<=> art/1, Note 3)

3. An animate thing or a group or organization of animate things such as

a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2).

(2) a. fA0c)ti^^HAV'5o
Watashi (ni) wa kodomo ga sannin iru.
(Lit. There are three children with me. ( = 1 have three
children.))

b. r. (fc)iiV'V'^
Kono chimu (ni) wa ii kuotabakku ga iru.
 iru11 iru2 155

(Lit. There is a good quarterback in this team. ( = This team

has a good quarterback.))

iru2 aux • v- (Pr. 2)

\ S.o. or s.t. is doing s.t. he or it started \ be ~ing; have done (s.t.)

some time ago, or is in a state created l [REL. art/2]

llllllllKllllll
by an action he or it took some time >
ago. ;

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)

I n m & V>5/V'&1-0
Sasaki-san j wa sake o nonde iru / imasu.

(Mr. Sasaki is drinking sake.)

Formation

Vte V'5
iru
IS IT (be talking)
hanashite iru
V'Z> (be eating)
tabete iru
Examples

(a) fnfrfigrffiSrlrc/LT'V'So
Kazue wa shinbun o yonde iru.
(Kazue is reading a newspaper.)

(b) £ <D 5 < $ oTV'£0

Kono ringo wa kusatte iru.

(This apple is rotten.)
156 iru2

(c)
Ki ga taorete iru.
(A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).)

(d)
Watashi wa Suzuki-san o shitte imasu.
(I know Miss Suzuki.)

1. Iru is used as an auxiliary verb with Wte and expresses the continua¬
tion of an action or state. In general, if Wte expresses an action which
can continue or be repeated, Wte iru expresses the continuation of the
action. If Wte is a verb indicating a momentary action which cannot
be repeated, Wte iru expresses the idea that something happened to X
and X maintains the state which was created by that event. KS and
Ex. (a) are examples of the first usage and Exs. (b), (c) and (d) are ex¬
amples of the second usage. Note in Ex. (d) that shiru, the dictionary
form of shitte, means ‘ to get to know ’ and shitte iru expresses the
continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki,
which is expressed by know in English. It is also noted, however,
that ‘ not to know ’ is not shitte inai} but shiranai. (=> shiru)

2. Wte iru also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of re¬
peated action. Example:

(1)

Watashi wa mainichi yonmairu hashitte iru.

(I run four miles every day.)

3. When Wte is a motion verb such as iku ‘go’, kuru ‘come’ and kaeru
‘return’, the meaning of Wte iru is not ‘be ~ing’. For example, itte
iru means ‘ to have gone to some place and to still be there ’. The
sentences in (2) provide examples.

(2) a. Kk&mr/y #i-f7o-ci'6o

Jiro wa Amerika ni itte iru.
(Jiro has gone to America and is there.)

b. o
Bekku-san wa mo ie ni kaette imasu.
(Mr. Beck has already returned home and is there.)

4. The verb sumu ‘live’ requires the “ Vte iru” pattern if the sentence ex-
 iru2 / iru3 157

presses a present state. Also, verbs like iu ‘ say ’ and omou ‘ think ’
with a third person subject require the “ Vte iru ” pattern if the sentence
expresses a present state. Examples:
(3) a.
Watashi-wa Tokyo ni sunde iru / *sumu.
(I live in Tokyo.)

b. ^7. o ”C L' "p o

Uesuto-san wa nihongo wa yasashii to omotte iru j *omou.
(Mr. West thinks that Japanese is easy.)

iru3 v. (Gr. 1)

] S.o. or s.t. needs s.t. < need

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Necessary Object

1i V'6 / V' y £-f0

Kimitachi wa eiwa-jiten 9a iru 1 irimasu.

(You need an English-Japanese dictionary.)

(a) 30
Watashi wa ima o-kane ga iru.
(I need money now.)

(b) D
Nanika dogu ga irimasu ka.
(Do you need some tools?)

(c) - >J yfrtz <

Kono kuruma wa gasorin ga takusan iru.
(This car needs a lot of gas.)

1. Iru ‘need’ takes the wa-ga construction, where the experiencer (that
158 iru3

is, the person or thing that needs something) is followed by wa and

the necessary object by ga. (<=> ~ wa ~ ga)

2. Iru ‘need’ is a Gr. 1 verb; thus, the negative form is iranai, the polite
form is irimasu and the re-form is itte. (Cp. iru1’, iru2)

3. The experiencer can also take the particle ni, as in (1).

(1) a.
Kono ko ni wa ii kateikyoshi ga iru.
(This child needs a good tutor. (Lit. For this child, a good
tutor is necessary.))

b.
Kono purojekuto ni wa hito to kane ga iru.
(This project needs people and money. (Lit. For this project
people and money are necessary.))

4. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by either ga or ni,

as in (2), unless the sentence is contrastive. (In that case, wa follows.)
(<=> wa1 (li))

(2) / izify y t Ltzfro

Kono kuruma ga / ni gasorin ga takusan iru koto o shitte ima¬
sh ita ka.
(Did you know that this car needs a lot of gas?)
 jibun1 159

jibun1 g# pro-

| a reflexive pronoun that refers (back) ~self; own

) to a human subject with whom the [REL. jibun2]
] speaker is empathizing

4 Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject)

±E ii />'• £ V'<5 £ t £ £p1

Tsuchida wa Sachiko ga jibun o ai shite iru koto o shiranakatta /

tZo
shirimasendeshi ta.

(Tsuchida didn’t know that Sachiko loved him (lit. himself).)

(B)

Sentencei

fi ^7LX V'/Ho
Yukari wa arukinagara kangaete ita.

(Yukari was walking while thinking.

Sentence2

te- it a# h
Ken'ichi wa jibun ga honto ni sukina n daro ka.

Does Kenichi really love me (lit. myself)?)

Nakagawa wa jibun ga Kyddai ni haireru to omotte inakatta.

(Nakagawa didn’t think that he (lit. himself) could enter Kyoto Uni¬
versity.)

(b) —
Ichiro wa Fuyuko ga jibun ni ai ni kita toki uchi ni inakatta.
(Ichiro wasn’t at home when Fuyuko came to see him (lit. himself).)
160 jibun1

(c)
Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de ikaseta.
(Michiko made Kazuo go there in his / her own car.)

(d) fo-ftft&ftbf&i&Lx <i\z>Ajtzz

Jon wa Mean no koto o omotte ita. Kanojo wa jibun to kekkonshite

kureru n daro ka. Jibun o sutete. Bobu to kekkonsuru n daro ka.
(John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me (lit. myself)? Is
she going to leave me (lit. myself) and marry Bob?)

1. Jibun1 is an empathy marker that normally refers back to the subject of

the main clause as in KS(A), Exs. (a), (b) and (c), or to the discourse
topic as in KS(B) and Ex. (d).
2. When jibun is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the
sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent
is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and / or completes an action).
(=> jibun2)
3. Ex. (c) is an ambiguous sentence, because jibun can refer to either the
main subject Michiko or to Kazuo. Jiburis reference to Kazuo is not
a counterexample of jibun's strong tendency to refer to the subject,
however, because Kazuo is semantically the subject of the verb iku ‘go’.
Also to be noted is that Michiko is an agent of the causative action, but
Kazuo is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed, it is
easier to look at Kazuo as the object of the speaker’s empathy, because
he is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that jibun is not an empathy
marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent Michiko.
Other similar ambiguous sentences follow:

(1) a. kofco
Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de itte moratta.
(Lit. Michiko received from Kazuo a favor of going there in
her / his own car. ( = Michiko had Kazuo go there in her /
his own car.))

Michiko wa Kazuo ni jibun no kuruma de ikareta.

(Lit. Michiko is annoyed by the fact that Kazuo went there
by her / his own car. ( = Michiko had Kazuo go there in her /
his own car.))
 jibun' / jibun2 161

Note that jibun in (la, b) is an empathy marker when it refers to Michiko

and is a contrastive marker when it refers to Kazuo. (<=> jibun2)

4. The referent of jibun in a complex sentence has to be conscious of the

situation expressed in the main clause. Compare (2a) and (2b):

(2) a.
Tomoko wa jibun ga shinu mae ni kodomo ga daigaku ni
haitta.
(Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, before she (lit. herself) died, her
child entered college. (= Before Tomoko died, her child entered
college.))

b. Sto&Khtih t tz0
*Tomoko wa jibun ga shinda a to de kodomo ga daigaku ni
haitta.
(Lit. Speaking of Tomoko, after she (lit. herself) had died, her
child entered college. ( = After Tomoko died, her child entered
college.))

The sentence (2b) is ungrammatical because one can hardly empathize

with a dead person.

jibun2 g# pro.

^ a reflexive pronoun that refers (back) —self; own

\ to a human subject, the referent of [REL. jibun']
l which is contrasted with s.o. else
162 jibun2

4 Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject)

B#A <D g <D ti t

Nihonjir) wa jibun no kuni no bunka o yuniku da to omotte

V'3 / V'£-f0
iru 1 imasu.

(The Japanese think that their country’s culture is unique.)

(B)

Topic (subject, agent)

ii V fsj ft -f S / L & *f o
Meari wa jibun de nan demo suru / shimasu.

(Mary does everything by herself.)

(C)

Topic (subject)

it £ iiLt /HlSLiLfc.
Kazuo wa jibun o hagemashita 1 hagemashimashita.

(Kazuo braced himself.)

(a)
Jibun o shiru koto ga ichi ban muzukashii.
(To know yourself is the hardest.)

Maiku wa itsumo jibun no ryo no hey a de benkydshite iru.

(Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.)
(c) LfcV'£1§‘ofc0
Kobayashi wa jibun kara shitai to itta.
(Kobayashi voluntarily (lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.)

(d)
Sensei wa go-jibun no ie de watashi ni atte kudasatta.
(The professor kindly met me at his own house.)
 jibun2 163

Note

Jibun is a contrastive marker if at least one of the following three conditions

is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KSs (B), (C), Exs. (b), (c) and (d».
(2) the subject is generic (as in KS(A) and Ex. (a)). (3) jibun cannot be
replaced by an implicit third person pronoun (o) or by an explicit third person
pronoun (such as kare ‘ he ’ and kanojo ‘ she ’). KS(C) satisfies the condition
(3) , because if jibun is replaced by 0 or kare ‘ he the meaning of the
sentence changes into ‘ Kazuo encouraged him.*

[Related Expression]

Jibun is jibun1 if the referent does not satisfy any of the three conditions
given in Note; if it satisfies at least one of them it is jibun2.
164 ka1

ka1 fr prt.

! a particle which marks an alterna- (either) ~ or ~

s tive < [REL. sore tom o]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Nouni Noun2 Predicate

■
% \ 14 ($*) V ft< o
Watashi j wa densha ka basu (ka) de iku / ikimasu.

(I will go either by train or by bus.)

(B)
Sentencei Sentence2
(informal)t (informal)t

hA M f}< ^7U - 'rr<

Tomu ga iku ka Mean ga iku ka dochiraka da fdesu.

(Either Tom will go or Mary will go.)

tDa after Adj(na) stem and N drops.

KS(A):

Ni N2 (fr)
ka (ka)
(#') (either a teacher or a student)
sensei ka gakusei (ka)
KS(B):
( i ) {V / Adj (/')} inf
ka
I ISlf;} (either s.o. talks / talked or)
[hanasu / hanashita} ka
{jtfJV'* I'Mfrotz.} ti* (either s.t. is / was expensive or)
[takai / takakatta) ka
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} [0 / fiofc}
{0 / ateffa} £a
 ka1 2 165

IfM' 75' (either s.t. is / was quiet or)

{shizuka / shizukadatta} ka
[%$L I it'ofcl 75' (either s.o. is / was a teacher or)
[sensei / sensei datta} /ra
Examples

(a) — *75'^ )VV

Watashi wa maiasa jusu ka miruku o nomu.
(I drink either juice or milk every morning.)

(b) i'Uto
Sore iva S0/60 ka Maku ga shimasu.
(As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.)

(c) f*J 75' o t5'—£|575' 1*375't ib V't£ O fc75' £ t, £ 75'fcf „

Niku ga takakatta ka Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka dochiraka da.
(Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn’t like meat.)

(d) 75'mfS£^tt£^H^tb75'L-C< *££V\,

Tegami o kaku ka denwa o kakeru ka dochiraka shite kudasai.
(Either write a letter or make a call, please.)
(e) ^^75'IJ1-75't^ib75'ICb^^V>0
Taberu ka hanasu ka dochiraka ni shinasai.
(Lit. Decide on either eating or talking. (=Just do one thing, eat or
talk.))

1. The basic function of ka is to mark an alternative. It can mark either

nouns or sentences. When it marks nouns, the final ka is usually omitted.
When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that
is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker wa must not
be used.
2. Ka cannot be used to connect two questions. Thus, the following sen¬
tences are ungrammatical.

(1) a. ri'fAcDT'-f75'0
*Kore wa anata no desuka. Ka watashi no desu ka.
(Is this yours or mine?)

b. £f£V'&-f75'0
*Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. Ka koko ni imasu ka.
(Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?)
In this case, soretomo is used instead of ka. (=> soretomo)
 166 ka1 I ka2

[Related Expression]

Soretomo is also used with alternatives. However, the function of soretomo

is to connect two alternatives, not to mark an alternative. Thus, soretomo
appears with ka, not in place of ka. Examples:

[1] I
Niku ga takakatta ka. soretomo Ichiro ga niku ga kiraidatta ka
dochiraka da.
(Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn’t like meat.)

Watashi to isshoni kimasu ka. Soretomo koko ni imasuka.

(Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?)
Soretomo is optional in [1], but not in [2].

ka2 t)\ prt.

\ a sentence-final particle which indi- ;> whether; if

\ cates that the preceding sentence is < [REL. dai (kai)]
<; interrogative >

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Sentence!

JiLT- ii ^f?</fT§£T
Yoshiko wa daigaku e iku / ikimasu ka.

(Is Yoshiko going to college?)

tin informal speech, da after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

 ka2 167

(B)

% n f'j- (c
Sentence (informal)t

dr'si/'— ft* 0^ ^ fr<

■h Hflv'fc /
Watashi wa Teri ni Nanshi ga Nihon e iku ka to kiita 1
$. Ltz0
kikimashita.

(I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

(i) {V / Adj (/)}

ka
I M Lii") ft* (Will (or Does) s.o. talk? (informal / formal))
{hanasu / hanashimasu} ka
ti' (Is s.t. expensive? (informal / formal))
{takai / takaidesu) ka
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0/-Ci*}
{0 / desu} ka
{IN' / A* (Is s.t. quiet? (informal / formal))
[shizuka / shizukadesu} ka
{%& f "C'-f-} h' (Is s.o. a teacher? (informal / formal))
{seflse/ / sensei desu} ka

(a)
Anata wa gakusei desu ka.
(Are you a student?)

(b)
Kore wa nan desu ka.
(What is this?)

(c)
Tomodachi wa kanji ga muzukashii ka to kiita.
(My friend asked if kanji is difficult.)

(d) %\t
Watashi wa Jan ni dare ga kita ka to tazuneta.
(I asked Jan who had come.)
168 ka21 ka {do ka)

(e) m fi OjHt © 9 ft £ n o fc T b £ o fe0

5oA-(y iva Yamazaki-sensei ga kino nani o itta ka wasurete shimatta.
(I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.)

(f) o *v\,
Watashi wa Kenji ni o-kane o kashita ka do ka omoidasenai.
(I cannot remember if I lent Kenji some money.)

1. The question marker ka is a special use of the ka which marks an alter¬

native (i.e., ka1). For example, KS(A) came from (1), with the paren¬
thesized part omitted. (t=> ka1)

1
( ) {^iihVi
Yoshiko wa daigaku e ikimasu ka. (Soretomo ikimasen ka.)
(Is Yoshiko going to college? (Or is she not?))

2. Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by ka

whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. (■=> dai\ kai) Note
that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as
that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative
sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no
question or a WH-question.

3. Ka remains in indirect questions as in KS(B), Exs. (c) and (d).

4. When the informal forms of fla-type adjectives and the copula precede
the question marker ka, da drops. A possible reason is that da, the
informal form of desu, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with
the question marker ka, which expresses the speaker’s uncertainty about
something. (■=> kai\ kamoshirenai; kashira)

ka (do ka) frU:5t)') Pr*•

i a marker for an embedded yes-no \ whether or not; if (~ or not)

\ question <
 ka (do ka) 169

♦ Key Sentence

Embedded Yes-No Question

Verb (cognition)
(informal)t

tF A oft ft* (if 0 fi') (fi)

Suzuki-san ga daigaku ni haitta ka (do ka) (wa) shiranai / shirimasen.

(I don’t know whether or not Mr. Suzuki entered college.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

( i ) {V / Adj (/')} inf (H 3 fr)

ka (do ka)
{fj§-f ItfcLtc} (Ho fr) (whether or not s.o. talks / talked)
(hanasu / hanashita) ka (do ka)
(rgifi* (H 0 fi') (whether or not s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta) ka (do ka)
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0 / (Ho fr)
{0 I datta) ka (do ka)
(H 0 fr) (whether or not s.t. is / was
{shizuka / shizukadatta} ka (do ka) quiet)

{££ t*otz) (Ho *) (whether or not s.o. is / was a

{sense/ / sensei datta} ka (do ka) teacher)

(a) /J\ll| $ h LXV'&frH 0

Ogawa-san ga kekkonshite iru ka do ka shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?)

(b) 7 — 7 i—t L5V'75>i? 9 £>£0

Fokuna no shosetsu ga omoshiroi ka do ka shiranai.
(I don’t know if Faulkner’s novels are interesting.)

(c) /»0
Yamaguchi-sensei ga o-genki ka do ka zonjimasen.
(I don’t know if Prof. Yamaguchi is healthy.)

1. When the optional do ka is used, the embedded question has to be a

yes-no question. If it is not used, then the question can be either a
yes-no question or a WH-question.
170 ka (do ka) / kai

(1) ux h y yxfil&i£'<tzfr / o fr%xXV'£-f

Resutoran de nani o tabeta ka / *ka do ka oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember what you ate at the restaurant?)

Sono toki dare to isshoni ita ka / *ka do ka oboete imasu ka.

(Do you remember who you were with at that time?)

2. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of knowing, examining,

understanding, asking, remembering, and deciding.

3. Sinf ka (do ka) can be used as a noun phrase that takes particles such
as ga and o.

(3)
Shigoto o yameru ka do ka ga mondai datta.
(Whether or not to quit the job was the question.)

Daigakuin ni iku ka do ka o ima kangaete imasu.

(I’m now thinking about whether or not I will go to graduate
school.)

kai AH' Prt-

\ a sentence-final particle which marks |> [REL. dai (ka2)]

yes-no questions in informal male ^
< speech i

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Sentence (informal)t

Nihongo wa omoshiroi kai.

(Is Japanese interesting?)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

 kai 171

(B)

Sentence (informal)t

±If£A, (i T / V ft ^ 'ii < CO

Ueno-san wa Amerika e iku no kai.

(Is Mr. Ueno going to America?)

t Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

Formation

KS(A):

(i) {V/Adj (/)} inf v'

kai
{fg-f I tfc'Ltz.) flW' (Does (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?)
{hanasu / hanashita} kai
(Is / Was s.t. expensive?)
[takai / takakatta} kai
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0/fiofc}
{o / c/a?fa} kai
{fM‘ / (Is / Was s.t. quiet?)
[shizuka / shizukadatta} kai
[%%. I %%L tS'itz.} (Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)
{sense/ / sensei datta} kai
KS(B):

( i) {V / Adj (/)} inf co

no kai
{t$i~ /i$Ltz) <0 (Docs (or Will) / Did s.o. talk?)
{/?anaso / hanashita} no kai

{jijV'' <£> /O'V' (Is / Was s.t. expensive?)

[takai / takakatta} no kai
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {(f / £0
[na I datta] no kai
{fM‘& / <0 /^V' (Is / Was s.t. quiet?)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} no kai
*/3fc£ fiofc) co (Is / Was s.o. a teacher?)
{sense/ na / sensei datta} no kai
172 kai

(a) 0:£fp /5*V'o

Nihongo o benkydsuru kai.
(Will you study Japanese?)

(b)
Kono apato wa shizuka kai.
(Is this apartment quiet?)

(c)
Kimitachi wa gakusei kai.
(Are you students?)

(d)
Sono hon wa muzukashii no kai.
(Is the book difficult?)

(e)
Ano hito wa sensei na no kai.
(Is that person a teacher?)

1. Since kai is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in

the informal form. The following sentences are unacceptable.

(1) a. *0*Sttfct,L5lr'-cr(O)i‘V'o
*Nihongo wa omoshiroidesu (no) kai.
(Is Japanese interesting?)

b. *_hi?£/U±7/< >J
*Ueno-san wa Amerika e ikimasu (no) kai.
(Is Mr. Ueno going to America?)

2. Kai is used only for yes-no questions. Thus, the following sentences
are ungrammatical.

(2) a. *)£ < (<D)frV\

*Doko e iku (no) kai.
(Where are you going?)

b. *fo<D\lit£tl(fre>)A>V'o
*Ano hito wa dare (na no) kai.
(Who is that person?)

(In these sentences, dai is used. (<=> dai))

 kai / kamoshirenai 173

3. Questions in the KS(A) pattern and those in the KS(B) pattern cor¬
respond to questions without no desu and those with no desu in formal
speech, respectively. (<=> no da)

4. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping kai in

male informal questions and using rising intonation. Examples:

(3) a. L6V'(cD)?
Nihongo wa omoshiroi (no)?
(Is Japanese interesting?)

b. Jhi?£/UiT7< V (co)?
Ueno-san wa Amerika e iku (no)?
(Is Mr. Ueno going to America?)

c. $><oAli5fc£0fc»)?
Ano hito wa sensei (na no)?
(Is that person a teacher?)

For a summary of the endings for informal questions, see dai, Related
Expression.

kamoshirenai aux- adj (/)

might
[REL. dard; ni chigainai\ soda2}

4 Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf

Hi A*>
Gogo ame ga furu kamoshirenai / kamoshiremasen.

(It might rain in the afternoon.)

174 kamoshirenai

(B)

Adj (/) inf

h<n <v ^ LtimtAso

Ano sensei no jugyo wa tsumaranai kamoshirenai / kamoshiremasen.

(That teacher’s class might be dull.)

(C)

Adj (na) stem

a « g tti
!± ii* t> Lft&V' / o
Kyoto no sakura wa mada kirei kamoshirenai / kamoshiremasen.

(The cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be beautiful.)

CZB2SZ9
( i ) {V / Adj (/')} inf Lix&V'
kamoshirenai
(IS't' /ISLfc) tM> Lix&V' (s.o. might talk / might have talked)
{hanasu / hanashita} kamoshirenai
(i^V' fri) Lft&V' (s.t. might be high / might have been
{takai / takakatta} kamoshirenai high)
(ii) {Adj (/7a) stem / N} [0/tz^tc] t Ljft&V'
{0 / datta} kamoshirenai
/ nfrfrtz'itz] fri) Lit(s.t. might be quiet / might have
{shizuka / shizukadatta] kamoshirenai been quiet)
(s.o. might be a teacher / might
{sensei / sensei datta} kamoshirenai have been a teacher)

CSE&E9
(a)
Kotoshi no fuyu wa taihen samuku naru kamoshiremasen.
(It might be very cold this winter.)

(b) t $: foiltc 0
Ano hito wa kyo no pad no koto o wasureta kamoshiremasen.
(He might have forgotten about today’s party.)

(c) L;ft&-£/ko
Kono eiga wa anata ni wa tsumaranai kamoshiremasen.
(This movie might be uninteresting for you.)
 kamoshirenai 175

(d) OlP^tl^V'o
Chugokugo no bunpd wa nihongo no bunpd yori kantan kamoshirenai.
(Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.)

(e) UxfeV'.fco

Are wa Suzuki-sensei kamoshirenai yo.

(That might be Prof. Suzuki.)

[Related Expressions]

I. The probability of accuracy predicted by a kamoshirenai sentence is lower

than that of a daro sentence and much lower than that of a ni chigainai
sentence as diagrammed below:

low probability <-■*• high probability

kamoshirenai < daro < ni chigainai
The Japanese weatherman on radio or TV, for example, employs desho
(the formal version of daro) in his forecasts as in the following:

[1] mmx*
Kantd-chihd, asu wa kosame ga ichinichiju furu desho.
(Tomorrow, in the Kanto area it will probably be drizzling all
day long.)

II. Wmasu / Adj (// na) stem soda is used when the speaker’s conjecture is
based primarily on visual or other perceptual evidence, but kamoshirenai
is not; rather the latter is used when that conjecture is based on logical
reasoning. Thus,

[2] fco! dO^-^r((i)4QV'L-t9"Ct'iao

A! Kono keki (wa) oishisodesu ne.
(Look, this cake looks good, doesn’t it?)

[3] *fco! z.<r>>r — * ({iJ&V'LV'A't

*Af Kono keki (wa) oishii kamoshiremasen ne.
(♦Look, this cake might be good, might it not?)
(«=> yd da)
176 kara1

kara1 frb prt.

\ a particle which indicates a starting from; since; out of

| point or a source [REL. /i/3; o3]

4 Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun

s °'— 7~ 4 — | fi ABf #5$ 3 9

Pati ; wa hachiji kara hajimaru / hajimarimasu.

(The party starts at (lit. from) eight o’clock.)

(a)
Kyo no jugyo wa ichiji kara sanji made desu.
(Today’s class is from one o’clock till three o’clock.)

(b) 3 — V frb&fco
Kono basu wa Nyuyoku kara kita.
(This bus came from New York.)

(c) £ Xo
Koko kara Fujisan ga mieru yo.
(You can see Mt. Fuji from here.)

(d) VfchX'-rt'o
Sono taipuraita wa dare kara karita n desu ka.
(Who did you borrow the typewriter from?)

(e)
Sake wa kome kara tsukuru.
(Sake is made out of rice.)

(f) t
Tsumaranai koto kara kenka ni natta.
(Lit. It became a quarrel from a trifle. ( = We started to quarrel over
a trifle.))

Kara basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Exs. (a), (b) and
(c)) or a source (Exs. (d), (e) and (f)). As seen in Exs. (d), (e) and (f), a source
can be a person, material, a cause or a reason.
 kara2 177

kara2 conj.

| after / since a point in time at which j after; having done s.t.; since
< s.t. takes place \ (time)
[REL. ato de \ re-form of verb]

♦ Key Sentence

Vre

li Sr ft*<T b R&® l£ 'ft ofc / ffti Lfc0

Yukiko wa bangohan o tabete kara eiga ni itta / ikimashita.

(After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.)

Vre fab
kara
t&L'X fi*b (after talking)
h ana shite kara
fab (after eating)
tabete kara

^SBSSS
(a) *tBS:at«|gt-ci>f>5t>SrWte.
Watashi wa tomodachi ni denwashite kara uchi o deta.
(I left home after making a call to my friend.)

Jonzu-san wa itsumo shawa o abite kara nemasu.

(Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.)

(c)
Watashitachi ga kono ie o katte kara mo junen ni naru.
(It’s already been ten years since we bought this house.)

Ninen mae ni kotsujiko o okoshite kara, Mira-san wa kuruma ni noranai

yoni shite imasu.
(Since he caused a traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been
trying not to drive a car.)
178 kara2

1. Vfe kara S means ‘ S after doing s.t.’ or ‘ S since — did s.t.’ The usage
of kara2 is an extended use of kara1.

2. Te kara is not to be confused with ta kara in which kara is used as a

conjunction of cause / reason. (<=> karaz)

(1) a. +
Jogingu o shite kara shawa o abita.
(After jogging, I took a shower.)

b. a !7 —
Jogingu o shita kara shawa o abita.
(Because I jogged, I took a shower.)

[Related Expression]

Kara in Vte kara can be omitted if the main verb does not indicate a high
degree of volitional control on the part of the speaker as in the cases of a
strong suggestion, determination or a command. Thus, in KS and Exs. (a),
(b) and (c) kara can drop, but in Ex. (d), [la] and [2a] it cannot.

[1] a. Li 0o
Benkyo ga owatte kara tenisu o shimasho.
(Let’s play tennis after we’ve finished studying.)

b.
* Benkyo ga owatte. tenisu o shimasho.
(♦We’ve finished studying, and let’s play tennis.)

[2] a. V'o
Benkyo ga owatte kara asobinasai.
(Play after you’ve finished studying.)

b. oxMxfite $ v'0
*Benkyo ga owatte asobinasai.
(*You’ve finished studying, and play.)

The difference between te kara and te is that the former focuses more on
chronological order and volitional planning than the latter does.
 kara3 179

kara3 frb conj.

^ a subordinate conjunction which ex- l so; since; because

presses a reason or a cause < [REL. node]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
(reason / cause)

^ ff< /5* L
Rainen Nihon e iku kara nihongo o benkydshite iru / imasu.

(I’m studying Japanese because I’m going to Japan next year.)

(B)

A:

£5 LX 0*f§ £ V'6 A, {£ / X~t t5'}0

Do shite nihongo o benkydshite iru n {da / desu ka).

(Why are you studying Japanese?)

B: Sentence (informal)

*¥ 0* ~ ?7< t5' L ti / vi-0

Rainen Nihon e iku kara da / desu.

(It’s because I’m going to Japan next year.)

KS(B):

Sinf 75‘0
kara

IM'J' I t^Ltz.} /j‘0 (because s.o. (will) talk / talked)

[hanasu / hanashita} kara
{jifrV' (because s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} kara
fc} 75» b (because s.t. is / was quiet)
[shizukada / shizukadatta} kara
180 kara3

t£ l tiotz) (because s.o. is / was a teacher)

[sensei da / sensei datta} kara

Haruko wa jushichi da kara mada o-sake o nomenai.

(Haruko is seventeen, so she can’t drink sake yet.)

(b) < *£$v\,

Kyo wa isogashii desu kara ashita kite kudasai.
(Please come tomorrow because I’m busy today.)
(c) A:
Do shite kino gakko o yasunda n desu ka.
(Why were you absent from school yesterday?)
B : o
Atama ga itakatta kara desu.
(It was because I had a headache.)

1. S kara represents a reason or a cause. Thus, Si kara S2 corresponds to

‘ S2 because / since St ’, ‘ Because / since Slf S2 ’, or ‘ Si, so S2’. Note
that the order of Si and S2 is not always the same in English, while
in Japanese kara clauses (i.e., Si) always precede main clauses (i.e., S2).
2. In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. How¬
ever, since the degree of subordination or dependency of Si in “ Si kara
S2 ” is rather low, Si may be in the formal form in very formal speech,
as in Ex. (b).
3. When a main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the KS(B)
pattern is used. In this case, the kara clause must be in the informal
form. The following sentence is unacceptable.

1
( )

*Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara da / desu.

(It’s because I’m going to Japan next year.)
4. In question-and-answer situations as in KS(B) and Ex. (c), abbreviated
forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in
the KS(B) situation.

2
( )

Rainen Nihon e ikimasu kara.

(Because I’m going to Japan next year.)
 kara3 / kashira 181

In this sentence, the main clause nihongo o benkyo shite imasu ‘I’m
studying Japanese ’ has been omitted.

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf tb

kashira
{IJi~ / IJtfc) h* L b (I wonder s.o. (will) talk / talked)
{hanasu / hanashita) kashira
L- b (I wonder s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakattaJ kashira
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} [tf/tiotz] ^10
{& I datta} kashira
{fM* / rfah'tiotz.) h*Lb (I wonder s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizuka / shizukadatta} kashira
{%$£. I tiotz\ h*Lb (I wonder s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei / sensei datta} kashira
182 kashira

(a)
Ano sensei no jugyd wa omoshiroi kashira.
(I wonder if that teacher’s class is interesting.)

(b)
Sachiko-san wa nani ga suki kashira.
(I wonder what Sachiko likes.)

(c) h<nA\$t£M' L bo
Ano hito wa dare kashira.
(I wonder who that person is.)

1. Etymologically, kashira comes from ka shiranai ‘ I don’t know (if)

but now expresses the idea “ I wonder

2. Kashira is usually used by female speakers in rather informal speech.

The male version is kanat which is used only in fairly informal situations.
The formation rules of kana are exactly the same as those for kashira.

3. Sfml kashira is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Example:

1
( )

Soko wa shizukadesu kashira.

(I wonder if that place is quiet.)

4. Since kashira and kana mean ‘ I wonder ’ (present tense), they cannot
be used for expressions like “ I wondered ” and “ Mr. Smith wondered ”.
For such expressions, “A wa Sinf kashira / kana to omou” is used.
Here, A is the person who wonders; to omou literally means ‘ think
that ’. Examples:

(2) a.
Watashi wa Matsumoto-san wa kuru kashira to omotta.
(I wondered if Mr. Matsumoto would come.)

Yamamoto-san wa Ogawa-san wa sensei kashira to omo¬

tta.
(Ms. Yamamoto wondered if Mr. Ogawa was a teacher.)
 -kata 183

1
-kata suf‘

a noun-forming suffix that indicates

a way or a manner in which one
does s.t.
;
\
i
a way of; a manner of; how to
[REL. hoho\

4 Key Sentence

Vmasu

— Zr <D
Keki no tsukuri M £ mz-X <tz£v\
o oshiete kudasai.

(Please show me how to make a cake.)

^2222022^
Vmasu
kata
fj§ L (way / manner of speaking)
hanashikata
A (way / manner of eating)
tabekata

(a) £ D
Kono kanji no kakikata ga wakarimasen.
(I don’t know how to write this kanji.)

(b) L5V'-e-fjfro
>4/70 /?/ro /70 arukikata wa omoshiroidesu ne.
(His manner of walking is amusing, isn’t it?)

(c) < tz £ V\
Nihongo no benkyo no shikata o oshiete kudasai.
(Please teach me how to study Japanese language.)

C3S23)
1. Vmasu+kata is in itself ambiguous, meaning either ‘way’ or ‘manner*.
Thus,

(l)

Nomikata ga daijidesu.
184 -kata j kawari ni

is ambiguous: it means either ‘The way of drinking is important* or

‘ The manner in which one drinks is important.’ The separate meanings
become clearer in an extended context:

(2) zvmn&z-ji‘X-f&ffilz&AyX' <

Kono kusuri wa nomikata ga daijidesu. Kanarazu shokuzen ni

nonde kudasai.
(It’s important to know how to take this medicine. Be sure to
take it before every meal.)

(3) x - y°\fr-kMxir0
SOpu wa nomikata ga daijidesu.
(In eating soup the manner (in which one eats it) is important.)

2. Sino-Japanese suru-verbs such as benkyd-suru ‘ study denwa-suru ‘ tele¬

phone rydri-suru ‘ cook setsumei-suru ‘ explain ’ and sodan-suru ‘ con¬
sult’ need the particle no before shikata as in:

(4) / nm / mwott#
benkyo / denwa / ryori / setsumei no shikata
(a way / manner of studying / telephoning / cooking / explanation)

[Related Expression]

Kata can be replaced by hoho but only when kata means ‘ a way of doing
s.t.’ Hoho roughly corresponds to the English word ‘ method ’; it means
a relatively complicated way of doing s.t. Ex. (c) can be rewritten as [1].

[1]
Nihongo no benkyo no hoho o oshiete kudasai.
(Please teach me a method for studying Japanese.)

kawari ni frfoQlc. phr.

£ S.t. (including an action) replaces in place of —; instead of; to

> s.t. else. make up for —; although; but
[REL. keredo{mo)\ shikashi]
 kawari ni 185

4 Key Sentences
(A)

Noun Noun Predicate

co fc % t* »*.* /mz.-&Ltz0
Sensei no kawari ni watashi ga oshieta / oshiemashita.

(I taught in place of my teacher.)

(B)

Sentence (informal)t

±aa ttm & ti

t; *>£>*) 1C >^^0 it ffctr /
Doyobi ni shigoto 0 suru kawari ni getsuyobi wa yasumu /

yasumimasu.

(To make up for working on Saturdays, I take Mondays off.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.

CBEBE9
(i) N <D 9 fc
no kawari ni

co fi'ib D {C (in place of the teacher)

sensei no kawari ni

(ii) {V / Adj (/)} inf P {C

kawari ni

/fj§L/C} V (C (instead of talking / talked but)

[hanasu / hanashita} kawari ni
i? {C (instead of eating / ate but)
{taberu / tabeta} kawari ni
{rtb^ t? JC (s.t. is / was expensive but ~)
{takai / takakatta} kawari ni

(iii) Adj (na) stem {& / ti'otz) frio*) M

{/7a / datta] kawari ni

/ vfrfrtzoti} $'£>*) (C (s.t is / was quiet but ~)

[shizukana / shizukadatta} kawari ni
186 kawari ni

(a) V LtZo
Biru no kawari ni sake o kaimashita.
(I bought sake instead of beer.)

(b) t>tc L<Dfr£> i? ot i> V'b'V'tfro

Watashi no kawari ni chichi ga itte mo iidesu ka.
(Can my father go there in place of me?)

(c) 4-CR|S3&^9
Kyo wa yoru osoku made odoru kawari ni ashita wa ichinichiju benkyo-
shimasu.
(I’ll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.)
(d)
Tetsudatte ageru kawari ni nomasete kudasai yo.
(I’ll help you, so (to make up for it) please (lit. let me drink) buy me
a drink, OK?)
(e) &<
Boku no apato wa fubenna kawari ni yachin ga yasui.
(My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.)

(f) ibofco
Eigo o oshiete ageta kawari ni nihongo o oshiete moratta.
(I taught him Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.)

(g) <#c|$Lfc0
Sono kuruma wa yasukatta kawari ni yoku koshoshita.
(That car was inexpensive, but it often broke down.)

In Nj no kawari ni N2, N2 is regarded as the substitute for Nj, which is the

originally intended item. In Siinf kawari ni S2, an action or a state identified
by S2 takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-state represented
in Sj.

[Related Expressions]

In Si kawari ni S2, kawari ni can be replaced by keredo(mo) ‘ although ’ or

shikashi ‘ but ’. Note, however, that the converse is not always acceptable.
Thus, keredo(mo) and shikashi in [1] below cannot be replaced by kawari ni,
because the meaning of ‘ making up for ~’ is missing, but the same conjunc¬
tions in [2] can be replaced by kawari ni, because the compensative mean¬
ing is present there.
 kawari ni / keredomo 187

[1] i><D£tc<£ Ziltii: (fc)/0 LAN L / **'*) U

Watashi wa amai mono o takusan taberu keredo(mo) /. Shikashi /
*kawari ni ha wa tsuyoi.
(Although I eat a lot of sweets, I have strong teeth.)

[2] {it)/ 0 Lrt'L / rt'fry (z#£,fc <

lg<o

Watashi wa amai mono o takusan taberu keredo(mo) /. Shikashi /

kawari ni ha o yoku migaku.
(Although I eat a lot of sweets, I brush my teeth well.)

keredomo 1conj.

? a disjunctive subordinate conjunc- £ although; though

s tion that combines two sentences ?> [REL. ga2 (dagat dakedo,
^ ^^ ' demo, shikashi)]

4 Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause (informal) Main Clause

% ft Wfr&h'-otz hA \t ^lot
Watashi wa iwanakatta keredomo Tomu wa shitte ita / imashita.

(Although I didn’t tell him, Tom knew (about it).)

Sinf
keredomo
(p£i~ /fSLfc} (Although s.o. (will) talk / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} keredomo
IriSV' / Ittl/ift (Although s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta} keredomo
{l&frti (Although s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukada / shizukadatta] keredomo
{%£. ti ! %%. fc'ofc} Iftit'i) (Although s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei da / sensei datta} keredomo
 188 keredomo / kikoeru

Kono hon wa takai keredomo ii hon desu yo.

(Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.)

(b) {£ii K-f S'®#*,*

Boku wa doitsugo ga amari sukijanai keredomo benkydshinakereba na-
ranai.
(Although I don’t like German very much, I have to study it.)

Ono-san wa kyujussai da keredomo totemo genkida.

(Although Mr. Ono is ninety years old, he is very healthy.)

1. Si keredomo S2 means ‘Although Si, S2’. Here, Si keredomo is a

subordinate clause, therefore it is usually in the informal form. How¬
ever, in very polite speech, Si can be in the formal form, as in (1).

(1) J;0

Kono hon wa takaidesu keredomo ii hon desu yo.

(Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.)

2. The informal forms of keredomo (listed from least formal to most

formal) are kedo<kedomo<keredo.

kikoeru KCx.3 v. (Gr. 2)

j> S.t. is passively and spontaneously ) audible; (can) hear; it sounds

( audible. [REL. kikeru]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Audible Object

% j (£) ii «fc < x.Z> /

Watashi j (ni) wa uguisu no koe 93 yoku kikoeru / kikoemasu.

(Lit. To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible. ( = 1 can clearly

hear the cries of a nightingale.))
 kikoeru 189

(a) Ux-fcV'o
Sono oto wa chisasugite kikoenai.
(That sound is too weak and is not audible.)

(b) <fflz.x.z>0
Oyama-san no koe wa okii node tonari no hey a no hi to ni mo yoku
kikoeru.
(Mr. Oyama’s voice is so loud that people in the neighboring rooms
can hear him.)

Watashi ni wa o-tera no kane no ne ga kikoeta ga, ototo ni wa kikoe-

nakatta.
(I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but my younger brother
couldn’t.)

(d) Jv<D\'f'otz.-X\±1£\Z.ffl^Z-Z>o
Tera-san no tsukutta bun wa hen ni kikoeru.
(The sentences which Mr. Taylor made sound strange.)

[Related Expression]

Kikoeru is different from the regular potential form of kiku ‘ hear ’ (i.e.,
kikeru), in that the former indicates a passive, auditory potentiality, whereas
the latter indicates that the speaker (or the subject of sentence) can hear
sound not passively but actively. Thus,

[1]
Boku wa mi mi ga kikoenai / *kikenai.
(I am deaf.)

[2] - t J: < / *Hlf ttl*i0

Konna ni ushiro ni suwaru to yoku kikoenai / *kikenai yo.
(If we sit this far back, we won’t be able to hear well.)

[3] KtfHlf* /*HZ5l-&0

// sutereo o katta kara rekodo ga kikeru / * kikoeru.
(I bought a good stereo set, so I can listen to records.)

[4] WsfetfS s £ < TfgasHzjttti' / Hi+fti'o

Ongaku ga urusakute hanashi ga kikoenai / kikenai.
(The music is so loud that the conversation is inaudible / we cannot
hear the conversation.)
190 kikoeru / kiraida

Note that in [4] both kikeru and kikoeru are possible, depending on the
speaker’s perception of the situation; if he perceives the situation to be in¬
alterable, he uses kikoeru; if not, he uses kikeru.

kiraida 'fc adi- (na)

J~
S.t. or s.o. is what s.o. does not j don’t like; dislike
like. (ANT. sukida)
/

4 Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Disliked Object

% \ it f—* ! 1 t <bV'*C*-f0
Watashi j wa chizu I ga kiraida / kiraidesu.

(I don’t like cheese.)

(a) b't'tzo
Boku wa fuyu ga kiraida.
(I dislike winter.)

(b) *9-4 h ^^ ^ hstf —

Howaito-san wa futtoboru ga dai-kiraidesu.
(Mr. White hates football.)

1. Kiraida is a rta-type adjective which requires the “ wa-ga construc¬

tion ”. (c^ ~ wa ** ga) The experiencer (i.e., the person who dislikes
some thing) is marked by wa and the disliked object by ga. Note that
the disliked object is marked by gay not by o.

2. In subordinate clauses, wa marking the experiencer changes into gat as

seen in (1).
 kiraida / koto1 191

(1) a. b't'teZ b li^A,&$31oTV'So

Watashi ga chizu ga kiraina koto wa minna shitte iru.
(Everybody knows that I don’t like cheese.)
b.
Boku ga kiraina kisetsu wa fuyu desu.
(The season I don’t like is winter.)
3. “ Dislike a lot ” is expressed by dai-kiraida> as in Ex. (b).

koto1 d t n-
| a thing which is intangible thing; what
[REL. mono]
♦ Key Sentences
(A)
Adj

IH' Zb Sr ffex.T h\f 9 / felf £ L J: 5 .

<fc

// koto o oshiete ageyo / agemasho.

(Lit. I’ll tell you a good thing. (=1 have a good suggestion for you.))

(B)
Relative Clause

Zb Sr ISL-T
Ron bun ni kaita koto o hanashite kudasai.

(Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.)

192 kotov

(C)

zfy dv&h (i b*
Noun

<j) xm (D
■ Zb £ <£ < &JoT V'3 /
Buraun-san wa Nihon no daigaku no koto 0 yoku shitte iru /

imasu.

(Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.)

( i) {V / Adj (/)} inf d t

koto

I ML/d} Cl t (what s.o. (will) says / said)

[hanasu / hanashita} koto

{& d £ (what is / was interesting)

[omoshiroi / omoshirokatta} /rofo

(ii) Adj (na) stem {& / o fc) d t

{na I datta} koto

{XMUi / /d} Cl t (what is / was important)

{daijina / daijidatta} /ro?o

(iii) N o d t
no koto

^ di: (things about the teacher)

sensei no koto

(a)
Daijina koto wa mo zenbu hanashimashita.
(I already told you everything that’s important.)

(b)
Sensei ga itta koto o oboete imasu ka.
(Do you remember what ( = the thing which) the teacher said?)

(c) K^ci
Shiken no koto wa wasurenasai.
(Forget about the exam.)
 koto1 / koto2 193

1. /Coro means a thing which is intangible. Thus, (1) is ungrammatical.

1
( )

*Oishii koto wa arimasen ka.

(Lit. Isn’t there a delicious thing?)

2. N no koto, whose literal meaning is ‘ thing of N *, is often used with

such verbs as shitte iru ‘ know hanasu ‘ talk ’ and wasureru ‘ forget
and means ‘ know about N ’, ‘ talk about N etc.

3. Koto is used as a nominalizer, too. (<=> koto2) Ex. (b), for instance, is
ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either ‘ Do you
remember the thing which the teacher said? ’ or ‘ Do you remember
(the fact) that the teacher said (it)? ’

[Related Expression]

Mono also means ‘thing’, but it means ‘a tangible thing’. Compare koto
and mono in the following sentences:

[1]
Kuroi mono / *koto ga miemashita ka.
(Lit. Did you see a black thing?)

[2]
Omoshiroi koto / *mono o hanashite kudasai.
(Please tell us interesting things.)

koto2 d t nom'

£ a nominalizer used to indicate the to —; ~ing; that

speaker’s relative lack of empathy [REL. no3]
| with the content of the sentence he
\ is nominalizing
194 koto2

4 Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)t

/J'tt £ S< d b 12 HtV' (T'-f)o

Shosetsu o kaku koto wa muzukashii (desu).

(Writing a novel is hard.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and de aru, respectively.

(i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf d b

koto
M Lfc} d b ((the fact) that s.o. talks / talked)
{hanasu / hanashita} /roro
(iSjV' ^ £ ((the fact) that s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} Aroro
(ii) Adj (/7a) stem d b
{na I datta) koto
{fM*& / ffifrti'D fc} d <*: ((the fact) that s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} koto
(iii) N {X I X h^tz / ti^tz) z. b
{de aru / de atta / datta) koto
{%£. X hz> I X h'ltz I tz-otz) Zb ((the fact) that
{sensei de aru / sensei de atta / sensei datta] koto s.o. is / was a
_ teacher)

(a) bitbx i>j:^tz0

Wakai toki ni ii tomodachi o tsukuru koto wa totemo daijida.
(It is very important to make good friends when one is young.)

(b) ^m^-<D^yy 3d b
Daigaku yonen no toki Furansu ni ryugakusuru koto o kangaete imasu.
(I am thinking of studying in France during my senior year.)

(c) L6V'd b\±ftfrZ>tF,— 2 tzb 12® ;b &V'c

Nihon no bunka ga omoshiroi koto wa wakaru ga. yuniku da to wa
omowanai.
(I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I don’t think that it is
unique.)
 koto2 195

(d) x-f t
Suisu ga kireina koto wa shashin de shitte imasu.
(From pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.)

(e) bittzLA'X'i'o
Ano hito ga ii hito de aru koto wa tashikadesu.
(Lit. It is certain that he is a good person. ( = He is without doubt a
good person.))

The nominalizer koto turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire sen¬
tence into a noun phrase. For example, in KS the sentence shosetsu o
kaku ‘ one writes a novel ’ becomes a complex noun phrase. Once a sentence
has become a noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun phrase
can be used. Thus, it can function as the subject, as in KS or Exs. (a)
and (e), or as the direct object, as in Exs. (b) and (d), and so on.

[Related Expression]

In contrast to another nominalizer no, koto tends to indicate something the

speaker does not feel close to. Thus, in KS, the nominalizer koto indicates
that the speaker of the sentence is not personally involved in writing a
novel; in other words, he is stating the sentence in general or objective terms.
The nominalizer no, however, indicates something which the speaker can
directly perceive or empathize with. (c=j> no3) Therefore, if koto in KS is
replaced by no, the nominalizer now indicates that the speaker of the sen¬
tence is somehow personally involved with writing a novel; in short, he is
empathetic with an act of writing a novel. A few typical examples in which
no or koto are unacceptable are given.

[i] a. fciifrsnasflcc®
Boku wa Shizue ga oyogu no / *koto o mite ita.
(I was watching Shizue swim.)

O-ka-san ga konna ni shinpaishite iru no / llkoto ga wakaranai

no?
(Don’t you understand that I am (lit. your mom is) really worried?)

Jen wa Biru ga sentakusuru no / *koto o tetsudatta.

(Jane helped Bill do laundry.)
 196 koto2 / koto ga aru1

d. -oWrT'teV'Vvfs&S
ATo/70 machi de wa ii ongaku o kiku koto / */io ga dekiru.
(I can listen to good music in this town.)

e. %ZZ£ /*<Dll{nCZZ£ / *0)tzo

Miru koto / *no wa shinjiru koto / *no da.
(To see is to believe.)

Incidentally, the difference between koto and no is apparently due to the dif¬
ference in the initial sounds k and n; the velar sound k is used to symbolize
a harsh, metallic, impersonal sound and the nasal sound n is used to symbolize
a soft, warm, personal sound.
(ci> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)
IiiiiiiiiihihiI

Kl koto ga aru1 Phr-

| There was a time when > S.o. has done s.t.; S.o. has had
-x an experience doing s.t.; There
was a time when ~.

4 Key Sentences

Sentence (informal, past)

fi, {2 3-Py/’ ^ l7o tz zb tn hz> l hH) &i~0

Watashi wa Yoroppa e itta koto ga aru / arimasu.

(I have been to Europe.)

bXi> }%frr>tz Zb hz> 1 h\) £1%

Retasu ga totemo takakatta koto ga aru / arimasu.

(There was a time when lettuce was very expensive.)

CBEffliE
Sinf*past zb h%>
koto ga aru
IJLfc Zb tn h%> (have talked)
hanashita koto ga aru
 koto ga aru1 197

iSiZL b t* fa Z> (There was a time when s.t. was expensive.)

takakatta koto ga aru
£ b h* fa%> (There was a time when s.t. was quiet.)
shizukadatta koto ga aru
%%L ti'itz Z. b i)* fa <5 (There was a time when s.o. was a teacher.)
sensei datta koto ga aru

(a) %\*^tex*^m*mttz.bfrfayit-f0
Watashi wa chugakko de eigo o oshieta koto ga arimasu.
(I have taught English at a junior high school.)

(b) /J>JI| £ ^ it & tz y £ L tz Z b V\>

Ogawa-san wa mada gorufu o shita koto ga nai.
(Mr. Ogawa hasn’t played golf yet.)

(c) %\±R%L<D*\'WL$:£<mvtiZbfrfaZ>0
Watashi wa Nihon no shosetsu o yoku yonda koto ga aru.
(There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.)

(d) It—P# V? -V Xtfb X & £ ts O ft £ b &fa 5 o

SOzan wa ichiji jazu ga totemo sukidatta koto ga aru.
(There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.)

(e) %M7pv$mm^tz'itzZ.bfrfayiZl-0
Watashi wa puro-yakyu senshu datta koto ga arimasu.
(There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.)

1. In general, Sinf*past koto ga aru expresses the idea that there was
a time when someone or something was in some state or did something.

2. More specifically, Sinf*past koto ga aru expresses one’s experience. In

this case, Sinf*past koto ga aru is an extended use of the possession
expression “A wa B ga aru”, where B is a past action rather than a
possessed thing. (•=> aru*, Note 4) This extended use of the expression
of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parallel to
that in English. Compare (1) and (2).

(1) [Possession]
fUtMtffaZo
Watashi wa kuruma ga aru.
(/ have a car.)
198 koto ga aru1 / koto ga aru2

(2) [Experience]
t [p 'yTiB&MffiLfcZ t]past action tiHbZ>0
Watashi wa [roshiago o benkydshita koto]P*st action ga aru.
(/ have [studied Russian.]past action)

3. In the Sinf-past koto ga aru structure, a past time adverb can be used
in S.

(3)

Watashi wa gonen mae ni Nihon e itta koto ga aru.

(I went to Japan five years ago. (Lit. I have been to Japan five
years ago.))

(3) expresses the ideas “ I have been to Japan” and “ It was five years
ago” at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed
cannot be too close to the present. (4) is unacceptable.

(4) *%Ut£<Do£L*£'k'<tzZ.ttf$>Z>o
*Watashi wa kino sashimi o tabeta koto ga aru.
(Lit. I have eaten sashimi yesterday.)

koto ga aru2 Ztfr&Z Phr-

i There are times when —. ' There are times when

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence (informal, nonpast)t

% it &5 A <5 zt hz> 1 h')

Watashi wa asa furo ni hairu koto ga aru / arimasu.

(There are times when I take a bath in the morning.)

fDa after Adj(/7a) stem and N changes to na and no / de aru, respectively.

( i) V / Adj (/) inf-nonpast ~ t

koto ga aru
 koto ga aru1 2 199

fi§i~ Zb h%> (There are times when s.o. talks.)

hanasu koto ga aru
zb 75* (There are times when s.t. is expensive.)
takai koto ga aru
(ii) Adj (na) stem & £ b j&s h Z>
na koto ga aru
#75*& Zb t5» faZ> (There are times when s.t. is quiet.)
shizukana koto ga aru
(iii) N {(D/X*foZ>) Zb £>£
{no / de aru} koto ga aru
?> I T* h £} Zb h£ (There are times when s.o.
[sensei no / sensei de aru} koto ga aru is a teacher.)

(a) zbtfib&o
Takashi wa asagohan o tabezu ni gakko e iku koto ga aru.
(There are times when Takashi goes to school without eating breakfast.)

(b) Z<Dl£<D*;\s?{$tz'&\C^\,'ZbfrhZ0
Kono mise no miruku wa tamani furui koto ga aru.
(Occasionally there are times when the milk in this store is old.)

(c) T !) *T*B*^<bJ£titfH*$lX-&Zzb tf«k < $>60

Amerika de Nihon e no miyage o kau to sore ga Nihon-sei de aru
koto ga yoku aru.
(Often there are times when we find out that a souvenir we’ve bought in
America for someone in Japan is made in Japan.)

(d) b&bZo
Saikin no iwayuru shizenshokuhin wa honto no shizenshokuhin ja nai
koto ga aru.
(There are times these days when so-called natural foods are not genuine
natural foods.)

1. Sinf* nonpast koto ga aru expresses the idea that something happens
from time to time.

2. Adverbs of frequency such as yoku ‘ often tokidoki ‘ sometimes * and

tamani ‘ occasionally * are sometimes used with this expression, as in
Exs. (b) and (c).
200 koto ga dekiru

koto ga dekiru phr.

\ Doing s.t. is possible. | can; be able to

“ [REL. rareru2]

4 Key Sentence

Subject
Topic (experiencer)
Vinf* nonpast Nom

HP it 'Mil -& nt C b & /

Taguchi-san wa chugokugo o hanasu koto 93 dekiru /

dekimasu.

(Lit. For Mr. Taguchi speaking in Chinese is possible. ( = Mr. Taguchi

can speak Chinese.))

Vinf.nonpast £ b ft*
koto ga dekiru
Zb (s.o. can talk)
hanasu koto ga dekiru
d b (s.o. can eat)
taberu koto ga dekiru

(a) < i t asw*s.

Shinkansen ni noreba Osaka made sanjikan de iku koto ga dekiru.
(If you take a bullet train, you can get to Osaka in three hours.)

Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha o hiku koto ga dekita.

(Oda was able to play Bach at the age of six.)

(c) 'j 3 fa■?#*££#< :i:«50

Jonson-san wa nihongo de tegami o kaku koto ga dekiru.
(Mr. Johnson can write letters in Japanese.)

1. Vinf*nonpast koto ga dekiru is a potential form meaning ‘can’, or ‘be

able to ~ ’. This potential form is used in the ftwa-ga construction”:
 koto ga dekiru 201

N (animate) wa (~ Vinf* nonpast) koto ga dekiru.

where N is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase — Vinf.nonpast

koto is a subject noun phrase nominalized by koto. The meaning of the
structure is ‘N can V’ (lit. ‘For N Ving ~ is possible.’).
0=S> ~ wa ~ ga)

2. If a verb is closely associated with its direct object, as in (1) and (2)
below, o V koto can be deleted.

(D (£3¥< c£)asffl*30
Nanshi wa piano (o hiku koto) ga dekiru.
(Nancy can play the piano.)

(2) P V 7f§(£I£f ^ t)
Okamoto-san wa roshiago (o hanasu koto) ga dekiru.
(Mr. Okamoto can speak Russian.)

The o V koto deletion is unacceptable in the following sentence, how¬

ever, because there is no close association between the verb and its
direct object.

(3) *t:zb I
Sumisu-san wa nihongo no shinbun {o yomukotoj *0} ga dekiru.
(Mr. Smith can read Japanese newspapers.)

[Related Expression]

A shorter potential form of verb, i.e., rareru2 can replace the longer potential
form koto ga dekiru without a change in basic meaning. Thus, Exs. (a), (b)
and (c) can be rewritten as [1], [2] and [3], respectively.

Shinkansen ni noreba Osaka made sanjikan de ikeru.

[2] y/ £tMtfc0
Oda wa muttsu no toki Bahha ga I o hiketa.

Jonson-san wa nihongo de tegami ga kakeru.

Basically, the difference between the shorter and the longer potential form
is one of style; namely, the shorter version is more colloquial and less formal
than the longer one.
202 koto ni naru

I
koto ni naru

An event takes place as if spontane-

ously, irrespective of the speaker’s
volition.
phr.

$
>
>
it will be decided that — ; come
about ~; be arranged that ~;
turn out that ~
[REL. koto ni suru'l

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (experienced Vinf* nonpast Nom

% n *¥ *IR K tear* C b
Watashi wa rainen Osaka ni tenkinsuru koto ni natta /

ft 0 & Lfc0
narimashita.

(Lit. It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka next year. ( = Fm
going to be transferred to Osaka next year.))

(B)

Topic (place) Vinf* nonpast

Uni M l* it <0 £
kuruma wa michi no hidarigawa o hashiru

Nom

zb ftoTV'S / V'£i-0
koto ni natte iru / imasu.

(In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left side of the street.)

CZB233D
Vinf* nonpast C b (C {5 / ft o fc)
koto ni [naru I natta}

ffc-f- zb {^5 / (it will be decided / it has been decided

hanasu koto ni {naru / natta} that s.o. will talk)

£ £ b (C {& £ / fc o fc} (it will be decided / it has been decided

taberu koto ni [naru I natta] that s.o. will eat)
 koto ni naru 203

Watashi wa raigetsu kara kaisha ni tsutomeru koto ni narimashita.

(It has been decided that I will be employed at a company beginning
next month.)

Tabun Jansen-san wa Nihon de eigo o oshieru koto ni naru desho.

(Perhaps it will turn out that Mr. Jansen will teach English in Japan.)

(c) ZZh (£/<£ V £ Ltz0

Rainen rokugatsu ni kekkonsuru koto ni narimashita.
(It’s been arranged that I will get married next June.)

(d) ;* ^ t (c/<CoTV'50
Sumisu-san wa Nihon de eigo o oshieru koto ni natte iru.
(Mr. Smith is supposed to teach English in Japan.)

(e) £ ilcfco-CV'&to
Kyo Yamada-sensei ni au koto ni natte imasu.
(Today (it’s been arranged that) I’m seeing Prof. Yamada.)

1. This construction is used when some decision or arrangement is made

by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is close to
the passive, because the experiencer has no control over the event.

2. Even when the experiencer himself decides to do s.t., it sounds more

indirect, and therefore, more humble for him to use this construction
rather than to use koto ni suru ‘decide to do*. (<=> Arofo ni suru)

3. Koto ni natte iru, as in KS(B) and Exs. (d) and (e), indicates that some
decision took place at some point in the past and that the result of
that decision is still in effect, sometimes to the extent that it has become
a rule or a custom.
204 koto ni suru

koto ni suru Zt fcf 5 phr.

j A volitional decision to do s.t. is j decide to

> made. < [REL. koto ni kimeru; koto ni
naru\

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (agent) Vinf* nonpast Nom

% \ n & C t \z Ltz / L£ Ltz0

Watashi j wa kaisha o yameru koto ni shita / shimashita.

(I decided to quit my company.)

(B)

Vinf-
Topic (agent) Nom
nonpast

% n H+# <■(>*•> SM & tz Zb \c LX V'£ /

Watashi wa mainichi sanjuppun gurai undo o suru koto ni shite iru /

imasu.

(I make it a rule to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.)

(i) Vinf.nonpast t [1~Z> / Lfc}

koto ni [suru / shita]

Zt [i~Z> I Ltz) (s.o. decides / has decided to talk)

hanasu koto ni [suru / shita}

d b (£ [i~Z> I Lfc} (s.o. decides / has decided to eat)

taberu koto ni [suru I shita]

(a) Ltz0
Kotoshi no natsu wa Hokkaido o ryokosuru koto ni shimashita.
(I’ve decided to make a trip in Hokkaido this summer.)
 koto ni suru 205

(b) < C bfc L£ L x 90

Kyoto made basu de iku koto ni shimasho.
(Let’s (lit. decide to) go as far as Kyoto by bus.)
(c) £KL£Lfc0
Mainichi kanji o to oboeru koto ni shimashita.
(I’ve decided to memorize ten kanji every day.)

(d) h ICLTV'^o
Watashi wa niku o amari tabenai koto ni shite iru.
(I make it a rule not to eat very much meat.)

1. If one decides not to do something, the verb before koto ni suru should
be negated as in:

Pikunikku ni iko to omotta n desu ga. ikanai koto ni shimashita.

(I thought I would go to the picnic, but I’ve decided not to.)
2. Koto ni suru is a more complex version of N ni suru ‘ decide on N
‘ make it N ’. (i=> ~ ni suru) The complexity is due to a noun phrase
nominalized by koto. («=> koto2) An example of N ni suru is given below:

(2) A :
Nan ni shimasu ka.
(What are you going to have (lit. decide on)?)
B :
Hanbaga ni shimasu.
(I’ll have (lit. decide on) a hamburger.)

[Related Expressions]

I. Koto ni suru indicates someone’s volitional decision, whereas koto ni

naru indicates a non-volitional decision. Therefore, if you perceive a
given decision to be your own decision, you should use koto ni suru;
on the other hand, if you don’t perceive a given decision to be your own,
you should use koto ni naru instead. That is why koto ni suru and
koto ni naru are very awkward in [la] and [lb], respectively.
[1] a. %L\*-kWL^UW)1r * blctUVtiLti I ???L^Lfc0
Watashi wa Osaka ni ten kin suru koto ni narimashita / ???

shimashita.
(Lit. It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka. (=
I’m going to be transferred to Osaka.))
206 koto ni suru / koto wa

b. cirCLSLfc / tz0
Boku wa tabako o yameru koto ni shimashita / Hlnarima-
shita.
(I’ve decided to quit smoking.)

II. Koto ni suru and koto ni kimeru ‘determine to do s.t.’ are virtually
identical in meaning. The difference is that the former is an idiom and,
therefore, frequently used in colloquial speech, while the latter is appro¬
priate when the speaker is talking about a relatively important decision
in a rather decisive manner. Also, koto ni suru can be used to mean
‘ I hereby decide to but koto ni kimeru cannot. Thus, [1] below
cannot be rephrased by koto ni kimeru.

[1]
Watashi wa kaisha o yameru koto ni shimasu / Vtlkimemasu.
(I’ve decided to quit my company.)

koto wa Cili phr.

Speaking of proposition X, X is cer¬ indeed one does s.t. alright,

tainly true. (but ~); indeed — (but —); do
— (but ~)

+ Key Sentence

■
Predicatei Predicate2
Topic
(subject)
Vj inf v2
% (4 •f* zb (i
Watashi wa suru koto wa suru/shimasu 93 jozujanai / jd-

zujaarimasen.

(I do play tennis, but I am not good at it.)

(i) {V i / Adj (/),} inf (1 {V2 / Adj {i)2}

koto wa (where {Vi / Adj (/)i) = {V2 / Adj(/)2})
 koto wa 207

I$i~ Z b ft {fjfrt* (s.o. does talk)

hanasu koto wa [hanasu / hanashimasu}

f£tIt Zb ft {ffiLtz /MtiLtz) (s.o. did talk)

hanashita koto wa [hanashita / hanashimashita}

Zb (t $jV'(Xi~)
V'' (s.t. is expensive)
takai koto wa takai(desu)

]Zb ft &fr^tz(Xir) (s.t. teas expensive)

takakatta koto wa takakatta(desu)

(ii) {Adj (na) stem! fc £ b / Ni} ft {Adj (na) stem2 / N2) {tz / T*-f}
na koto wa [da / desu}
(where {Adj (na) stemj / Ni} = {Adj (na) stem2 / N2})

Zb ft (tz I X't) (s.t. is quiet)

shizukana koto wa shizuka (da / desu}

V'V' A V'V' A {tz I (s.o. is a good person)

ii hi to wa ii hi to {da / desu}

(iii) (Adj (na) stem! / N,} tz o tz Zb ft {Adj (na) stem2 / N2} {tz ~?tz/ XL tz)
datta koto wa {datta / deshita)
(where {Adj (na) stemi / Ni) = {Adj (na) stem2 / N2})

'ffifrti'otz Zb ft (tz^tz / T'lf;} (s.t. was quiet)

shizukadatta koto wa shizuka {datta / deshita)

V'V' A tzotz Zb (i V'V'* A {fiofc/ T'tit} (s.o. was a good

// /?/>o datta koto wa ii hi to {datta / deshita) person)

(a) tS&tezb
A/0
Jonzu-san wa nihongo o hanasu koto wa hanashimasu ga. kantanna
koto shika iemasen.
(Mr. Jones does speak Japanese, but he can say only simple things.)

(b) Xt. by '>>y*--<n®nnnztiz Lfca'*,

Ltz0
Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaeta koto wa kaemashita ga. taihen
warui seki deshita.
(I could buy a ticket for the Boston Symphony alright, but it was a
very bad seat.)
208 koto wa

Kono mise wa yasui koto wa yasui desu ga. mono ga yokuarimasen.

(This store is inexpensive alright, but its goods are of poor quality.)

(d) ^ 0 (Dtt&ltm L fr O tz £ b tt£t L O fl: flS J; <

/Cyo no shiken wa muzukashikatta koto wa muzukashikatta ga yoku
dekita.
(Today’s exam was indeed difficult, but I did well on it.)

(e) 4: JlffiPJ-er*5, X
Watashi no apato wa eki ni chikakute benrina koto wa benridesu ga.
yachin ga totemo takaidesu.
(My apartment is close to the station and convenient alright, but the
rent is very high.)

(f) t ItftZT'Lfztf, Vt0

Sono onna no ko ga sukidatta koto wa sukideshita ga. kekkon wa
shinakatta n desu.
(I did like the girl, but I didn’t marry her.)

(8) h oAfiV'V'A f* A tz o A: ft te H tz o flute „

Ano hito wa ii hito wa ii hito datta keredo gankodatta ne.
(He was indeed a good person, but he was stubborn, wasn’t he?)

1. In this construction, when the main verb is in the past tense the tense
of the first verb / adjective can be changed into the nonpast tense.
Thus, Exs. (b) and (d) could be (1) and (2), respectively. The switched
versions are more common in conversation.

Bosuton Shinfoni no kippu wa kaeru koto wa kaemashita ga

taihen warui seki deshita.

(2) ^0 L l' £ t KM L o A:<fc <

Kyo no shiken wa muzukashii koto wa muzukashikatta ga yoku
dekita.

2. The verb / adjective / noun before koto wa is normally marked in the

informal form even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form.

3. Normally this construction is followed by a disjunctive conjunction such

as ga ‘ but ’, keredo ‘ but, although * and shikashi ‘ but
 kudasai 209

~kudasai aux• v- (imperative form)

an auxiliary verb which indicates a please do s.t.

polite request

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Vte

B*i§ r- Sl'T <fi£V'0

Nihongo de kaite kudasai.

(Please write in Japanese.)

(B)

Vneg

£ &V' -c <££V'0
Eigo o tsukawa nai de kudasai.

(Please don’t use English.)

(i) Vte < TS £ V'

kudasai
MLT (Please talk.)
hanashite kudasai
(Please eat.)
tabete kudasai
(ii) Vneg &V' T*
nai de kudasai
'V (Please don’t talk.)
hanasanai de kudasai
T* (Please don’t eat.)
tabenai de kudasai

(a)
Kono kotoba no imi o oshiete kudasai.
(Please tell me the meaning of this word.)
210 ~ kudasai

(b) &&* < t fc V'T* < fd £ V'0

/ort/ osoku denwashinai de kudasai.
(Please don’t call me late at night.)

1. Kudasai is the polite imperative form of kudasaru, the honorific version

of kureru ‘ give (me) ’ and is used as an auxiliary verb with the te-form
of verbs. («=> kureru2)

2. Dozo emphasizes the speaker’s request and makes it more polite.

(1) £$v\,

Dozo oshiete kudasai.

(Please tell me.)

3. In very informal speech, kudasai may drop. (This form of request is

often used by female speakers.)

(2) a.
Hayaku kite.
(Please come quickly.)

b.
Mada kaeranai de.
(Please don’t go home yet.)

4. The negative question form, seen in (3), makes a request more polite.

(3) h
Ashita hachiji ni kite kudasaimasen ka.
(Would you please come at eight o’clock tomorrow?)

5. Kure, the imperative form of kureru, can also be used in place of

kudasai in informal male speech. {V?e / Vneg nai de) kure is the least
polite request form.

(4) a.
Boku to isshoni kite kure.
(Come with me (please).)

b. Ts*'— <tlo
Apato ni wa konai de kure.
(Don’t come to my apartment (please).)
 -kun 211

I
■kun % *«/•

a suffix attached to the first or last

name of a male equal or to the first
or last name of a person whose status
<
?
]
[REL. -sama (-chart] -san)]

or rank is lower than the speaker’s <

( i ) Last Name
kun
lfiP3 H (Mr. Yamada)
Yamada-kun
(ii) First Name
kun
icSR ^ (Taro)
Taro-kun
(iii) Last Name First Name
kun
Uiffl ^ (Mr. Taro Yamada)
Yamada Taro-kun

(a) tU i> L, —jSpgV'i+fl*.

Moshi. moshi. Ichiro-kun imasu ka.
(Hello, is Ichiro in?)

(b)
Taguchi-kun ga rainen kekkonsuru soda.
(I heard that Mr. Taguchi will get married next year.)

(c) HO-m
Taguchi Ichiro-kun. shoshin omedeto.
(Mr. Ichiro Taguchi, congratulations on your promotion.)

A male may address females of lower rank by -kun. A female student may
address males of equal or lower rank by -kun. Such addresses are com¬
monly used in situations such as schools and companies.
212 kurai

kurai <bt' PrU

| approximate quantity or extent | approximately; about

[REL. goro\ hodo (bakari)]

4 Key Sentence

Number-
Counter

jKm ?HfT& "C* <

Tokyo kara Sanfuranshisuko made hikoki de kujikan kurai kakaru / ka-

9
karimasu.

(It’s about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San Francisco.)

Formation

(i) Number-Counter <

kurai
ISflfr < (about four volumes)
yonsatsu kurai
HA < (about a hundred people)
hyakunin kurai
(ii) Demonstrative {Pronoun / Adjective} < fbV'
kurai
{/ d co} < V' (about this much / to about this extent)
[kore I kono] kurai
{•£ ix / •£ C>} <fbV' (about that much / to about that extent)
[sore I sono} kurai
[foil I fo<D] < b V' ((referring to an object that is removed from both
[are / a no] kurai the speaker and the hearer) about that much /
to about that extent)
[btl I b'<0} < CbV' (about how much? / to about what extent?)
[dore I do no) kurai
(iii) Interrogative Pronoun <
kurai
V' < h < *bV' (about how much?)
ikura kurai
 kurai / kureru1 213

(a) A:
5o/70 kuruma wa ikura gurai deshita ka.
(About how much was that car?)

B : W3C-KtfPK ibV'T'Lfco
Hyakugojuman'en kurai deshita.
(It was about 1,500,000 yen.)

(b) X5X Lfco

Sumisu-san wa Kyoto ni yonkagetsu kurai itte imashita.
(Mr. Smith was in Kyoto for about four months.)

Yamada-san gurai eigo ga dekireba tanoshii desyd ne.

(It must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada
(lit. to the extent of Mr.Yamada).)

(d) %Ltz^X ZtiC b^<DZ. kiiftfrV $.i-£0

Watashi datte sore gurai no koto wa wakarimasu yo.
(Even I can understand that sort of thing (lit. things of that extent).)

Kurai may be freely replaced by gurai without a change in meaning.

kureru1 <n<5 »■ (Gr. 2)

S.o. whose status is not higher than < give

the speaker’s gives s.t. to the first \ [REL. agerux\ morau*]
person or to s.o. with whom the \
speaker empathizes. .

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object

j fi m | k) # ! £ < Kti 1 < nt. Lfc„

Okawa-san \ wa {watashi j ni) hon | o kureta / kuremashita.

(Mr. Okawa gave me a book.)

214 kureru1

(a) tf/Hi (g(c)fpj£ < Lfcfro

Biru wa (kimi ni) nani o kuremashita ka.
(What did Bill give to you?)

(b) k&
Kawamura-san wa watashi no musume ni rekodo o kureta.
(Mr. Kawamura gave my daughter a record.)

1. Kureru, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means

‘give*. Unlike the English give, however, kureru is used only when
the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker
empathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (1) is
unacceptable. (If the speaker empathizes with Mr. Ito, (1) is considered
acceptable. Addressing someone as “ Mr. Ito ”, however, is too formal in
such a situation.)

(1)

* Kawaguchi-san wa itsumo Ito-san ni tabako o kureru.

(Mr. Kawaguchi always gives Mr. Ito cigarettes.)

2. When the giver is the first person, kureru cannot be used.

(2)
*Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake o kureta.
(I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.)

In this case, ageru must be used.

(3) jftli If fc0

Watashi wa Nakajima-san ni sake o ageta.
(I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.)

Note that when the subject is the first person, kureru-sentences are not
grammatical even if the receiver is someone the speaker empathizes
with, as in (4).

(4) 3 3 I'- h£<4tfco

*Watashi wa ni-san ni chokoreto o kureta.

(I gave my elder brother chocolates.)

The reason for this is as follows: Kureru requires the receiver’s point
of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first
person, the event is normally described from the first person’s point of
 kureru1 215

view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in kureru-sentences,

a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (In
this case, ageru must be used.)

3. The polite (honorific) version of kureru is kudasaru (Gr. 1 verb; The

masu-form is kudasaimasu). Example:

(5)
Sensei wa (watashi ni) hon o kudasaimashita.
(My teacher gave me a book.)

4. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in de¬

clarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See KS and Ex. (a).)

[Related Expressions]

I. [1] compares the differences among the three giving and receiving verbs
ageru, kureru and morau in terms of viewpoint when A gives X to B.
The eye sign “ v ” indicates which viewpoint the sentence requires.

[1] a. A (i B |: X
A wa B ni X o ageta.
V (or neutral)
(A gave X to B.)

b. A fi B (c X £ < Mc0
A wa B ni X o kureta.
V
(A gave X to B.)
c. B |i A |: X
B wa A ni X o moratta.
V
(B got X from A.)

If the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is involved

in a giving-receiving situation, the NP which refers to him must occur
in the positions with “ v ”. The reason for this is as follows: When
the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with is involved in
a giving-receiving situation, the situation is normally described from his
viewpoint, and if the NP which refers to him occurs in the positions
without “v”, a viewpoint conflict arises.

II. [2] summarizes the plain forms and polite forms of giving and receiving
verbs:
216 kureru1 / kureru2

[2]

(I) give (s.o.) (s.o.) gives (me) (I) get / receive

(from s.o.)

Plain form ® ^6 (2) < ti%>

yaru kureru morau
(to s.o. of
lower status)

<D fctfs
ageru ® ® Wc/c <
kudasaru itadaku
Polite form <D $ Lh\lz> (honorific) (humble)
sashiageru (masu-form:
(very humble)
kudasaimasu)

(®: Gr. 1 verb; (2): Gr. 2 verb)

Note the different degree of politeness in each verb (particularly, yaru,
ageru and sashiageru).

kureru2 aux. v. (Gr. 2)

S.o. does s.t. as a favor to the first 5 do s.t. (for me or s.o.); do me

f
person or to s.o. with whom the > or s.o. a favor by doing s.t.
speaker empathizes. £ [REL. ageru2; kureru*;
morau2]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vte

X j fi (% ! (-) ?7 \ & lot < kite 1 < tit Lte0

Chichi | wa (watashi j ni) kamera j o katte kureta / kuremashita.

(My father bought a camera for me.)

 kureru2 217

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vte

it % * UCZibx < tltz 1 < tit. Ltc0

Michio wa watashi 0 nagusamete kureta / kuremashita.

(Michio consoled me.)

Vte <Jl/£
kureru
15tt (s.o. (will) talks for my sake)
h ana shite kureru
<;fl£ (s.o. (will) eats for my sake)
tabete kureru

(a) ©f±(fij£)>{r —
Haha wa (watashi ni) keki o yaite kureta.
(My mother baked a cake for me.)

(b) V <*vCV'Sc
Woka-san wa watashi no musuko ni eigo o oshiete kurete iru.
(Ms. Walker is kindly teaching my son English.)

(c) ^ii{±(fe^/t{c)fpI$:LT<n^L/i^0
Kodomotachi wa (anata ni) nani o shite kuremashita ka.
(What did your children do for you?)

1. Kureru is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte. The meaning of Vte

kureru is “ someone does the first person (or someone with whom the
speaker empathizes) a favor by doing something”. Like sentences with
kureru as a main verb, sentences with Vte kureru are stated from the
viewpoint of the person who receives the favor and the receiver must
be the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with (usually a
member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (la) is grammatical, but (lb)
is not. («=> kureru*)

(1) a. jm — 7 k'R^X < ixfco

Shiran a i hi to ga watashi ni kora o katte kureta.
(A stranger bought cola for me.)
218 kureru2

b. — < ftfco
* Wafas/?/ wa shiranai hi to ni kora o katte kureta.
(I bought cola for a stranger.)
(In the case in (lb), ageru ‘ give ’ must be used. («=> ageru2)) Note
that if the subject is the first person, sentences with Wte kureru are
ungrammatical even if the person who receives the favor is someone
the speaker empathizes with, as in (2). (See kurerul, Note 2.)

(2) fetter <ftfco

*Watashi wa haha ni keki o yaite kureta.
(I baked a cake for my mother.)
In this case, ageru must be used. («=> ageru2)

2. As in KS(B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the

direct object, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b)
are ungrammatical.

(3) a.
*Michio wa watashi ni watashi o nagusamete kureta.
b. <*ifc0
*Michio wa watashi ni nagusamete kureta.
3. If the main verb of the sentence is intransitive, the person receiving
the benefit of the action is not marked by ni. Therefore, (4) is un¬
grammatical.

(4)
* Minna wa watashi ni hataraite kureta.
(Everybody worked for me.)

In this case, no tame ni ' for the sake of’ is used, as in (5). (=> tame)

(5)
Minna wa watashi no tame ni hataraite kureta.
(Everybody worked for my sake.)

4. The polite (honorific) version of Wte kureru is Wte kudasaru. Example:

(6)
Sensei wa watashi ni hon o kashite kudasatta.
(My teacher kindly lent me a book.)

5. Note that in sentences like “ Mr. A taught me — ”, “ Mr. A bought

me — ” and “ Mr. A lent me ~ ”, which usually imply that the speaker
received some sort of favor, Wte kureru (or kudasaru) should be used,
 kureru2 / kuru1 219

though in English this is not usually explicitly expressed. In Japanese,

without the auxiliary verbs kureru or kudasaru, such sentences don’t
convey the idea that the speaker received a favor.

6. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in de¬

clarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See KS(A), Exs. (a) and (c).)

[Related Expressions]

Ageru, kureru and morau and all their polite and non-polite versions are
used as auxiliary verbs with Vfe. (Auxiliary verbs ageru, kureru and morau
are explained under ageru2, kureru2 and morau2, respectively.) When these
verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, the same viewpoint rules stated in kureru1
Related Expression I apply, except that there is no neutral viewpoint.

kuru1 V. (Irr.)

} S.o. or s.t. moves in a direction to- come; visit; show up

> wards the speaker or the speaker’s [REL. iku'l
} viewpoint or area of empathy.

♦ Key Sentence

Noun (place)

hLtz ^ / Id
Tanaka-san ga ashita uchi e 1 ni kuru 1 kimasu.

(Mr. Tanaka will come to my home tomorrow.)

(a) 'r'y*s — \±%<D 7 s' —=7-4 Lfcfro

Nanshi wa kino pad ni kimashita ka.
(Did Nancy come to the party yesterday?)

(b)
Raishu Kiguchi-san ga Nagoya ni kuru soda.
(I was told that Mr. Kiguchi is coming to Nagoya next week.)
220 kuru1

(c) ’LL, t U <'4§3 9 IcfoT < fi $ V\

Moshi. moshi. kanai ga kitara sugu kaeru yd ni itte kudasai.
(Hello, please tell my wife to come home right away if she (lit. comes
to see you) drops by.)

(d)
Kyo wa mada shin bun ga konai.
(Today’s newspaper hasn’t come yet.)

(e)
Boku no kenkyushitsu ni ashita kite kudasai.
(Please come to my office tomorrow.)

Kuru commonly describes a movement towards a place where the speaker

physically exists, as in KS and Ex. (d). However, it can also describe a
movement in a direction where the speaker has placed his viewpoint or
where he feels strong empathy. For example, in Ex. (a) the speaker, who
apparently did not attend the party, is taking the viewpoint of the hearer,
who did attend. In Ex. (c) the speaker is phoning and is not at the hearer’s
house, yet he is taking the hearer’s viewpoint, a typical example of the
psychological fusion between speaker and hearer. In Ex. (b), it is possible that
the speaker lives nearer Nagoya than Mr. Kiguchi does and feels that Mr.
Kiguchi is entering his (the speaker’s) territory or area of strong empathy.
And again, in Ex. (e), the use of kuru indicates that the speaker’s office as well
as his house can be considered his territory or area of empathy.

[Related Expression]

If a movement is towards a place where the speaker can place his viewpoint,
kuru is used, but if a movement is towards a place where the speaker cannot
place his viewpoint, iku is used. (■=> iku1)
In Exs. (a) and (c) both kuru and iku are acceptable. The difference is that
the use of kuru shifts the focus of the sentence to the hearer’s viewpoint while
iku shifts it to the speaker’s viewpoint.
 kuru2 221

kuru2 3|55 aux. v. {In.)

An auxiliary verb which indicates the come about; grow; come to;
beginning of some process or con¬ begin to
tinuation of some action up to a cur¬ [REL. ~hajimeru]
rent point of time.

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Vte (process)
% f± yt° a. — ? ~ />L irtfrr>X L tzQ
Watashi wa conpyuta ga sukoshi wakatte kita 1 kimashita.
(Now I have begun to understand computers.)

(B)

Vte

it
fi, 0# <D M&H £ IscA/T?
Watashi wa iroiro Nihon no rekishisho o yonde kita / kimashita.

(Up to now I’ve been reading various Japanese histories.)

(i) Vre
kuru
.£-< hh T* / %tz. (s.t. begins / has begun to swell)
fukuran de kuru / kita
4'ot (s.t. begins / has begun to grow big)
o/r/Arc/ raffe Art/rn / kita

(a) t-* £
Tenisu o shite itara kyuni ame ga futte kita.
(Suddenly, while we were playing tennis, it began to rain.)

(b)
Gogo kara atama ga itaku natte kimashita.
(Lit. My head began to ache in the afternoon. ( = My headache started
in the afternoon.))
222 kuru2

(c) fAlircor6i:ot^tfco
Watashi wa konogoro futotte kimashita.
(I’ve started to gain weight these days.)

Ano ko wa konogoro zuibun kireini natte kita ne.

(That girl has become very pretty lately, hasn’t she?)

(e) Lfctf, b 4>»Ay*Cfr < o i> 9 T'-fo

Ima made takusan hon o yonde kimashita ga. kore kara mo yonde iku
tsumori desu.
(Up to now I have read quite a few books and I intend to read from now
on, too.)

(f) 4^58^3(5* Lfc**, 9-Ci-o

Ima made asonde kimashita ga. kore kara wa isshdkenmei benkyosuru
tsumori desu.
(Up to now I haven’t been working hard (lit. have been playing), but
from now on I intend to work very hard.)

1. Vte kuru expresses inception as in Exs. (a) through (d), or continuation of

s.t. up to a current point of time, as in Exs. (e) and (f). In the former
case the V is a verb that indicates a process that takes some time to com¬
plete, such as naru ‘ become ’, wakaru ‘ understand ’, futoru * gain weight
yaseru * lose weight ’, fukuramu ‘ swell ’ and chijimu ‘ shrink ’. In the
latter case the V is any non-punctual verb.

2. In the following sentences kuru is used more as a full verb than as an

auxiliary verb. The meaning of Vte kuru is the same as that of Vfe
(i.e., * V and ’) and of kuru. (•=> kuru1)

1
( )

Watashi wa kaisha ni basu ni none kimasu.

(Lit. I ride a bus and come to my company. ( = 1 come to work
by bus.))

(2) ISR#&-Cia44§o-t3fe-t < tz$V\

Yoji made ni wa kaette kite kudasai.
(Lit. Please return and come here by 4:00. ( = Please come back
by 4:00.))
 kuru2 223

(3) Lfc0
Oishii keki o katte kimashita.
(Lit. I bought a delicious cake and came here. ( = 1 bought you
a delicious cake.))

(4)
Tomodachi o uchi ni tsurete kita.
(I brought my friends to my house.)

(5)
Ano hon motte kita?
(Did you bring that book (lit. carry that book and come)?)

(6)
Chotto mite kuru yo.
(Lit. I’ll just look and come back here. (= I’ll just go and take
a look at it.))

(7)
Kasa o totte kimasu.
(Lit. I’ll get my umbrella and come back here. ( = 1*11 go and get
my umbrella.))

3. Note that the experiencer of the inception process or the continuation of

the action must be the speaker himself or someone with whom the
speaker empathizes. In other words, in this usage, what is expressed
by Vte kuru2 involves the speaker in a very intimate way.

[Related Expression]

When kuru2 means inception (the beginning of a process, that is), it is very
close to Vmasu hajimeru ‘ begin to — ’ Exs. (a) through (d) can all be para¬
phrased using Vmasu hajimeru. However, kuru implies that s.t. happens to
the speaker or whomever he can empathize with, whereas Vmasu hajimeru
lacks the speaker’s involvement with a process of inception. («=> ~hajimeru)
224 mada

mada adv.

S.o. or s.t. is in some state he or it still; (not) yet

was in some time ago. [REL. mo]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Predicate (affirmative)

ft tLTz / i'£f o
Kimura-kun wa mada hirugohan o tabete iru / imasu.

(Mr. Kimura is still eating his lunch.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Predicate (negative)

±H£A, ft ar¬ Zo zt £ /&lJ£-£A/o

Ota-san wa mada sono koto o shiranai / shirimasen.

(Mr. Ota still doesn’t know about it.)

(a)
O-sake wa mada arimasu ka.
(Do you still have sake})

(b) %\t t. ti 0
Watashi wa mada Nihon e itta koto ga nai.
(I have not been to Japan yet.)

(c) A: 5Ltzfro
Mo hirugohan o tabemashita ka.
(Have you eaten your lunch yet?)

Bi: V'V'X.,
le. mada tabete imasen.
(No, I haven’t eaten it yet.)

B2 l v'V'x., t.tfX'i'o
fe. mada desu.
(No, not yet.)
 mada / made 225

1. Mada expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state
that he or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, mada
always corresponds to ‘ still In negative sentences, however, it cor¬
responds to ‘ yet ’ when an action has not yet been taken, and * still *
in other situations, as in Ex. (c) and KS(B), respectively.
2. The abbreviated sentence seen in B2 of Ex. (c) is used only when the
response to a question is a negative one.

[Related Expression]

The concept which mada expresses is opposite to that of mo. [1] illustrates
the difference between the idea conveyed by mada and the one conveyed by
mo.

[1] a. mada X is in the state A

-> time
T
point of reference
(X is still in the state A)

b. mo X is in the state A
-* time
T
point of reference
(X is not in the state A

made Prt•

a particle to indicate a spatial, tem¬ as far as; till; up to; until;

poral or quantitative limit or an un¬ through; even
expected animate / inanimate object [REL. made nij
226 made

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Noun Noun
(time) (time)

li =8 SS# tCM t -r=-% £ Lfc /

Kino wa sanji Kara goji made tomodachi to tenisu o shita /

It Lfc0
shimashita.

(Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with my friend.)

(B)

Noun Noun
(location) (location)

tt* T- HNpM
3ft‘3&‘5/
Tokyo kara Kyoto made shinkansen de sanjikan kakaru /
&-f-0
kakarimasu.

(It takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf* nonpast

H t ^fot V'X < tz £ V'0

Watashi ga iku made uchi de mane ite kudasai.

(Please wait at home until I get there.)

(D)

Number-Counter

Z<D sfc —/u It -^A

Afoflo Aort/ wa nisennin made haireru / hairemasu.
(This hall can hold up to 2,000 people.)
 made 227

(E)

Noun (unex¬
pected object)

h<r> A n fc-fA + n *S tv
Ano hito wa nezumi ya sukanku wa mochiron hebi made

sukida 1 sukidesu.
(He even likes snakes, not to mention rats and skunks.)

( i ) Noun (time / location) tX

made
3l^F / (until five / as far as school)
goji / gakko made
(ii) Vinf-nonpast %X
made
tU'f tX (until s.o. talks / talked)
hanasu made
tX (until s.o. eats / ate)
taberu made
(iii) Number-Counter tX
made
13+A tX (up to forty people)
yonjunin made
3l#C tX (up to five sheets of paper)
gomai made

(a) Tt V
Amerikajin wa maishu getsuyobi kara kiriyobi made hataraku.
(Americans work every week from Monday through Friday.)

(b) ^1)'b*¥tXlt-$kV'X+fr<'b^Xlr0
Eki kara daigaku made wa aruite juppun gurai desu.
(Lit. It’s about 10 minutes from the station to the university on foot.
(= It’s about a ten-minute walk from the station to the university.))
228 made / made ni

(c) fco t 9 tX'&^ZAsX'tZo

Sumisu-san wa sashimi wa mochiron, natto made taberu n desu yo.
(Mr. Smith even eats fermented soybeans, not to mention raw fish.)

(d) JRfTfctfWSS-ew
Hikoki ga deru made robi de tomodachi to hanashite ita.
(Until the plane left I was talking with my friend in the lobby.)

* X made ’ and * until X * do not have the same meaning when X represents
a duration of time. For example, in (1) raishu no getsuyobi made means
that the speaker will be absent next Monday; therefore, the corresponding
English is ‘until next Tuesday ’.

(i)

Watashi wa raishu no getsuyobi made yasumimasu.

(I’ll be absent until next Tuesday.)

made ni Prt-

a particle that indicates a time limit by; by the time (when)

on / for an action [REL. made; made de; mae ni]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Noun (time)

% (i St' f£
Watashi wa juji made ni kaeru / kaerimasu.

(I’ll come home by 10 o’clock.)

 made ni 229

(B)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf» nonpast

$.X M C<D # £ fft/uT' < tz £ V'0

Gakko ga hajimaru made ni kono hon o yonde oite kudasai.

(Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.)

KS(A):

N (time) t.X Cl
made ni
30# $.X K (by five o’clock)
goji made ni
hLtc -&X (by tomorrow)
ashita made ni
KS(B):

Vinf* nonpast £ X Cl
made ni
f§i~ %X (by the time s.o. talks / talked)
hanasu made ni
'k'<Z> $.X (c (by the time s.o. eats / ate)
taberu made ni

(a) A: WfV'V'T* L X 9 fi'o

Nanji made ni kuko ni ikeba ii desho ka.
(By what time should I go to the airport?)

B : < ti £ v\
Shuppatsu no ichijikan mae made ni kite kudasai.
(Please come one hour before departure.)

(b) t Mtib fc t£0

Boku wa kono repoto o ichigatsu hatsuka made ni kakiagenakereba
naranai n da.
(I have to finish writing this paper by January 20.)
230 made ni

(c) V < £*C-(£#£Hflfrffi/vX* L$. V'& Lfco

Jettoki ga Pari ni tsuku made ni hon o sansatsu yonde shimaimashita.
(By the time the jet got to Paris, I had finished reading three books.)

[Related Expressions]

I. Made ni cannot be used with a verb that indicates a continuous action.

Instead, made ‘ continuously until / to X ’ is used.

[1] /*£-CfcV'50
Yamada wa raigetsu made / *made ni iru.
(Yamada will stay here until / *by next month.)

[2] /*&VlzftoXV'5o
Watashi wa goji made / *made ni matte iru.
(I’ll be waiting until / *by five o’clock.)

II. When made ni ‘ by ’ is preceded by an informal nonpast verb, it may be

replaced by mae ni ‘ before ’. The difference between the two is the
same as the English ‘ by ’ vs. ‘ before ’. Thus, if made ni in Ex. (c)
is replaced by mae niy the sentence means ‘ Before the jet got to Paris
I had finished reading three books.’ More examples of the different uses
follow:

[3] a. l*mlZC<Di±^ Uto

Raigetsu made ni / *mae ni kono shigoto o shimasu.
(I will finish this work by / *before next month.)

b.
Jugyd mae ni / *made ni yubinkyoku ni iku.
(I will go to the post office before / *by class.)

III. Made de, a particle which means ‘ s.t. continues until / up to X (and
stops at X, although it can continue beyond X) * is similar to made ni.
The differences in meaning can be seen in the examples below. In [4]
made ni is unacceptable because Lesson 10 is not the limit of domain
(which is Lesson 20). In [5] made de is unacceptable because no im¬
portant items appear after Lesson 10.

[4] /*£VIZ&
bVti-o
Kono kyokasho wa nijukka made arimasu ga kongakki wa jukka
made de / *made ni owarimasu.
(There are up to twenty lessons in this textbook, but this semester
we will stop at Lesson 10.)
 made ni / mae ni 231

[5] *^fc££tt+&a:7?l= / ???

Kono kyokasho wa nijukka made arimasu ga, daijina koto wa

jukka made ni / HI made de zenbu dete kimasu.
(There are (lit. up to) twenty lessons in this textbook, but the
important items are introduced (lit. appear) by Lesson 10.)

mae ni Rifle conJ-

?? in front of or before some situation before; in front of

<> comes about [REL. made ni\ uchi ni]
(ANT, a to de\ ushiro ni)

4 Key Sentences
(A)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf* nonpast

'y -v 9 y > £ k> (i 0 ^ ff < fill \z 0*fg £ tt&Lfc /

Jakuson-san wa Nihon e iku mae ni nihongo o benkyoshita /
L&Lfco
shimashita.

(Mr. Jackson studied Japanese before he went to Japan.)

(B)

Noun (event)

»fl K
fifj MM £ 3|V'fc/3|£SLfc«
Ryoko mae ni kaze o hiita / hikimashita.

(Before the trip I caught cold.)

232 mae ni

(C)

Noun (place)

SR <D fctf CM t* hz> 1 h\)

Eki no mae ni tabako- ya ga aru / arimasu.

(There is a tobacco shop in front of the station.)

(i) Vinf*nonpast (c
mae ni
(d (before s.o. talks / talked)
hanasu mae ni
M (before s.o. eats / ate)
taberu mae ni
(ii) N (O (c
no mae ni
<D M (C (before breakfast)
asagohan no mae ni

(a)
Nihonjin wa gohan o taberu mae ni " Itadakimasu.” to iu.
(The Japanese say “ Itadakimasu” (lit. I humbly receive (this food))
before eating their meals.)

(b)
Teira-san wa Nihon e iku mae ni Hawai ni yorimashita.
(Mr. Taylor stopped in Hawaii before he went to Japan.)

(c) o/b0
Watashi wa shiken no mae ni eiga o mi ni itta.
(Before the exam I went to see a movie.)

1. Mae ni is used when the speaker knows when something is going to take
place. Thus, the following uses of mae ni are marginal.

(1) £ L i. bo
}Ame ga furu mae ni kaerimasho.
(Let’s go home before it rains.)
 mae ni / mai- 233

(2) ?o
? ? Wasureru mae ni itte oko.
(I’ll say it (in advance) before I forget.)

(See Related Expression for proper expressions.)

2. The verb before mae ni is always nonpast, even if the tense of the main
verb is past, as in Ex. (b).

[Related Expression]

When the speaker knows that something is about to happen but does not know
exactly when it is to happen, uchi ni ‘ before ’ is used instead of mae ni.
Thus, mae ni in (1) and (2) of Note 1 should be replaced by nai uchi ni,
as in [1] and [2]. (*=> uchi ni)

[1] it J: 9o
Ame ga furanai uchi ni kaerimashd.
(Let’s go home before it rains.)

[2]
Wasurenai uchi ni itte oko.
(I’ll say it (in advance) before I forget.)

mai- pref.

a prefix which means ‘ every (unit every; per

of time)’ [REL. goto ni]

♦ Key Sentence

Noun of
time

%L It % B A'
Watashi wa mai nichi ichimairu oyogu / oyogimasu.

(I swim one mile every day.)

234 mai-

^ N of time
mai
fit (every morning)
mai asa
^ (every month)
mai tsuki

(a) *CV'S*5*£0
Hiroshi wa maiban Michiko ni denwashite iru soda.
(I heard that Hiroshi calls Michiko every evening.)

Taifu wa maiji nijukkiro no hayasa de kita ni susunde iru.

(The typhoon is moving north at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour.)
(c) Itfi 0 <o
Watashi wa maitoshi ichido wa Nihon e iku.
(I go to Japan at least once every year.)

(d) v-
Jin wa maishoku sarada o taberu.
(Jean eats salad at every meal.)

1. Mai is prefixed to nouns which express a unit of time. Nouns like shoku
* meal * can also be used, as seen in Ex. (d). In this case, shoku implies
the time at which one eats. However, the following phrases are all un¬
acceptable because the nouns following mai do not indicate a time or
period of time. (The correct expressions are given in parentheses.)

(1) a. *&A ‘ every person ’ (-f^s T CD A / A f i ^ // &)

* mai-hi to / nin (subete no hito / hito wa
minna)
b. ‘ every teacher ’ (-f-^T <T>%%L /
*mai-sensei (subete no sensei /

sensei wa minna)
c. ‘every house’ (1~^X <D% / A/&)
*mai-ie / ka / ya (subete no ie / ie wa
minna)
 mai- 235

Mai cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded by numbers;

thus, the following phrases are unacceptable. («=> goto ni)

(2) a. *j$H0 ‘ every three days ’

*mai-mikka

ja¬
*
il
‘every other year’
*mai-ninen
c. ‘ every one week ’
*mai-isshu

(See Related Expresssion [la] for correct expressions.)

2. Mai is usually used with Japanese-origin words of one or two syllables

or shorter Chinese-origin words. Thus, compounds like those in (3) are
awkward.

(3) a. ‘every holiday*

lllmai-yasumi
b. ??? ') 7*7s ‘every Christmas’
? ? ? mai-kurisumasu

c. *£*^$£<73 0 ‘ every Children’s Day ’

*mai-kodomo-no-hi

(See Related Expression [lb] for correct expressions.)

[Related Expression]

Goto ni also means ‘ every *, but its usage differs from that of mai. First,
goto ni is not a prefix but a suffix. Second, it is used with nouns of time
preceded by numbers or specific dates, as seen in [1]. (<=> goto ni)

[1] a. Period of time

H0 t (Z ‘ every three days *
mikka goto ni
—11" ‘ every hour ’
ichijikan goto ni
b. Specific date
9 }) 7s t ‘ every Christmas ’
Kurisumasu goto ni
0 £t ‘ every Children’s Day ’
Kodomo-no-hi goto ni
236 mai- / mama

(Cf. 0 £ 1‘ day after day ’; t ‘ year after year ’)

hi-goto ni toshi-goto ni
Third, unlike mait goto ni can also be used with other noun phrases, as
seen in [2].

[2] v?3 y|i#5A^tt0*8S-ca>ir^ogrtfco

Jon wa au hito goto ni nihongo de aisatsu o shita.
(John greeted every person he met in Japanese.)

mama £ £ n.

An already given situation or condi¬ as it is; unchanged; undis

tion remains unaltered. turbed; leave as is, remain
[REL. nai de; zu ni]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic Direct
Vinf*past
(subject) Object

& | fi ■r I £ Ol-ftz
Ototo | wa terebi j o tsuketa mama nete shimatta / shimaimashita.

(My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.)

(B)

Topic Direct
Vinf»past
(subject) Object

$ t" 1/ tf |
| tt Oltfc ££ jfc LX teV'tz. 1 Lfco
Ototo i wa terebi j o tsuketa mama j ni shite oita / okimashita.

(My younger brother left the TV on.)

 mama 237

(C)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vinf*past

m 1 »4 \ & Oltfc it td 1 Vi-0

Ototo ! wa terebi \ o tsuketa mama da 1 desu.

(My younger brother has left the TV on.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun

Z<D IBM | it (0 td / vi-0

Kono heya j wa kind no mama da 1 desu.

(This room is as it was yesterday.)

(E)

Topic Demonstrative
(Direct Object) Pronoun

£ r. | it ZO id LT 43< /43#$-4%
Koko | wa kono mama ni shite oku / okimasu.

(I’ll leave this place as it is.)

(F)

Subject Vinf*past

fHf & Ot £ $. id &o"C V'5 /

Terebi ga tsuita mama ni natte iru / imasu.

(The TV was turned on and is still on).

(G)

&
Vinf«past

tz
m
<D
Noun

W& id V'fc /
Boshi o kabutta mama no gakusei ga kyoshitsu ni ita / imashita.

(A student who kept his hat on was in the classroom.)

238 mama

(i) Vinf*past
mama

tfc ££ (leaving (the light) on)

(idenki o) tsuketa mama

(ii) Adj (/) it

mama

(as s.t. is big)

okii mama

(iii) {Adj (na) stem & / N <D]

na no mama
££ (leaving s.t. inconvenient)
fubenna mama

Hr <D & £ (leaving s.t. as it was)

mukashi no mama

(a) L£V'&
Denki o tsuketa mama nete shimaimashita.
(I fell asleep leaving the light on.)

(b) fc'—
Biru o katta mama nomanakatta.
(I bought beer, but I didn’t drink it.)

(c) Ltc0
Kiita mama o tomodachi ni hanashimashita.
(I told my friend exactly what I heard.)

(d) oiftfctt^,
Ano hito wa are kara zutto neta mama da.
(He’s been in bed (lit. all along) since then.)

(e) j®dj£A,li7 t ])
Takayama-san wa Amerika e itta mama kaeranakatta.
(Mr. Takayama went to America never to return.)

(f)
Kuruma no enjin o kaketa mama ni shite oita.
(I left the car engine on.)
 mama 239

(g) LT&V'T < tZ£v\

Ima no mama ni shite oite kudasai.
(Please leave it as it is now.)

1. The verb before mama has to be nonpast if the verb is negative as in

(1).
(1) a.
Doa o shimenai mama dekakete shimatta.
(I left my house with the door open.)

b. ££
Saydnara no aisatsu mo shinai mama itte shimatta.
(She went away without even saying goodbye.)

If a verb that precedes mama o is non-volitional, the verb can be

nonpast even if the main transitive verb is past, as shown in (2):

(2) a. I
iwareru /1 war eta mama o haratta.
(I paid money as I was told to.)
b.
Omotte iru / ita mama o kaite mita.
(I wrote exactly as I felt.)
2. When mama is followed directly by a verb (other than suru) as in KS(A)
and Exs. (a), (b) and (e), de can be inserted between mama and the
verb. Thus, KS(A) can be rephrased as follows:

(3)
Ototo wa terebi o tsuketa mama de nete shimatta.
(Lit. My younger brother left the TV on, and went to sleep. (=
My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.))
The difference between the mama version and the mama de version is
minimal; the latter sounds more like a coordinate construction as illus¬
trated by the literary translation of (3).

[Related Expressions]

Vinf*nonpast*neg mama can be paraphrased using nai de or zu niy as in:

[1] / tnLSofco
Doa o shimenai mama / nai de / zu ni dekakete shimatta.
(He left his house with the door open.)
240 mama / ~ masho

The mama version focuses on the unaltered situation, but the nai de / zu ni
versions focus primarily on the negative aspect of the verb. The translation
of the former and the latter are ‘ He left with the door open.’ and ‘ He left
without closing the door.’, respectively. (t=> nai de)

~mashd ~ L «k o aux.

a verb ending which indicates the I / We will do s.t.;

first person’s volition or invitation Let’s do s.t.
in formal speech [REL. ~masen /ra]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subject (first person) Vmasu

% | & I*L £. L i 5 o
Watashi j ga kare ni hanashi masho.

(I will talk to him.)

(B)

Vmasu

*7# t. L x b o
Eiga ni iki masho.

(Let’s go to a movie.)

Vmasu LX 5
masho
f|§L£ L X 5 (I / We will talk; Let’s talk.)
hanashimasho
li 9 (I / We will eat; Let’s eat.)
tabemasho
 ~ masho 241

(a) 5a
Watashitachi ga tetsudaimasho.
(We will help you.)

(b) ftasfrtSLj
Watashi ga ikimasho ka.
(Shall 1 go there?)
(c) L J: 5 o
B/ru o nomimasho.
(Let’s drink beer.)

(d)
Kuruma de ikimasho ka.
(Shall we go by car?)

1. Masho is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person’s
volition (KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b)) or invitation (KS(B), Exs. (c) and (d)).
2. The sentence in the KS(A) pattern, which includes the subject X gat
implies that ‘ not others but X will do something ’. If the sentence doesn’t
carry such an implication but simply states the first person’s volition,
the subject is usually omitted. Compare the following sentences:
(1) a. ?o
Sono kaban o mochimashd.
(I’ll carry that bag.)
b. h*. L j: 50
Watashi ga sono kaban o mochimashd.
(I will carry that bag.)
3. In invitation situations like KS(B), the subject is usually omitted. (Exs.
(c) and (d))
4. Masho with the question marker ka asks whether the hearer will accept
the speaker’s volitional action or invitation. (Exs. (b) and (d))
5. Negative volition is usually expressed by simple nonpast negatives, as
seen in (2).
(2)
Watashi wa pati ni ikimasen.
(I won’t go to the party.)
242 ~mashd

(The negative volitional ending mait as in ikumai * won’t go ’, is not

commonly used in modern colloquial Japanese.)

6. “ Let’s not do s.t.” is expressed by different constructions.

(A) Vinf no wa yamemasho / yoshimasho. (Lit. Let’s stop doing s.t.)

Example:

(3) =f 4— Mff < L i ? / <£ Lt L J: ?0

Pali ni iku no wa yamemasho / yoshimasho.
(Let’s not go to the party.)

(B) Vneg naide okimasho (Lit. Let’s leave ~ undone.) (<=> oku)
Example:

(4) ~7 \/ y K ^ £ L J: 9 „
Fureddo ni wa i wan aide okimasho.
(Let’s not tell Fred.)

7. In indirect speech or in sentences with verbs like omou ‘ think * and

kesshinsuru ‘ make up one’s mind \ the informal volitional form is used.
(For the informal volitional forms of verbs, see Appendix 1.)

(5) 5
Murata-san wa kohi o nomo to itta.
(Mr. Murata suggested we drink coffee.)

(6) 9 fcSv'i-to
Watashi wa rainen Nihon e iko to omoimasu.
(I think I will go to Japan next year.)

8. Unlike English, in Japanese the volitional future and the simple future
are expressed by different forms. Thus, “ I think I will see a movie.”
is expressed by either (7) or (8).

(7) lUSBfclSSrjLJ:
Watashi wa eiga o mi yd to omou.

(8)
Watashi wa eiga o miru to omou.
(7) is an example of the volitional future, in which the speaker’s voli¬
tion is expressed, while (8) is an example of the simple future.

[Related Expression]

An invitation by the speaker can also be expressed through negative ques¬

tions, as in [1],
 ~mashd / mieru 243

[1] =r 4 —
Pati ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you (like to) go to the party?)

In invitation situations, negative questions are more polite than mashd-

sentences because the former are asking whether or not the hearer will do
something and, therefore, are hearer-oriented, while the latter do not consider
the hearer’s volition and are more speaker-oriented.

mieru (Gr. 2)

S.o. or s.t. is passively / spontane- be visible; (can) see; look ~

i; ously visible. [REL. mirareru\

4 Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (experiencer) Visible Object

% (!■-) li }§< cD i)(D

Watashi (ni) wa toku no mono ga yoku mieru / miemasu.

(Lit. To me distant objects are very visible. ( = 1 can see distant objects
very well.))

(B)

Topic (location) Visible Object

M fab \ (tt) m i MHZ 1

Mado kara | {wa) umi | ga mieru / miemasu.

(Lit. From the window the ocean is visible. ( = We can see the ocean
from the window.))
 244 mieru

(C)

Adj (adverbial
Visible Object
form) / N+rt/

3-B It 111 j J&S i£<

Kyo wa yama j ga chikaku mieru / miemasu.

(Today the mountains look near.)

(a)
Watashi ni wa ki no ue no chisana tori ga mieta.
(I could see small birds on the tree.)

(b) 5,^.5o
Tokyo Tawa kara wa Tokyo no machi ga yoku mieru.
(From Tokyo Tower you can get a good view of the towns of Tokyo.)

(c) Dfo^<I.t5o
Ano hito wa toshi yori zutto wakaku mieru.
(He looks much younger than his age.)
iiimiiiii

(d)
Onna no hito wa yoru kireini mieru.
(Women look beautiful at night.)
(e)
Nakajima-san wa gakusei ni mieru.
(Mr. Nakajima looks like a student.)

1. Mieru can mean ‘ look — ’ if it is preceded by the adverbial form of an

Adj (/) as in Ex. (c) or of an Adj (na) as in Ex. (d) or by a N ni as in
Ex. (e).

2. Mieru can be used as a polite version of kuru ‘come’ as in:

(1) to

O-ka-san. o-kyaku-san ga mieta yo.

(Mom, we have company!)

2
( )

Gakkai ni wa Ueda-sensei mo mieta.

(Lit. To the academic meeting appeared Prof. Ueda, too. ( = Prof.
Ueda also attended the academic conference.))
 mieru 245

Mieru can be used as an honorific polite verb because it is a more indirect

reference to a superior’s act of ‘coming*. In other words, the speaker
is referring to a superior’s appearance as if it were a spontaneous, natural
phenomenon of ‘ visibility ’.

3. A visible object is marked by ga, not by o.

[Related Expression]

Mieru is different from the regular potential form of miru, i.e., mirareruy in
that mieru indicates that s.t. or s.o. is passively visible regardless of the voli¬
tion of the speaker; mirareruy on the other hand, indicates that the speaker
or the subject of the sentence can see s.t. or s.o. actively rather than pas¬
sively. Thus,

[1]
Boku wa me ga mienai / *mirarenai.
(I’m blind.)

[2]
Terebi o katta kara terebi ga mirareru / *mieru.
(Because I bought a TV I can now watch TV.)

[3] ZT'&btiti? I
Ano eiga wa doko de miraremasu / *miemasu ka.
(Where can we see the movie?)

[4] J; < — Mr-

Yoku mienai / *mirarenai kara suteji no chikaku ni iko.
(We can’t see it well, so let’s go closer to the stage.)

[5] < fcofco

Tonari ni takai biru ga tana node yama ga mie / mirare naku natta.
(Because a tall building was built next door, the mountains are not
visible any more / we can’t see the mountains any more.)

Note that in [5] both mieru and mirareru are possible, depending on how the
speaker perceives the visible object; if he thinks that the situation is beyond
his control and has to give up looking at the mountains, he uses mieru; if
not, he uses mirareru.
246 miru

miru <*ux- v. (Gr. 2)

s do s.t. to see what it’s like or what j do s.t. and see; try to do s.t.
< will happen \ [REL. yo to suru]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Vte

% I it 0* o /HS & tnAjV

Watashi \ wa Nihon no shosetsu o yonde miru 1 mimasu.

(I will read Japanese novels (to see what they are like).)

czn&B
Vte
miru
Ml'C (try to talk)
hanashite miru
i^^X (try to eat)
tabete miru

(a) to 9 &=» y-t— b tz^tz<DXft'?X&'& Lfc0

Omoshiro sona konsato datta node itte mimashita.
(Since it seemed interesting, I went to the concert (to see what it was like).)

(b) c co^iJ#{i*3V'LV'-C'i-<J;o 'k'<X?y&i't)'o

Koko no sashimi wa oishiidesu yo. Tabete mimasu ka.
(Sashimi here is good. Will you try it?)

Miru is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte meaning ‘make an attempt at

doing s.t. to see what it is like or what will happen

[Related Expression]

A similar expression, — yd to surut means simply ‘ try to do s.t.’ When

these two expressions are used in the past tense, however, their meanings are
not the same. For example, [la] means that Mr. Brown did put on Tom’s
undershirt, whereas [lb] means that Mr. Brown tried to put it on, with the
implication that he couldn’t or didn’t actually do it.
 miru I mo1 247

[1] a. b^O'sv'yZTtTfttzo
Buraun-san wa Tomu no shatsu o kite mita.
(Mr. Brown tried Tom’s undershirt on.)

b. zf7 $ Asl* h AcOv'-r y 9 t Ltzo

Buraun-san wa Tomu no shatsu o kiyd to shita.
(Mr. Brown tried to put Tom’s undershirt on.)

mo1 prt.

a particle which indicates that a too; also; (not) — either

proposition about the preceding ele¬
ment X is also true when another
similar proposition is true

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subject

% ^4 fi 1 -<?■*.
Watashi mo gakusei da / desu.

(Lit. I, too, am a student. ( = I’m a student, too.))

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object

% fi IS +/S5U4+.
Watashi wa supeingo mo hanasu / hanashimasu.

(I speak Spanish, too.)

248 mo1

(C)

Topic (subject) Indirect Object

% Ii ftUl $ ^ (c ii /wiv b £ h\f z /

Watashi wa Murayama -san ni mo purezento o ageru /

agemasu.

(I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.)

(i) N <,
mo
fi, 4> (I, too / me (as direct object), too)
watashi mo
(ii) N (Prt) 4,
mo
0# ((c) 4, (in / to Japan, too)
Nihon (ni) mo

T 7 V ft (^) ii (to America, too)

Amerika (e) mo
(iii) N Prt 4>
mo
f- 4> (to / for the teacher, too (indirect object))
sensei ni mo
7y>X frb 4> (from France, too)
Furansu kara mo

4 V 7 T? 4> (in England, too)

Igirisu de mo
HxM t ii (with my friend, too)
tomodachi to mo

fSXSFUtb
(a) b $ jvj 7 £ Asii (0 rfc^)
Hato-san wa Nihon e itta. Ruisu-san mo (Nihon e) itta.
(Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.)
 mo1 249

(b) /Uix — * £ Lx^-fo (l&d:) t L^-fo

Hayashi-san wa tenisu o shimasu. (Kare wa) gorufu mo shimasu.
(Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.)

(c) c <d Hr-e ft #r t v *5 n *. & •£ co mrvi> (if u v ^ *5) n x. £ h0

Kono machi de wa atarashii sakana ga kaemasen. Tonari no machi
de mo {atarashii sakana ga) kaemasen.
(You can’t buy fresh fish in this town. You can’t buy it in the next
town, either.)

1. In general, when the element X mo appears in a sentence, a related

sentence with the element Y (plus particle if necessary) in place of X
mo is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence
like (2) is presupposed.

(1) fi,fi— 3 — ^ ^tr^ o

Watashi wa Nyuydku e mo itta.
(I went to New York, too.)

(2) b 'y'^'iy'otz0
Watashi wa Bosuton e itta.
(I went to Boston.)

Thus, when X mo appears in a sentence, X mo is always the element

under focus in that sentence.

2. There are cases in which X mo is used, although it does not exactly

replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b)
can be spoken after (3a).

(3) a.
Watashi no ie wa ima ga semai.
(The living room of my house is small.)

b.
Sore ni daidokoro mo fubenda.
(On top of that, the kitchen is inconvenient, too.)

In this case, the speaker implies that his house is inconvenient when
he says (3a), and this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where
the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.

3. “ X mo A da ” cannot be used to mean ‘ X is also A’ in the sense that

250 mo1 / mo2

X is A as well as something else. “ X mo A da ” can be used only when

“ Y wa / ga A da ” is presupposed. Thus, (4) does not mean (5). (In
fact, (4) is nonsensical if it is stated by the same person.)

(4)
Watashi wa isha da. *Watashi mo sensei da.
(5) I am a (medical) doctor. I am also a teacher.

The idea that someone is a doctor as well as a teacher is expressed as

in (6).

(6)
Watashi wa isha da. Soshite sensei de mo aru.
(I am a (medical) doctor and also a teacher.)

mo2 prt.

| a marker which indicates emphasis j even; as many / much / long /

...as; (not) even (one); (not) any

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun

9 W' *“ $ A/ (i CA,* MU' <5 / "t" o

Gure-san wa konna muzukashii kanji mo yomeru / yomemasu.

(Mr. Gray can read even difficult katiji like this.)

s'* V 7 cF f\j t*
Harisu-san wa konna yasashii kanji mo yomenai / yomemasen.

(Mr. Harris cannot read even easy katiji like this.)

 mo2 251

(B)

Topic (subject) Quantifier Predicate (affirmative)

% It £ A=F X V'5 /
Watashi wa kanji o hassen mo shitte iru / imasu.

(I know as many as eight thousand kanji.)

(C)

Topic (subject) One Counter Predicate (negative)

% \ it * — o
Watashi \ wa kanji o hito tsu mo shiranai / shirimasen.

(I don’t know even one kanji.)

(D)

Topic (subject) WH-word Predicate (negative)

% 11 fa 1 AsX'LtZo
Watashi wa nani mo tabenakatta / tabemasendeshita.

(I didn’t eat anything.)

(E)

Topic (subject) Wmasu

It % <0 IS £ L fcV' /
Nanshi wa watashi no hanashi o kiki mo shinai / shimasen.

(Nancy doesn’t even listen to me.)

C3SBZ9
KS(A): See mo1 Formation.
KS(B):
Quantifier ^
mo
3l+ i> (as many as fifty)
goju mo
UA t (as many as a hundred people)
hyakunin mo
252 mo2

KS(C):
One Counter
mo
—A ((°ot) even one person)
hi tori mo
—o ii ((not) even one ~)
hitotsu mo

KS(D):
WH-word iy
mo
fnj^ ((not) anything)
nanimo
tztiii ((not) anybody)
dare mo
KS(E):
Vmasu LfrV'
mo shinai
MC t (don’t even talk)
hanashi mo shinai
i> e&V' (don’t even eat)
tabe mo shinai

(a)
Haruo wa ichinensei no tashizan mo matomoni dekinai.
(Haruo cannot do even the first-year addition correctly.)

(b)
Kyo wa kuruma ga jOdai mo ureta.
(As many as ten cars sold today.)

(c) -e (0/x >r - (c\±ix<D^\±-A i>o tz0

Sono pati ni wa onna no ko wa hitori mo konakatta.
(No (lit. Not even one) girl came to the party.)

(d) k£r&D&iiXo
Daremo sono koto o shirimasen.
(Nobody knows about it.)
 mo2 253

Watashi wa Kimura-san ga kureta hon o mada mi mo shite inai.

(I haven’t even seen the book Mr. Kimura gave me yet.)

1. Mo as an emphatic marker is an extended use of mo1. (<=t> mo1) The

following examples show the transition of meaning from the original idea
‘ also* to the emphatic use * even ’.

(1) a.
Gure-san wa hijoni muzukashii kanji mo yomeru.
(Lit. Mr. Gray can read very difficult kanji, too. ( = Mr. Gray
can read even very difficult kanji.))

b. ]) 7,
Harisu-san wa hijoni yasashii kanji mo yomenai.
(Lit. Mr. Harris cannot read very easy kanji, either. ( = Mr.
Harris cannot read even very easy kanji.))

2. Nanimo and daremo are used only in negative sentences. Other WH-
words with mo can be used in both affirmative sentences and negative
sentences.

(2) (always; anytime)

itsumo
if £ (everywhere; anywhere)
dokomo
if h h t> (both; neither of the two ~)
dochiramo
if ? (somehow)
do mo
Note the following examples:

(3) a.
Oki-kun wa itsumo hito ni shinsetsuda.
(Mr. Oki is always kind to people.)

b.
Koyama wa itsumo yakusoku o mamoranai.
(Koyama never keeps his promise.)

3. Wmasu mo is always followed by a negative form of suru ‘do* as in

KS(E) and Ex. (e).
254 mb

mo adv.

S.o. or s.t. is no longer in the same (not) any more; (not) any longer;
state that he or it was in some time already; yet; now
ago. [REL. mac/a]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Predicate (affirmative)

% (i Sr ft't-tz / Ufc.
Watashi wa hirugohan o tabeta / tabemashita.

(I have already eaten my lunch.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Predicate (negative)

t ;i/$ h n mm BrfcB Sr S£?£LT I'fcl'/

Hiru-san wa nihongo o benkydshite inai / imasen.

(Mr. Hill is not studying Japanese any longer.)

(a) A: 9 Ltzfra
Mo shukudai o shimashita ka.
(Have you done your homework yet (or already)?)

B : Jiv\ t 9 Li Lfc0
Hai, mo shimashita.
(Yes, I’ve already done it.)

(b) fidi i>

Watashi wa mo sake o nomimasen.
(I won’t drink sake any more.)

(c)
Haruo-kun wa mo daijobudesu.
(Haruo is all right now.)
 mo I ~mo ~mo 255

1. Mo expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same

state he or it was in some time ago. Thus, mo corresponds to ‘ already ’
or ‘now’ in affirmative declarative sentences, ‘yet’ or ‘already* in affirm¬
ative interrogative sentences, and ‘ (not) any more ’ or ‘ (not) any longer ’
in negative sentences.

2. The opposite concept of mo is expressed by mada. («=t> mada)

~mo ~mo ~~ & str-

$ the repeated use of a particle mean- both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor

l ing ‘ also * to list elements belonging
| to the same part of speech

4 Key Sentences

■ ■
(A)

Noun Noun

7V*— h (£M#>X /V'Jto

Tanaka-san mo Nakayama-san mo depato ni tsutomete iru / imasu.

(Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a department store.)

(B)
Noun Prt Noun Prt

V 8$ V
Kyoto e wa basu de mo densha de mo ikeru / ikemasu.

(We can go to Kyoto either by bus or by electric train (lit. by both bus
and electric train).)
256 ~~mo ~mo

(C)

<D ti £ |< ii & j< ii /

Kono uchi wa hirdku mo semaiku mo nai 1

h 0 &■£/*<,
arimasen.

(This house is neither big nor small.)

(i) N(Prt) «, N(Prt) i (N(Prt) t)

mo mo mo
t> (both teachers and students)
sensei mo gakusei mo
(ii) Adj (/) stem < i, Adj (/) stem < i, Neg
ku mo ku mo
Acf< ii /h£ < ii & V' (s-t- is neither big nor small)
okiku mo chisaku mo nai
(iii) {Adj (na) stem / N] X ii {Adj (na) stem / N} X* ii Neg
de mo de mo
&$\X ii ii &V' (s.t. is neither convenient nor incon-
benride mo fubende mo nai venient)

X ii X ii & V' (s.o. is neither a teacher nor a

sensei de mo gakusei de mo nai student)

(a) 0#At>T^ V *Aii£

Nihon jin mo amerikajin mo yoku hataraku.
(Both Japanese and Americans work hard.)

(b) \l})W£A;imi>ta$Zii*t)
Yamakawa-san wa sake mo tabako mo yarimasen.
(Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.)

(c) & Lfc0

Ototo ni mo imoto ni mo hon o katte yarimashita.
(I bought books for both my younger brother and younger sister.)
 ~/770 ~/7?o / mono {da) 257

(d) fn&iiHA-C
Kazue wa bijin demo fubijin demo nai.
(Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.)

(e) 9 £ItAso
Kono tatemono wa kireide mo rippade mo arimasen.
(This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.)

1. Noun mo Noun mo can be used as the subject as in Ex. (a), as the direct
object as in Ex. (b), as the indirect object as in Ex. (c) or in any other
way in which a regular noun phrase is used. (<=$> mo1)
2. Although Noun mo Noun mo can be an indefinitely long noun phrase,
normally Noun mo is not repeated more than three or four times.
3. The predicate that corresponds to the Noun mo Noun mo phrase can be
affirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c) or negative as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e).

mono (da) $>(D(td) n•

> The speaker presents some situation j because; how could ~!; used
jj as if it were a tangible object. i to; should like to; should
[REL. kara\ no da\
4 Key Sentences

(A)

A: B:

if 9 LT CD?
Doshite ikanai no? Dane, isogashii mono.

(How come you don’t go there?) (’Cause I’m busy.)

<t< hhte H t x-h to tz / T'-T!

Yoku anna otoko to deto dekiru mono da / desuf

(How could you date that kind of guy!)

 258 mono {da)

(C)

Vinf* past

& it x< vim & Utz to tz 1 Vto

Mukashi wa yoku eiga o mita mono da / desu.

(I used to see movies a lot.)

(D)

Vmasu

9 h f£ — ® t, <D tz / X-t0
Konna ii uchi ni ichido sunde tai mono da 1 desu.

(I'd like to live in such a nice house.)

(E)

Vinf* nonpast

1 A t X 5j t 3 *3 i><D tz / X"t0
/4sa hi to ni attara " Ohayo " to iu mono da 1 desu.
IHIIIIIHIIII

(You should say “ Good morning” when you see people in the morning.)

(F)
Vmasu

¥ £ BtS £ ^ <D z k £ ISL tzfcZ i><D tz 1 X~f~0

Toshi o toru to mukashi no koto o hanashi tagaru mono da 1 desu.

(When one gets old, he wants to talk about his past.)

(i) {Vinf / Vmasu tai} tz

mono da
<0 tz (s.o. should talk)
hanasu mono da
ii<0 tz (s.o. used to talk)
hanashita mono da
fJbfcV' i><£> tz (s.o. would like to talk)
hanashitai mono da
 mono (da) 259

(ii) {Adj (/) / Adj (/7a)}inf t<D (tz)

mono {da)
jffjV''ij co (’Cause s.t. is expensive)
takai mono

jffld'^tz. i><0 (’Cause s.t. was expensive)

takakatta mono
ii<D tS (s.t. used to be expensive)
takakatta mono da
hffrtz i><0 (’Cause s.t. is quiet)
shizukada mono
o tz 1>C0 (’Cause s.t. was quiet)
shizukadatta mono
ffrfrti'itz ii<0 tz (s.t. used to be quiet)
shizukadatta mono da

(a) A: D?
Doshite tabenai no?
(Why don’t you eat it?)

B : fiot, &-f V'(D0

Datte. mazui mono.
(’Cause it doesn’t taste good.)

(b) A: H 9

Doshite sono hon, yomanai n dai?

(Why don’t you read that book?)

B : fc'oT, <fc
Datte, yoku wakaranai n da mono.
(’Cause I don’t understand it well.)

(c) X < t k Ltzi><Dtz !

Yoku sonna bakana koto o shita mono da!
(How could you do such a foolish thing!)

(d) M 8<D£'2<Dl$^L\,'i><Dt£o
Tsukihi no tatsu no wa hayai mono da.
(Lit. The passing of days and months is so quick! ( = How fast time
flies!))
260 mono (da)

(e)
Mukashi wa kono kawa ni mo sakana ga ita mono da.
(There used to be fish in this river, too.)

(f) —
Ichido zehi isshoni tenisu o shitai mono desu ne.
(I’d like to play tennis with you once.)

(g) SrjfoTf? < i><DX'to

Hito no ie ni iku toki wa o-miyage o motte iku mono desu.
(When you visit someone, you should take a gift with you.)

(h)
Sukina shigoto o shite iru to byoki ni naranai mono da.
(When you are doing work you love, you don’t become ill.)

1. Because the speaker presents a situation before mono (da) as if it were

a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of
emotion. KSs (A) through (F) represent emotive excuse, exclamation,
nostalgic reminiscence, desire, indirect command and conviction, re¬
spectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed here is not an
instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a current event but an
emotion nurtured in one’s mind for a relatively long period time.
2. When mono indicates a reason or an excuse it is used only in very
informal speech.
3. Mono is contracted into mon in very colloquial speech.
4. The usage of mono in KS(A) does not take da / desu, unless it appears
in a subordinate clause, as in (1).

1
( )

Kane ga nai mon de eiga mo mirarenai n da.

(Because I don’t have money, I can’t see even a movie, you know.)

[Related Expression]

In KSs(A), (C), (D), (E) and (F) mono can be replaced by no, but with a
slightly different meaning. Mono sounds more emotive than no, probably due
to the semantic difference between mono ‘ a tangible object ’ and no ‘ a nomi-
nalizer of a directly perceptible state or action*. Thus, the mono (da)
version is more indirectly emotive, and is not necessarily geared to the current
moment, whereas the no (da) version is more directly emotive and is geared to
the current moment. Observe the following:
 mono (da) / morau1 261

[1] (DX*-to
Ima biru ga nomitai n / *mono desu.
(I’d like to drink beer now.)

[2] 4*i-C^fcfr<A//*t,o-ei-o
Ima sugu ai ni iku n / *mono desu.
(You should go see him at once.)

Note that mono in KS(A) can be replaced by kara, but the latter is free from
the emotive overtones which are attached to mono.

I
morau1 t> 5 v• (Gr• *)

The first person or s.o. the speaker

empathizes with receives s.t. from
s.o. whose status is not as high as the
^

$
get; receive; be given
[REL. kureru1 (ageru*)]

receiver’s. t

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)
Giver Direct Object
(Receiver)

m 1 14) * 1 & i> ibofc / ^ Ltz0

(Wa tashi j wa) Yamamoto-san ni hon : o moratta / moraimashita.

(I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.)

(a) \li)\\£AsKV 4 tz0

Yamakawa-san wa Hashimoto-san ni uisuki o moratta.
(Mr. Yamakawa got whiskey from Mr. Hashimoto.)

(b) (htetzlt)*: y 7s i> b ofccD?

(Anata wa) Morisu-san ni nani o moratta no?
(What did you get from Mr. Morris?)
 morau1

1. Morau, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means

‘ get Unlike the English get, however, morau is used only when the
receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker em¬
pathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s in-group). Thus, (1) is
unacceptable.

(1) t

*Yamamoto-san wa watashi ni sake o moratta.

(Mr. Yamamoto got sake from me.)

The reason for this is as follows: morau requires the receiver’s point
of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the
first person, the event is normally described from the first person’s point
of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in morau-sentences,
a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (The
situation seen in (1) is usually described using ageru.) 0=> ageru1)

2. The humble polite version of morau is itadaku. Example:

(2) I'tztzl'tz0
Watashi wa sensei ni hon o itadaita.
(I was given a book by my teacher.)

3. The giver can also be marked by the source kara ‘ from ’ (i.e., kara1).
(e» ni3)

(3) t b^>tc0
Watashi wa Yamamoto-san ni / kara hon o moratta.
(I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.)

However, if the giver is not human, kara is more appropriate than ni,
as seen in (4).

(4)
Watashi wa Nihonseifu kara I ??#»/ o-kane o moratta.
(I received some money from the Japanese government.)

This seems to be due to the fact that kara1 carries the idea of source,
while ni conveys the idea of direct contact. That is, unlike the situa¬
tion in (3), the speaker in (4) does not have direct contact with the giver,
the Japanese government, when receiving money. Rather, the Japanese
government in (4) is merely the source of the money received.

4. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often

 morau1 / morau2 263

omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the

hearer, it is often omitted. (See KS and Ex. (b).)

morau2 £> 5 aux. v. (Gr. 1)

The first person or s.o. the speaker > receive benefit from an action
t
empathizes with receives some bene- \ by s.o.; have s.t. done by s.o.;
fit from an action by someone whose have s.o. do s.t.
> status is not as high as the receiver’s. [REL. kureru2 (ageru2)]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject)
(Receiver)
Giver Direct Object Vte

<.% I i±) Jj / 7 | It lot

(Watashi | wa) chichi ni kamera j o katte moratta /
k Ltz0
moraimashita.

(My father bought a camera for me.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Giver Vte

(Receiver)

(% i Ii) Sit ; i;
(Watashi j wa) tomodachi \ ni kite moratta / moraimashita.

(I had my friend come (for my benefit).)

Vte i> b b
morau
ft§LT ii b 9 (have s.o. talk for my sake)
hanashite morau
264 morau2

^•<X t> b 9 (have s.o. eat for my sake)

tabete morau

(a) 'fcf'tc? $ A/{£J|I!$;5¥ LT 1) b o fc0

Kimura-san wa Ono-san ni kuruma o kashite moratta.
(Mr. Kimura had Mr. Ono lend him his car.)

(b) (gf±)s<v? £ It 1) b V'£ L

(Kimi wa) Bekku-san ni nani o shite moraimashita ka.
(Lit. What did you have Mr. Beck do for you? ( = What did Mr.
Beck do for you?))

Jonson-san wa Suzuki-san ni nihongo o oshiete moratte iru.

(Mr. Johnson has Mr. Suzuki teaching him Japanese.)

1. Morau is used as an auxiliary verb with Vte. The meaning of Vte

morau is ‘ receive some benefit from someone’s action ’ or ‘ have someone
do something for s.o.’s sake ’. Like sentences with morau as a main
verb, when the auxiliary verb morau is used, the recipient of the favor
(i.e., the person in the subject position) must be the first person or some¬
one with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker’s
in-group). Thus, (la) is grammatical, but (lb) is not.

1
( ) a. A LX 1) b o tco
Watashi wa tonari no hito ni pen o kashite moratta.
(Lit. I had the man next to me lend me a pen. ( = 1 borrowed
a pen from the man next to me.))

b.
*Tonari no hito wa watashi ni pen o kashite moratta.
(Lit. The man next to me had me lend him a pen. ( = The
man next to me borrowed a pen from me.))

Note that if the giver of the favor is the first person, sentences with Vte
morau are ungrammatical even if the recipient of the favor is someone
the speaker empathizes with, as in (2). (c> morault Note 1)

2
( )

*Otdto wa watashi ni rajio o kashite moratta.

(My younger brother had me lend him a radio.)
 morau2 265

3. The humble polite version of morau as an auxiliary verb is itadaku.

Example:

(3) LX I'tztzl'tzo
Watashi wa sensei ni hon o kashite itadaita.
(Lit. I had my teacher lend me a book. ( = 1 borrowed a book
from my teacher.))

4. Unlike sentences with morau1, the giver cannot be marked by kara in

sentences with morau2.

5. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted.

Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is of¬
ten omitted. (KS(A) (B) and Ex. (b).)
266 na

na &

| a negative imperative marker used ^ Don’t do

j by a male speaker in very informal j
{ speech £

♦ Key Sentence

Formation

Vinf* nonpast ft
na
t$'i~ ft (Don’t talk!)
hanasu na
ft (Don’t eat!)
taberu na

Examples

(a) Dflfctfft !
Sa/re o amari nomu na!
(Don’t drink too much sake\)

(b) *A,ft0rf£t>?fT<fc!
Sonna tokoro ni mo iku na!
(Don’t go to such a place any more!)
(c) *
Anna otoko to wa kekkonsuru na!)
(Don’t marry that kind of man!)

(d) i> ft !
Mo kaette kuru na!
(Don’t come home any more!)

1. ~ na is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in highly

 na / nado 267

emotional situations. However, the addition of yo after na serves to

soften the force of the statement.

(i) MZh* D&tffccfco

Sake o amari nomu na yo.
(Don’t drink too much sake, OK?)

2. A female speaker normally does not use the na imperative. She uses
Vneg nai de, as in hanasanai de ‘ Don’t talk.’ or tabenai de * Don’t eat.’
(c=> ~ kudasai, Note 3)

nado &£ prt.

j a marker that indicates exemplifica- i and so on; and the like; for
: tion £ example; things like —
--"-* [REL. nanka\

4 Key Sentence

0# <F> <D 4* X fi
Noun
■ Noun

TAs&b
Nihon no tabemono no naka de wa g ya ten pur a nado ga suki-

da 1 sukidesu.

(Among Japanese foods I like things like sushi and tempura.)

(a) A:
Fuyuyasumi wa doko ni ikimasho ka.
(Where shall we go during the winter vacation?)

B : V 4 & if if 5 Xi~fr0
Hawai nado do desu ka.
(How about Hawaii, for example?)

(b)
Daigaku de wa furansugo ya doitsugo nado o benkyoshita.
(In college I studied French and German and the like.)
268 nado

(c) £ )£
Kono daigaku ni wa Chugoku ya Kankoku nado kara gakusei ga dzei
kimasu.
(A lot of students from China, Korea and so on come to this college.)

(d)
Keizaigaku o senkosuru tsumori desu ka.
(Are you going to major in economics?)

le. keizaigaku nado senkosuru tsumori wa arimasen.

(No, I have no intention of majoring in things like economics.)

(e) A : LT < fi £
Kono hon'yaku o shite kudasaimasen ka.
(Could you kindly translate this for me?)

B: ^/k&ULV'iO, %*£ £: -fr/ko

Konna muzukashii mono, watashi nado ni wa dekimasen.
(A person like me cannot translate such a difficult thing.)

1. A particle normally follows nado, as in:

nado [wa I ga I (o) / (ni) / kara / de / el yori / etc.}

Particles other than ga} o, and wa can precede nadot but, depending
on the context, this order gives the sentence a more derogatory meaning.
Examples:

(1)

Hashi de nado taberarenai.

(We can’t eat with damned chopsticks.)

2
( )

Hashi nado de taberu hito mo iru.

(Some people eat it with chopsticks (and the like).)

2. If the main predicate is negated, as in Exs. (d) and (e), nado often
conveys a sense of humbleness especially when the subject is the speaker
or a member of his in-group. In other cases, it is generally derogatory.

[Related Expression]

Nanka is the informal, colloquial version of nado. It is used as nado is used

except that in a context conveying undesirability or contempt there is more
emphasis on the derogatory meaning.
 nagara 269

nagara conj.

a conjunction which indicates that while; over; with

the action expressed by the preceding / [REL. aida]
verb takes place concurrently or si- >
multaneously with the action ex-
( pressed in the main clause

Formation

Vmasu tcfrCj
nagara

ri^L (while talking / talk while doing s.t.)

hanashi nagara

(while eating / eat while doing s.t.)

tabe nagara

Examples

(a) i0
Aruki nagara hon o yomu no wa abunaidesu yo.
(It is dangerous to read while walking.)

(b) Ujo $
Yamaguchi-san wa warai nagara watashi no hanashi o kiite ita.
(Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to me with a smile. (Lit. While smiling,
Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to my story.))
270 nagara

(c)
Watashi wa ne nagara shosetsu o yomu no ga sukida.
(I like to read novels in bed. (Lit. While in bed, I like to read novels.))

(d)
Mono o tabe nagara h ana shite wa ikemasen.
(Don’t talk with food in your mouth. (Lit. You must not talk while
eating things.))

(e) X V'£0
Kimura-kun wa kaisha de hataraki nagara gakko ni itte iru.
(Mr. Kimura works for a company while going to school.)

1. Vmasu nagara expresses an action that occurs concurrently or simul¬

taneously with another action. The action expressed by Vmasu nagara
is always secondary to the action expressed in the main clause. Thus,
in (1), B is acceptable as a response to A, but C is not.

(1) A: X, *
Chotto hanashi ga shitai n desu ga.
(I’d like to have a little talk with you.)

B: L£LJ:9o
Ja, kohi o nomi nagara hanashimasho.
(Then, let’s talk over a cup of coffee.)

C:*L^, ISLtjitf i? ^ L<t ?0

*Ja. hanashi nagara kohi o nomimasho.
(Then, let’s drink a cup of coffee while talking.)

Note that in English, “while ~ing” is not always the secondary action.

2. Vmasu nagara cannot be used when the subjects of the two actions are
different, as in (2).

(2)

*Rumumeto ga sutereo o kiki nagara watashi wa benkyoshita.

(I studied while my roommate was listening to the stereo set.)

(In this case, aida is used. (t=i> aida))

 nai de 271

—nai de — frl'T* Phr•

| a negative te-form of a verb t do not do s.t. and; without do-

(
ing ~
[REL. nakute\ zu ni}
♦ Key Sentence

Adverbial Clause
Topic (subject)
Vneg

•fy'y — rat Joi Soffit & &'V' v

Nanshi wa kind asagohan o tabe nai de gakko e itta /

ikimashita.

(Nancy went to school yesterday without eating her breakfast.)

Vneg
nai de
gffSfcV' T (without talking)
hanasanai de
*C (without eating)
tabenai de

(a)
Nakada-san wa Osaka ni ikanai de Kyoto ni itta.
(Mr. Nakada didn’t go to Osaka; he went to Kyoto.)
(b)
Jisho o tsukawanai de yonde kudasai.
(Please read it without using a dictionary.)

(c) ££to&fcVvC'<£3V\,
Mada ka era nai de kudasai.
(Please don’t go home yet.)

(d)
Denwashinai de hoshii.
(Lit. I want you not to call me. ( = Don’t call me.))
272 ~nai de

(e) L < L&V'T*t> ibV'fcV'o

Yakamashiku shinai de moraitai.
(Lit. I want you not to make noises. ( = Don’t make any noise.))

(f) Lfc0
Mada aru kara kawanai de okimashita.
(Because I still have it, I didn’t buy it (in advance).)

1. If a nai de clause expresses something one is expected to do, as in KS

where there is the expectation that Nancy should eat breakfast, the trans¬
lation is ‘without ~ing’, but if not, it is ‘do not do ~ and —’, as
in Ex. (a).

2. ~nai de is often used to combine two sentences as in KS and Exs. (a)

and (b) but can also be used with kudasai ‘ please do s.t. ’, as in Ex.
(c), hoshii ‘ want ’, as in Ex. (d), morau ‘ receive a favor *, as in Ex. (e),
and te oku ‘ do s.t. in advance ’, as in Ex. (f).

3. ~nai de is used only with verbs. It cannot be used with adjectives.

4. In cases where no auxiliaries such as kudasai, hoshii, morau and te

oku are used, nai de implies that the speaker is emphasizing negation,
because somehow the proposition expressed in the nai de clause is
contrary to his expectation.

[Related Expressions]

I. —/7a/ de can be replaced by — zu ni, if de of nai de somehow retains the

original meaning of ‘ and ’, as in KS, Exs. (a), (b) and (f). Thus, the sen¬
tences in [1] are all grammatical, but those in [2] are all ungrammatical:

[1] a. i-
Nanshi wa kind asagohan o tabezu ni gakko e itta. (Cp. KS)

b. o fcc
Nakada-san wa Osaka ni ikazu ni Kyoto ni itta. (Cp. Ex. (a))

Jisho o tsukawazu ni yonde kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (b))

d. Lfco
Mada aru kara kawazu ni okimashita. (Cp. Ex. (f))

[2] a. *££ft<b-n::<E3v\,
*Mada kaerazu ni kudasai. (Cp. Ex. (c))
 nai de 273

b.
*Denwasezu ni hoshii. (Cp. Ex. (d))

The only difference between nai de and zu ni is that of style: zu ni is

used in formal speech or written Japanese. The formation is exactly
the same as nai de, namely, Vinf*neg zu ni. However, the zu ni form
for suru-verbs is not shi zu ni, but se zu niy as in benkyosezu ni * without
studying ’.

II. ~nai de can be replaced by nakute only when the nai de clause indicates
some cause for human emotion which is expressed in the main clause.
Otherwise, the nakute version is unacceptable, as in [5].

[3]
Boku wa eigo ga hanasenai del ???zt/ ni I nakute hazukashi-
katta.
(I felt ashamed because I couldn’t speak English.)

[4] / ???n=: /fc<TSba>ofc.

Suji ga asobi ni konai de / ? ? Izu ni / nakute tasukatta.
(I felt relieved, because Susie didn’t come see me.)

[5] a. — /ri= /*fc<rafcBfcAofco

Ichiro wa boshi o nuganai de / zu ni l*nakute heya ni haitta.
(Ichiro entered the room without taking off his hat.)

b. JLfc I'V I *?IZ I *t£<T< fz £ V\,

Minai de / *zu ni / * nakute kudasai.
(Please don’t look at it.)

c. /1I < T&V'fco

Tabenai de / zu ni / * nakute oita.
(I left it uneaten.)

It is also noted that the idea of ‘ X is not Y but Z ’ is expressed by nakute

rather than nai de, as in [6].

[6] < xI
Watashi wa gakusei de wa nakute / *nai de sensei desu.
(I am not a student but a teacher.)
274 ~ nakereba naranai

-nakereba naranai Phr-

\ It won’t do if s.o. does not take some have to; must; need

<
action or if s.o. or s.t. is not in some [REL. ~nai to ikenai; ~ nake¬
state. reba ikenai; ~nakute wa ikenai;
~nakute wa naranai; ~neba
naranai]
(ANT. ~nai de moii; ~nakute
mo //; ~te wa ikenai; wa
naranai)

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

A:

^•0 (i V'V' ^ x*-f fr0

Kyo wa hatarakanakute mo ii n desu ka.

(Don’t you have to work today?)

B: Vinf*neg

ft*'
hataraka nakereba narimasen.

(Yes, I have to work.)

(B)

Topic (subject)

it
Adj (/) stem
■ < ft ft ftib&W
Basukettoboru no senshu wa oki ku nakereba naranai /

ft 9 o
narimasen.

(Basketball players have to be big.)

 nakereba naranai 275

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (/7a) stem

0#$ ft X t£fttlft'
Toshokan wa shizuka de nakereba naranai / narimasen.

(Libraries have to be quiet.)

(D)

Topic Noun

ccD \ ft X &ftiifi' & ib&V' / fc 9 £it/L0

Kono shigoto j wa de nakereba naranai / narimasen.

(Lit. Speaking of this job, it has to be students. ( = Only students can

apply for this job.))

(i) Vneg & ft Jiff &ib&V'

nakereba naranai
M £ & ft -ft ft febfeV' (s.o. has to talk)
hanasa nakereba naranai
ifc^&fttUf (s.o. has to eat)
tabenakereba naranai
(ii) Adj (/) stem < & ft tiff
ku nakereba naranai
sJc^&fttLft (s.t. has to be inexpensive)
yasukunakereba naranai
(iii) {Adj (/7a) stem / N} x ftfttifi'
de nakereba naranai
firh'X-tutfixtf. (s.t. has to be quiet)
shizukadenakereba naranai
X frltflfi' fckfcV' (s.o. has to be a teacher)
sensei de nakereba naranai

Watashi wa ashita asa goji ni okinakereba narimasen.

(I have to get up at five tomorrow morning.)
 276 nakereba naranai

Ano heya wa mo sukoshi hirokunakereba narimasen.

(That room has to be a bit larger.)

(c) £ CO£t Z fc $> Kfc ii Htf fc <bfcV'0

Kono shigoto o suru tame ni wa eigo ga jdzu de nakereba naranai.
(To do this job, your English has to be good.)

Kono gorufujo o tsukau tame ni wa menba de nakereba naranai.

(To use this golf course, you have to be a member.)

Vneg nakereba naranai expresses the idea of obligation. The contracted

forms Vneg nakerya naranai and Vneg nakya(a) naranai are also used in
conversation. Sometimes, naranai is omitted if the context is clear.
Example:

(1) i> yffibftlltitf I D ■*» I (fc)0

Mo kaeranakereba / kaeranakerya / kearanakya(a).
(I have to go home now.)

Negative obligation, i.e., “ do not have to ” cannot be expressed by the

negative form of this pattern. It is expressed by ~ nakutemo ii * It is
iiiiiiiiimii

all right if — doesn’t do s.t.’ (■=> ~ te mo ii)

[Related Expression]

In addition to ~nakereba naranai I ikenai there are at least four other ex¬
pressions of obligation. They are as follows:

[1] a. < T lift £ ft l' / I'l+ftlV,

Hanasanakute wa naranai / ikenai.
b.
Hanasanai to ikenai / *naranai.

c. UMtfcL'o
Hanasaneba naranai / *ikenai.
[lc] is the written version of ~nakereba naranai. [la], [lb] and hanasa
nakereba naranai / ikenai carry essentially the same meaning. Nakute wa is
often contracted into ~nakucha, ~nakucha, ~nakutchat and ~nakutcha.
 ~naku naru 277

—naku naru Phr-

It has reached the point where some not ~ any more

state or action does not take place [REL. yoni naru; mo ~ nai]
any more.

4 Key Sentence

Vinf*neg

#1+ ft < ft oft / ft 9 £ Lfco

Yasashii kanji mo kake naku natta / narimashita.

(I cannot even write easy kanji any more.)

( i ) Vinf*neg ft < ft <5 where V is often a potential verb

naku naru

{fi!§£ / ft< ft£ (s.o. doesn’t / can’t talk any more)

{hanasa / /?a/7ase} naku naru

{J^ / ijti) ft < ft£ (s.o. doesn’t / can’t eat any more)
{tabe / taberare} naku naru

(ii) Adj (/) stem < ft< ft£

Arty naku naru

jtj < ft < ft £ (s.t. isn’t expensive any more)

takaku naku naru

(iii) {Adj (na) stem / NJ {f ft< ft3

{c/e we / /a} naku naru

&< && (s.t. isn’t quiet any more)

[shizukade wa / shizukaja} naku naru

{$fe£ T* &< &S (s.o. isn’t a teacher any more)

{se^se/ c/e wa / sensei ja} naku naru

(a) V'fcj&s £ ft < ft 9 &

Mae wa sake o yoku nonde ita ga. konogoro wa nomanaku narimashita.
(I used to drink sake a lot, but now I don’t drink any more.)
278 ~naku naru

(b) <> 9 tW}T3fe* < * D £ tfcc

Kare wa mae yoku denwa o kakete kimashita ga. mo kakete konaku nari-
mashita.
(He used to call me frequently, but he doesn’t call me any more.)

(c) *>5»L<*<*0£L,fco
Nihongo wa mo muzukashikunaku narimashita.
(Japanese isn’t difficult for me any more.)

(d) r < *ofc0

Kono kogai mo chikatetsu ga kite fubende wa naku natta.
(This suburban area is no longer inconvenient because there is a subway
now (lit. the subway has reached here).)

(e)
Yatto daigaku o dete gakusei de wa naku narimashita.
(I finally graduated from college and am not a student any longer.)

[Related Expressions]

Compare naku naru> Vinf*neg yoni naru and mo ~nai in the following
sentences:

[1] o
Nihongo ga hanasenaku natta.
(I cannot speak Japanese any more.)

[2]
Nihongo ga hanasenai yoni natta.
(I’ve reached the point where I can’t speak Japanese.)

[3]
Nihongo ga mo hanasenai.
(I cannot speak Japanese any more.)

[1] and [2] focus on both process and result, but [3] focuses only on result.
Thus, [1] and [2] can take time expressions indicating the period of change,
such as ichinen no uchi ni ‘ within a year ’, kyuni ‘ suddenly ’, toto ‘ finally ’,
but [3] cannot. [1] is different from [2] in that the latter focuses on an in¬
direct, circumstantial cause for the change, whereas the former focuses on a
more direct one. Thus, [1] implies that the speaker cannot speak Japanese
any more because he has simply forgotten Japanese but [2] implies that he
cannot speak Japanese because the situation is such that there are no native
speakers around to speak with. (■=> yoni naru)
 ~ nakute 279

~nakute <X Phr•

> a fa-form of the negative nai, which j do not do s.t. and — ; is not ~
l indicates a cause / reason for a state < and ~ ; because ~ do not do s.t.
> or action / [REL. nai de\ nai kara; nai
,...node; nakute mo]

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence (cause)
Sentence (effect)
Vinf«neg

@i -tB# li s#e>4i 4<T £tt ii anfc/iinitfco

Asa shichiji ni okirare nakute kaisha ni okureta / okuremashita.

(I couldn’t get up at seven and was late for work (at my company).)

fTHBHnP
( i ) Vinf*neg 4'< X where V is often a potential verb
nakute
{!$£ / IS’fr} 4 < T (s.o. doesn’t / can’t talk and ~)
[hanasa / hanase} nakute
bil] 4 < X (s.o. doesn’t / can’t eat and ~)
[tabe / taberare} nakute
(ii) Adj (/) stem < 4 < X
ku nakute
rii < 4 < T (s.t. isn’t expensive and ~)
takaku nakute
(iii) {Adj (/7a) stem / N} ft' f± / 4 < T
[de wa I ja} nakute
{SfW'T? li 4 < X (s.t. isn’t quiet and ~)
[shizukade wa / shizukaja} nakute
[%$L X It / 4<T (s.o. isn’t a teacher and ~)
[sensei de wa / sensei ja] nakute

(a)
Sensei no setsumei ga wakaranakute komarimashita.
(I didn’t understand the teacher’s explanation and had a difficult time.)
280 ~ nakute

(b) < tatt' Ltz0

Nihon de wa nihongo ga hanasenakute zannendeshita.
(It’s regrettable that I couldn’t speak Japanese in Japan.)

(c) L < & < fro

Shiken wa muzukashiku nakute yokattadesu ne.
(Lit. The exam wasn’t difficult and it was good, wasn’t it? ( = Aren’t you
glad that the exam wasn’t difficult?))

(d) ri'LV'/k-C-fo
Ji ga jozuja nakute hazukashii n desu.
(My handwriting is so poor that I feel ashamed.)

(e) T ZfrotZo
Kibishii sensei ja nakute yokatta.
(Lit. He wasn’t a strict teacher and it was good. (=I’m glad that he
wasn’t a strict teacher.))

[Related Expressions]

I. Nakute mo means ‘ (even) if ~ not ~’.

[1] Lfc < io

Ogawa wa atama ga ii kara benkyoshinakute mo Todai ni haireru
yo.
(Ogawa is bright, so he can enter Tokyo University even if he
doesn’t study.)

[2J r. < -CtV'V'-C'-f^?

Kono muzukashii kanji wa oboenakute mo iidesu ka?
(Is it all right if I don’t memorize this difficult kanji})
II. The cause and effect relation indicated by nakute is much weaker and
more indirectly presented than that of nai kara or nai node. Thus, KS
can be rewritten in four versions, including nai dey as shown in [3].

[3] hM<X /ftl't* /ftfrofcfrfc / fcrt'ofcC7>T?£i±

fcilftSLfco
Asa shichiji ni okirarenakute / nai de / nakatta kara f nakatta
node kaisha ni okuremashita.
The most direct presentation of the cause-effect relation is nakatta kara,
and the presentation becomes more indirect in the following order: na¬
katta node, nai def and nakute. For an excuse for one’s lateness the
least direct one is of course preferred, because the more indirect, the
politer the expression. (■=> kara’, node; -te)
 nara 281

nara &£> conj.

| a conjunction which indicates that \ if it is true that; if it is the

\ the preceding sentence is the < case that; if; would; could
? speaker’s supposition about the truth ) [REL. tara (ba, ro4)]
> of a present or past fact or the actu- \
| alization of something in the future \

♦ Key Sentence

Sentencei Sentence2

1&B a* *5 (0) Kb (± / ff £
Matsuda ga kuru (no) nara boku wa ikanai / ikimasen.

(If it is true that Matsuda will come, I won’t go.)

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf ((D) t£ b

(no) nara
/fj§Lifc} ((D) tub (if it is true that s.o. talks / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita) (no) nara
{jgjV' ((D) t£b (if it is true that s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta) (no) nara

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {0 / ti o ft ((D)) t£b

[0 / datta (/7o)} nara

{fM* / ofc ((D)) t£ b (if it is true that s.t. is / was quiet)

[shizuka / shizukadatta (/70)} nara
tio tz. ((D)) feb (if it is true that s.o. is / was a
[sense/ / sensei datta (no)) nara teacher)

(a) i/ij < (Dte b'<xX*ff$tj:£ V'0

Shikago e iku no nara basu de ikinasai.
(If you go to Chicago, go by bus.)

(b) Psm'mz<Dt£bm\tMz>o
Sugita ga kita no nara boku wa kaeru.
(If Sugita has come, I’ll go home.)
 282 nara

(c)
Sonna ni takai no nara kaemasen.
(If it is that expensive, I can’t buy it.)

(d)
Yamada-san ga suki nara tegami o kaitara do desu ka.
(If you like Mr. Yamada, why don’t you write a letter to him?)

(e)
Takahashi-sensei nara sono koto o shitte iru desho.
(Lit. If it is Prof. Takahashi, he probably knows about it. ( = Prof.
Takahashi would probably know about it.))

1. Basically, S nara expresses the speaker’s supposition concerning the truth

of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in the future.

2. Nara is the simplified form of naraba, the conditional form of the copula
da. (<=> ba) In modern Japanese, however, ba is usually omitted.

3. Since nara is the simplified conditional form of the copula, it requires

a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the preceding element is not a
noun, it is nominalized by no (<=> no3), although this no is optional in
modern Japanese. (The stems of /73-type adjectives behave like nouns;
immimii

therefore, they can precede nara without being nominalized. See For¬
mation (ii).)

4. When Si is nonpast, Si nara S2 cannot be used if it is nonsensical to

suppose the truth of Si. Thus, the sentences in (1) - (3) are all un¬
acceptable. (1) is unacceptable because it never fails to become ten
o’clock; (2) is unacceptable because one can never tell whether it is
true or not that it will rain tomorrow; (3) is unacceptable because the
speaker already knows it is true that he wants to go.

1
( )

*Juji ni naru nara basu ga kuru hazu desu.

(Lit. The bus is expected to come if it is true that it becomes
ten o’clock.)

(2) * 5o
*Asbita ame ga furu nara shiai wa nai desho.
(If it is true that it will rain tomorrow, there will probably be
no game.)
 nara 283

(3)
*Boku ga ikitai nara. Kazuko mo ikita gatte iru hazu desu.
(If it is true that I want to go, I expect that Kazuko also wants
to go.)

As seen above, Si nara S2 cannot be used (A) if Si never fails to happen,

(B) if one can never tell if it is true or not that Si will happen, or
(C) if the speaker already knows Si is the fact.
If S, is counterfactual, Si nara S2 can be used. For example, (4) is
acceptable because Si expresses the speaker’s counterfactual feeling.
Note that in this case the nominalizer no is preferred.

(4) io
Boku ga ikitai no nara dare ni mo iwazu ni hi tori de iku yo.
(If it were the case that I wanted to go, I would go by myself
without telling anybody.)

Si nara S2 cannot be used if the completion or actualization of Si brings

about S2.

(5) < /fTofcfc&-H|Sj&SV'fc0

*Haruko no apato e iku / itta nara Ichiro ga ita.
(When I went to Haruko’s apartment, Ichiro was there.)

*Tepurekoda o kau / katta nara tepu o kureta.

(When I bought a tape-recorder, they gave me a tape.)

If S2 does not express a past event or a present habitual event, but ex¬
presses a present state, the speaker’s opinion, volition, judgment, command,
request or suggestion, Si nara can be used as in (7).

(7) a. < (<D)fcb V Vh — 's • — L5V'

(Opinion)
Nyuyoku e iku (no) nara Rinkan Senta ga omoshiroidesu yo.
(If you go to New York, Lincoln Center is interesting.)

b. a — ?^f?< (<D)Ub) 'sh — 'S' -tr's?*-^ff#£1~o

(Volition)
Nyuyoku e iku (no) nara Rinkan Senta e ikimasu.
(If I go to New York, I will go to Lincoln Center.)

(Judgment)
Tepurekoda o kau / katta nara tepu o kureru hazu desu.
 284 nara / ~nasai

(If you buy / have bought a tape-recorder, they should give

you a tape.)

6. When S2 in Si nara S2 is past, Si must be a past event or state. For

example, in (8), Si represents a past event, and Si nara indicates that
the speaker supposes the truth of Si.

(8) rn&fto fc (o) fc btteii*o fcli■TT'-fo

Ame ga futta (no) nara shiai wa nakatta hazu desu.
(If it is true that it rained, there should have been no game.)

(8) can also be used in a counterfactual situation where it means ‘ If it

were true that it rained, there should have been no game.* In this
case the nominalizer no is preferred.

7. No nara often becomes n nara in conversation.

~nasai ~aux. v.

pf?|j \ a polite imperative used by superiors l Do s.t.

- 1 jj such as parents or teachers to their \ [REL. ~kudasai]
£ inferiors ( = people of younger age \
| and of lower rank) j

♦ Key Sentence

Vmasu

tot fc < £ h ft £ v\,

Motto takusan tabe nasai.

(Eat more.)

.Formation

Vmasu & $ V'

nasai
IgLfcSV' (Talk.)
hanashinasai
 ~nasai 285

(Eat.)
tabenasai

(a) V'0
Asobanaide benkydshinasai.
(Don’t play. Study.)

(b)
Hayaku uchi ni kaette kinasai yo.
(Come home early, OK?)

(c) t> b io-tv'd* <b#£r$fv'-c3l&$ V'o

Mo osoi kara ha o migaite nenasai.
(It’s late now, so brush your teeth and go to bed.)

1. ~nasai is the imperative form of the verb nasaru ‘ do’ (polite honorific).
2. ~nasai is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives.
(«=> Appendix 1, Basic Conjugations)

(1) a. f>c^&£ (a polite imperative)

Yominasai.
(Read it.)

b. ! (a nonpolite imperative)
Yome!
(Read it!)

(2) a. (a polite imperative)

Tabenasai.
(Eat it.)
b. (a nonpolite imperative)
Tabero!
(Eat it!)

[Related Expression]

In contrast to nasaiy kudasai is used by an inferior towards his superior when

he asks a favor of the latter.

[1] %Ss, Xmz&ilX <tztSl' /

Sensei, bunpo o oshiete kudasai / *oshienasai.
(Professor, please teach me grammar.)
286 ne

ne te prt.

'! a sentence-final particle that indicates \ English tag question (such as

? the speaker’s request for confirmation \ isn’t it?; is it?; don’t you?; do
p or agreement from the hearer about < you?); you know
\ some shared knowledge {

4 Key Sentence

Sentence

too
Sakamoto-san wa tabako o suwanai / suimasen ne.

(Mr. Sakamoto doesn’t smoke, does he? / Mr. Sakamoto, you don’t smoke,
do you?)

(a) A:
Kyd wa ii tenki desu ne.
(Today is a fine day, isn’t it?)

B : too
Hon to ni so desu ne.
(Isn’t it!)

(b) htetM^&X'Irtoo
Anata wa gakusei desu ne.
(You are a student, aren’t you?)

(c) =r 4 — (CV'ibo L-^V'£1-;te?

Pati ni irasshaimasu ne?
(You are going to the party, aren’t you?)

1. In this construction the sentence preceding ne can be any informal or

formal sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus,

(1) a.
*Yome ne.
(Read it, will you?)

b.
Yominasai ne.
(Read it, will you?)
 ne 287

c.
Yonde kudasai ne.
(Please read it, will you?)

2. Ne can be used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from

the addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker’s strong impression
of something, ne indicates the speaker’s request for agreement from the
hearer, as in Ex. (a). When a sentence expresses something emotively
neutral, ne indicates the speaker’s request for confirmation from the
hearer, as in KS and Exs. (b) and (c). Here, however, KS can also be
a request for agreement, if the speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto
doesn’t smoke. These two uses of ne have different intonations: the ne
of agreement uses falling intonation and the ne of confirmation uses
rising intonation. The ne of agreement becomes ne if the speaker is
excited about the content of his statement. In other words, S ne is an
exclamatory sentence, as in (2).
(2) A:
Omoshiroi eiga deshita ne!
(It was such an interesting film, wasn’t it!)

B : Lfctea.!
So deshita ne!
(Wasn’t it!)
On the other hand, the ne of confirmation has no exclamatory overtones;
it implies something like ‘ I am assuming X but can you confirm it? ’
Thus, in KS the speaker doesn’t like people who smoke, and for some
reason or other, he wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of
those people.

3. Ne is sometimes used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer’s

attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has understood what
has been said up to that point. Ne is typically used in this manner in
telephone conversations.

(3) mmx'fo/vX'frbMzfrbto,
cto
Moshi moshi, konban ne. Ginza de nonde kara kaeru kara ne.
juichijihan goro ni naru yo.
(Lit. Hello, tonight, OK? I go home after drinking in Ginza, you
understand?, so I’ll be home around 11:30. ( = Hello, tonight I’ll
go to the Ginza to drink, so I’ll be home around 11:30.))
288 ne

4. {— re / kara} ne is specifically used to give a reason or a cause for the

speaker’s state of mind or feelings in a very indirect and vague fashion.
Examples follow:

(4) a. h<D%*k\±tXi>
Ano sensei wa totemo kibishikute / kibishii kara ne.
((It’s because) that teacher is very strict, you know?)

Yube wa nomisugite / nomisugita kara ne.

((It’s because) I drank too much last night, you know?)

Ne here indicates the speaker’s request for agreement from the hearer
based on shared knowledge.

5. The ne of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-

final particle yo of assertion. Yo ne means ‘ I assert that ~ but don’t
you agree? / am I right? ’. This ne is pronounced with rising intonation

(5) a. cfcfco
Eigo ga wakaru yo ne.
(Lit. I assert that you understand English but am I right?
( — You understand English, don’t you?))

b.
Ano sensei wa ii sensei desu yo ne.
(That teacher is a good teacher. Don’t you think so?)

6. The ne of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-

final particle, the question marker ka. Ka ne means ‘ I am not sure if
~, am I right? *. The ne of ka ne is pronounced with falling intonation.

(6) a.
Yamashita-kun wa Kyodai ni hairemasuka ne.
(Lit. I’m not sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto
University, but am I right? (=I’m not sure whether Mr.
Yamashita can get into Kyoto University. What do you say?))

Ano sensei wa ii sensei desu ka ne.

(I doubt that he is a good teacher.)
<> ; #-
£ a particle that indicates a point of $ at; in; on
; time at which s.t. takes place ^ [REL. cfe4]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (time)

% | l± ft®
Watashi 1 wa maiasa rokujihan ni okiru 1 okimasu.

(I get up at six thirty every morning.)

(a) Ltz0
Watashi wa shigatsu tsuitachi ni umaremashita.
(I was born on April 1st.)

(b)
Kesa wa gojihan ni uchi o demashita.
(This morning 1 left home at five thirty.)

(c) 9-c*i-0
Rainen no natsu (ni) gaikokuryoko o suru tsumori desu.
(I intend to make a trip abroad next summer.)

Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru aid a ni tegami o kaita.

(I wrote a letter while my children were away at school.)

Tanaka wa daigaku ni iru toki (ni) ima no okusan to deatta.

(Tanaka met his present wife when he was in college.)

1. There are a number of time expressions that cannot take ni; the typical
ones are asa ‘ morning *, ashita * tomorrow kino ‘ yesterday *, kyo * today *,
ototoi ‘ the day before yesterday rainen ‘ next year saikin ‘ lately
etc. Generally speaking, if a time expression can be specified uniquely
in terms of digits, the adverb can take ni; otherwise, it cannot.
Getsuyobi
* Monday ’ is the ‘ first * day of the week, so it can take ni. So can
290 ni1

kurisumasu ‘ Christmas ’, because it is December 25. But kyo * today *

cannot take ni, because ‘ today ’ cannot be uniquely specified by date.

2. Ni is optional with certain time nouns, such as natsu ‘ summer ’ (as in

Ex. (c)) and toki ‘ time ’ (as in Ex. (e)). The version with ni stresses
the point of time more than the version without ni does.

3. The time noun aida also takes ni if the event in the main clause does not
continue for the entire duration of the event in the aida clause, as seen
in Ex. (d). If the event in the main clause covers the same duration as
the event in the aida clause, ni cannot be used. 0=£ aida (ni))

(1)

Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru aida tegami o kaite ita.

(I was writing letters while my children were away at school.)

4. When a specific time expression takes goro ‘ about' as in (2), ni may

drop.

(2)
Kesa gojihan goro (ni) okimashita.
(I got up at about five thirty.)

5. Ni as a particle for a point of time can be used freely with various

time expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression that can
be uniquely specified in terms of digits. (c^ Note 1)

(3) a.
ichiji gofun ni
(at 1:05)

b. H/]raniz
sangatsu yokka ni
(on March 4)

c.
getsuyobi ni
(on Monday)

d.
sen-kyuhyaku-hachijuyo(n)nen ni
(in 1984)

e.
nijuisseiki ni
(in the 21st century)
 ni1 I ni2 291

6. Ni is optional with the names of the four seasons. Thus,

(4) muzy&mL£i-o
Haru (ni) kekkonshimasu.
(I’m getting married in the Spring.)

ni2 |C prt.

? an indirect object marker £ to; for

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object

% [ fi flj : j £ t. < #< /#££+.

Watashi \ wa haha j ni tegami 1 o yoku kaku / kakimasu.

(I often write letters to my mother.)

(a)
Chichi wa boku ni tokei o kureta.
(My father gave me a watch.)

(b) * y
Kato-sensei wa amerikajin no gakusei ni nihonbungaku o oshiete iru.
(Prof. Kato is teaching Japanese literature to American students.)

(c)
Watashi wa imoto ni o-kane o sukoshi yarimashita.
(I gave a little money to my younger sister.)

(d) Lfc0
Imai-san ni denwashimashita ga imasendeshita.
(I called Mr. Imai, but he wasn’t there.)

(e)
Okawa-sensei wa gakusei ni iroirona jisho o miseta.
(Prof. Okawa showed various dictionaries to his students.)
 292 ni2 / ni3

Notes

1. In this construction, as seen in KS, the verb is typically transitive and

is related to an action that involves something that can be transferred
from one person to another, such as ageru ‘ give ’, hanasu ‘ talk ’, kureru
‘ give *, miseru ‘ show nageru ‘ throw oshieru ‘ teach ’ and yarn ‘ give
2. Any transitive verb used in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru construction
can take /?/', if the verb does not take a human direct object. For example,
yomu ‘ read ’, which does not take a human object, can take ni2, if used
in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru construction, as shown in (1), but homeru
‘ praise ’, which takes a human object, cannot take ni, as shown in (2).

(1) < tifc0

Chisai toki o-ka-san wa watashi ni yoku hon o yonde kureta.
(When I was small, my mother often read me books.)

2
( )

Sensei wa watashi o / *ni homete kudasaimashita.

(My teacher praised me.)

An intransitive verb can never take ni even if it is used in the Vte

ageru or Vte kureru construction. Thus,

0) 3 ynt 7 y -<d / ^
Illllllllllllll

Jon wa Meari no / *ni pati ni kite ageta.

(John came to Mary’s party (for her sake).)

(■=> ageru2; kureru2)

I
ni3 fc prt.

a particle that indicates an agent or

a source in passive, causative, morau /
te morau and other receiving con-
i
^
S
by; from
[REL. karax]

structions <
 ni3 293

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Sentence (passive)

Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Verb (passive)

-H I l± Sii ! 1- ! £
Kazuo j wa tomodachi, ni tegami \ o yomareta / yomaremashita.

(Kazuo’s friend read his ( = Kazuo’s) letter (and Kazuo was unhappy).)

(B)

Sentence (causative)

Topic
Agent Direct Object Verb (causative)
(subject)

Ik? i fj
•it
/a :
:
ir
»<— cm j ■&

Akiko | wa Hiroshi j ni gohan 1 o tsukuraseta / tsukurasemashita.

(Akiko made Hiroshi fix a meal.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Vte

ns
* i & m.'D T t fj Ltz0
kuruma; o katte moratta / moraimashita.
HaflHMfl
(Lit. I had my car bought by my father. ( = My father bought me a car.))

(D)

Topic (subject) Source

yx-yi n OjS $fc£ i t & j Lfco

Jen | wa Yamano-sensei] ni ikebana \ o naratta / naraimashita.

(Jane took lessons in flower arranging from Mrs. Yamano.)

Examples '

(a)
Sono ko wa o-ka-san ni shikararemashita.
(The child was scolded by its mother.)
 294 ni3

(b) A: %<n*'r ? ynifztlici) b'ltz/vX'i-fi'o

Sono nekutai wa dare ni moratta n desu ka.
(Lit. From whom did you receive that tie? ( = Who gave you that
tie?))

B : 3Clc<>
Chichi ni moraimashita.
(Lit. I received it from my father. ( = My father did.))

(c) mnr/)
Boku wa amerikajin ni eigo o oshiete moratta.
(I had an American teach me English.)

(d) ^ Lfcc
Ani wa watashi ni gojikan mo untensasemashita.
(My older brother made me drive for as long as five hours.)

(e) A:
Yoshida-san ga kekkonshita sodesu yo.
(I heard that Mr. Yoshida got married.)

So desu ka. Dare ni kikimashita ka.

(Is that right? Who told you so?)
iiimmmni

1. Ni3 is typically used in passive, causative, morau / te morau constructions

and with verbs such as kariru ‘ borrow kiku ‘ hear morau ‘ receive
narau ‘ learn osowaru ‘ learn ’ which require a noun phrase represent¬
ing the source of the direct object.
(=t> rareru; saseru; morau1; morau2)
2. Nouns that take ni3 as in KSs (A), (B) and (C) all represent agents of
the main verb’s action. Thus, KSs (A), (B) and (C) include (1), (2)
and (3), respectively as part of their meaning.

(1)

Tomodachi ga te garni o yonda.

(His friend read a letter.)

(2) JStfriRSrtfSofc0
Hiroshi ga gohan o tsukutta.
(Hiroshi fixed a meal.)
 /7/3 / /7/4 295

(3) Ǥ:Iof:0
Chichi ga kuruma o katta.
(My father bought a car.)

3. A//3 of source as in KS (D), Exs. (b) and (e) can be replaced by kara1,
but /7/3 of agent, as in KSs (A), (B), (C), Exs. (a), (c) and (d), cannot.

[Related Expression]

The difference between ni3 (of source) and kara1 is that the former indicates
the speaker’s psychological closeness to a human source, whereas the latter
doesn’t. This difference explains why ni3 is ungrammatical if the source is
an impersonal institution to which the speaker can hardly feel close, as shown
in [1].

Hiru-san wa monbusho kara / *ni shogakukin o moraimashita.

(Mr. Hill has received a scholarship from the Ministry of Education.)

I
ni4 iz prt.

a particle that indicates the surface

of s.t. upon which some action di¬
rectly takes place
on; onto
[REL. dex; e (made, ni7); /7/'6]

♦ Key Sentence

Subject Direct Object Verb (action)

i & I &
Kodomo j ga kami j ni e j o kaita / kakimashita.

(A child has drawn a picture on the paper.)

(a) < *££V\,

Koko ni anata no namae to jusho o kaite kudasai.
(Please write your name and address here.)
296 ni*

(b) ^y 9 ^ t/io
Herikoputa ga yama no ue ni orimashita.
(A helicoptor landed on the top of the mountain.)

(c) Hr—/<—its' yjf— < tz £ V'0

Oba wa hanga ni kakete kudasai.

(Please hang your overcoat on the hanger.)

(a)
Sonna tokoro ni tatte iru to abunaidesu yo.
(It’s dangerous to keep standing in such a place.)

[Related Expressions]

I. Ni* should not be confused with del, a particle that indicates a location
in which some action takes place. (=t> del) Consider the difference in
meaning between [la] and [lb]:

[1] a. itlC&HglVCo
Michi ni e o kaita.
(I drew a picture on the street.)

b. T&VlfeZWi^tz0
Michi de e o kaita.
(I drew a picture in the street.)

II. A//4 should not be confused with Z7/6, a particle that indicates the location
where someone or something exists. («=> ni6) Examples:

[2] a. IZ$>Z>0
Sono tera wa Kyoto ni aru.
(That temple is in Kyoto.)

b.
Watashi wa heya ni ita.
(I was in the room.)
 a?/5 297

I
ni5 ic prt.

a particle which indicates purpose

when s.o. moves from one place to
another
l
s
<
to do s.t.; in order to do s.t.
[REL. tame nil

♦ Key Sentence

&
Topic
(subject)

(i h ^ St V #7
Vmasu

m'
■ Verb (motion)

ff ofc / Lfc0
Watashi wa depato e okurimono o kai itta 1 ikimashita.

(I went to a department store to buy a gift.)

Vmasu
ni
ML Ic. (to talk)
hanashi ni
1c (to eat)
tabe ni

(a) Uc&tz0
Gakusei ga shitsumon o shi ni kita.
(A student came to ask questions.)

(b) L(£ff< A/T*tK

Soko e nani o shi ni iku n desu ka.
(Lit. To do what are you going there? ( = For what are you going
there?))

(c) ^
Murai-san wa hirugohan o tabe ni uchi e kaetta.
(Mr. Murai went home to eat his lunch.)

1. Vmasu niy meaning ‘ to do s.t.’, can be used only with verbs of motion,
(i.e., verbs which express a movement from one place to another), such
298 nfi

as iku ‘ go ’, kuru ‘ come ’, kaeru ‘ return ’, hairu 1 enter ’ and deru ‘ leave \
Verbs like awku ‘ walk ’, hashiru ‘ run ’ and oyogu ‘ swim ’ are not con¬
sidered motion verbs because they express a manner of movement rather
than a movement from one place to another. Therefore, the following
sentence is ungrammatical.

1
( )

*Watashi wa sakura no hana o mi ni koen o aruita.

(1 walked through the park to see cherry blossoms.)
2. If the verb in Vmasu ni is a compound verb of the structure N suwt
such as shigotosuw ‘ work ’, benkydsuw ‘ study ’ and shitsumonsuw ‘ ask
a question suw is sometimes omitted.
(2) a.
Oyama-san wa shigoto(shi) ni itta.
(Mr. Oyama went to work.)

b.
Gakusei ga shitsumon(shi) ni kita.
(A student came to ask questions.)

[Related Expression]

Vinf*nonpast tame ni is also used to express purpose in an action. However,

the uses of Vinf*nonpast tame ni and Vmasu ni differ in some ways. First,
unlike Vmasu ni, Vinf*nonpast tame ni can be used with any verb. Ex¬
amples :

Watashi wa kodomo no shashin o tow tame ni kamera o katta.

(I bought a camera to take pictures of my child.)

[2] tmr/ y
Watashi wa amerikajin no tomodachi to hanasu tame ni eigo o
benkydshite iru.
(I’m studying English in order to speak with my American friend.)

Second, when Vmasu ni and Vinf*nonpast tame ni are used with verbs of
motion,.Vmasu ni can be used without a directional phrase, but Vinf*nonpast
tame ni cannot, unless that information is clear from the context. Examples:

[3]
Boku wa sake o nomi ni itta.
(I went (somewhere) to drink.)
 ni5 / /?/6 299

[4] a.
fio/rt/ wa sa/re o /?o/77t/ fame n/ tomodachi no ie ni itta.
(I went to his friend’s house to drink.)

*Boku wa sake o nomu tame ni itta.

(I went to drink.)

Third, when Vinf* nonpast tame ni and Vmasu ni are used with verbs of
motion, Vinf*nonpast tame ni usually expresses a rather important purpose,
while Vmasu ni can be used even to express something insignificant. Ex¬
amples:

[5] a.
Kissaten e kohi o nomi ni itta.
(I went to a coffee shop to drink coffee.)

??Kissaten e kohi o nomu tame ni itta.

(I went to a coffee shop to drink coffee.)

ni6 fc prt.

a particle which indicates the loca- ?? in; at; on

tion where s.o. or s.t. exists [REL. dex; w4]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun (location) Verb (existence)

t )V £ ^ : (± is 3 > V y$A/ <D 7V\‘- h ■a V'5 / V'&1~0

Hiru-san j wa ima Jonson-san no apato ni iru 1 imasu.

(Mr. Hill is at Mr. Johnson’s apartment now.)

300 ni«

(B)

Topic (location) Subject Verb (existence)

fA <D iz.
d -y 7s n 4>HA <o
Watashi no kurasu ni wa chugokujin no gakusei ga iru 1 imasu.

(There is a Chinese student in my class.)

(a) y £1%
Sono bon wa kono gakko no toshokan ni arimasu.
(That book is in this school’s library.)

(b)
Kono gakko ni wa puru ga nai.
(There is no swimming pool at this school.)

(c) A/ A/*C VN J; o
Kato-san wa Osaka ni sunde imasu.
(Mr. Kato lives in Osaka.)

(d)
Niwa ni sakura no ki ga latte iru.
(There is a cherry tree standing in the yard.)

(e) iShflhtlZo
Kono sakubun ni wa bunpo no machigai ga takusan mirareru.
(Lit. A lot of grammatical mistakes can be seen in this composition.
( — There are a lot of grammatical mistakes in this composition.))

(f) fcjiioTV'So
Hanako ga Minoru no tonari ni suwatte iru.
(Hanako is sitting next to Minoru.)

1. Ni6 indicates the location where someone or something exists. Verbs

such as iru ‘ (animate things) existaru ‘ (inanimate things) exist ’ and
sumu ‘live’ typically occur with the locational ni. (<=>arul 2 3\ iru1)
2. The verb aru often takes the particle ni, but when aru is used for an
event, ni cannot be used. In this case, de is used. (<=> aru1; del)

3. Noun phrases with ni often occur as topics, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b).
 ni6 301

4. If a location phrase which indicates the existence of someone or some¬

thing modifies a noun phrase, as in ‘ an apartment in New York ’,
ni cannot be used. In this case, no is used. (*=> no{)
(1) -3.-3 -?<7) / b
Nyuyoku no / *ni a pa to
(an apartment in New York)

[Related Expressions]

I. De1 also indicates location, but not a location where someone / something
exists. Thus, in the following sentences de is ungrammatical.

[1] a. %1<D o h\Z /

Watashi no uchi ni / *de wa terebi ga nai.
(There is no TV set in my house.)

b. X ^ X £ ^ *V V' £ o
/

Sumisu-san wa ima kaigishitsu ni / *de iru.

(Mr. Smith is in the conference room now.)

On the other hand, ni is used only to indicate the location where

someone / something exists, but not an event; therefore, in the following
sentences, ni is ungrammatical.

[2] a. /*IC»H-<50
Watashi wa itsumo toshokan de / *ni benkyosuru.
(I always study at the library.)

b. Z<ny>ry H2 0#-C / C b Wi0

Kono raketto wa Nihon de /*ni wa goman'en gurai da.
(This racket costs about 50,000 yen in Japan.)

C. / *lzh~?tz0
Sono pati wa Tomu no ie de / *ni atta.
(The party was held at Tom’s.)

II. In some sentences, both the locational ni and the locational de can be
used. For example, in [3] both ni and de are appropriate.

[3]
Watashi wa Kyoto ni / de ii ie o mitsuketa.
(I found a good house in Kyoto.)

However, the nuances of a sentence with ni and that with de are dif¬
ferent. Namely, the sentence with ni implies that “ I found a good house
302 ni6 / ni7

which is in Kyoto ”, while the one with de means “ In Kyoto I found

a good house”. Therefore, in [4] the ni version and the de version
mean different things.

[4] $UtXj§Clz / JLotffco

Watashi wa Tokyo ni / de shigoto o mitsuketa.
(I found a job in Tokyo.)

Namely, in the sentence with ni, the job is in Tokyo and the place the
speaker found it might not have been Tokyo. On the other hand, the
sentence with de means that the place the speaker found the job was
Tokyo and the place where he is going to work is not necessarily Tokyo.

ni7 fZ prt.

a particle which indicates a place to; toward

toward which s.o. or s.t. moves [REL. e]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (place)

% it Id ffofc / Ltzo
Watashi wa kino Sanfuranshisuko ni itta / ikimashita.

(I went to San Francisco yesterday.)

(a)
Jimu wa rainen Amerika ni kaeru.
(Jim is going back to America next year.)

(b) V'otM&co ?
itsuka watashi no uchi ni kimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to come to my house sometime?)

(c) ® h 7
Karera wa kado no resutoran ni haitta.
(They entered the restaurant around the corner.)
 nP 303

* Semantic Derivations of Ni
304 ni chigainai

ni chigainai phr.

The speaker is convinced that there ^ there is no doubt that — ; must

■ t . , <
\ is no mistake on his part in guessing ;> be ~ ; no doubt
i something. £ [REL. dard\ hazu; kamoshi-
renaf\
♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf

fi ^0 O £ t £
Shimoda-san wa kyd no koto 0 was ur eta ni chigainai /

chigaiarimasen.

(Mr. Shimoda must have forgotten today’s plans (lit. about things of today).)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (/) inf

ho %%L o tm f* StLIA
Ano sensei no shiken wa muzukashii ni chigainai / chigaiarimasen.

(That teacher’s exams must be hard.)

(C)

Topic
(experiencer)

^ ]) n ±*
Beiri-san wa jozu ni chigainai / chigaiarimasen.

(Mr. Bailey must be good at tennis.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun

ho A n \c ibflSv'&v' / htfy'h 9 mtAj0

Ano hito wa nihonjin ni chigainai / chigaiarimasen.

(That person must be Japanese.)

 ni chigainai 305

KSs (A) and (B):

{Vinf / Adj(/)} inf Id

ni chigainai
[t&1~ It§L/d} Id 'fpJ&'V'&V' (s.o. will no doubt talk / s.o. no
[hanasu / hanashita) ni chigainai doubt talked)

l£ (s.o. will no doubt eat/s.o. no doubt

[taberu / tabeta} /?/ chigainai ate)

(d (s.t. is / was no doubt expensive)

[takai / takakatta} /w chigainai

KSs (C) and (D):

{Adj (na) stem / NJ [0/tz^tz] Id *>j&SV'fcV'

{0 / datta} ni chigainai
{fM* ftffrtz'itz} Id tbJ&SV'ftV' (s.t. is / was no doubt quiet)
[shizuka / shizukadatta} ni chigainai
fioifc} Id (s.o. is / was no doubt a teacher)
[sensei / sensei datta} /w chigainai

(a) l< id v'D

Futari wa imagoro Hawai de tanoshiku oyoide iru ni chigainai.
(The two must now be enjoying swimming in Hawaii.)

(b) — < Oli^C^ld^^V'^V'o

Hitori de gaikoku e iku no wa taihen ni chigainai.
(It must be hard to go to a foreign country alone.)

(c) |ijp £ /kligK^V'V'Idib^V'&V'o

Yamaguchi-san wa atama ga ii ni chigainai.
(Mr. Yamaguchi must be bright.)

(a) fotutbyyy
Are wa Tonpuson-san ni chigainai.
(That must be Mr. Thompson.)
 306 ni chigainai

The sentence-equivalent that precedes ni chigainai can be nominalized by no

in written Japanese, yielding more credibility to the speaker’s assertion.
Examples: (■=» no3)

(1) a. < fcofcOte'kj&SV'fcV'o

Nihon no keizai wa yoku natta no ni chigainai.
(The Japanese economy must have really improved.)

b. 9 9 itL <
le o kau no wa amari muzukashikunai no ni chigainai.
(Buying a house is no doubt not so difficult.)

[Related Expressions]

I. There are cases where ni chigainai can sometimes be replaced by hazu

da. In such cases, however, the former is always a conjecture and the
latter is the speaker’s expectation based on objective facts. (<=> hazu)

II. The degree of probability implied by daro, kamoshirenai, and ni chigai¬

nai is as follows:
Least probable Most probable
-P

kamoshirenai daro ni chigainai

minimum

iimiii |
II
 -nikui 307

•nikui (C < t' oux. adj. (/')

S.t. or s.o. is hard to hard to ~ ; difficult to — ; don’t

do s.t. easily; not readily; not
prone to ~
(ANT. -yasui)

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Vmasu

Z.<D A (i
Kono hon wa taihen

(This book is very hard to read.)

Vmasu < V'

nikui
ISL(c< V> (s.o. is hard to talk to)
hanashinikui
< V> (s.t. is hard to eat)
tabenikui

(a) Z<D V>T'1-^o

Kono doa wa akinikuidesu ne.
(This door doesn’t open easily, does it?)

(b) V'o
Ano hito no namae wa oboenikui.
(His name is hard to remember.)

(c) V'T'fo
Ano sensei wa hanashinikuidesu.
(That teacher is hard to talk to.)

(d) M< V'T-1-0

Kono kutsu wa hashirinikuidesu.
(These shoes are hard to run in.)
308 -nikui

1. Vmasu+nikui conjugates exactly like an Adj (/).

Informal Formal

Nonpast f£Uc< V'

hanashinikui hanashinikuidesu
Aff.
Past f
hanashinikuka tta hanashinikuka ttadesu

Nonpast IStt< < itl:< < b 9

hanashinikukunai hanashinikukuarimasen
Neg.
Past fLl:< < & #> o tz
hanashinikukunaka tta hanashinikukuarimasendeshita

2. In both English and Japanese the subject of the n//ri//'-construction can

be the subject of an intransitive verb, as in Ex. (a) where kono doa
‘ this door ’ is the subject of aku * open It can also be the direct object
of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (b) where a no hi to no namae ‘ his name ’
is the direct object of oboeru ‘ remember ’. It can be the indirect object
of a transitive verb, as in Ex. (c) where ano sensei ‘ that teacher ’ is
the indirect object of hanasu ‘talk’. Finally, the subject can be N-f
Particle such as kono kutsu de ‘ with these shoes ’ corresponding in
English to Preposition+ N. In this construction, as in Exs. (c) and (d),
note that the preposition in the English sentence is retained but the
corresponding particle in the Japanese sentence is deleted.

3. -yasui ‘easy to do is an antonym of -nikui. The basic formation of

the yasi/Z-construction is identical to the /7//ri//'-construction. (c^> -yasui)
 ni shite wa 309

~ni shite wa McLTte Prt-

a phrase that indicates a generally for ~; considering that ~

agreed upon standard (The entire [REL. ~to shite wa\
sentence that includes this phrase <;
expresses some deviation from that ^
standard.) <;
-V 'V'N'Vr A. -s

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Noun

n BrfcA (c bt li / ^c^v'-e-fo
Takayama-san wa nihonjin ni shite wa okii / okiidesu.

(Mr. Takayama is big for a Japanese person.)

(B)

Topic
Vinf
(subject)

n H*sS Sr Jr< M LX T¥fc' /

Bobu wa nihongo o yoku benkyoshite iru ni shite wa hetada /

hetadesu.

(Considering that Bob is studying Japanese hard, he is poor at it.)

KS(A):

N (fcfofc) (c UT l±
(<datta) ni shite wa
{tiotz) {£ LX fi (considering that s.o. is / was a teacher)
sensei {datta) ni shite wa
KS(B):

Vinf fc tt (i
ni shite we
310 -— /?/' shite wa / ~ni suru

{%^ir / fj§Lfc} (I LT |± (considering that s.o. talks / talked)

[hanasu / hanashita} ni shite wa

(a) A/J M Ja0

Hachigatsu ni shite wa suzushiidesu ne.
(For August it is cool, isn’t it?)

(b)
Kore wa Nihon no kuruma ni shite wa okiidesu ne.
(For a Japanese car this is big, isn’t it?)

(c) faltl'Xy-tz'itciz. v>0

Kare wa resura datta ni shite wa karada ga chisai.
(Considering that he was a wrestler, he is small.)

(d) y
Aoki-san wa Amerika ni jOnen ita ni shite wa eigo ga amari jdzujanai.
(Considering that Mr. Aoki spent ten years in America, his English is
not very good.)

shite wa is the te-form of ni suru ‘make it ~, decide on — ’ plus wa

‘if’. The literal meaning is ‘if one makes it —

—ni suru ~fcf <5 Phr-

S.o. has decided on s.t. decide on ~; make it ~

[REL. ni kimeru\

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun

& Z<D 7A- h n tZ / L£to

Watashi wa kono apato suru / shimasu.

(I’ve decided on this apartment.)

 —/7/' suru 311

(a) A: L£i"J&\,
Anata wa nan ni shimasu ka.
(Lit. What have you decided on? ( = What will you have?))

B : — * IcUSto
Watashi wa suteki ni shimasu.
(Lit. I’ve decided on steak. (= I’ll have steak.))

(b) mmzMtr/ v tvmzL'&Lfco

Okada-san wa Amerika no kuruma ni shimashita.
(Mr. Okada (has) decided on an American car.)

1. Ni suru is usually preceded by a noun or a noun equivalent. (=> Arofo

ni suru) However, a noun with a particle is also possible. Example:

(1) = —3 —* ^T'lCUto
Kondo no ryoko wa NyOyoku made ni shimasu.
(Next trip, I’ll make it as far as New York.)

2. If the tense is nonpast, ni suru implies that a decision has just been
made, as in KS and Ex. (a). If the past tense is used, the sentence is
ambiguous; it means either that a decision has been made but no action
has been taken or that a decision was made and an action was also
taken. (Ex. (b))

[Related Expression]

Ni kimeru also means ‘ decide on ’ and ni suru and ni kimeru can be used
interchangeably, although ni kimeru is usually used in situations where a
decision is considered significant or important. Thus, in situations like Ex.
(a), ni kimeru is not used.
312 no'

no1 0 prt.

a particle which, with a preceding > ’s; of; in; at; for; by; from
noun phrase, forms a phrase to ^ [REL. no2]
modify a following noun phrase <

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Noun Noun

zin li CD K 1 Xt.
Kore wa sensei no hon da 1 desu.

(This is my teacher’s book.)

(B)

Noun Particle Noun

Zti li £il CD Ti 1 Xi-.

Kore wa tomodachi kara no tegami da 1 desu.

(This is a letter from my friend.)

(i) N cd N
no
fH ^ $ h CD ^ (Mr. Tanaka’s house)
Tanaka-san no ie
T / V iJ (D (a university in America)
Amerika no daigaku

(ii) N Prt (D N
no
0^: "C? <D (a job in Japan)
Nihon de no shigoto
JT ^ (D y 1/y h (a present for Mary)
Mean e no purezento
(a) %(O#
watashi no hon gakko no namae kyd no shinbun
(my book) (the name of the school) (today’s paper)

(b) 0*0#
Nihon no tera eki no denwa
(a temple in Japan) (a telephone at the station)

(c)
bijutsu no hon nihongo no shiken
(a book on fine arts) (an exam on Japanese)

(d) &<n1£
sakura no hana momo no ki basu no kippu
(a cherry blossom) (a peach tree) (a bus ticket)

kaze no kusuri
(cold medicine)

(e) 0*g&<D$fc£
nihongo no sensei ongaku no gakusei
(a teacher of Japanese) (a student of music)

(f) t°ijy<Dfe 7*-

Pika so no e Betoben no ongaku Fodo no kuruma
(a picture by Picasso) (music by Beethoven) (a car made by Ford)

(8) $CM<Ott£As 13 7 — <D^M

tomodachi no Oki-san isha no Morita-san kara no shashin
(my friend Mr. Oki) (a medical doctor, Dr. (a photo in color)
Morita)

Jussai no kodomo
(a ten-year-old child)

(h) |i<D K UX ti As $*<&%£

kinu no doresu renga no ie
(a silk dress) (a brick house)

(i) b<Os"'— 7- -f —
hachiji kara no pati sensei to no hanashiai
(a party which starts (a discussion with the
at eight o’clock) teacher)
314 no1

1. Generally, no combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In

A no B, A no modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B
among all the members of B. A and B in A no B relate to each other
in various ways, and these relationships are determined by context.
Some common relationships follow.

(A) A is the possessor of B. (Ex. (a))

B of A; A’s B

(B) A is the location where B exists. (Ex. (b))

B in / at A

(C) B is about / on A. (Ex. (c))

B on A; B about A

(D) A is a specific kind of B. (Ex. (d))

AB; B of A; B for A

(E) A is the object and B is the subject. (Ex. (e))

AB; B of A

(F) A created B. (Ex. (f))

A’s B; B by A; B created by A

(G) A is an attribute of B. (Ex. (g))

A, B; B, who / which is A

($ B is made of / from A. (Ex. (h))

AB

2. In A no B, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in KS(B)

and Ex. (i). Note that no cannot be omitted in this case, because it
indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the
following noun phrase. Without no, the noun phrase with the particle
is interpreted as an adverbial phrase which modifies the predicate in
the clause. For example, in (la) hachiji kara ‘ from eight o’clock ’ modi¬
fies ikimashita ‘ went ’, while in (lb) hachiji kara no modifies pati * party ’.

(1) a. t 4 fTcfLfco
Hachiji kara pati ni ikimashita.

(I went to the party at (lit. from) eight o’clock.)

 no11 no2 315

b. Alfrfrfrfl) •< -fc frt&Lfco

Hachiji kara no pati ni ikimashita.
_i
(I went to the party which had started at (lit. from) eight
o’clock.)

3. The “A no B ” construction can be extended as in “A no B no C no. .

Examples:

(2) a.
watashi no sensei no hon
(my teacher’s book)

b.
nihongo no sensei no Tanaka-sensei
(the Japanese teacher, Prof. Tanaka)

4. In A no B, B can be omitted if it is apparent from context. Examples:

(3) £;Mi&0Cfc)T--t-o
Kore wa watashi no (hon) desu.
(This is mine ( = my book).)

(4)
Kono resutoran no (suteki) wa yokuarimasen.
(This restaurant’s (steak) is not good.)

no2 (D pro.

a dependent indefinite pronoun one

----' [REL. nol\ no3}

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Adj

fikIt <0 Sr lof: / L ft0

Watashi wa okii no o katta 1 kaimashita.

(I bought a big one.)

316 no1 2

(B)

Relative Clause

%L it Wr>tz <D £ Ltzo

Watashi wa kyonen katta no o tsukatta / tsukaimashita.

(I used the one I bought last year.)

CZSS3SE9
KS(A):
( i ) Adj (/) inf* nonpast <D
no
<D (expensive one)
takai no
(ii) Adj (na) stem tn <D
na no
Ci 9 <T> (durable one)
jdbuna no
KS(B):
Same formation rules as those for relative clauses. («=> Relative Clause)

(a) A: H
Donna kuruma ga hoshiidesu ka.
(What kind of car do you want?)

Chisai no ga hoshiidesu.
(I want a small one.)

Tomodachi ga wain o nomitagatta node kino katta no o dashita.

(My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.)

1. The indefinite pronoun no is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used

by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause.
2. No is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the
context or the situation. Things referred to by no are not necessarily
tangible. Example:
 no2 317

(1) #«£ £-?: 9 fi0

ima made kiita aidea no naka de wa Tamura-kun ga itta no ga

ichi ban yosa soda.
(Among the ideas we’ve heard so far, the one Mr. Tamura told
us seems the best.)

[Related Expressions]

The indefinite pronoun no (i.e., no2) is different from the particle no (i.e.,
no1) and the nominalizer no (i.e., no3). First, [1] shows the difference be¬
tween no1 and no2. Namely, in [la] Tomu no is the omitted form of Tomu
no pen. On the other hand, [lb] is not an omitted form; that is, if a noun
is inserted after kuroi no in [lb], the sentence becomes ungrammatical as seen
in [lc]. In fact, what [lb] means is [Id], if no ‘one’ refers to a pen.

[1] a. no1 (particle)

fidi h a <;)(-< :✓)?&;
Watashi wa Tomu no (pen) ga hoshii.
(I want Tom’s pen.)

b. no2 (indefinite pronoun)

Watashi wa kuroi no ga hoshii.

(I want a black one.)

* Watashi wa kuroi no pen ga hoshii.

(I want a black pen.)

d.
Watashi wa kuroi pen ga hoshii.
(I want a black pen.)

Next, [2] shows the difference between no2 and no3. That is, the meaning of
the sentence depends on whether the no in [2] is interpreted as no2 or no3,
as shown in the two English translations.

[2]
Takada-san ga tsukatte ita no o oboete imasu ka.
((A) [Indefinite pronoun] Do you remember the one Mr. Takada was
using?)
((B) [Nominalizer] Do you remember that Mr. Takada was using
(something)?)
318 no3

no3 (D nom.

\ a nominalizer which is used when j that ~; to do s.t.; doing s.t.

| the nominalized sentence expresses < [REL. koto2] no2]
> a directly perceptible event (

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Sentence (informal)t

B*s§ Jr CO ti *LV' / $£LV'T*-J-0

Nihongo o oshieru no wa muzukashii / muzukashiidesu.

(Teaching Japanese is difficult.)

(B)

Topic
(subject)

& j 14
Sentence (informal)t

CO
■
£ jt,fc / Lfc.
Watashi \ wa Yukiko-san ga biru o nomu no o n?/fa / mimashita.

(I saw Yukiko drink beer.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf co

no

[t&lr I t&LTz} ?> (that s.o. talks / talked)

{hanasu / hanashita) no
{i^V' <0 (that s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta) no
(ii) {Adj {na) stem / N} {*/£ofc} <O
{na I datta} no

{fM'fr / o fc} co (that s.t. is / was quiet)

[shizukana / shizukadatta} no
co (that s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sense/ na / sensei datta} no
 no3 319

(a)
Nihon e iku no wa kantandesu.
(Going to Japan is easy.)

(b) / ^#V'TV'5(0§r|V'fc0
Watashi wa Kobayashi-san ga piano o hiite iru no o kiita.
(I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.)

(c) ^ 7 — ? Z/vfty 7
Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku no o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?)

1. No makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. KS(A) and Ex. (a) are
examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject
position, and KS(B) and Exs. (b) and (c) are examples where nominalized
sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur
in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of
B in “A wa B da”. In that situation, the nominalizer koto (i.e., koto2)
is used as in (1).

(1) / £ t t /*(OtzQ
Komatta no / koto wa kare ga korarenai koto / *no da.
(The trouble is that he can’t come.)

2. Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic

marker wa cannot occur, as seen in (2). (<=> ga1)

(2) tv# I *\Zt'T S V'fc.

Boku wa Hiroko-san ga / *wa piano o hiite iru no o kiita.
(I heard Hiroko playing the piano.)

3. There is another nominalizer, koto. No and koto are sometimes mutually

interchangeable. (=> koto2) For example, Exs. (a) and (c) can be restated
as:

(3) ZtlZfa#X-'to
Nihon e iku koto wa kantandesu.
(Going to Japan is easy.)
(4) 2 y'-t %htn~7y ff< C. t
Kuraku-san ga Furansu e iku koto o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?)
320 no3

However, in general, no is used when the preceding clause expresses some¬

thing rather concrete or perceptible, while koto is used when the preceding
clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In KS(B), Ex.
(b) and (5), for example, koto cannot be used because the nominalized
clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.
(5) l*zt£$,ctz0
Watashi wa jibun no karada ga furuete iru no / *koto o kanjita.
(I felt my body trembling.)
Also, there are a number of idiomatic phrases with koto where koto
cannot be replaced by no. (<=>/rofo ga aru\ koto ga dekiru\ koto ni
naru \ koto ni suru) (6) lists verbs and adjectives and their appropriate
nominalizers.
no koto
J15 * see ’ v *
miru
*
‘ be visible ’ v
mieru
m< *
‘ hear’ v
kiku
*
* be audible ’ v
kikoeru
*
‘ feel ’ v
kanjiru
*
‘ stop (v.t.) ’ V
tomeru
*
* wait ’ v
matsu

‘ discover ’ v ?
mitsukeru
^ ■£<'
* protect’ v ?
fusegu

‘ get to know ’ v v
shiru

‘ forget * v V
wasureru
(ic) % o <
‘ notice ’ v V
(ni) ki ga tsuku

‘ recall ’ v V
omoidasu
 no3 321

no koto

‘ learn ’ v v
oboeru
IS#? <5
‘ admit ’ v v
mitomeru

‘ avoid ’ v v
sakeru

‘ quit ’ v v
yameru

‘ regret’ v v
kokaisuru
{&) ftt'Z
‘ understand ’ v v
{ga) wakaru
{&)
‘like’ v v
{ga) sukida
m Zb^tz
‘ dislike ’ v v
{ga) kiraida
{&) trfiVN
‘ afraid ’ v v
(ga) /rovva/
(#>) 5 ti/LV'
‘happy’ v v
(ga) ureshii
{&) I&LV'
‘sad ’ v v
(ga) kanashi7
LV'
‘ easy ’ v v
yasashii
liLVN
‘ difficult ’ v v
muzukashii
Mft-tz
‘ expect * ? v
kitaisuru

‘believe’ ?? v
shinjiru
1r1r#> £
‘advise’ ?? v
susumeru

‘ think ’ * v
kangaeru
Utr
‘ ask ’ * v
tanomu

‘ order’ * v
meijiru
 322 no8 / no*

/?o £ofo
m M&Z
‘can do * * v
{ga) dekiru
(#) ‘ there are / were
• ^ y
{ga) aru times when *
((c) -tz
‘ decide * * v
(ni) sm/
((C) *5
‘ be decided * * v
{ni) naru
((c) i5
‘ be due to * * v
(/7/) yo/77

no4 (D P't-

> a sentence-final particle used by a it is that ~

> female speaker or a child to indicate [REL. no da}
| an explanation or emotive emphasis

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

A: Vinf B: Vinf

Zo It ftl'T CO? c£ Ay ft* I'fcl' (Do

Doshite naite iru no? O-ka-san ga inai no.

(How come you are crying?) ('Cause mommy's gone.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (/) inf

h<o a j n txt *3 LI' Do

Ano hito ! wa totemo yasashii no.

(He is so gentle, you know.)

 no* 323

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj {na) stem

m | f± txt JLJC,
B cOo
Haha \ wa mada totemo genki no.

(My mother is still quite fine.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun

±K
Shujin
j
\ wa
ii xyv “7
enjinia B
B
<Do
no-

(My husband is an engineer.)

^jQ22SfiEE^
(i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf <o
no
{fg-f / Mlf:} co (s.o. talks / talked)
{hanasu / hanashita} no

{*^5 /£ co (s.o. eats / ate)

{taberu / fa£era} /70

V' / co (s.t. is / was big)

{d/r/7 / okikatta) no

(ii) {Adj (/7a) stem / N} {& / o fc} co

[na I datta) no

{flM»fc co (s.t. is / was quiet)

[shizukana / shizukadatta) no

{%& ft / o fc) co (s.o. is / was a teacher)

{sensei na / sensei datta} /7o

(a) A: g p
Do shite tabenai no?
(How come you don’t eat it?)
324 noA

B: (v')&V'C0o
Onaka (ga) suite (i)nai no.
(’Cause I’m not .hungry.)

(b) A : if 3 Lfcco?
Doshita no?
(What’s the matter with you?)

B :
Atama ga itai no.
(I have a headache.)

(c) ?
6/c/?/' no ko wa mada shogakusei na no.)
(My child is still in grade school.)

(d) h WiofccD0
Daigaku wa Purinsuton datta no.
(My university was Princeton.)

1. The sentence-final no is derived from no da / no desu through deletion

of da / desu.

2. This no is used by females or children only in an informal situation.

There are times when adult male speakers use no in questions, as in
Exs. (a) and (b), but they do not use it in declarative sentences, as
in Exs. (c) and (d).

[Related Expression]

The sentence-final particle noA is the same in its meaning as no of no da.

(t=> no da)
 no da 325

no da (Dtz Phr-

j a sentence ending which indicates ^ The explanation is that ~ ; The

; that the speaker is explaining or ask- \ reason is that ~; The fact is
^ ing for an explanation about some in- \ that —; It is that ~
( formation shared with the hearer, or '
> is talking about something emotively, ]
< as if it were of common interest to j
\ the speaker and the hearer \

♦ Key Sentences

A:

Sentence (informal)t

fa £ LT V'6 A, / co Vi" t'Xo

Nani o shite iru n 1 no desu ka.

(What are you doing?)

B:

Sentence (informal)t

h\<D
Nihongo o benkyoshite iru n 1 no desu.

(I’m studying Japanese.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

XInformal form: fa £ It 106 A, fc'v\, (male)

Nani o shite iru n dai. (<=> dai)
fa £ LT V'6 co? (female)
Nani o shite iru no? («=> no*)
% Informal form: 106 ^ tS0 (male)
•••benkyoshite iru n da.
106 C0o (female)
•••benkyoshite iru no.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf co ti

no da
326 no da

{Ml- /Mt/i} <D ti (s.o. (will) talk / talked)

[hanasu / hanashita} no da

{itjV' / 'mfr'itz) <D ti (s.t. is / was expensive)

{takai / takakatta} no da

(ii) {Adj {na) stem / N} {4 / tio tz) <0 ti

{na / datta} no da

{fM‘4 l&frti'itz <D ti (s.t. is / was quiet)

[shizukana / shizukadatta} no da

4 / ti o tz) <D ti (s.o. is / was a teacher)

[sensei na / sensei datta} no da

(a) A: if ?
Doshite o-sake o nomanai n desu ka.
(Why don’t you drink sake})

Watashi wa mada jushichi na n desu.

((The reason is that) I’m still seventeen.)

(b) ^(13*0 tSAshZAsX'to

Boku wa kyo no pati ni ikemasen. Shukudai ga takusan aru n desu.
(I can’t go to today’s party. I have a lot of homework.)

(c) htetzb&mLtzi'AsX'to
Anata to kekkonshitai n desu.
(I want to marry you.)

1. In conversation, no da / desu often becomes n da / desu. In informal

speech, male speakers use n da and female speakers use no. (For the
informal forms of no da in interrogative sentences, see kai and dai.)

2. Basically, S no da is used when the speaker is explaining or asking

for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The in¬
formation is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or
heard. For example, in KSs, A uses no desu because he is asking for
an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses no desu be¬
cause he is explaining his actions. In this situation, (1) is odd.
 no da 327

(1) A : fpj£ LTV^-f

Nani o shite imasu ka.
(What are you doing?)

Nihongo o benkydshite imasu.

(I’m studying Japanese.)

If, however, A is only assuming that B is doing something, A can ask

the question in (2), and B can answer as B does in (1).

(2) sj&
Anata wa ima nani o shite imasu ka.
(What are you doing now?)

In Ex. (a), as in KS, A uses n desu because A observes that B isn’t

drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses n
desu because he is explaining about what A observed. In Ex. (b), the
speaker uses n desu in the second sentence because it is an explanation
about the information which has been given in the first sentence.

3. S no da is also used when no information is shared by the speaker

and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an ex¬
planation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some
information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are, for
example,

(A) to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking about (See (3) and
(4) below.),

and / or

(B) to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to emphasize his
idea emotively. (See (5) below.)

Examples:

(3) ^0 7 7 btf-frfrhZAj’Ct
Kyo futtobdru ga aru n desu ga isshoni ikimasen ka.
(There is a football game today. Wouldn’t you like to go (to¬
gether) with me?)

(4) $bttT<XZV'o
Sensei, komatte iru n desu. Tasukete kudasai.
(Teacher, I’m in trouble. Please help me.)
 328 no da / node

(5) L6V^^•e■rX0
Nihongo no bunpo wa muzukashiidesu ga omoshiroi n desu yo.
(Japanese grammar is difficult, but it is interesting, you know.)

node or conj.

a subordinate conjunction which ex¬ so; since; because

presses a reason or a cause [REL. ofe3; kara3]

♦ Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause (cause / reason)

Main Clause
Sentence (informal)t

*3m £ (OX BS<

O-sake o takusan nonda node nemuku natta / narimashita.
Illlllllllllllllf

NI (Because I drank a lot of sake, I got sleepy.)

1[Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf (OX

node
{!§i“ ItHl-tc} <OX (because s.o. (will) talk / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} node
(OX
} (because s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta} node
(ii) {Adj {na) stem / N} {& / (OX
{na / datta} node
<DX (because s.t. is / was quiet)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} node
Tiolt) (OX (because s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei na / sensei datta} node
 node 329

Shukudai ga takusan aru node pad ni ikemasen.

(Since I have a lot of homework, I can’t go to the party.)

(b)
Sono hon wa takakatta node kawanakatta.
(Because that book was expensive, I didn’t buy one.)

(c) ±
Watashi no heya wa shizukana node yoku benkyo dekimasu.
(My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.)

(d) tz
fc <DX $ £ tMM W & fr V No
Jen wa mada chugakusei na node kuruma o unten dekinai.
(Because Jane is still a junior high student, she can’t drive a car.)

Etymologically, node is the re-form of no da. (=> no da) However, in

modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or cause.

[Related Expressions]

I. The conjunction kara also expresses reason or cause. However, kara

and node differ in the following way. Node is used when the speaker
believes that the information he provides in Si node as cause or reason
for S2 is valid and is also evident and acceptable to the hearer. (Exs.
(a)-(d)) Si kara S2, however, does not involve that assumption. There¬
fore, node cannot be used and kara must be used in the following situ¬
ations :

(A) Si (i.e., reason / cause clause) expresses the speaker’s conjecture

about something.

[1] A0 h'b / X

Hito ga takusan kuru daro kara / *node tabemono o takusan

katte oita.
(Because many people will probably come, I’ve bought a lot
of food.)

(B) S2 (i.e., the main clause) is a command, request, suggestion or

invitation.
 330 node

[2] Command
able /*<D-QfrV'D
Kono eiga wa tame ni naru kara / *node ikinasai.
(Because this movie is good for you, go (see it).)

[3] Request
hVfr<D'S 3 -i±*D t
Ashita no sho wa omoshiroi kara / *node zehi mi ni kite
kudasai.
(Tomorrow’s show is interesting, so please come to see it.)

[4] Suggestion

V' X0
Kono hon wa totemo omoshiroi kara / *node minna mo yonda
ho ga ii yo.
(This book is very interesting, so you’d better read it, too.)

[5] Invitation
V'V'TgL«t Ofi'o
ii sake o moratta kara / *node isshoni nomimasho ka.
(I got some good sake, so shall we drink it together?)

S2 expresses the speaker’s volition or personal opinion.

iiiiiiminii

(C)

[6] Volition
< A'b / ?<>
Tanaka-san ga iku kara / *node boku mo iko.
(Since Mr. Tanaka is going (there), I’ll go, too.)

[7] Personal Opinion

Boku ga yoku shitte iru kara / *node daijobudesu.

(I know it well, so there will be no problem.)

II. The particle de is also used to express a reason or cause. (<=>c/e3;

Semantic Derivations of De) De, however, can be used only with nouns,
while node and kara are used only with sentences. Compare [8] and
[9].

[8] &JM.V/*A'b /*0V&&1t<£A,1£#titto

Taifu de / *kara / *node ie ga takusan taoreta.
(Many houses fell down due to the typhoon.)
 node / noni1 331

[9] / 0)V & Astctetltio

Tsuyoi kaze ga fuita kara / node / *de ie ga takusan taoreta.
(Lit. Many houses fell down because a strong wind blew.)

noni1 (Die

I
>
$ Contrary to everybody’s expectation
based on the sentence preceding noni,
the proposition in the sentence fol-
lowing noni is the case.
, >
<,
>
^
?}
even though; despite the fact
that although; but; in spite
of the fact that ~
[REL. ga\ keredo(mo)]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf

£ M&LT l'£ (Oiz.

Mainichi kanji o benkydshite iru noni yoku oboerarenai /

oboeraremasen.

(Although I’m studying kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.)

Topic (subject) Adj (/') inf

^.co ^f-3r n (Die L <&V' / &V' L < h 9

Kono suteki wa takai

(In spite of the fact that this steak is expensive, it isn’t delicious.)
332 noni1

(C)

Topic (subject) Adj (/7a) stem

it <DiZ Ml its 1
Shimizu-san wa noni dai-sukida /

dai-sukidesu.

(Although Mr. Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves it.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun

$ A/ it 7* V (D\Z 1*1 i** fltV'Af / j»V'T--fo

Horu-san wa amerikajin noni niku ga kiraida / kiraidesu.

(In spite of the fact that Mr. Hall is an American, he doesn’t like meat.)

, Formation

KSs(A) and (B):

{V / Adj (/)} inf <D d
noni
{ISi“ /ISLfc}<D\z (although s.o. talks / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} noni
l\%i)*r>Tz.} Ole (although s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} noni
KSs(C) and (D):
{Adj (na) stem/ N} {& / tz o tz.} (D\z
[na / datta} noni
Hfrfrtdofc) <D\Z (although s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} noni
& I tdotz) <D\Z. (although s.o. is / was a teacher)
{sensei na / sensei datta} noni
^Examples

ChOgaku to koko de rokunenkan mo eigo o benkyoshita noni mada

eigo ga hanasemasen.
 noni1 333

(I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior
high, but I still cannot speak it.)

(b)
Samui noni oba o kinaide dekaketa.
(Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.)

Ano hito wa piano ga jozuna noni metta ni hikimasen.

(He is good at piano, but seldom plays.)

(d) V'^-fo
Chichi wa kyujussai na noni mada hataraite imasu.
(My father i,s still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years
old.)

1. Noni is the nominalizer no plus the particle ni ‘to*, meaning ‘in

contrast to the fact that ~’. The noni clause expresses a highly pre¬
supposed, speaker-oriented action or state. (■=> no3) In other words, the
speaker of Si noni S2 is personally involved with the proposition of Si.
This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone.

2. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, m

the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of Hf||
discontent on the part of the speaker.

(I) A : coUk&V'Jio
Sonna mono iranai yo.
(I don’t need that kind of stuff.)

B : -thlfZt^?0)lZo
Sekkaku ageru to iu noni.
(Lit. Although I’m kindly saying that I’ll give it to you.
( = I’m saying I’ll give it to you, you know.))

[Related Expressions]

I. Because of the speaker-oriented character of the noni clause, certain

types of constructions involving the hearer cannot be used in the
main clause in this construction. If the main clause is a request, sug¬
gestion, question, command or request for permission, only keredo(mo)
can be used. Examples of the above categories can be seen in [1] through
[5] below:
334 noni1

[1] IlLV'ItJli: /*0)lZLX*X<1££\f\

Muzukashii keredo / *noni shite mite kudasai.
(It is difficult, but try it, please.)

[2] D 3oV' L <

Amari oishiku nai keredo / *noni tabete mimasen ka.
(It’s not so good, but do you want to try it?)

[3] a. mWltlll
Samui keredo / *noni soto ni demasu ka.
(It’s cold, but are you going outside?)
b.
Samui keredo / noni soto ni deru n desu ka.
(It’s cold, but (lit. is it that you are going outside?) are you
going outside?)

[4] o£ib*V'lt*l£
Tsumaranai keredo / *noni yominasai.
(It’s boring, but read it.)

[5] /*T#^oi=LTtV'V'T'i"^0
Hetada keredo / *Hetana noni shite mo iidesu ka.
(I’m not good at it, but can I do it?)

[3b] is acceptable, because the scope of the question is not the main
verb deru ‘ go outside ’ but the whole sentence nominalized by n.

II. The main clause cannot be an expression of intention as in [6], because

the expression is directed not towards the speaker but towards the hearer.

Wakaranai keredo / *noni yoku kangaete miru tsumori desu /

kangaete miyo to omoimasu.
(Although I don’t understand it, I intend to really think about
it / I think I will really think about it.)

III. Due to the nominalizer no, the noni clause tends to express something
with which the speaker is emotively involved. But keredo(mo) is rela¬
tively free from the speaker’s emotive involvement; in short, it is more
objective than noni. («=> no3)

IV. Noni in Exs. (a) through (d) can also be replaced by the disjunctive
conjunction ga ‘but’. For example, Ex. (d) can be rewritten as [7].
 noni11 noni2 335

[7]
Chichi wa kyujussai da ga. mada hataraite iru.
(My father is ninety years old, but he is still working.)

The disjunctive meaning of ga is much weaker than that of noni, and

ga is free from the restrictions imposed on noni. The style of the
noni clause is always informal, but depending on the style of the second
sentence, the style of the sentence preceding ga can be either informal
or formal, as shown below:

Sinf ga Sinf / fml vs. Sinf noni Sinf / fml

Sfml ga Sfml

noni2 (Die conj.

| in the process or for the purpose of \ in the process of doing —; (in

| doing s.t. expressed in the no-nomi- j order) to do ~ ; for the purpose
> nalized clause t of ~
> <
[REL. ni5; tame (ni)]

♦ Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause
Topic (subject) Main Clause
Vinf* nonpast

% fi 0*18 n SrKI * trot* cold mi

Watashi wa nihongo no shinbun o yomu noni jisho o tsukau /

tsukaimasu,

(I use a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.)

Vinf* nonpast cold

noni

fiH- cold (in order to talk)

hanasu noni
336 noni2

cod (in order to eat)

taberu noni

(a) 6c0dtifpJ^g{) £tri\>

Sukiyaki o tsukuru noni wa nani ga irimasu ka.
(What do you need to make sukiyaki})

(b) vieDu#- h£#< cod—$. Ltz0

Kono repoto o kaku noni ikkagetsu kakarimashita.
(It took me a month to write this paper.)

(c) £ftdfr< cody<x £f£^:$:{£o*cv'6o

Kaisha ni iku noni basu to densha o tsukatte iru.
(I am using the bus and the train to get to (lit. my company) work.)

1. In the noni2 construction, only informal, nonpast, volitional verbs can

precede noni. (Cp. noni1)

2. When the noni clause is used as the topic (i.e., S noni wa\ no is
often deleted in conversation, as in (1).

(1)

Sukiyaki o tsukuru ni wa nani ga irimasu ka.

(What do you need to make sukiyaki})

[Related Expressions]

I. When the main verb is a verb of motion, the noni2 construction con¬
trasts with that of Wmasu ni V(motion). («=> z?/5) Examples:

[11
Eiga o mi ni Ginza e itta.
(I went to Ginza to see a movie.)

[2]
Eiga o miru noni Ginza e itta.
(I went to Ginza for the purpose of seeing a movie.)

[3]
Eiga o mi ni /*miru noni itta.
(I went to see / *for the purpose of seeing a movie.)

If a destination is specified, as in [1] and [2], both constructions can

be used. However, the noni version implies that the subject of the
 noni2 / ~/?o wa ~da 337

sentence made a lot out of the entire process. [2] can imply that the
speaker shouldn’t have used time and money going to Ginza to see a
movie. If a location is not specified, only the Vmasu ni V (motion)
construction-can be used, as shown in [3].

II. Noni2 is similar in its meaning to Vinf*nonpast tame ni ‘in order to’.
The latter purely means ‘purpose’ but the former retains the meaning of
‘in the process of’, even when it means ‘purpose’. Thus, in a sentence
such as [4] below in which the verb in the /70A7/'-clause is incongruous
with the meaning of ‘ process ’, noni cannot be used.

[4]
Ikiru tame ni / *noni taberu.
(We eat in order to live.)

Cp. z<DKrx-&.%x\t'<tzih\z I
Kono machi de ikite iku tame ni / noni tsuki nijuman'en wa
hitsuydda.
(We need 200,000 yen a month in order to keep living in this town.)

~no wa ~da ~(D\$ ~ti str.

a structure that indicates new, im¬ it is ~ that —; the one who ~

portant information by placing it be¬ is ~ ; the place where —- is ~;
tween no wa and the copula da {No the reason why ~ is ~; the
is an indefinite pronoun (no2) that time when — is —; what ~ is
replaces ‘ time ’, ‘ person ’, ‘ thing ’,
‘ place ’ or ‘ reason ’.) [REL. no*\

4 Key Sentences

(A)

Important
Vinf Information

% I- fiof: cD {i Rif ti 1 x-i-o

Watashi ga Chugoku ni itta no wa sannen mae da l desu.

(It was three years ago that I went to China. / The time when I went
to China was three years ago.)
338 ~no wa ~da

(B)

Important
Adj (/) inf Information

t? 7 7 X —#
£ CO H t)> I'l' co ti ti 1 Xi-0
Kono kurasu de ichiban atama ga ii no wa Yoshida-san da 1 desu.

(The brightest one in this class is Mr. Yoshida.)

(C)

■
Important
Adj (na) stem Information

:: x —# co ti UJ ti 1 T-fo
Koko de ichiban kirei
Eh
(The most beautiful things here are mountains.)
no wa yama da / desu.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf co it ~ ti

no wa ~ da
{fj§-f /MLfc} co {i — fcf (it is ~ who talks / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} /70 wa — da
<0 ti ~ ti (it is ~ who eats / ate)
{taberu / tabeta} no wa ~ da
l^ti'^tz.) co ti ~ (it is ~ that is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} /70 wa ~ da
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {ft / /i o fc} co ti ~ /i
{/7a / c/arra} /70 wa ~ c/a
{fM'& I nfrfrtSotz} CO ti ~ (it is ~ that is / was quiet)
{shizukana / shizukadatta} /70 wa — da
{5fc£ & / fc} cO ti — (it is ~ who is / was a teacher)
[sensei na / sensei datta} /70 wa ~ da

(a) ht£tzfi*'si] ^(cffo/’cco{±v'o’ei“^i0

Yamada-san. anata ga Shikago ni itta no wa itsu desu ka.
(Mr. Yamada, when was it that you went to Chicago?)
 ~/?o wa ~da 339

(b)
Ototoi asobi ni kita no wa Akiko-san desu.
(It was Akiko who came to see me the day before yesterday.)

(c) ^-’77^ ^coB#*ci“0

Motsuaruto ga dai-sukini natta no wa daigaku ichinen no toki desu.
(It was during my freshman year that I became very fond of Mozart.)

(d) v-UK't’o
Chichi ga kiraina no wa terebi da.
(It is television that my father hates.)

(e)
Nihon de oishii no wa kudamono da.
(What is delicious in Japan is fruit.)

1. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between no wa and da
usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete meaning (as in
the cases of ga and o), or if the meaning of the entire sentence is
somehow predictable. Examples follow.

(1) 5

Hachiji ni uchi ni kita no wa Morita-san (*ga) da.

(It was Mr. Morita who came to my house at eight o’clock.)

(2)
Morita-san ga motte kita no wa keki (*o) da.
(It was cake that Mr. Morita brought here.)

(3) <ilfccDf±.m(lC)7io
Morita-san ga keki o kureta no wa ototo (ni) da.
(It was to my brother that Mr. Morita gave cake.)

(4)
Morita-san ga uchi ni kita no wa kuruma de da.
(It was by his car that Mr. Morita came to my house.)

(5) a.
Morita-san ga kita no wa Tokyo kara da.
(It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita came.)

Morita-san ga shuppatsushita no wa Tokyo (kara) da.

(It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita departed.)
340 ~rto wa ~da

(6) a.
Morita-san ga nonda no wa Tayama-san to da.
(It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita drank.)

b. $ fvti*-m\Z-$k!vT£<n\m)W £ As(t)tdo
Morita-san ga isshoni nonda no wa Tayama-san {to) da.
(It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita (lit. together)
drank.)

In (5b) and (6b) the particles kara and to normally drop, because shup-
patsushita ‘ departed ’ and isshoni ‘ together * generally co-occur with
kara and to, respectively.
3. The element between no wa and da cannot be a manner adverb. The
following sentences are all unacceptable.

(7) < y tdo

*Hanako ga aruita no wa yukkuri da.
(*It was slowly that Hanako walked.)

*Taro ga ji o kaita no wa kireini da.

(*It was beautifully that Taro wrote characters.)

4. Unlike English, the copula da in this construction is normally in the

present tense.

(9) \s*Vt / ???T? Ltzo

Kino katta no wa sutereo desu / Uldeshita.
(It was a stereo set that I bought yesterday.)

5. The number of no wa ~da sentences which can be produced from one

sentence is limited only by the number of elements which can be placed
between no wa and da. For example, four such sentences can be
derived from (10).

(10) 3

Jon ga Jen ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta.

(John met Jane in August in Tokyo.)

(11) a. a >f;0
Jen ni Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa Jon da.
(It was John who met Jane in August in Tokyo.)

Jon ga Tokyo de hachigatsu ni atta no wa Jen da.

(It was Jane whom John met in August in Tokyo.)
 ~A70 wa ~da 341

c. 3 ^ flS 'JI - ^ £ A ft
l£ o fc co l± (TO *£0
Jon ga Jen ni hachigatsu ni atta no wa Tokyo (de) da.
(It was in Tokyo that John met Jane in August.)
d. i?a
Jon ga Jen ni Tokyo de atta no wa hachigatsu da.
(It was in August that John met Jane in Tokyo.)
6. Normally the no clause takes wa, marking the entire clause as presup¬
posed, old, unimportant information, and the element between no wa and
da represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes
the no clause takes gay marking the clause as new, important informa¬
tion. In this case the element between no ga and da indicates unim¬
portant information.

(12) n y ht'to
Watashi ga tsukutte iru no ga robotto desu.
(The one f’m making is a robot.)
Cp.
Robotto wa watashi ga tsukutte imasu.
(Speaking of robots, I’m making one.)

[Related Expression]

No in the present construction should not be confused with the no used as

a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the no wa ~da construction and [2], the
nominalized sentence. («=> no3)

[1]
Hon o yomu no wa taitei yoru da.
(It is usually at night that I read books.)

[2] t tdo
Hon o yomu no wa ii koto da.
(It is a good thing to read books.)
One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if the sentence
can be restated by deleting no wa and da and placing the element before
no wa in an appropriate position. For example, [1] can be restated as [3],
but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].
[3]
Taitei yoru hon o yomu.
(I read books usually at night.)
342 ~/7o wa da

[4] a. *1^:: h%i$:Uts0

*/i koto hon o yomu.

b. t&tto
*Hon o ii koto yomu.

c. t0
*Hon o yomu ii koto.
 o- 343

0- to pref.

| a prefix that expresses politeness \ [REL. go-]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

14 mS T-
■*3 I5L
Vmasu

(c fcofc / fc p $ Ltzo
ishida-sensei wa eigo de 0- hanashi ni natta / narimashita.

(Prof. Ishida talked in English.)

(B)

®> 14 te
■ Vmasu

£l\ Ltz 1 L£Lfc0

Watashi wa kind Yamazaki-sensei ni 0- ai shita 1 shimashita.

(I met Prof. Yamazaki yesterday.)

(C)

Adj (/' / na)

llllllHlllllllll
it =*As? tn to
/mamura-san wa gorufu ga 0- sukida / sukidesu.
10
(Mr. Imamura likes golf.)

(D)

Noun

$5 it fa & J&\,
0- nomimono wa nani ga yoroshiidesu ka.

(Lit. As for drinks, what would be good? ( = What would you like to
drink?))

CZEEB)
KS(A): & Vmasu Id && (<=> o ~ni naru)
o- ni naru
344 o-

KS(B): jo Vmasu ~f%> («=> o ~suru)

o- suru
KS(C): jo Adj (/ / na)
o-
3oftLV' (s.o. is busy)
o-isogashii
joj^tz (s.o. is good at ~)
o-jozuda
KS(D): jo N
o-
j(money)
o-kane

(a)
Tamura-sensei wa ima totemo o-isogashii.
(Prof. Tamura is very busy now.)

(b) HPjo#^'T'i"ja0
Mainichi o-atsuidesu ne.
(It’s hot day after day, isn’t it?)

(c)
Ueda-sensei wa tenisu ga o-jdzudesu.
(Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.)

(d)
Miyamoto-san no okusama wa totemo o-kireida.
(Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.)

(e) if ft $ h t'b h 9 £ t tz0

Nomura-san kara o-denwa ga arimashita.
(There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.)

(f)
O-hirugohan wa mo tabemashita ka.
(Have you had your lunch yet?)

1. The polite prefix o- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to ex¬
press the speaker’s respect, modesty or politeness. O-Vmasu ni naru
 o- 345

is an honorific polite expression and o-Vmasu suru is a humble polite

expression. (<=> o ~ni naru\ o ~suru)

2. O-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)

and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b).

3. O-N is used in various ways:

(1) Honorific polite expression:

Ltz0
Sensei ga o-tegami o kudasaimashita.
(My teacher wrote me a letter.)

(2) Humble polite expression:

Myonichi o-denwa o sashiagemasu.

(1*11 call you tomorrow.)

(3) Simple polite expression:

< & 9 & Ltztezio
O-yasai ga takaku narimashita ne.
(Vegetables have become expensive, haven’t they?)

4. O- cannot be attached to the following words:

(A) Adjectives and nouns which begin with the [o] sound:

4> L6V' (interesting) *2333V'LV' (delicious)

*o-omoshiroi *o~oishii

(big) *fc:i3C£/L (uncle) (belt, sash)

*o-6kii *o-oji-san *o-obi

(B) Long words:

(potato) (cf. (potato))

*o-jagaimo o-jaga

(spinach)
*o-horenso

(C) Foreign words:

(elevator) ]} Ts^Ts (Christmas)

*o-erebeta *o-kurisumasu
(butter)
*o-bata
346 o-

There are some exceptions to this rule. For example:

(tobacco) (trousers) (beer)

o - tabako o -zubon o -biru
fcy — 7s (sauce)
o-sdsu
These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vo¬
cabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native
speakers.

5. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix
o- or go-. (For go-, see Related Expression.)

(4) $5 tel)' (stomach) (cooked rice, meal)

o-naka go-han

[Related Expression]

There is another polite prefix, go-. Basically, go- is used for Chinese-origin
words and o- for Japanese-origin words. Examples follow:

[1] A/a-type adjectives (/-type adjectives are all Japanese-origin words;

therefore, they are all preceded by o-.)

a. Chinese-origin words:
(kind) (polite) (convenient)
go-shinsetsu go-teinei go-benri
b. Japanese-origin words:
fcfM' (quiet) (lively) (fond)
o -shizuka o -nigi yaka o -suki
[2] Nouns
a. Chinese-origin words:
(research) (marriage) zlfc (book)
go -kenkyu go -kekkon go-hon
b. Japanese-origin words:
(meat) (fish) (chopsticks)
o-niku o-sakana o-hashi
There are, however, some Chinese-origin words which require the use of o-.
These exceptions are words which have become assimilated to the point
that native speakers no longer consider them to be “ borrowed ” words. The
words in [3] are examples of such exceptions.
 o- / ol 347

[3] a. /Va-type adjectives:

fc-b# (skillful) (healthy)
o -jdzu o-genki
b. Nouns:
fcHjiS (telephone) (dishes) feRtfej (time)
o-denwa o-ryori o-jikan
(study) felpHF* (confectionery)
o-benkyo o-kashi
There are very few examples of go- Japanese-origin words.

[4] Z $ O < o (slowly) (reasonable)

go-yukkuri go-mottomo

01 prt.

a particle which marks a direct ob¬

ject

llllllMIIIINIll
♦ Key Sentence sQ

Topic (subject) Direct Object Transitive Verb

% \ l*
Watashi \ wa nihongo [ o benkyoshite iru / imasu.

(I’m studying Japanese.)

(a)
Maeda-san wa kino kuruma o katta.
(Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.)

(b)
Nani o nomimasu ka.
(What will you drink?)
348 ol

1. O marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct object
in English is not always marked by o in Japanese. Compare Japanese
and English in the following sentences, for example.

(1)

Watashi wa eigo ga wakaru.

(I understand English.) (<=> ~ wa ~ ga\ wakaru)

(2)
Jimu wa Besu ni denwashita.
(Jim called Beth.)

(3) + / bhotz,
Boku wa kino Tanaka-san ni / to atta.
(I met Mr. Tanaka yesterday.)
2. In some constructions, the direct object marker o can be replaced by
the subject marker ga.

(4) (<=> tai)

miruku o nomu miruku o 1 ga nomitai
(drink milk) (want to drink milk)

(5) -> (<=> rareru2)

nihongo o hanasu nihongo o 1 ga hanaseru
(speak Japanese) (can speak Japanese)

(6) - (<=> aru2)

mado o akeru mado o 1 ga akete aru
(open the window) (The window has been opened.)

3. O cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct

object marker (i.e., ol) or the space marker (i.e., o2). Thus, in the
causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only by
ni if another element in the same clause is marked by o. (<=> saseru)

(7) xmuz i *zmz&'&j£fz0

Chichi wa watashi ni / *o sake o noma seta.
(My father made me drink sake.)

(8)
Tomodachi wa watashi ni / *o kyuna saka o nobora seta.
(My friend made me go up a steep slope.)
4. If the direct object is presented as a topic or a contrastive element, o
is replaced by wa.
 ol/o2 349

(9) 0*3Sli^Dmo
Nihongo wa shirimasen.
(I don’t know Japanese.)

(10)

Sono hon wa mo yomimashita.

(I already read that book.)

O2 £ prt.

> a particle which indicates a space in / in; on; across; through; along;
on / across / through / along which over
s.o. or s.t. moves [REL. ate1]

4 Key Sentence

Noun (space)

it £
Watashi wa goban-gai 0 aruita / arukimashita.

(I walked along Fifth Avenue.)

(a) 9 £ L J: 9 0
Koen o totte kaerimasho.
(Let’s go home through the park (lit. passing through the park).)

(b)
Tsuru ga mizuumi no ue o tonde imasu.
(Cranes are flying over the lake.)

(c) t.’fo
Nihon de wa kuruma wa michi no hidarigawa o hashirimasu.
(In Japan they drive (lit. cars run) on the left side of the street.)

(d) < u £v>0

Soko no kosaten o migi ni magatte kudasai.
(Please turn to the right at the intersection there.)
 When a sentence involves the verb noboru ‘ climb *, there is an important
difference between the use of the particle o and that of ni, as seen in (1).

(1) a.
Don wa Tokyo Taw a o nobotta.
(Don scaled Tokyo Tower.)

b.
Don wa Tokyo Tawa ni nobotta.
(Don went up Tokyo Tower.)

[Related Expression]

The particle dex also marks the space in which an action takes place. The
difference between de1 and o is that dex can be used with any action verb,
while o can be used only with motion verbs such as aruku ‘ walk hashiru
‘run’, tobu ‘fly’ and oyogu ‘swim’. Thus, o is ungrammatical in [1].

[1] mmrnmv i*zm&Ltz0

Watashi wa toshokan de / *o benkyoshita.
(I studied at the library.)

When either dex or o is possible, as in [2], there is usually a subtle difference

between them.

[2] Wijllr /
Jon wa kawa de I o oyoida.
(John swam in the river.)

First, when dex is used, other locations for an action are also implied, but
when o is used, there are no such implications. For example, in [3] John
has a choice between a pool and the river. Here, de1 is acceptable, but o
is not.

J on wa puru ga kiraida kara taitei kawa de / *o oyogu.

(John usually swims in the river because he doesn’t like pools.)

Second, when dex is used, the sentence often indicates that the purpose of
the action is the action itself, whereas when o is used it seems that there is
another purpose behind the action. For example, in [4] John swam in order
to escape, and swimming was not the purpose of his action. Therefore, o
is acceptable but dex is not.
 o2 / o3 351

[4] $; 3 isit)i|£ /
Jon wa kawa o j *de oyoide nigeta.
(John escaped by swimming in the river.)

03 £ prt.

$ a particle that marks the location \ [REL. karal]

$ from which some movement begins <

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (space)

% | tt & a* /a*+.
Watashi j wa asa shichijihan ni uchi 0 deru 1 demasu.

(I leave home at 7:30 in the morning.)

(a) h s % tv £: tti fc0

AT/s/ja ga tonneru o deta.
(A train came out of the tunnel.)

(b)
Basu o orita toki tomodachi ni atta.
(I met a friend when I got off the bus.)

(c) LTV'60
Nihon o hanarete gaikoku de kurashite iru.
(He left Japan and is living abroad.)

[Related Expression]

The particle o3 in Exs. (a), (b), (c) can be replaced by kara1 ‘ from \ The
basic difference between o3 and kara1 is that o3 marks the location from which
some movement begins and kara1 marks the initial location in movement from
one location to another. Thus, when focusing on both the new and old loca¬
tion of something or someone, kara should be used instead of o. Consider
the following examples. (<=> kara1)
352 o3/o4

[i] a. /*fre>fflfc0
Watashi wa kesa hachiji goro ie o / *kara deta.
(This morning I left my house at about eight.)

b. %<D o fi 9 hti'b /
Kino wa uchi kara j*o soto ni denakatta.
(Yesterday I didn’t go outside.)

[la] focuses on a point of detachment, so o is acceptable but kara isn’t. [lb],

however, focuses on a starting point, so kara is acceptable but o isn’t.

O4 prt.

£ a particle that marks the cause of \

( , . $
< some human emotion i
$ ____ ('

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun Verb (emotive)

&fi|S ii x o n &
Jiro wa chichi no shi 0 kanashinda / kanashimimashita.

(Jiro was saddened at his father’s death.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Nominalizer Verb (emotive)

1
\t 5£ JE Mi Zb / <D £ mLAstz 1
wa chichi ga shinda koto / no 0 kanashinda /
Ltz0
kanashimimashita.

(Jiro was sad that his father died.)

 o4 353

(a)
Watashi wa Hiroshi no daigakunyOgaku o yorokonda.
(I was happy about Hiroshi’s entering college.)

(b) 3-p
Ydroppajin wa mata senso ga okiru koto o osorete iru.
(Europeans are afraid that war will break out again.)

(c)
Nobuko wa Kyoto de no ichinen o natsukashinda.
(Nobuko nostalgically recollected her year in Kyoto.)

Hayashi wa eigo ga dekinai koto o nayande iru.

(Hayashi is worried that he cannot speak English.)

C5EE9
1. Because the main verbs used in the KSs and the Exs., such as kanashimu
‘ sadden yorokobu ‘ rejoice osoreru ‘ fear natsukashimu * nostalgically
recollect ’ and nayamu ‘ worry ’ are all inwardly-oriented psychological
verbs they cannot be considered transitive verbs in Japanese. Therefore,
the particle o4 preceding these verbs cannot be the ordinary direct object
marker o which normally marks an outwardly-oriented event. Rather
it indicates the cause for human emotion expressed by the main verb.
Thus, it is sometimes possible to rewrite the sentence in question using gj Q H
node ‘ because (<=> node) For example, KS(A) and Ex. (a) can be
paraphrased as (la) and (lb), respectively.

(1) a.
Jiro wa chichi ga shinda node kanashinda.
(Jiro was sad because his father died.)

Watashi wa Hiroshi ga daigaku ni nyugakushita node yoro¬

konda.
(I was glad because Hiroshi entered college.)

The original versions are examples of written style and are seldom used
in conversational Japanese, but the rewritten versions can be used in
both spoken and written Japanese.

2. No matter what person (first, second, third) the subject of this con-
354 o4 / oi

struction is, the main emotive verb is normally in the stative te iru /
inai form and / or in the past tense. In a generic statement, however,
the verb can be in the non-stative, nonpast form as in (2):

(2) tz ti-x m <V 5E £ & L tr o

Dare demo oya no shi o kanashimu.
(Everybody is saddened by their parents’ death.)

3. If the emotive verb consists of adj(/)stem+suffix mu as in kanashi-mu

‘sadden’, natsukashi-mu ‘nostalgically recollect’, oshi-mu ‘regret’, ta-
noshi-mu ‘ enjoy ’, it can take the suffix -garu ‘ show signs of ~ ’ as
in kanashi-garu, natsukashi-garu, oshi-garu and tanoshi-garu. Thus,
along with KS(A) we have a sentence type (3). 0=» garu)

(3)
Jiro wa chichi no shi o kanashigatta.
(Jiro showed signs of being sad about his father’s death.)

(3) is a more objective expression than KS(A), because the verb -garu
‘show signs of ~’ has an outwardly-oriented meaning.

Oi adj. (/)

\ (of quantity or number) a lot many; a lot of; much

--- [REL ozei\ takusanj
(ANT. sukunai)

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (location) Subject

B# (t) i i± -k¥ j &

Nihon (ni) j wa daigaku j 93 oi / oidesu.

(Lit. In Japan universities are many, ( = There are a lot of universities

in Japan.))
 oi 355

(a) o
Kyoto (ni) wa o-tera ga oidesu.
(There are many temples in Kyoto.)
(b) n
Rosu-san no sakubun (ni) wa machigai ga oidesu.
(There are many mistakes in Mr. Ross’s compositions.)

(c) -JJ(fc)i
Ichigatsu (ni) wa yuki ga oi.
(There is a lot of snow in January.)

1. Unlike the English ‘ many ’, the Japanese oi cannot be used before a noun,
except in a relative clause where oi is the predicate of the clause, not
the modifier of the head noun.

(1)
* Kyoto ni wa oi o-tera ga arimasu.
(There are many temples in Kyoto.)
(2)
O-tera ga oi machi wa Kyoto desu.
(The town in which there are many temples is Kyoto.)
2. Oi cannot be used in front of a noun, but oku no can be used that way
in written Japanese. Thus,

(3)
Oku no gakusei ga maitoshi Ajia kara Nihon no daigaku ni kuru.
(Every year many students come to Japanese universities from
Asia.)
3. Sukunai, an antonym of oi, is very similar to oi in its use. Neither
sukunai nor oi can be used before nouns, except in relative clauses.
Sukunai differs from oi in that there is no counterpart of oku ‘ the
majority ’ and of oku no ‘ many ’. («=> sukunai)
(4) a.
Kono machi wa kuruma ga sukunaidesu.
(There aren’t many cars in this town.)
b.
Nihongo no shinbun ga yomeru gakusei wa sukunai.
(Few students can read Japanese newspapers.)
356 oi

[Related Expressions]

I. Of and oku no can be replaced by dzei iru and ozei no, respectively, if
6/ and oku no refer to human beings. Ozei is used only for people.

[1]
Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi / ozei iru.
(There are a lot of students in this room.)

Kono heya (ni) wa oku no / ozei no gakusei ga iru.

(There are a lot of students in this room.)

Ozei can be used by itself as an adverb, but the adverbial form of oi

cannot be used as an adverb in colloquial speech.

[3]
Gakusei ga ozei / *oku kita.
(Many students came.)

II. Oi and oku no can be replaced by takusan aru / iru and takusan no, re¬
spectively. Takusan can also be used by itself as an adverb.
[4]
Kono heya (ni) wa tsukue ga oi / takusan aru.
(There are a lot of tables in this room.)

[5] / tz <
Kono heya (ni) wa gakusei ga oi / takusan iru.
(There are a lot of students in this room.)

[6] ^lifc <

Kotoshi wa takusan / *oku / *ozei yuki ga futta.
(It snowed a lot this year.)

III. Oku can be used as a noun but ozei and takusan cannot.

[7]
Gakusei no oku / *ozei / *takusan wa otoko da.
(The majority of the students are male.)
 oku 357

Oku to < aux• v• (Gr. 0

do s.t. in advance for future con- \ do s.t. in advance; go ahead

venience \ and do s.t.; let s.o./s.t. remain
as he/it is
[REL. art/1 2]
♦ Kev Sentence

Vte

hLtc. i~% (D'Xr tf—tv & lot jSV'fc / j3^£ LtZo

Ashita pati o sum node biru o katte oita 1 okim ashita.

(Since we are having a party tomorrow, I bought some beer for it.)

Vte jo <
oku

ISLT jo < (talk in advance)

hanashite oku

jo < (eat s.t. in advance)

tabete oku

Kyo wa him ni kyaku ga kuru node hirugohan o hay a me ni tabete oita.

(Since I’m having a guest at noon today, I had my lunch earlier.)

(b) 3fe^0^ff<36^/>LB*ffiSr«iaSlL’Cj3t*-t-o
Rainen Nihon e iku kara sukoshi nihongo o benkyoshite okimasu.
(Since I’m going to Japan next year, I will study a little Japanese ahead
of time.)

1. Oku as a main verb means ‘ put ’ or ‘ place ’. However, when it is

used with Vte, it is an auxiliary verb meaning ‘ do something in advance
and leave the resultant state as it is for future convenience ’.

2. With a causative verb, Vre oku can express the idea that someone lets
someone or something remain in his / its present state. Examples:
358 oku jo ~ni naru

(1) a. Uftb <|g£i±"t:k£ 50

Nobuko wa tsukarete iru kara shibaraku nesasete oko.
(Since Nobuko is tired, let’s let her sleep for a while.)

b. if 9 V'0
Nomitai to iu no nara sukina dake nomasete okinasai.
(If he says he wants to drink, let him drink as much as he
likes.)

However, if the context is not clear, causative Vte oku can be ambigu¬
ous. For example, the following sentence can be interpreted two ways.

(2)
Watashi wa Bobu ni biru o nomasete oita.
((A) I let (or make) Bob drink beer (for future convenience). (B)
I let Bob drink beer.)

3. Wte oku may be contracted into toku or doku in informal conversation.

(3) a. &< —* Mj E < (see ~ in advance)

mite oku mi toku
b. M/vX & < —* |jch E< (read ~ in advance)
yonde oku yon doku

; ti I- frofc / ft 9 $. Ltz0
Tanaka-sensei \ wa ni natta / narimashita.

(Prof. Tanaka already went home.)

 o ~/7/ naru 359

jo Vmasu \z. &S

o- ni naru

jofSL (s.o. (will) talk)

o-hanashi ni naru

joffcx. {£ &S (s.o. (will) teach)

o-oshie ni naru

C3EQE9
(a) i> 9 jaffc^lcfc 9 &
Kono hon o mo o-yomi ni narimashita ka.
(Have you read this book yet?)

(b) Vv K
Guddoman-sensei wa watashi no namae o o-wasure ni natta.
(Prof. Goodman has forgotten my name.)

1. In ordinary circumstances, o-Vmasu ni naru is used when the speaker

describes someone’s action or state with respect. However, if a social
norm requires the speaker to talk in honorific speech, the honorific form
is used, even if the speaker does not respect the person he talks about.
(For more detail, see Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness
and Formality.) Politeness is expressed in this form by two elements:
first by the polite prefix o-, and second by the verb naruy which describes
someone’s action or state indirectly. This indirectness is a common
strategy in polite expressions. («=> naru)

2. There are some verbs whose honorific forms are expressed by special
honorific verbs.
(See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality.)

3. When a verb has the form “ N suru ” like kekkonsuru * marry ’ and
denwasuru ‘call’ its honorific form is “ go-/ o-N nasaruNasaru is
the honorific form of suru ‘ do ’ and a Gr. 1 verb. (Note that Vmasu
is nasai (masu\ not nasari (masu).) Except for a handful of exceptions
which require o- (i.e., denwasuru ‘ call ’, benkyosuru ‘ study ’, ryorisuru
* cook ’, sentakusuru * wash ’, sojisuru * clean ’, sanposuru ‘ take a walk ’),
go- precedes N. (■=» o-, REL.) Examples:
360 o ~ni naru / o ~suru

1
( )

Koyama-sensei wa shigatsu ni go-kekkon nasaimasu.

(Prof. Koyama will get married in April.)

(2) Lf=#\>
Morimoto-san ni o-denwa nasaimashita ka.
(Did you call Mr. Morimoto?)

[Related Expression]

Rarerux can also be used to describe respectfully someone’s action or state,

as seen in [1], although the degree of politeness is not as high.
(«=> rarerux, Note 9)

[1] a.
Tanaka-sensei wa mo kaeraremashita ka.
(Did Prof. Tanaka go home already?)

b. Lfcfro
Kono hon o mo yomaremashita ka.
(Have you read this book yet?)

Topic (subject)

% ! It x — v>r — % & Ltz / o

Watashi j wa sensei no sutsukesu o shita / shimashita.

(I carried my teacher’s suitcase.)

 o ~suru 361

jo Vmasu "fZ)
o suru
joML ~F5 (s.o. (will) talk)
o-hanashi suru
joffcx. i~§ (s.o. (will) teach)
o-oshie suru

CSSSES)
(a) o|gLL^t«t9o
Sono koto wa watashi ga o-hanashi shimasho.
(I will tell you about that matter.)

(b) LtZo
Yamamura-kun wa sensei ni hon o o-kari shita.
(Mr. Yamamura borrowed a book from his teacher.)

1. O-Vmasu suru is used when the speaker wants to be polite when talk¬
ing about something he or his in-group member did or will do. (For
more detail, see Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and
Formality.) For example, when a sales manager is talking to a customer,
the manager uses this pattern to describe what his salesmen will do for
the customer, as in (1).
1
( ) 0 ? h<D± — /^-7 L'&i'o
Sanpuru wa myonichi uchi no serusuman ga o-todoke shimasu.
((One of) Our salesmen will bring the sample to you tomorrow.)
2. O-Vmasu suru is used only when the speaker’s (or his in-group mem¬
ber’s) action involves or affects the person the speaker wants to be
polite to. Thus, (2) is unacceptable under ordinary circumstances.

(2) *&#**#£ L£-To

* Watashi ga o-aruki shimasu.
(I will walk.)
3. There are some verbs whose humble forms are expressed by special
verbs. (See Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and for¬
mality.) The rule in Note 2 does not apply to these verbs. That is,
these special verbs are also used as simple polite expressions and can
be used even if the speaker’s (or his in-group member’s) action does
not involve or affect the person the speaker wants to be polite to.
362 o ~suru I ~owaru

4. When a verb has the form “ N suru ”, like shokaisuru 4 introduce ’ and
denwasuru 4 call ’, its humble form is “ go- / o-N suru ” or, more politely,
“go- / o-N itasu”. (itasu is the humble form of the verb suru, do’.)
Except for a handful of exceptions which require 6- (i.e., denwasuru
4 call *, benkyosuru 4 study ’, ryorisuru 4 cook ’, sentakusuru 4 wash ’, soji-
suru 4 clean sanposuru 4 take a walk ’), go- precedes N. (■=> o-, REL.)
Examples:

(3) / l'tzLZ?0
Uemura-san o go-shokai shimasu / itashimasu.
(Let me (lit. I will) introduce Mr. Uemura.)

(4) &Lfci$ft2£L35*' /
Ashita o-denwa shimasu / itashimasu.
(I will call you tomorrow).

[Related Expression]

O-Vmasu ni naru is also used to express politeness. However, o-Vmasu ni

naru and o-Vmasu suru are different in that the former is used when the
speaker talks about someone’s action or state with respect, while the latter
is used when the speaker talks! about his own action or state.
(=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality)

~owaru aux. v. (Gr. 1)

finish doing ~ finish; end

[REL. shimau]
(ANT. ~hajimeru)

♦ Key Sentence

Wmasu

m%®>m & "fot i&frofc /&;bD£Lfco

Genjimonogatari o yatlo owatta / owarimashita.

(I finally finished reading The Tale of Genji.)

 owaru 363

(Z&EQ29
Vmasu
owaru
(finish talking)
hanashiowaru
(finish eating)
tabeowaru

(a)
Yatto ronbun o kakiowatta.
(I finally finished writing a paper.)

(b) h* v
Chodo gohan o tabeowatta tokoro desu.
(I’ve just finished eating my meal.)

1. ~ owaru is an auxiliary verb derived from the intransitive verb owaru

meaning ‘end; comes to a close’.

2. ~ owaru can be replaced by ~oeru in written Japanese. ~oeruy how¬

ever, conjugates as a Gr. 2 verb.
364 rareru1

rareru1 £>ti5 aux- v- (Gr. 2)

A state or an action cannot be con- ?? be -ed; get -ed

trolled by s.o. or s.t. > [REL. o **ni naru; rareru2]
, _. (

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Agent Transitive Verb (passive)

-as it It? iz tz&Ztiti 1 tz&Zti* Lfc0

Ichiro wa Hanako ni damasareta / damasaremashita.

(Ichiro was deceived by Hanako.)

(B)

Intransitive
Topic (subject) Agent
Verb (passive)

yx-y 7 uv K iz Rbtitz 1
Jen Fureddo ni yoru osoku a pa to ni kora re ta /
LTz0
koraremashita.

(Fred came to Jane’s apartment late at night (and Jane was unhappy).)

(C)

Topic (subject) Agent Direct Object Transitive Verb (passive)

% it iZ £ ft-tibilfc / ft'* bhi Lfc0

Watashi wa ototo ni keki o taberareta / taberaremashita.

(Lit. I got my cake eaten by my younger brother. ( = My younger brother

ate my cake (and I was unhappy).))

(D)

Topic (subject) Verb (passive)

it 0# ^ MbMz 1
Tanaka-sensei wa Nihon e kaerareta / kaeraremashita.

(Prof. Tanaka went back to Japan. (Honorific))

 rareru1 365

(i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg

reru
£ ft <5 (be told)
hanasareru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem
rareru
Js^^ftS (be eaten)
taberareru
(iii) Irr. Verbs: —> JfeibftS (s.o. (X) comes to s.o. (Y) and Y is
kuru korareru unhappy)

—» £ft£ (be done)

suru sareru

(a) - <D btitzo

ATo/70 biru wa ninen mae ni taterareta.
(This building was built two years ago.)

(b) 1965 %\z.y * y 2rcffiJR$ftfc0

Kono hon wa 1965 nen ni Amerika de shuppansareta.
(This book was published in America in 1965.)

(c) ^fr^fcJEfcftfco
Watashi wa ninen mae tsuma ni shinareta.
(My wife died two years ago (and gave me sorrow).)

(d) — h
Harada-san wa okusan ni takai koto o kawareta.
(Mr. Harada’s wife bought an expensive coat (and he is unhappy).)

(e) h
Hayashi-sensei wa Nihon no daigaku no koto o hanasareta.
(Prof. Hayashi talked about Japanese universities. (Honorific))

1. There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One can be

called “ direct passive ” and the other, “ indirect passive The direct
passive is similar to the English passive. (KS(A), Exs. (a) and (b))
That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding active sen¬
tence. For example, the active version of KS(A) is (1).
366 rareru1

(1) JS|5S:*£4 Ltco

Hanako wa Ichiro o damashita.
(Hanako deceived Ichiro.)

As seen in KS(A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in

active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active sen¬
tences is presented as the agent and marked by ni. (=> ni3) Note that
verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive.

2. When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a state¬

ment from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The agent is
frequently omitted when he / it is not important and / or unknown, as
in Exs. (a) and (b).

3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in direct
passive sentences. Examples:

(2) a. Active sentence

v 3 Ltz0
Jon wa sensei ni shitsumon o sh/ta.
(John asked his teacher a question.)
b. Direct passive sentence

Sensei wa Jon ni shitsumon o sareta.

(The teacher was asked a question by John.)

4. The agent in direct passive sentences can also be marked by other

particles, such as ni yotte and kara.

(3) Ni yotte
a. yiCdioT7)^*1
Kono e wa Pika so ni yotte kakareta.
(This picture was painted by Picasso.)

b. ®g£li^/W=<fcoT&0!$jh,fco
Denwa wa Beru ni yotte hatsumeisareta.
(The telephone was invented by Bell.)

Ni yotte, meaning ‘depending on; owing to; by means of’, is usually

used in written form or formal speech when X in X ni yotte is a sort
of medium through which or whom something is done. When ni yotte
is used, X ni yotte is usually under strong focus. Therefore, the fol¬
lowing sentences are unacceptable under normal circumstances.
 rarerul 367

(4) a. :,t:ormfc0
*Watashi wa Hanako ni yotte butareta.
(I was hit by Hanako.)

*Kawamoto-san wa itsumo shigoto ni yotte owarete iru.

(Mr. Kawamoto’s work always keeps him busy.)
Kara ‘ from ’ can be used in place of ni when the agent is a sort of
source, that is, when there is something coming from the agent.

(5) Kara
a. t
Watashi wa gakusei kara Nihon no daigaku no koto o kika-
reta.
(I was asked by the students about Japanese universities.)

Kida-san wa minna kara sonkeisarete iru.

(Mr. Kida is respected by everybody.)

The following sentences are unacceptable because the agents cannot be

considered sources.

(6) a.
*Sono tokei wa dorobo kara nusumaremashita.
(That watch was stolen by a thief.)

b. t bilfei><DX"to
*Kono shashin wa watashi no chichi kara torareta mono desu.
(This picture is the one taken by my father.)

5. The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in English.
The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and the English
passive in the following ways:
(A) The verb can be intransitive. (KS(B), Ex. (c))
(B) The direct object can remain as the direct object. (KS(C), Ex. (d))
The indirect passive describes an event (X) involving an action by
someone or something (Y) which affects another person (Z). As in
direct passive sentences, the subject (Z) has no control over the event.
(<=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 5. Passive) Consider the fol¬
lowing pair of sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply
that Taro drank Jiro’s beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, how¬
ever, expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro’s drinking beer.
368 rareru1

It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro’s action, perhaps
because the beer Taro drank belonged to Jiro.

(7) a.
Taro wa Jiro no biru o nonda.
(Taro drank Jiro’s beer.)

b. o
Jiro wa Taro ni biru o nomareta.
(Jiro was annoyed by Taro’s drinking beer.)

6. In the indirect passive construction, Z is usually presented as the topic,

marked by wa, and Y as the agent, marked by ni, as seen in KS(B)
and KS(C).

7. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction is

also referred to as “ adversity passive ” or “ suffering passive ”. (KS(B),
KS(C), Exs. (c) and (d)) However, whether X affects Z negatively or
positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a “ victim ”, as
seen in (8) where Z is affected positively.

(8) n LTV'50
Takayama-san wa bijin ni yoko ni suwararete nikoniko shite iru.
(Lit. Mr. Takayama, having a pretty woman sit beside him, is
smiling happily. ( = A pretty woman sat beside Mr. Takayama
and he is happy.))

8. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked by ni. If a

passive sentence contains an NP ni, as well as an agent marked by ni,
the agent must precede the NP ni. Example:

(9) a. %\± b&lzjrv

Watashi wa Tomu ni Meari ni denwasareta.
(Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).)

*Watashi wa Meari ni Tomu ni denwasareta.

(Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).)

9. Passive verbs are also used as honorific expressions, as in KS(D) and

Ex. (e), though the degree of politeness is lower than that of the “ o-
Vmasu ni naru ” form and special honorific verbs. (■=> o ~ ni naru\
Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 6. Politeness and Formality) Polite¬
ness, in this case, is conveyed through the indirectness of the passive
construction.
 rareru1 369

10. Passive verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:
(10) (nonpast* inf* affirmative)
hanasareru
(nonpast* inf* negative)
hanasarenai
(re-form)
hanasarete
tfitStltz. (past* inf* affirmative)
hanasareta

[Related Expression]

The potential form of Gr. 2 verbs is the same form as the passive form. (=>
rareru2) Potential, passive or honorific structures are identified through
syntax and context. Examples:

[1] (Potential)
Sensei wa sashimi ga taberareru.
(My teacher can eat sashimi.)

[2] ((A) Honorific, (B) Potential or (C) Indirect

passive)
Sensei wa sashimi o taberareta
((A) My teacher ate sashimi. (B) My teacher could eat sashimi. (C)
Someone ate sashimi and my teacher was unhappy.)

[3] (Indirect passive)

Sensei wa gakusei ni sashimi o taberareta.
(The teacher had (his) sashimi eaten by his students.)

As seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by ga, taberareru can only be
interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by ni, however, taberareru
expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If there is no agent marked by ni
and the direct object is marked by o, taberareru is ambiguous; it can be
either honorific, potential or indirect passive, as seen in [2].
370 rareru2

rareru2 6 ft <5 aux. v. (Gr. 2)

l an auxiliary verb which indicates po- j be able to do s.t.; can do s.t.;

\ tential $ be -able; ~ can be done
) \

[REL. kikoeru; Arofo ga

dekiru\ mieru]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (experiencer) Object of Action Verb (potential)

% j f± a* / SM>£1"o
Watashi 1 wa nihongo ga yomeru / yomemasu.

(I can read Japanese.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Verb (potential)

z<d \ n 7k V' /
Kono mizu \ wa nomenai / nomemasen.

(This water is not c Irinkable.)

. Formation

(i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vcond &

ru
(can talk)
hanaseru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem btiZ
rareru
(can eat)
taberareru
(iii) Irr. Verbs: 3}£S —► (can come)
kuru korareru
-fZ -* 5 (can do)
suru dekiru
Ikareru is often used as the potential form of iku ‘go’ (Gr. 1).
 rareru2 371

(a) b ti 5 o
Buraun-san wa sashimi ga taberareru.
(Mr. Brown can eat sashimi ( = sliced raw fish).)

(b) = o
Terada-san wa tenisu ga dekiru.
(Mr. Terada can play tennis.)
(c) e£>&V'0
Kono ji wa yomenai.
(This letter is not readable.)

1. In potential expressions, if there is an experiencer, that noun phrase is

usually marked by wa and the object of the action by either ga or o.
(t=i> ~ wa ~ ga) Compare (la) and (lb).
(1) a. Non-potential

Watashi wa eigo o hanashimasu.

(I speak English.)
b. Potential

Watashi wa eigo ga I o hanasemasu.

(I can speak English.)

2. In general, the choice between ga and o seems to depend on the degree

of volition expressed in the action the experiencer takes. That is, if his
volition is high, o is preferable. Thus, in the following sentences, ga
is unnatural.
(2) a.
Watashi wa yameyo to omoeba itsu demo ima no shigoto
o / *ga yamerareru.
(I can quit my current job whenever I want to quit (lit.
whenever I think I will quit it).)
b.
Boku wa yatto no omoi de jibun o / *ga osaerareta.
(I could barely control my emotions (lit. hold myself).)
3. Dekiru ‘ can do ’, however, always requires the object of an action to be
marked by gay as in Ex. (b). Another example follows:
372 rareru2

(3) /*£tf
Watashi wa chesu ga / *o dekiru.
(I can play chess.)
4. The spatial o (i.e., o2) and the detachment o (i.e., o3) do not change
into ga in potential expressions.
(4) Space
a. /*#£—.
Watashi wa ano koen o / *flra yora hi tori de arukenai.
(I can’t walk through that park by myself at night.)

b. r.cojH£ / *h<<
Kono michi o / *ga kutsu o hakazu ni arukemasu ka.
(Can you walk along this road without shoes on?)

(5) Detachment

Kyd wa uchi o / *ga deraremasen.

(I can’t leave home today.)
5. If the experiencer is clear from the context and / or the situation, or if
the experiencer is a person in general, he is usually omitted and the
object of the action is presented as a topic marked by wa, as in KS(B)
and Ex. (c).
6. Non-volitional verbs like wakaru ‘ understand, be understandable ’; iru
‘ need, be necessary ’; aru ‘ exist ’; aku ‘ open (v.i.) ’ and kusaru ‘ rot
(v.i.) * do not have potential forms.
7. The potential forms of miru ‘ see ’ (mirareru) and kiku ‘ hear ’ (kikeru)
are similar to the verbs mieru ‘ be visible ’ and kikoeru ‘ be audible ’,
respectively, but their uses are different. («=> kikoeru \ mieru)

8. The idea of potentiality can also be expressed by Vinf* nonpast koto ga

dekiru. («=> koto ga dekiru)

9. Potential verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as
follows:

(6) fS-fr'S (can talk)

hanaseru
(cannot talk)
hanasenai
IS'tir'C (can talk and, (re-form))
hanasete
 rareru2 / rashii 373

t&lttz (could talk)

hanaseta
10. There is another potential form for Group 2 verbs.

(7) Gr. 2 verbs: Vstem fog,

reru

taberu tabereru
This form, however, is used only in informal conversation.

rashii aux• <*dj- (/)

}} an auxiliary adjective which indicates l seem; look like; apparently; I

that the preceding sentence is the > heard
speaker’s conjecture based on what ;> [REL. yd c/a (c/aro; soda2)]
he has heard, read or seen

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)t

n r t y ij - ff < b LV' / b tV'T'-fo

Matsuda-san wa Amerika e iku rashii / rashiidesu.

(It seems that Mr. Matsuda is going to America.)

tDa after Adj (na) stem and N drops.

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf b LV>

rashii
[t&'i' / b LV> (It seems that s.o. (will) talk / talked.)
[hanasu / hanashita] rashii
{i^V> / b LV> (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.)
[takai / takakatta) rashii
 374 rashii

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N) {p/fiofc}

{a I datta} rashii

' / nM'fiofc} ibLV' (It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)

[shizuka / shizukadatta} ras/?/'/

fioit} LV' (It seems that s.o. is / was a teacher.)

(sense/ / sertse/' daffa) ras/7//

Examples

(a)
Sugimoto-san wa mo kaetta rashii desu.
(Mr. Sugimoto seems to have gone home already.)

(b)
>4/?o gakko no nyOgakushiken wa muzukashii rashii.
(That school’s entrance exam seems difficult.)

(c) CO&fc 9 tttx LV'T'-fo

Kono atari wa totemo shizuka rashiidesu.
(This neighborhood seems very quiet.)

(d) LV'0
Sono hanashi wa homo rashii.
(That story seems true (lit. the truth).)

(e) LV>0
Koko wa gakko rashii.
(This place seems to be a school.)
imiiiumim

R1
1. Rashii is generally used when the speaker makes a conjecture based on
some information which he has heard, read or seen. What he has heard
is especially important. Unlike soda2 3, which expresses a simple guess
based on what the speaker sees, rashii is used when the conjecture is
based on more reliable information. (<=> soda2) (For a comprehensive
comparison of conjecture expressions, see yoda, Related Expressions.)

2. If there has been relatively little conjecture in the speaker’s mind, rashii
is almost the same as the hearsay expression soda1. («=> soda1)

3. Negative conjecture is expressed by a negative predicate and rashii, as

in (1).
 rashii 375

(1) a. HP — Jcfifj&xfcHk LV\

Taguchi-san wa pad ni ikanai rashii.
(It seems that Mr. Taguchi won’t go to the party.)

b. } T V UV'o
Mean wa Biru ga sukijanai rashii.
(It seems that Mary doesn’t like Bill.)

4. Another use of rashii is as follows:

2
( )

Oki-san wa otoko rashii.

(Mr. Oki is manly.)

Here, rashii means likeness. That is, “ X wa Y rashii ” means that X

is like the ideal model of Y. (Of course, (2) can also mean “ It seems
that Oki is a man.”)

5. Since rashii is an /-type adjective, it can also precede nouns, as in (3).

(3)
Watashi wa otoko rashii hi to ga sukida.
(I like a manly man.)

The negative version of (2) is (4).

(4) L< fcl'o

Oki-san wa otoko rashikunai.
(Mr. Oki is not manly.)

If Oki-san wa otoko (da) is negated, the meaning changes.

IlNIIIIIIIIIIIll
(5)
Oki-san wa otoko janai rashii.
(It seems that Oki is not a man.)
376 Relative Clause

Relative Clause
♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject)
Predicate
Relative Clause Noun

as Xf-^r li o Tz 1 o fzX~f~0
Tanaka-san ga tabeta suteki wa takakatta / takakattadesu.

(The steak that Mr. Tanaka ate was expensive.)

(B)

Direct Object
Transitive Verb
Relative Clause Noun

fi* 3oV'LV' uxb yi/ £ fcUbfrk' / £n9 t.&/v j&\,

Suteki ga oishii resutoran o shiranai / shirimasen ka.

(Do you know a restaurant which has good steak (lit. in which steak is
good)?)

(i) (V / Adj (/)) inf+N

/f^LAc} A (a person who (will) talks /talked)

{hanasu / hanashita} hi to
{j^V' / ^ (a book which is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta} hon
(ii) Adj (na) stem N
[na I datta)
^ (a house which is / was quiet)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} ie
(iii) N [<D I tz-otz I X'hZ I N
[no I datta / de aru / de atta}
[<D I XhZ>] Ay (Mr. Tanaka (,) who is a teacher)
sensei [no I de aru] Tanaka-san
[tz^tz / Xh^tz) IBEf^A/ (Mr. Tanaka (,) who was a
sensei [datta / de atta} Tanaka-san teacher)
 Relative Clause 377

Nihongo o oshiete iru sensei wa Kobayashi-sensei desu.

(The teacher who is teaching Japanese is Prof. Kobayashi.)

(b) k*.x<tz$v\
Tenisu ga jdzuna hi to o oshiete kudasai.
(Please tell me of a person who is good at tennis.)

(c)
O-to-san ga isha no gakusei wa sannin imasu.
(There are three students whose fathers are doctors.)

(d)
Watashi ga ita machi wa bydin ga nakatta.
(There was no hospital in the town where I lived.)

(e)
Michiko ga iku gakko wa Tokyo ni arimasu.
(The school where Michiko is going is in Tokyo.)

(f) t rjfzh / y
Sutibu ga anata no shashin o totta kamera wa kore desu ka.
(Is this the camera with which Steve took pictures of you?)

1. The procedure for making relative clauses consists of several steps.

The following steps show how to relativize suteki ‘ steak ’ in (la) in order
to obtain the clause modifying suteki in (lb).

(1) a. V? 3 XT1-Lfco

Jon wa suteki o tabemashita.

(John ate a steak.)

b. + L^ofc-C'-^o
Sono suteki wa oishikattadesu.
(The steak was delicious.)

Step 1: Delete the common noun phrase in the relative clause. ([ ]

indicates the relative clause boundary.)

2
( ) 0 Lfc] Lfr^frVi-o
[Jon wa 0 o tabemashita] suteki wa oishikattadesu.
Step 2; Delete the particle which remains.
378 Relative Clause

(3) [is z'y\± 0 Lfc]

[Jon wa ef tabemashita] suteki wa oishikattadesu.
Step 3; Change the predicate into an appropriate form. (See Formation.)

(4) [\/ a — L^o/it'to

[Jon wa tabeta] suteki wa oishikattadesu.
Step 4: If the topic marker wa appears in the clause, replace it with the
appropriate particle. (If wa follows another particle, delete wa.) In this
example, Jon is the subject; therefore, the particle which replaces wa is
the subject marker ga. («=> ga\ wa ((£))

(5) ['^3
[Jon ga tabeta] suteki wa oishikattadesu.
(The steak that John ate was delicious.)

The clause in brackets in (5) is the final form of the relative clause
when suteki is relativized in (la).

2. As seen in the procedure for relativization in Note 1, the relative clause

construction in Japanese has several characteristics:

(A) Relative clauses precede their corresponding relativized nouns.

(B) There are no relative pronouns like which, that and who in
English.

(C) Particles which were affixed to relativized nouns are deleted.

(D) The topic marker wa does not appear in relative clauses.

3. No can also be used to mark the subject in relative clauses, as in (6).

(6) / (7)^/-:Xr“^r
3 'ytf

Jon ga / no tabeta suteki

(the steak that John ate)

No cannot be used in place of ga, however, if the subject of the sentence

is followed by a noun, as in (7a). If no is used in this construction,
the meaning of the sentence changes, as seen in (7b).

(7) a. h v
Tomu ga futtoboru no kippu o ageta onna no ko
(the girl to whom Tom gave a football ticket)

Tomu no futtoboru no kippu o ageta onna no ko

(the girl to whom (someone) gave Tom’s football ticket)
 Relative Clause 379

4. Besides the relative clause construction explained above, Japanese has

a construction which looks similar to the one above. As seen in Note
1, in a genuine relative clause construction, the relativized noun (the head
noun) is part of the original sentence from which the relative clause was
derived. In this construction, however, the “ head noun ” is not part
of the original sentence. For example, in (8), nioi ‘smell’ is not part
of the sentence Sakana ga kogeru. ‘ Fish is burning.’

(8)
sakana ga kogeru nioi
(the smell of burning fish (lit. the smell which fish burns))

The relationship between the “ relative clause ” and the “ head noun ”,
as seen in (8), is as follows: Suppose that X is the “ head noun ”.
Then, X is something which was brought about by the event expressed
in the “ relative clause ”, but is not something which was explicitly
stated. For example, in (8) the “head noun” nioi ‘smell’ is some¬
thing brought about when fish burns, but is not an explicit part of the
original sentence. Here are some more examples of this type of con¬
struction :

(9) v
dareka ga roka o hashiru oto
(the sound of someone’s running in the hall)

do)
kami o moyashita kemuri
(the smoke which came out when someone burned papers (lit.
the smoke which someone burned papers))

(11) UlfrgofcJ&ft,
yama ni nobotta tsukare
(fatigue which was caused from climbing a mountain (lit. fatigue
that (someone) climbed a mountain))

5. The following examples are usually considered to be appositive clause

constructions rather than relative clause constructions, because in these
examples what is expressed by the preceding clause is the following
noun itself.

(12) /#* ittiw

Nihon e iku keikaku / kangae / yotei / yume
(the plan / idea / schedule / dream that (I am) going to Japan)
380 Relative Clause

(13) 0 limits I JBv'ffi

Nihon e itta jijitsu / keiken / hanashi / omoide
(the fact / experience / story / memory that (I) went to Japan)

6. In relative clauses in Japanese, the restrictive use and the non-restrictive

use cannot be distinguished from the structure. It is usually determined
from the context and / or the situation. The following examples are
ambiguous.

(14) folftcy y v y £ Aste J: < J&Sfil- S c

Watashi ga nihongo o oshiete ageta Buraun-san wa yoku ben-
kyosuru.
((A) Mr. Brown, to whom I taught Japanese, studies well.
(B) (Among those Browns we know the) Mr. Brown to whom I
taught Japanese studies well.)

(15) <£ < flK 0*Attt bibivZo

Yoku hataraku nihonjin wa kirawareru.
((A) Japanese people, who work hard, are hated.
(B) Japanese people who work hard are hated.)

7. The ease of relativization of a noun phrase differs depending on the

particle marking the phrase. (16) shows the particle hierarchy. Here,
noun phrases marked by the particles in the upper position are easy to
relativize and noun phrases marked by the particles in the lower
position are hard to relativize.

(16) ga>ol>ni2>ni6>o2>e>del>de2 (means)>karal (source)>/7o1>

kara1 (starting point)>to2>de2 (cause / reason)> yorix
Concerning the relativization of noun phrases in simple sentences, noun
phrases marked by de2 (cause / reason) and yorix cannot be relativized,
but those marked by the rest of the particles in (16) can.
 -sa 381

-sa $ suf.

| a suffix that makes a noun out of an ? -ness; -ty

j adjective by attaching it to the stem ; [REL. -mf]
of an Adj (/) or much less frequently >
; to the stem of an Adj (na) >
' <

♦ Key Sentence

Adj (/) stem

wC0 oh <D JA £ (± hi. Oil V'W V'V'T'i'o

Kono uchi no hiro sa wa chodo ii / iidesu.

(The size of this house is just right.)

Adj (/ / /7a) stem £

sa
M£ (height)
takasa
(quietness)
shizukasa

*******
(a) C
Fujisan no takasa wa dono gurai desu ka.
(What is the approximate height of Mt. Fuji?)

(b) 0*m<nm t $ <fc < d £ t fc0

Nihongo no muzukashisa ga yoku wakarimashita.
(I’m now well aware of the difficulty of Japanese.)

(c) T t \) 1J <D X $ T * X t° y y h T' L i 0 o

Amerika no yosa wa paionia supiritto desho.
(One of America’s good qualities is perhaps its pioneering spirit.)

1. The suffix -sa is a very productive suffix that makes a noun out of an
adjective. Some typical examples are given below:
 382 -sa

(newness / freshness) (size)

atarashisa okisa
(speed) (strength)
hayasa tsuyosa
(length) <££ (goodness / merit)
nagasa yosa

UZ (whiteness) ««i> V. (blackness)

shirosa kurosa

2. Adj (na) stem+sa is not commonly used. It is suggested that the learner
avoid using it. Some of the most commonly used Adjs (na) stem + sa are
the following:

(convenience) (accuracy)
benrisa seikakusa

(loyality) (perfection)
chujitsusa kanpekisa
(calmness) (liveliness)
nodokas a nigiyakasa

3. When an adjective can be paired with another adjectival antonym as in

okii ‘big’ vs. chisai ‘small’, the positive counterpart, (i.e., okii) tends
to acquire a meaning of absolute degree when -sa is attached, as in
okisa ‘size’. Examples follow:

Positive Negative

Jf[£ (breadth) (thinness)

IIIIIIHIIHH III

■■111
c/a

atsusa ususa

JS£ (weight) (lightness)

omosa karusa

||L$ (difficulty) A'3 £ L £ (easiness)

muzukashisa yasashisa

? Goy) ^L$ (sadness)

ureshisa kanashisa

(depth) (shallowness)
fukasa asasa
 -sa 383

Positive Negative

MZ (height) (lowness)
takasa hikusa

H$ (heat) (coldness)
atsusa samusa

$83 (density) (thinness)

kosa ususa

(size) /J»££ (smallness)

okisa chisasa

(size of space) (smallness of space)

hirosa semasa

(strength) (weakness)
tsuyosa yowasa

[Related Expression]

-sa describes, in an analytical manner, the degree of the state represented

by an adjective, but -mi, another noun-forming suffix, is a more emotive and
concrete characterization of some state (based primarily on direct perception).
Only a limited number of Adj (/) can be used with -mi. Examples:

(reddishness) i; L H (sorrow)
aka mi kanashimi
(warmness) (depth)
atatakami fukami
(thickness) (weakness)
atsumi yowami
(sweetness) (bitterness)
amami nigami
(painfulness) (strength)
kurushimi tsuyomi

Consider the following sentences in which -sa is unacceptable.

Ano hito wa omoshiromi / *omoshirosa ga nai ne.

(He just lacks something that attracts people.)
384 -sa / -sama

[2] &L*/*3S&L$fcL*CV'*1-.
Tanoshimi / *tanoshisa ni shite imasu.
(I’m looking forward to it.)

In both [1] and [2] the -sa version is unacceptable because both sentences
express something concrete that can be expressed only by -mi. The fact
that nouns with the suffix -mi indicate something concrete seems to be related
to a general tendency of nasal sounds.
(<=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)

1
•sama fa suf.

a suffix (originally meaning ‘ appear¬

ance ’) that indicates the speaker’s /
writer’s politeness towards s.o.
Mr.; Miss; Ms.; Mrs.
[REL. -chan; -kun\ -san]

(a)
O-sama no mi mi wa roba no mi mi da.
(The King’s ears are donkey’s ears.)

(b) rftCSi-flv,
Kami-sama o shinjimasu ka.
(Do you believe in God?)

(c) IfcThk’/v,
Hanako-chan. kon'ya wa o-tsuki-sama mo o-hoshi-sama mo kirei ne.
(Hanako, aren’t the moon and the stars beautiful tonight!)

(d) if £ (CV'o L ^50?

O-ka-sama, doko ni irassharu no?
(Mother, where are you going?)

(e) <fc0
O-kyaku-sama ga mieta yo.
(Our guests have come.)
 -sama 385

1. The reason why -sama ‘ appearance ’ is used to show one’s respect is that
-sama allows one to refer indirectly to one’s superior. For instance,
Yamada-sama is a more indirect way to refer to a person called Yamada
than to call him simply Yamada, because yamada-sama literary means
‘appearance of Yamada’. Note, however, that a personal name + sama
is not used in conversational Japanese, except in highly polite speech used
to clientele by clerks / attendants of hotels, restaurants, travel agencies,
department stores, etc.

2. -sama attached to a personified object shows more endearment than

respect, as in Ex. (c).

3. -sama can also be attached to some action or state related to the hearer,
as in (1) through (5) below:

(1)

Go-chiso-sama (deshita).
(It was such a treat.)

(2) SsHfcfgffilcfc 9 & Lfco

O-sewa-sama ni narimashita.
(Thank you for all that you’ve done for me.)

(3) 43^O$tt(*CLfc)0
O-ki no doku-sama {deshita).
(Lit. It was a pitiful matter. (That’s too bad.))

(4)
O-tsukare-sama (deshita).
(You must be very tired.)

(5)
O-kage-sama de genkidesu.
(Lit. Thanks to you I’m fine. (I’m fine, thank you.))

4. In written Japanese, esp. after the addressee’s name in a letter, etc.,

-sama is used as in:

6
( )

Yamada ichiro-sama
(Mr. Ichiro Yamada)

[Related Expressions]

I. Two related forms, -san and -chan are derived from -sama through
386 -sama

phonetic modifications, -san is the informal version of -sama and there¬

fore less honorific and more intimate than -sama. Except for Exs. (a)
and (b), in which the highest superiors appear, -sama can be replaced by
-san. -san can also be attached to names of occupations and titles as
in:

[1] Name of occupation + san

(fishmonger)
sakana-ya-san

(confectioner)
o-kashi-ya-san

WlM.cS A/ (wine dealer)

saka-ya-san

[2] Title+san
(principal)
kocho-san

Tff^r^F Ar (mayor)
shicho-san
(section chief)
kacho-san

-chan is used with children’s names or in child-like language. Normally

this suffix is attached only to kinship terms or first names as in:

[3] Kinship terms -\-chan

■¥» Aj (mom)
o-ka-chan

•¥* Aj (pop)
o-td-chan

tb ■¥» Aj (grandpa)
o-ji-chan
fi* <fc> ^ ■¥> Aj (grandma)
o-ba-chan
Aj (uncle)
oji-chan

& 13f "£> ■¥> Aj (auntie)

oba-chan
 -sama / saseru 387

[4] First name + chan

(Hanako)
Hanako-chan
(Taro)
Taro-chan
II. -kun is a similar Sino-Japanese suffix which can be attached to a male
equal or male inferior’s first name and / or last name. It is sometimes
used to refer to a female or a male in an institution such as a school or
a company. Etymologically -kun has nothing to do with -sama and
its variants. (■=> -kun)

saseru (G>. 2)

l cause s.o. / s.t. to do s.t. or cause s.t. make s.o. / s.t. do s.t.; cause
< to change its state s.o. / s.t. to do s.t.; let s.o. / s.t.
do s.t.; allow s.o. / s.t. to do
s.t.; have s.o. / s.t. do s.t.; get
s.o. / s.t. to do s.t.
♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Intransitive
Topic (causer) Causee
Verb (causative)

c* A/ 12 & / f- - L Tz.0
Suzuki-san wa musume o / ni daigaku e ikaseta i ikasemashita.

(Mr. Suzuki made / let his daughter go to college.)

(B)

Topic (causer) Causee Direct Object Transitive Verb (causative)

£
Chichi | wa
j 12 ima
imoto j ni
fry ; &
piano \ o narawaseta / narawasemashita.

(My father made (or let) my younger sister learn to play the piano.)
388 saseru

F«rmati*n

( i) Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg -dr-5

seru
(cause to talk)
h ana saseru
(ii) Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem £-drS
saseru
(cause to eat)
tabesaseru
(iii) Irr. Verbs: —> (cause to come)
kuru kosaseru
(cause to do)
suru saseru

(a)
Hisako wa watashi o komaraseta.
(Lit. Hisako made me have trouble. ( = Hisako caused me trouble.))

(b) dco o
Kono gemu wa Jimu ni kataseyo to omou.
(I think I’ll let Jim win this game.)

(c) tCM&%L\c^y7'$:&K>^TzQ
Tomodachi wa watashi ni chippu o harawaseta.
(My friend made me leave (lit. pay) a tip.)

Andason-san wa kodomotachi ni sukina dake aisukurimu o tabesaseta.

(Mr. Anderson let his children eat as much ice cream as they liked.)

(e) f/diffij&r#*? tc0

Watashi wa reizoko de miruku o kora seta.
(Lit. I made milk freeze (=1 froze milk) in the refrigerator.)

(f) Af£v\,
Sore wa watashi ni sasete kudasai.
(As for that, let me do it.)

L The idea that someone / something ( = the causer) causes or allows some
 saseru 389

one / something ( = the causee) to do something is expressed by the caus¬

ative construction. In the causative construction, the causer is usually
marked by wa in main clauses and by ga in subordinate clauses. When
the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is marked by either o
or ni. The choice between the two particles depends on the following
general rule. When ni is used, the causee has taken an action intention¬
ally. For example, ni is ungrammatical in (I) because the causee didn’t
intend to go to the party in this situation.

(1) W-fl'-frfco
Chichi wa watashi o / *ni muriyari pati e ikaseta.
(My father forced (lit. forcefully made) me to go to the party.)
Also, ni is ungrammatical in (2) because the causee is a non-volitional
entity and, therefore, has no intent (cannot take a volitional action).

(2) !*\CLfek-frfco
Watashi wa hankachi o / *ni shimeraseta.
(Lit. I made my handkerchief get damp. ( = 1 dampened my hand¬
kerchief.))
O, on the other hand, can be used regardless of the causee’s volition, as
seen in (3) and (4). Whether a sentence expresses “ permissive ” causa¬
tive or “ coercive ” causative depends on the context and / or the situa¬
tion.

(3) a. 9* 9
Watashi wa iyagaru musuko o / *ni muriyari oyogaseta.
(Lit. I forced my son, who resisted swimming, to swim.)
b.
Watashi wa musuko o / ni sukina dake oyogaseta.
(I let my son swim as much as he wanted.)
(4) a.
LTz0
Akiko wa benkyo wa mo shitakunai to itta ga watashi wa ka-
nojo o / *ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita.
(Akiko said she didn’t want to study any more, but I’ve de¬
cided to send her to college, (lit. make her go to college.))

c t lc Lfc0
Akiko wa motto benkyoshitai to itta node, watashi wa kanojo
o / ni daigaku ni ikaseru koto ni shita.
390 saseru

(Akiko said she wanted to study more, so I’ve decided to let

her go to college.)
2. If the main verb is a transitive verb, the causee can be marked only by ni,
as in (5), because o cannot appear more than once in a clause and, in this
case, there is already a direct object marked by o in the clause. O^o1)

(5)
Ichiro wa Yukiko ni / *o biru o noma seta.
(Ichiro made (or let) Yukiko drink beer.)
Thus, when the verb is transitive, ni is acceptable even if the causee is
not willing to take the action.

(6) —SBIJS*iztr 9^9

Ichiro wa Yukiko ni muriyari biru o noma seta.
(Ichiro forced Yukiko to drink beer.)
When the main verb is transitive, it is often difficult to tell from the
sentence alone whether or not the causee takes the action willingly.
This must be determined by the context and / or the situation in which
the sentence is uttered.

3. Whether or not the causee is willing to do something is clear if one of

the set of giving and receiving verbs is used. (■=> ageru2; kureru2;
morau2) Examples:

(7) ti'VXV-otZo
Watashi wa Haruko o pati ni ikasete yatta.
(I let Haruko go to the party.)

(8) xmucmz&'&vx <btz0

Chichi wa watashi ni sake o nomasete kureta.
(My father let me drink sake.)
The causee’s unwillingness to do something, on the other hand, can be
more explicitly expressed by the causative-passive construction explained
in Note 7.

4. In causative sentences, the causer must be equal to or higher than the

causee in terms of status. Thus, the following is unacceptable:

(9) *%\9 t£a

* Watashi wa sensei ni / o pati ni kosaseru tsumori da.
(I’m going to let (or make) my teacher come to the party.)

5. Causative verbs are all Gr. 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as
follows:
 saseru 391

(10) (nonpast* inf* affirmative)

hanasaseru
!(§£•£& I' (nonpast* inf* negative)
hanasasenai
fi§£-fr'C (re-form)
nanasasete
fj§ (past* inf* affirmative)
hanasaseta

6. There is another set of formation rules for causative verbs. (Causative

verbs of this version are all Gr. 1 verbs.)

(11) a. Gr. 1 Verbs: Vneg i~

su
(cause to talk)
hanasasu

b. Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem

sasu
JifcK £ i~ (cause to eat)
tabesasu

c. Irr. Verbs: (cause to come)

kuru kosasu
-f%> —> (cause to do)
suru sasu

In general, this set of conjugations seems to express more direct causa¬

tion. For example, in (12a) tabesasu means ‘ feed (with a spoon or
something) ’ rather than ' make / let eat ’, while in (12b) tabesaseru is
more general and means ‘ make / let eat (either by saying something like
“ Eat your meal ” or “ You may eat your meal ” or actually by feeding
with a spoon or something)’.

(12) a. < ti 'h 9 tZo

Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono o tabesasu tsumori da.
(I intend to feed Jim fruit.)

b. i) tz0
Watashi wa Jimu ni kudamono o tabesaseru tsumori da.
(I intend to make / let Jim eat fruit.)
392 saseru / sekkaku

7. Causative-passive verbs, which are used in causative-passive sentences,

are constructed by affixing the passive verb ending rareru to causative
verb stems. (■=> rareru1) Examples:

(13) (be made to talk)

hanasaserareru

<*■£•0 41-5 (be made to eat)

tabesaserareru
Causative-passive sentences express the idea “ be made to do some¬
thing”. Note that they do.not express the idea “be allowed to do
something”. (14) and (15) show causative sentences and their corre¬
sponding causative-passive sentences.

(14) a.
Chichi wa watashi o aruite kaeraseta.
(My father had me walk home.)

b.
Watashi wa chichi ni aruite kaeraserareta.
(Lit. I was made to walk home by my father. ( = My father
made me walk home.))

(15) a.
Kazuo wa Natsuko ni sake o noma seta.
(Kazuo made / let Natsuko drink sake.)

b.
Natsuko wa Kazuo ni sake o nomaserareta.
(Natsuko was made to drink sake by Kazuo.)

I
sekkaku <*dv.

Some situation which seldom occurs

has now occurred and one can either
make use of it or, to one’s regret,
with effort; at great pain; take
the trouble to do ~
[REL. wazawaza]
cannot make use of it.
 sekkaku 393

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

< {£ ff ofc <D\C tcM ii Ltz0

Sekkaku ai ni itta noni tomodachi wa inakatta / imasendeshita.

(I took the trouble to go to see my friend, but he wasn’t at home.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

V'V' ic Aofc <D ti J: < oi!)

Sekkaku ii daigaku ni haitta no da kara yoku benkydsuru tsumori
Tz / T'-fo
da / desu.

(I entered a good college with great effort, so I intend to study hard.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Noun

<D bush cole iJlV'fc / & LTzo

Sekkaku no nichiyobi na noni hataraita / hatarakimashita.

(Although Sunday is precious (to me), I worked (all day long).)

(a) r/ ) ij— 3 — ^
Sekkaku Amerika made itta noni Nyuyoku ni ikenakute zannendatta.
(I went as far as America at great expense, but, to my regret, I couldn’t
make it to New York.)

Sekkaku nihongo o sannenkan mo benkydshita no da kara, zehi ichido

Nihon e itte mitai to omoimasu.
(Because I studied Japanese for (as many as) three years, I would love
to go to Japan once.)
394 sekkaku

(c) !>£Lfco
Sekkaku no ryoko ga byoki de dame ni narimashita.
(My long awaited trip had to be canceled because of my illness.)

(d)
Sekkaku desu ga kyo wa isogashikute ikemasen.
(I appreciate your most kind offer, but I’m too busy to go there today.)

(e) h Ltih i£ oX-fii'0

Sekkaku no chansu da kara detoshitara do desu ka.
(It’s a good chance, so why don’t you date her?)

(f)
Sekkaku desu kara. enryo naku itadakimasu.
(Since you took the trouble to bring it to me, I’ll take it without hesi¬
tation.)

Sekkaku tends to co-occur with noni ‘ although ’ or no da kara ‘ because (it

is that) ~ ’, as in KSs(A) and (B), respectively. Sekkaku no+Nt however,
can be used as a noun phrase, free from any co-occurrence restrictions, as
shown in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (e). Sekkaku desu ga (in Ex. (d)) is used
to politely decline s.o.’s kind offer, and sekkaku desu kara (in Ex. (f)) is used
to accept s.o.'s offer.

[Related Expression]

Sekkaku is related to wazawaza, an adverb whose basic meaning is ‘ inten¬

tionally take the trouble to do s.t., although it is not necessary to do so ’.

[1] a. toi'<
Sekkaku / *Wazawaza chikaku made kita no da kara yorimashita.
(Because I came all the way to your neighborhood, I dropped by.)

b.
Wazawaza / * Sekkaku atarashii kuruma o katta.
(He went to the trouble of buying a new car.)

c. l*V^fr<$f^X&X<tiXh*)frb ?0
Wazawaza / *Sekkaku motte kite kurete arigato.
(Thanks for your trouble in bringing it to me.)
 shi 395

shi L conj.

a conjunction to indicate ‘ and ’ in \ and what’s more; not only ~

an emphatic way \ but also ~; so
[REL. sore kara]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Verb

ii x-x t Ltz U k jLfc/jL&Ufco

Kyo wa tenisu mo shita shi. eiga mo mita / mimashita.

(I not only played tennis but also saw a movie today.)

(B)

Adj (/)

:: (i it
H U it
Koko wa natsu wa atsui shi. fuyu wa samui / samuidesu.

(Here it’s hot in the summer, and what’s more, it’s cold in the winter.)

(C)

Adj {na)

Z. <D 7'““ h (i U
Kono apato wa kireida shi. yasui / yasuidesu.

(This apartment is clean, and what’s more, it’s inexpensive.)

(D)

Noun Copula

h X*-f / ti if hLtz it Kifc tz L

Asobitai n desu / da ga ashita wa shiken da shi asobenai/

asobemasen.

(I would like to play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can’t fool
around.)
396 shi

(i) {V / Adj (/)} t

shi

{a&1~ /fSLfc) L (s.o. talks / talked and what’s more)

[hanasu / hanashita) shi
I L (s.o. eats / ate and what’s more)
{taberu / tabeta) shi
{j!5V' L (s.t. is / was expensive and what’s more)
[takai / takakatta} shi
(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} [ti I td^tz} L
[da / datta) shi
L (s.t. is / was quiet and what’s more)
[shizukada / shizukadatta} shi

[9g£ td / %!£_ td'o fc} L (s.o. is / was a teacher and what’s more)
[sensei da / sensei datta} shi

(a) tWk&ofcU
Shi goto mo atta shi. kekkon mo dekita shi. totemo ureshiidesu.
(Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I’m
very happy.)

(b)
Kyd wa tenki mo ii shi. doko ka e ikimasho ka.
(It’s a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?)

(c) fcoAfiHAfi U
Ano hi to wa bijin da shi. atama mo ii.
(She’s beautiful and what’s more she’s bright.)

(d) 9o
Kippu wa katte aru shi. zehi mi ni ikimasho.
(I’ve bought a ticket for you, so let’s go see it, by all means.)

1. As in Ex. (a), shi can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like
Vte and’ can be repeated.

2. There are times when a sentence ends with shi in order to weaken the
sentence and obscure the cause / reason:
 shi I -shi- 397

(1) A : h
Ashita eiga ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go see a movie tomorrow?)

B: x.o, hLtzX*-ft)'0 h L, ...

£, ashita desu ka. Ashita wa shiken ga aru shi,. . .
(Tomorrow? I have an exam tomorrow, and. . .)

3. When the speaker wishes to be very polite, the clause before shi can
be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in (2).

(2) 401 U 5
Kyo wa tenki mo iidesu shi. doko ka e ikimasho ka.
(It’s a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?) (Cf. Ex. (b))

I
-shi- L infix

an infix attached to the stem of an

Adj (/') to indicate s.t. that one cannot
objectively measure on any scale (e.g.
j
\
\
l human emotion)

(sad) < ^ L V' (regrettable) (scary)

kanashii kuyashii osoroshii

s&LV' (enjoyable) ' (strict) (difficult)

tanoshii kibishii muzukashii

ibLV' (seem) 9 LV' (envious) 3ELV' (dear)

rashii urayamashii koishii

(delicious) (lonely) (bappy)

oishii sabishii ureshii

(painful) j|f L V' (regrettable) HLV' (intimate)

kurushii oshii shitashii

UtLV' (dependable) (enviable) i&LV' (cool)

tanomoshii natamashii suzushii
398 -shi- / shika

Adjs (/) that do not contain -shi- are, for the most part, descriptive adjectives
that are dependent on the speaker’s objective judgment. In other words,
they are adjectives which indicate something that one can objectively measure
on some scale. Typical descriptive adjectives are:

(red) flJV' (low) (blue) MV' (hard)

akai hikui aoi katai

(big) (shallow) (light) £lV' (white)

okii asai karui shiroi

(small) SV' (black) (high) jJfV' (near)

chisai kuroi takai chikai

(short) (thin) (deep) (long)

mijikai usui fukai nagai

(cheap) (soft) (young) (thick)

yasui yawarakai wakai koi

shika Prt-

a particle which marks an element $ nothing / nobody / no — but;

X when nothing but X makes the y only
expressed proposition true ?? [REL. bakari\ dake\

4 Key Sentences
(A)
Subject Predicate (negative)

L#' fcffvi £
Toda-san shika tabako o suwanai / suimasen.

(No one but Mr. Toda smokes.)

 shika 399

(B)

Direct Object Predicate (negative)

% fi a$£s btf*
Watashi wa nihongo shika shiranai / shirimasen.

(I know nothing but Japanese.)

(C)

Noun Prt Predicate (negative)

Zti it \z
Sore wa Eguchi-san ni shika hanashite inai / imasen.

(I haven’t told it to anybody but Mr. Eguchi.)

(D)

Quantifier Predicate (negative)

% li rss -k —tit'
Watashi wa gohan 0 ippai shika tabenakatta / tabemasendeshita.

(I had only one bowl of rice.)

(i) N Lfr
shika
1r> (Subject) —> %%£. b#' (no one but the teacher)
sensei ga sensei shika
k (Direct Object) —» %£. (no one but the teacher)
sensei o sensei shika
(ii) N + (Prt) Li)>
shika
^ I \Z (Direction) -♦ (^ / tc) brt» (to nowhere but
Tokyo e / ni Tokyo (e / ni) shika Tokyo)
iz (Indirect Object, Agent) —> %%L ({c)t (no one but
sensei ni sensei (ni) 5/7/Ara the teacher)
(f/V/ cannot drop if X sMra can be interpreted as the subject.)
0®0 K (Time) -+ 0®0 (tc) bri* (only on Sunday)
nichiyobi ni nichiyobi (ni) shika
400 shika

(c (Location) -► ((c) L75> (only in Tokyo)

Tokyo ni Tokyo (ni) shika
(iii) N + Prt Lri*
shika
X (Location) —► X L#> (only in Tokyo)
Tokyo de Tokyo de shika
ig. x (Means) —► $ X L t)' (only by car)
kuruma de kuruma de shika
lJU P9 c? t (Reciprocal)—► (JU P3 c? A> t Lfi* (only with Mr.
Yamada-san to Yamada-san to shika Yamada)
jKm ft'h (Starting point / source)—► b LA' (only from
Tokyo kara Tokyo kara shika Tokyo)
IB# ~H.X (Ending point) —*• IB# £ X (only till five o’clock)
goji made goji made shika
(iv) Quantifier L?5>
shika
^L L/0i (only a little)
sukoshi shika

(a)
Pati ni wa gakusei shika konakatta.
(Only students came to the party.)

(b)
Tamura-san wa sarada shika tabenakatta.
(Mr. Tamura ate only salad.)

(c) fUiHItB ((c)

Watashi wa nichiyobi (ni) shika koraremasen.
(I can come only on Sunday.)

(d) :^(i:<o0||(l:)U'l)!)l^o
Kono hon wa kono toshokan (ni) shika arimasen.
(Only this library has this book.)

(e)
Soko wa kuruma de shika ikenai.
(Lit. You can go there only by car. ( = The only way you can go there
is by car.))
 shika 401

(f) Lt'U* Lfcv\,

Watashi wa Yamada-san to shika hanashi o shinai.
(I talk only with Mr. Yamada.)

(8) £ L
Kono gakko wa gakusei ga hyakunin shika inai.
(This school has only a hundred students.)

Shika always occurs with negative predicates.

[Related Expressions]

I. Dake expresses a similar idea. (=> dake) However, dake and shika differ
in the following ways:

(A) X shika emphasizes the negative proposition of “ non-X ”, while

X dake merely describes the situation in neutral fashion.

(B) Shika occurs only with negative predicates; dake, however, can
occur with affirmative predicates. Compare the following sentences:

[1] a. tfytzli&tzo
Bobu dake kita.
(Only Bob came.)

b. tfl/LA'&fcfrofco
Bobu shika konakatta.
(Nobody but Bob came.)

[2] a. sj? 7'fi If 31ItZfr o tz o

Bob dake konakatta.
(Only Bob didn’t come.)

b. 'tfy'LfrJfctz / 3fcfc<fcA'of;:0
*Bobu shika kita / konakunakatta.
(Everybody but Bob came.)

(C) The verb kakaru ‘ it takes (time) ’ can be used with shika, but not
with dake, as in [3].

[3] a.
Watashi no ie kara gakko made wa kuruma de gofun
shika kakaranai.
(From my house to school it takes only five minutes
by car.)
402 shika

*Watashi no ie kara gakko made wa kuruma de gofun

dake kakaru.
(From my house to school it takes only five minutes
by car.)

II. Bakari is also used to mean ‘ only’ in some situations. (<=>bakari) Unlike
X shika or X daket however, X bakari emphasizes the positive proposi¬
tion of X, often with the implication that s.o. / s.t. does s.t. to X / with
X/. . .a lot or more than one expects. For example, [4a] emphasizes
the fact that Jim drank beer, whereas [4b] emphasizes the fact that Jim
didn’t drink anything but beer. [4c] is a neutral statement.

[4] a.
Jimu wa biru bakari nonda.
(Jim drank only beer (and a lot).)

b. i/ -Mi U—)V
Jimu wa biru shika nomanakatta.
(Jim drank nothing but beer.)

c. fi tf - )V t£ 1ifkk tz0
Jimu wa biru dake nonda.
(Jim drank only beer.)

Note that X bakari cannot be used if X is a single entity. Thus, [5a]

is grammatical, but [5b] is not.

[5] a. 0 %fz0
Onna no ko bakari kita.
(Only girls came (and it was more than I expected).)

b.
*Meari bakari kita.
(Only Mary came.)

Note also that bakari cannot be used with negative predicates, as in [6].

[6] U o tzo
Kodomotachi dake / * bakari konakatta.
(Only the children didn’t come.)
 shimau 403

shimau L£*5 aux• (Or. 1)

\ an auxiliary verb which indicates \ have done s.t.; finish doing s.t.;
j the completion of an action ^ finish s.t. up
^, [REL. ~ owaru}

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vte

li HP V io if £ 1tiA/T: L'&.otz 1 Lfc0

Ikeda-kun wa mikka de sono hon o yonde shimatta / shimaimashita.

(Mr. Ikeda finished reading the book in three days.)

(B)

Topic
(subject) Vte

% b co ^ £ &A/V of- / L&V'J; Lfi0

Watashi wa rumumeto no miruku o nonde shimatta / shimaimashita.

(I (mistakenly) drank my roommate’s milk.)

Vte
shimau
T (have talked)
hanashite shimau
(have eaten)
tabete shimau

(a) & LT Lfcri»0

Mo shukudai o shite shimaimashita ka.
(Have you done your homework yet?)

(b) fAfi^P^K-eou*0- h £#V'T o fc©oTV'50

Watashi wa kydju ni sono repoto o kaite shimao to omotte iru.
(I think that I will finish (writing) the report today.)
404 shimau

(c) -?-<
Hayaku gohan o tabete shimainasai.
(Finish (eating) your meal quickly.)

(d) SV'tLfco
Shichu o tsukuri sugite shimaimashita.
(1 made too much stew (to my regret).)

1. Shimau is used as an auxiliary verb with Wte and expresses the idea
of completion in terms of an action. Wte shimau often appears with
such adverbs as sukkari ‘ completely ’, zenbu ‘ all ’ and kanzenni ‘ com¬
pletely Examples:

(1) a. -r-f ?
Maiku wa sukkari nihongo o wasurete shimatta.
(Mike has completely forgotten Japanese.)

Watashi wa motte ita kitte o zenbu tomodachi ni agete

shimatta.
(I gave all the stamps I had kept to my friends.)

2. Wte shimatta also expresses the idea that someone did something which
he shouldn’t have done or something happened which shouldn’t have
happened. (KS(B) and Ex. (d)) Thus, it often implies the agent’s re¬
gret about what he has done or the speaker’s regret or criticism about
someone’s action or about something that has happened. Examples:

(2) a. ^ ])
Jeri wa Pegi no keki o tabete shimatta.
(Jerry (mistakenly) ate Peggy’s cake.)

b. :|oUJof;0
Watashi wa chigau basu ni notte shimatta.
(I got on the wrong bus.)

c. L£ ~ "J 9
Ame ga futte shimatta node piknikku ni ikenakatta.
(It rained, so we couldn’t go on a picnic.)

3. Whether a sentence with Wte shimatta is interpreted as simple completion

or regret (or criticism) depends on the context and / or the situation.
For example, (3) can be interpreted in two ways.
 shimau 405

(3) {giifcjg&lfc/y’C'Uofc,
Boku wa o-sake o nonde shimatta.
((A) I finished drinking sake. (B) I drank sake (which I shouldn’t
have done).)

4. Te shimau and de shimau are contracted as chau and Jaut respectively,

in informal speech, as in (4), and can be used by male and by female
speakers.

(4) a. IJlt L&5 -* tj§L (have talked)

hanashite shimau hanashi chau
b. fkhT* Lt.0 -► C*? (have drunk)
nonde shimau non jau

Chimau and jimau, another set of contracted forms of te shimau, are

used only by male speakers.

[Related Expressions]

I. Vpast can also express the completion of an action. However, it is dif¬

ferent from Vte shimau in that Vpast expresses the completion of an
action in the past, while Vte shimau expresses completion regardless of
the time of completion. Thus, [la] is grammatical, but [lb] is not.

[1] a.
Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabete shimau yo.
(If you leave it here, Jim will eat it (up).)

b. o
*Koko ni oite oku to Jimu ga tabeta yo.
(If you leave it here, Jim will eat it up.)

II. Vmasu owaru also means ‘ finish doing The difference between
Vmasu owaru and Vte shimau is that Vmasu owaru indicates the action
of finishing something, while Vte shimau indicates the completed state
of the action. Thus, these two expressions correspond to the English
expressions finish doing and have done in that Vmasu owaru can occur
with a specific time phrase, but Vte shimau cannot.

[2] a. %<d o
Kind sono hon o yomiowatta / *yonde shimatta.
(I finished reading / *have read the book yesterday.)

b. u*0- b&mZ&frntz /*§l'TL£of-0

Kesa kuji ni yatto repoto o kakiowatta J *kaite shimatta.
406 shimau / shiru

(I finally finished writing / *have finally written the report at

nine o’clock this morning.)

It is also noted that shimau can be used with noncontrollable verbs

like wasureru ‘ forget while owaru cannot, as in [3].

[3] a. L£ofc0
Boku wa Nanshi no jusho o wasurete shimatta.
(I’ve forgotten Nancy’s address.)

b.
*Boku wa Nanshi no jusho o wasureowatta.
(*I finished forgetting Nancy’s address.)

shiru v- (Gr. 1)

j S.o. gets information from some out- ^ get to know

i side source. [REL. wakaru]

♦ Key Sentences

A:

Direct Object

0# (o zt j & &PoT ino

Nihon no koto i o shitte imasu ka.

(Do you know about Japan?)

B:

£Dot / V'V'X., *PD

Hai. shitte imasu. / ie. shirimasen.

(Yes, I do. / No, I don’t.)

 shiru / soda1 407

(a)
Kinoshita-san o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Mr. Kinoshita?)

(b) dJP
Yamaguchi-san no denwabango o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Mr. Yamaguchi’s telephone number?)

(c) A:
Chugokugo o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Chinese?)

B : V'V'x., & {) £-frA,0

le, shirimasen.
(No, I don’t.)
(d) %L\*±V t
Watashi wa Ueda-san ga Amerika e itta koto o shiranakatta.
(I didn’t know that Mr. Ueda had gone to America.)

1. Shiru, a nonstative verb, takes the Vte iru form when it means the
stative ‘ know ’. (c> iru2)

2. When answering in the negative to the question X o shitte imasu ka ‘ Do

you know X? *, the negative nonstative form shiranai / shirimasen is
used instead of shitte inai / shitte imasen, as in KS(B) and Ex. (c).

I
soda1 5 tz

ing sentence is
aux-

an auxiliary which indicates that the

information expressed by the preced¬
what the speaker
I hear that — ; I heard that ~ ;
People say that ~
[REL. soda2; yd da (dard;
heard rashii)]
408 soda1

4 Key Sentence

Sentence (informal)

liljll$k/ \t £ M5tLT 1'5 ^Otz 1 ^9 T'-fo

Yamakawa-san wa furansugo 0 benkydshite iru soda 1 sodesu.

(I heard that Mr. Yamakawa is studying French.)

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf 9 tz

soda

/ML-fc} ■£ ’) tz (I heard that s.o. (will) talk / talked.)

[hanasu / hanashita} soda

/i9 tz (I heard that s.t. is / was expensive.)

[takai / takakatta} soda

(ii) {Adj (na) stem / N} {tz / tz o fc) -t 0 tz

{da / datta] soda

[&i)'tz / ffifrtzotz.} % 9 tz (I heard that s.t. is / was quiet.)

[shizukada / shizukadatta} soda

tz I tz ntz) 9 tz (I heard that s.o. is / was a teacher.)

{sertse/ da / sensei datta} soda

(a) ?Vi-0
Shimizu -san wa o-sake o nomanai sodesu.
(I heard Mr. Shimizu doesn’t drink any alcohol.)

(b) tX 9 tz0

Nihon no niku wa totemo takai soda.

(I hear that meat in Japan is very expensive.)

Toshiko-san wa eigo ga totemo jozuda sodesu.

(I heard that Toshiko speaks very good English.)

(d) tryyZAsteRmvft'ktzZotzo
Kingu-san wa eigo no sensei da soda.
(I heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English.)
 soda1 409

1. Sinf soda expresses hearsay. That is, this pattern is used when the
speaker conveys information obtained from some information source with¬
out altering it. (<=> rashii)

2. Information sources are expressed by N ni yoru to ‘ according to N \

(l) y

Shinbun ni yoru to Furorida ni yuki ga futta soda.

(According to the newspaper, it snowed in Florida.)

[Related Expression]

The hearsay soda (i.e., soda1) and the conjecture soda (i.e., soda2) are two
different expressions. Compare their different connection patterns in [1].
(<=> soda2)

[1] soda1 (hearsay) soda2 (conjecture)

V before Vinf soda Wmasu soda

soda (Ex. %Jt/MLfc (Ex. ftL *5 ti
hanasu / hanashita soda) hanashi soda)

Adj (/') Adj (/) inf soda Adj (/) stem soda
before (Ex. j1 fafr'itz "c 9 ti (Ex. ^ 9ti
soda takai / takakatta soda) taka soda)

Adj (na) Adj (na) stem [da / datta} soda Adj (na) stem soda
before (Ex. fU'ti Hfrfrti^tz ^oti (Ex. 9 ti
soda shizukada / shizukadatta shizuka soda)

x
soda)

N before N {dal datta} soda

soda (Ex. 1 %$Ltir>Tz * 9 ti
sensei da / sensei datta
soda)

soda [Vmasu 1 Adj (/)

before N stem / Adj (na)
stem) sona N
(Ex. 9 ft ^

XC taka sona hon)

410 ~soda2

—soda2 ~ 4c 5/if aux• Qdj- (na)

] an auxiliary adjective which indi- S look; look like; appear; seem;

\ cates that what is expressed by the j feel like
;> preceding sentence is the speaker’s j [REL. soda!; yoda (dard\
£ conjecture concerning an event in the > rash 0)1
!> future or the present state of some- <
;> one or something, based on what the
l speaker sees or feels

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Subject Wmasu

m * 5 Ii 1 i 5 T'+o
furi soda 1 sodesu.

(It looks like\ it will rain.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (/ / na) stem

tb<n $ fi -&■ *zbti 1■C+o

A no kuruma wa taka soda 1 sodesu.

(That car looks expensive.)

( i ) Wmasu o ti
soda
l' ^ 5 tS (It looks like s.o. will talk.)
hanashi soda
(It looks like s.o. will eat.)
tabe soda
(ii) Adj (/ / na) stem
soda
ft (S.t. looks expensive.)
taka soda
 ~sdda2 411

^ 0 ti (S.t. looks quiet.)

shizuka soda

(a) ^ fi0
Kono ie wa tsuyoi kaze ga fuitara taore soda.
(It looks like this house will fall down when there’s a strong wind
(lit. a strong wind blows).)

(b) 9 tz^tz0
A no suteki wa oishisodatta.
(That steak looked delicious.)

(c) Z<Dfotz*) (9 ti0

Kono atari wa shizuka soda.
(This neighborhood looks quiet.)

1. {Vmasu I Adj (/ / na) stem} soda expresses the speaker’s conjecture based
on visual information. Thus, this expression can be used only when the
speaker directly observes something. The speaker’s conjecture concerns
an event which might take place in the future or the present state of
someone or something. In other words, soda2 cannot be used to express
the speaker’s conjecture concerning a past event or state.
(f=>rash/i\ yd da)

2. The adjective // ‘ good ’ and the negative nai ‘ not exist / not ’ change
to yosa and nasa, respectively, before soda2. Examples:

(1) blt&ZZotlo
Kono apato wa yosa soda.
(This apartment looks good.)

(2) 9fi0
Mondai wa nasa soda.
(It looks like there is no problem.)

Murayama-san no ie wa amari atarashikunasa soda.

(Mr. Murayama’s house doesn’t look so new.)

3. N or N + Copula cannot precede soda2, as seen in (4a) and (4b), but N-f
Copula neg* nonpast can, as seen in (4c).
 soda2

(4) a. /U±^£ 0^9 ti0

*Kato-san wa gakusei et soda.
(Mr. Kato looks like a student.)

b. b iio
*Katd-san wa gakusei da soda.
(Mr. Kato looks like a student.)

c.
Kato-san wa gakusei Janasa soda.
(Mr. Kato doesn’t look like a student.)

To express the intended meaning in (4a) and (4b) rashii is used. (<=>
rash if) (4b) is grammatical if soda means hearsay. (<=> soda{)

In this construction, the negative forms of verbs usually don’t precede

soda2. Instead, Vmasu so ni / mo nai is used. Examples:

(5) lz/t tn\

Kurisu wa kuruma o uri so ni / mo nai.
(Chris doesn’t seem to sell his car.)

(6) iz / t fcl'o
Kono mondai wa gakusei ni wa deki so ni / mo nai.
(It doesn’t seem that the students can solve this problem.)

Soda is also used to express the speaker’s conjecture concerning his own
non-volitional future actions based on what he feels.

(7)
Boku wa kono keki o nokoshi soda.
(I’m afraid I can’t eat all this cake.)

(8)
Watashi wa totemo tsukarete ite taore soda.
(I’m so tired that I feel weak (lit. like I’m falling down).)

Soda is a na-type adjective; the prenominal form is sona. Examples:

(9)
taka sona kuruma
(a car which looks expensive ( = an expensive-looking car))

do)
ame ga furi sona sora
(lit. the sky which looks like it will bring rain)
 sore de 413

sore de %tiT conj.

s a conjunction to indicate that what j and; because of that; that is

is stated in the preceding sentence !> why; therefore; so
is the reason or cause for what is ' [REL. da kara; node]
stated in the following sentence ?

♦ Key Sentence

Sentencei Sentence2

%<od ii 75>if £ X}$$.Ltz0 zti -e & fo/vtz ^ T-f0

Kind wa kaze o hikimashita. Sore de gakko o yasunda n desu.

(I had a cold yesterday. That’s why I took a day off from school.)

(a) hx ot-XMX'mWh*)l£Ltz0
Chotto Osaka de ydji ga arimashita. Sore de kino inakatta n desu.
(I had some business in Osaka. That’s why I wasn’t here yesterday.)

(b) A:
Kind wa chotto Osaka de ydji ga arimashita.
(Yesterday I had to run an errand in Osaka.)

B : hh>
A. sore de irassharanakatta n desu ne.
(Oh, that’s why you weren’t here.)

(c) A: %<n 5/J\JI|il£ Ltz/vtz0

Kind Ogawa-kun to pinpon no shiai o shita n da.
(Yesterday I played pingpong with Mr. Ogawa.)

B: ZtlV, -ye'MfrrL^y'r'y b o tc/vX'i~teo

Sore def senshu atarashii raketto o katta n desu ne.
(That’s why he bought a new paddle last week.)

[Related Expressions]

I. “Si. Sore de S2” can be rephrased using node if sore de means cause or
reason. Note, however, that the node construction is a single sentence.
(«=> node) Example:
414 sore de / sore de wa

[1] h i o b-kWL~Zj%^ff'h^tz.QT:%<D ? V'&a»ofc/kT*-f0

Chotto Osaka de yoji ga atta node kino inakatta n desu.
(Because I had an errand to run in Osaka, I wasn’t here yesterday.)

The difference is that sore de combines two sentences much more loosely
than node.

II. “Si. Sore de S2” can be rephrased using da I desu kara, if Si indicates
a reason or a cause for S2.

[2] hi o D £ Lfco fifth % <D o

Chotto Osaka de yoji ga arimashita.. Da kara kino inakatta n desu.
(I had an errand to run in Osaka. So, I wasn’t here yesterday.)

The difference between sore de and da kara is similar to the difference

between node and kara. («=> kara3; node) Observe the following sen¬
tence.

[3] fifth
Kyo wa isogashii desu. Da kara / *Sore de ashita kite kudasai.
(I’m busy today. So, please come tomorrow.)

sore de wa con/.

If that is the case, if so; then; well then

[REL. sore nara\

♦ Key Sentences

A:

Z<D Jruy'J i± -C'i-0

Kono orenji wa amakunai desu.

(This orange is not sweet.)

B:

*ti -e n zn n if ? (x*-r ft)0

Sore de wa kore wa do (desu ka).

(How about this one, then?)

 sore de wa 415

(a) A:
Boku wa sakana mo niku mo kiraidesu.
(I hate both fish and meat.)

B:
Sore de wa nani o taberu n desu ka.
(Then, what do you eat?)

(b) A:
Kyd no gogo tenisu o shimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to play tennis this afternoon?)

B:
Kyd no gogo wa chotto tsugo ga warui n desu ga.
(This afternoon is not convenient for me, but. . .)

A:
Sore de wa ashita no gogo wa do desu ka.
(Then, how about tomorrow afternoon?)

(c)
Sore de wa nijuppun gurai yasumimasho.
(Well then, let’s take a break for about twenty minutes.)

(d)
Sore de wa mata raishu no kin’yobi ni kimasu.
(Well then, I’ll come again next Friday.)

1. Sore de wa is contracted into sore ja or sore ja in informal speech.

2. Sore de wa is often shortened to de wa, which is further contracted

to ja or ja.

3. Sore de wa is used in sentence-initial position, and sore ‘ that ’ refers to

that which is stated in the preceding sentence, as in Exs. (a) and (b), or
to the preceding context, as in Exs. (c) and (d). In Exs. (c) and (d) the
speaker uses sore de wa based on some nonverbal shared knowledge.
«
The shared knowledge for (c) and (d) could be ‘ the fact of having worked
long enough ’ and ‘ the fact of having finished today’s discussion and an
agreement for meeting every Friday’, respectively.
416 sore kara

sore kara conj.

a conjunction that indicates (1) tem- | after that; and then; in addition
porally contiguous actions or states, \ to that
^ or (2) a cumulative listing of objects, ^ [REL. kara2; shi; soshite]
) actions or states

♦Key Sentences
(A)

Vte

tco? f± Cb^ -%M t o h 1- )|ofc /

Kind wa nijikan gurai tomodachi to nonde sore kara uchi ni kaetta /
iff 9 & L tz0
kaerimashita.

(Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours and then went home.)

(B)

Sentencei Sentence2

£jg t $k/vtzo #11

Kind wa nijikan gurai tomodachi to nonda. Sore kara hon-ya ni yotte

uchi ni kaetta.

(Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours. Then I dropped
by a bookstore and went home.)

G333SS5BSEJ)
(i) {Vte/'Vmasu}
sore kara
{fi§LT fi'b (s.o. talks, and then ~)
{hanashite / hanashi}, sore kara
ti'b (s.o. eats, and then —)
[tabete / tabe], sore kara
(ii) Adj (/) stem <(T), Ztl fi'b
ku(te), sore kara
 sore kara 417

ii&<(T), ti'b (s.t. is not only expensive but ~)

takaku(te). sore kara
(iii) Adj (na) stem T', fab
de, sore kara
frb (s.t. is not only quiet but ~)
shizukade. sore kara
(iv) Nj (£) N2 (£) frb N3
(to) (to) sore kara
(£) fi'b
(«!:), (English, Japanese and
eigo (to) rrihongo (to), sore kara chugokugo Chinese)

(a) Ltz0
Juji made shukudai o shimashita. Sore kara eiga ni ikimashita.
(I did my home work until 10 o’clock. And then, I went to the movie.)

(b)
Kino wa asa Ginza ni itte. sore kara eiga o mi ni itta.
(Yesterday morning I went to Ginza and then went to see a movie.)

(c) \s%Y y'sX— — Ltz0

Resutoran de wa suteki to sarada to sore kara chizukeki o tabemashita.
(At the restaurant I ate steak, salad, and cheesecake.)

(d) ZM'bmc ft*)*. LtCo

Mizuumi no iro wa hajime wa aoku. sore kara midori ni narimashita.
(The color of the lake was blue in the beginning and then turned
green.)

(e) i> k X 4>tf: LV'T'-fo

Getsuyo. kayo, sore kara mokuyd mo totemo isogashiidesu.
(I am very busy on Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, too.)

1. Sore kara can be used to indicate something which the speaker almost
forgot to mention, as in (1) below:

1
( ) i?3>k* »-k, bbZotZ, ZM'b&zftfJtfzZa
Jon to Meri to. a so da. sore kara Bobu ga kita yo.
(John and Mary and, oh yeah, Bob came too.)

2. Sore kara ‘ and then ’ is often used by the hearer to elicit more infor¬
mation from the speaker. Example:
418 sore kara

(2) A:
Kyo wa doko e ikimashita ka.
(Where did you go today?)

B: £-HtOSC*T7-fcJ:D £ Lfc0
Mazu Tokyo taw a ni noborimashita.
(First we went up Tokyo Tower.)
A : ?
Sore kara?
(And then?)

Bijutsukan ni ikimashita.
(I went to the art museum.)
A : ?
Sore kara?
(And then?)
B: 7V?-M-fToT,

Depato ni itte. shokudo de hirugohan o tabemashita.

(I went to a department store and ate my lunch at the cafeteria.)

3. Vte, Vmasu, Adj (/') stem ku (te) and Adj (na) stem de do not have their
own tense. The tense is identical with that of the main verb.

[Related Expressions]

I. Vte kara and Vte, sore kara are similar but not identical in meaning.
Vte kara expresses chronological sequence; Vte, sore kara expresses
chronological sequence and / or enumeration. For example, [la] expresses
purely chronological order and [lb], chronological order and enumeration.
(i=> kara2)

[1] a.
Yamanaka-san wa sanjikan gorufu o shite kara ichijikan
oyoida.
(Mr. Yamanaka swam for one hour after having played golf
for three hours.)

Yamanaka-san wa sanjikan gorufu o shite, sore kara ichi¬

jikan oyoida.
(Mr. Yamanaka played golf for three hours, and, on top of that,
he swam for an hour.)
 sore kara / sore nara 419

II. “ Vte / Vmasu, sore kara'\ “Adj (/) stem kute, sore kara” and “Adj
(na) stem de, sore kara " are very similar to shi when they express
enumeration.

[2] a. tlf:0
Kyo wa tenisu o shite, sore kara eiga mo mita.
(Today I played tennis, and I saw a movie, too.)

b. ^0 J±T“ — X {> Ltc U I^Stlfco

Kyo wa tenisu mo shita shi. eiga mo mita.
(Today I played tennis, and what's more, saw a movie.)

III. So shite / soshite and sore kara are interchangeable when two events do
not occurs simultaneously. Compare the following:

[3] a. W&fcliflV'-C,
Ongaku o kiite. so shite benkyosuru no ga sukida.
(I like to listen to music while studying. / I like to listen to
music first and then study.)

b. W&fcfflv'-c, 0
Ongaku o kiite. sore kara benkyosuru no ga sukida.
(I like to listen to music first and then study.)

sore nara conJ-

If that is the case, then; in that case

[REL. sore de wa\

♦ Key Sentence

A: B:

M ^ -e-fo Zii & b

Atama ga itai n desu. Sore nara sugu nenasai.

(I have a headache.) (In that case, go to sleep right away.)

(a) A : HfciijS: jlf-fTt t-frA/K

Eiga o mi ni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go see a movie?)
420 sore nara

B: hLtzM&fcfoZ/vX"to
Ashita shiken ga aru n desu.
(I have an exam tomorrow.)

A: ztxteh,
Sore nara. asatte wa do desu ka.
(Then, how about the day after tomorrow?)

(b) A: B*tef±£<o<'<bV'V'£Lfci&\,
Nihon ni wa dono gurai imashita ka.
(How long did you stay in Japan?)
B :
Sannen desu.
(Three years.)
A : 'tiife b* 8&<DZbi±3:<%\'?XV'Z>X'Li::ji20
Sore nara. Nihon no koto wa yoku shitte iru desho ne.
(Then, you must know a lot about Japan.)

1. Sore ‘ that’ refers to a previously-spoken sentence. In KS, for example,

sore refers to A’s entire sentence. B’s sentence can be rephrased as (1):

1
( )

Atama ga itai n nara sugu nenasai.

(If you have a headache, go to sleep right away.)

Nara in (1) expresses the speaker’s supposition concerning the truth of

A’s statement. (=> nara)

2. Sore nara has a more formal form, sore naraba, and a more informal one,
sonnara.
3. For restrictions imposed on the sentence that follows sore nara, see the
notes in nara.

[Related Expression]

Although sore nara and sore de wa are very similar, they differ in that the
former is dependent on verbal context while the latter is not. Thus, towards
the end of one’s visit with his superior or on an occasion when something is
offered, sore de wa is used, as in [la, b].

[1] a.
Sore de wa / *Sore nara shitsureishimasu.
(Lit. Then I must be going now.)
 sore nara / soretomo 421

b. ZtiVlt / < b'fctfg&i-o

Sore de wa / *Sore nara enryo naku itadakimasu.
(Lit. Then, I’ll take it (without hesitation).)

soretomo conj.

; a coordinate conjunction which con- > or; either ~ or ~

' nects two alternatives expressed by <, [REL. Aa1]
^ sentences ^

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Sentencei (informal)

Z<D V'S /0» (iivkt)

Kono hon ga machigatte iru ka {soretomo)

Sentence2 (informal)

fi i)» '£ Zhbti' tzlX-to

watashi ga machigatte iru ka dochiraka da / desu.

(It’s either that this book is wrong or that I am wrong.)

(B)

Question! Question

Sashimi o tabemasu ka. Soretomo sukiyaki ni shimasu ka.

(Will you have sashimi, or will you have sukiyakil)

(a) hfr&ZfrZhbfrX'-fo
Boku ga kuru ka {soretomo) Murai-san ga kuru ka dochiraka desu.
(Either I will come or Mr. Murai will come.)
 422 soretomo / soshite

(b) Ztit
Ano hito wa sensei desu ka. Soretomo isha desu ka.
(Is he a teacher or a doctor?)

1. Soretomo combines statements (KS(A)) or questions (KS(B)). In KS(A),

soretomo can be omitted.
2. In KS(B), if the context is clear, abbreviated questions may occur in
informal speech. For example, (1) may be used for KS(B).

(1) $IJ#?

Sashimi? Soretomo. sukiyaki?

CSashimi or sukiyaki?)

soshite conb

s a coordinate conjunction that con- \ and; and then

| nects two sentences \ [REL. sore kara\

♦ Key Sentence

Sentencei

3“B tt K ffofc mZr£Ltz0

Kyd wa Tokyo ni itta / ikimashita.

(I went to Tokyo today.

Sentence2

Soshite tomodachi ni atta / aimashita.

And I met my friend there.)

 soshite / sugiru 423

(a) ^LtTOf = xS:LSLfc0

Kino wa asa gorufu o shimashita. Soshite gogo wa tenisu o shimashita.
(Yesterday I played golf in the morning. And I played tennis in the
afternoon.)

(b) Pj&V'o -?:LTttf50

Kono eiga wa tsumaranai. Soshite nagasugiru.
(This movie is uninteresting. And it’s too long.)

(c) ccomfitftv'-fto
Kono hana wa kireidesu. Soshite yasuidesu.
(This flower is pretty. And it is inexpensive.)

1. Soshite and so shite are normally interchangeable, but if so shite is used

in the original sense of ‘by doing so’, it cannot be replaced by soshite.

(1) *5 LX
So shite / *Soshite naosu n desu ka.
(Lit. Do you fix it by doing so? ( = Oh, that’s how you fix it?))

2. The two sentences in this construction can be combined using the re¬
form of verbs or adjectives, as in (2). This version is encountered less
frequently than the above version and sounds a little redundant, because
the re-form alone can mean ‘ ~ and ’.

(2) «LT/*LT&iifc£v'SLfc0
Kyo wa Tokyo ni itte, so shite / soshite tomodachi ni aimashita.
(I went to Tokyo today, and I met my friend there.)

n llllll IlHIIIIll

sugiru f c^<5 aux. v. (Gr. 2)

1 S.o. / s.t. does s.t. excessively or is \ too; do s.t. too much/often;

\ in a state excessively. \ over-
2 _>
424 sugiru

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject)

V 4 rvv h \ it i*j & i-rs /tm0

Uiruson-san j wa niku o sugiru / sugimasu.

(Mr. Wilson eats too much meat.)

(B)

Adj (/ / na)
Topic (subject) Noun
stem

7'°“ h
S| mm ic it -&r
fS] 1-ffs
Kono apato
mm watashitachi ni wa taka sugiru / sugimasu.

(This apartment is too expensive for us.)

Formation

(i) Vmasu -ftc £

sugiru

IS L (talk too much)

hanashi sugiru

(eat too much)

tabe sugiru

(ii) Adj (/ / /7a) stem %£ &

sugiru

(too expensive)
taka sugiru

(too quiet)
shizuka sugiru

Examples

(a)
Watashi wa kesa ne sugite gakko ni okureta.
(I overslept this morning and was late for school.)
 sugiru 425

Kono tsukue wa watashi no heya ni wa oki sugiru.

(This desk is too big for my room.)

(c) Z<DX-*?ibt. Lfc0

Tanaka-sensei no jugyd wa taihen sugiru node yamemashita.
(I dropped Prof. Tanaka’s class because it was too demanding.)

(d)
Mori-san wa futori sugite iru.
(Mr. Mori is too fat.)

1. Sugiru, which as a main verb means ‘pass; go beyond some limit’, is

used as an auxiliary verb with Vmasu or Adj (/ / na) stem and means
‘ do s.t. excessively ’ or ‘ be ~ excessively ’.

2. The stem of /'/ ‘ good ’ changes to yo before sugiru, as in (1).

(1) Hi h

Kono apato wa Tomu ni wa yo sugiru.

(This apartment is too good for Tom.)

3. The negative nai ‘ not exist / not ’ changes to nasa before sugiru.

(2)
Ben wa chikara ga nasa sugiru.
(Lit. Ben has too little power. ( = Ben is too weak.))

(3)
Tomoko wa yasai o tabenasa sugiru.
(Tomoko eats too few vegetables.)

4. For in “be too ~ for someone /something” is expressed by ni wa% as

in KS(B) and Ex. (b). Sj S1
5. Sugiru is a Gr. 2 verb; the negative form is suginaiy the polite form is
sugimasu and the re-form is sugite.
426 sukida

sukida f c\ti adJ* (na)

S.t. or s.o. is what s.o. likes. like; be fond of
(ANT. kiraida)

4 Key Sentence

Topic (experiencer) Liked Object

% | n I tr* &2K IffZX’t.

Watashi \ wa suteki j 93 sukida / sukidesu.

(I like steak.)

(a)
Boku wa yakyu ga sukida.
(I like baseball.)

(b) i/a FtT'i-o

Jonson-san wa jazu ga dai-sukidesu.
(Mr. Johnson loves jazz.)

1. Sukida is a na-type adjective which requires the “ wa ~ ga construction ”.

That is, the experiencer (i.e., the person who likes someone or some¬
thing) is marked by wa and the liked object by ga. (<=> ~ wa ~ ga)
Note that the liked object is marked by ga not by o.

2. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is also marked by gat as in (1)

and (2).

1
( )

Watashi ga suteki ga skina koto wa minna shitte iru.

(Everybody knows that I like steak.)

(2) i?a
Jon ga sukina supotsu wa yakyu desu.
(Lit. The sport John likes is baseball. (=John’s favorite sport is
baseball.))

3. “ Like a lot ” is expressed by dai-sukidat as in Ex. (b).

 sukunai 427

sukunai adj. (/)

<> small in number or quantity <j few; a small number of; little;
"■ ' a small quantity of ~
[REL. wazuka]
(ANT. oi)
♦ Key Sentence

Topic (location) Subject

CO Ifff 1i V'V' UX h y 'y tS‘ '>&V' /

Kono machi wa ii resutoran 93 sukunai / sukunaidesu.

(Lit. In this town good restaurants are few. ( = There aren’t many good
restaurants in this town.))

(a) ^ <D (i It')? & V vT* -to

Kono daigaku wa joshigakusei ga sukunaidesu.
(The number of female students at this college is small.)

(b) B*l±3GfM^fcv\,
Nihon wa hanzai ga sukunai.
(There are few crimes in Japan.)
(c)
Nihongo ga kakeru gaikokujin wa taihen sukunai.
(Lit. Foreigners who can write Japanese are very few. ( = Very few
foreigners can write Japanese.))

1. Sukunai cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where IISi
sukunai is the predicate of the subject of the relative clause. ’

*Kono daigaku wa sukunai joshigakusei ga imasu.

(Cp. Ex. (a))

(2) < h V&&Aso

Ki ga sukunai machi ni sumitaku arimasen.
(I don’t want to live in a town where there are few trees.)

2. The distinction between English ‘ few * vs. ‘ a few ’ can be expressed by

sukunai and sukoshi wa as in (3) below.
428 sukunai / suru1

(3) a. / V
Nihongo ga wakaru Amerikajin wa sukunai.
(Lit. Americans who can understand Japanese are few. ( = Few
Americans can understand Japanese.))

b. RMW'ftfrZT t 'J #Aii4?Lf*V'60

Nihongo ga wakaru Amerikajin wa sukoshi wa iru.
(There are a few Americans who can understand Japanese.)

[Related Expression]

Sukunai differs from a similar word wazuka{da) in both meaning and use.
The latter means ‘insignificant number or amount of —* and is used be¬
fore a noun or in a predicate position or as an adverb. Only in [la] below
can wazukada be replaced by sukunai.

[1] a.
Watashi ga motte iru o-kane wa wazukada.
(The money I possess is very little.)

b. b LTV^o
Wazukana o-kane de kurashite iru.
(He is living with a paltry sum of money.)

A no hi to wa wazuka no koto de sugu okoru.

(He gets angry easily over a trifling matter.)

d. th(\Z) aoT' Lfc0

Sono toki boku wa wazuka(ni) muttsu deshita.
(At that time I was merely six years old.)

suru1 f -5 v• (Irr-)

S.o. / s.t. causes a state or action to do; make; play; play the role
take place. of ~; wear
[REL. naru; yarn]
 suru1 429

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Direct Object

T ih £ k>n j 7 k 1 L£-f-0
Nakayama-san \ wa tenisu 0 suru 1 shimasu.

(Mr. Nakayama plays tennis.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object

j (i n 1 Sr LT
Rizu-san \ wa eigo no sensei \ o shite iru / imasu.

(Mr. Leeds is (lit. doing) an English teacher.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Adj (/) stem

L < Ltzf LU/io

Sensei j wa yasashi ku shita / shimashita.

(The teacher made his test easy.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Noun

k g# 11 Ltz / L£Lfc0
Kiguchi H /Hi' J

musuko 0 isha ni shita 1 shimashita.

(Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.)

(E)

Sino-Japanese
Topic (subject) Direct Object
Compound

% n k MB LT / V'£-f0
Watashi wa chugokugo 0 benkyo shite iru / imasu.

(I am studying Chinese.)
430 suru1 2 3

(F)

Topic (subject) Direct Object

j fi —7 j £ LX / V'i-to
Kyoko | wa kireina sukafu \ o shite iru / imasu.

(Kyoko is wearing a beautiful scarf.)

(a) 0#AtifcV'TV'±il0 ttWSr-f-So

Nihonjin wa taitei doyobi mo shigoto o suru.
(The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.)

(b) h £: Z> o L 9 A'0

Biru wa Hamuretto o suru tsumori da.
(Bill is going to play Hamlet.)

(c) S^lifBMfctfLV'fcLfco
Yoko wa heya o kireini shita.
(Lit. Yoko made her room clean. ( = Yoko cleaned her room.))

(d)
Boku wa yoku kuruma o untenshimasu.
(I often drive a car.)

(e) — %\±T t y #A£^Lfc0

Kazuo wa amerikajin o tsuma ni shita.
(Lit. Kazuo made a wife of an American. ( = Kazuo took an American
wife.))

(f) $4 £ LTV'£*i0
// nekutai o shite iru ne.
(You’re wearing a nice tie, aren’t you?)

1. Suru1 means ‘ to cause some state or action ’, and corresponds to English

‘ do ’ or ‘ make ’.

2. KS(A) and Ex. (a) are cases in which the subject is doing /playing s.t.
KS(B) as well as Ex. (b) are cases where the subject is playing a social
or dramatic role. KSs(C) and (D) and Ex. (c) have causative meanings.

3. KS(C) and Ex. (c) require that either Adj (/) stem+/:t/ or Adj (na) stem +
ni (i.e., adverbial form of Adj (/ / na)) be used before suru. KS(D) and
 suru1 431

Ex. (e) use a Noun-}-a/' in front of suru.

4. The Direct Objects of KS(F) and Ex. (f) are items that cover a small
part of the human body such as nekutai ‘ (neck)tie ’, tebukuro * gloves ’
and udedokei ‘ wristwatch *. When used with such direct objects, suru
means ‘ wear \

5. The construction in KS(D) (i.e., N+a?/ suru) also has an idiomatic use,
meaning ‘decide on (t=>/i/‘ suru)

6. Sino-Japanese compounds-}- suru such as benkydsuru ‘study’ and unten-

suru ‘ drive ’ can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(E) and Ex. (d).
The Sino-Japanese compound itself can also be used as the direct object
of suru. For example, compare KS(E) and Ex. (d) with (1) and (2),
respectively.

(1) LTV'So

Watashi wa chugokugo no benkyo o shite iru.

(Lit. I am doing the study of Chinese. (=1 am studying
Chinese.))

(2) < jfiOi!ij££L£-to

Boku wa yoku kuruma no unten o shimasu.
(Lit. I often do the driving of a car. (=1 often drive a car.))

Note in Sentences (1) and (2) that the direct object in KS(E) and
Ex. (d) is connected to the Sino-Japanese compound by the particle no,
creating a noun phrase which is the direct object of suru.

7. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use suru with loanwords.

The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. Some typical ex¬
amples follow:

t v h'J'-S (make a hit) 7 y 7 -f~ £ (knock on the door)

hitto-suru nokku-suru

F 7 4 7'i~£ (drive a car) (kiss)

doraibu-suru kisu-suru
(type) £ (pass an exam)
taipu-suru pa su-suru
it is also common to use suru with sound symbolisms, especially pheno-
mimes and psychomimes.
(<=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)
432 suru1

(be in fear) t (flare up)

bikubiku-suru katto-suru
\ZhJ$'0’rz> (be absent-minded) fio b1~Z> (be taken aback)
bonyari-suru hatto-suru
(shiver) V' V' f) "j" § (become irritated)
zotto-suru iraira-suru
8. Suru basically means some causative change that is under human control,
whereas naru ‘ become ’ basically means spontaneous change that is al¬
most beyond human control. Since injury normally occurs due to human
carelessness, suru is acceptable, but naru is unacceptable, as shown in
(3) below. In contrast to injury, illness is assumed to occur regardless
of human carefulness or carelessness, so it should not take suru. But
in actuality it does. Illness can take suru when it is talked about as if
it were something under human control, for example, cases of past
illness (as in (4a)), apologies implying that one has caused illness due
to carelessness on one’s part (as in (4b)), and statements of one’s medical
history (as in (4c)). Otherwise, illness cannot take suru, as shown in
(4d).

(3) a.
Byoki / kega o suru.
(One becomes ill / sustains injury.)

Byoki / *kega ni naru.

(One becomes ill.)

(4) a. Lfc/
Wakai koro wa yoku byoki o shita / Ini natta.
(When I was young, I often became ill.)

b. V'otJSaSLt /
Itsumo byoki o shite / "ini natte sumimasen.
(I’m sorry that I always become ill.)

c. -Derain c p,
Ichinen ni nankaigurai byoki o shimasu ka / "ini narimasu ka.
(About how many times do you become ill per year?)

d. to 5liltedfc&yiSLfc /*£L£Lfco
Kind kyuni byoki ni narimashita / *o shimashita.
(I suddenly became ill yesterday.)
 suru1 433

9. Suru can be used in the construction o + Wmasu+suruy a humble, polite

form of verb. The subject of this humble verb must be the speaker
or his in-group member.

(5) mh Lite
Watashi ga o yomi / kaki / mochi shimasu.
(I will read / write / carry it (for you).)

A further degree of humbleness can be expressed by replacing suru with

its humble version itasu / itashimasu. (=> o ~ suru)

[Related Expressions]

I. Naru ‘ become ’ forms an intransitive-transitive pair with suruy although

they are not phonetically related. (<=> Appendix 3) Semantically, naru
seems more passive, while suru seems more causative. Compare the fol¬
lowing pairs of sentences:

[1] a.
Yamada wa teigaku ni natta.
(Lit. Yamada became suspension from school. ( = Yamada got
suspended from school.)

b. Lfco

Gakko wa Yamada o teigaku ni shita.

(Lit.The school made Yamada suspended from school. ( = The
school suspended Yamada.))

[2] a. £ t
Yamada wa hon o kaku koto ni natta.
(It’s been decided that Yamada will write a book.)

b. dJpg{2;££#< - kfcLtzo
Yamada wa hon o kaku koto ni shita.
(Yamada has decided to write a book.)

(<=> koto ni naru\ koto ni suru)

II. Suru can be replaced by its informal version yarn (Gr. 1 Verb) when it
means ‘ do / play s.t.’ as in KS(A) or ‘ play a dramatic / social role * as
in KS(B). Also, if suru takes a Sino-Japanese compound as its direct
object (as in benkyd o suru ‘ Lit. do a study of’), it can be replaced by
yarn.
434 suru2

suru2 f 3 v• (/rr-)
^ S.o. or s.t. has some (semi-)perma- have
l nent attribute. [REL. ~ wa ~ ga]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject, N (bodily

Adjective
possessor) part)

! li
-gVN
& & LX V'5 / V'S-fo
Yoko 1 wa nagai ashi 0 shite iru / imasu.

(Yoko has long legs.)

(a) — LTV'£-f0
Kazuo wa jobuna karada o shite imasu.
(Kazuo has a strong body.)

(b) LTV'50
Kono tsukue wa marui katachi o shite iru.
(This table has a round shape.)

1. The sentence pattern is:

Topic (subject) + Adj(/ / na) + {Noun of Bodily Part / Noun of At¬

tribute} +shite iru / imasu.

A bodily part or an attribute must be inalienably possessed by the sub¬

ject. In other words, it must be such an essential part of the possessor
(^subject) that he / it cannot exist without the part or the attribute.

2. In the main clause the verb suru always takes the te iru form, but in
a relative clause te iru may be replaced by ta as in:

1
( ) I Ltzff*
Nagai ashi o shite iru / shita Yoko
(Yoko, who has long legs)

[Related Expression]

Sentences of this construction can be restated using the wa-ga construction

as follows:
 suru21 suru3 435

Nj wa Adj N2 o shite iru —> Ni wa N2 ga Adj.

Thus, the KS example can be rephrased as:

[1]
Yoko wa ashi ga nagai / nagaidesu.
(Yoko has long legs.)

The only perceptible difference between KS and [1] is that the latter
sentence is more analytical than the former. In other words, in KS nagai
ashi ‘long legs’ is one unit, but in [1] ashi ‘legs’ is first presented as a
single unit and is then further characterized as nagai ‘ long

SUru3 *>• {Irr.)

S.t. is perceived by s.o.’s non-visual £ feel; smell; hear

£ senses. ^

♦ Key Sentence

Subject

£> A* Lfc / L£ Lfco

Kodomotachi no koe 93 shita 1 shimashita.

(I heard children’s voices.)

(a)
Kono sakana wa henna aji ga shimasu ne.
(This fish tastes funny, doesn’t it?)

(b)
Kono kire wa zarazara shite iru.
(This cloth feels rough.)

(c)
Kono hana wa ii nioi ga suru.
(This flower smells good.)
436 suru3 / suru*

(d)
Watashi wa samuke ga shimasu.
(I feel a chill.)

(331
If s.t. is perceived visually, either the ~ o shite iru structure or the ~ wa ~
ga structure is used. {*=>suru2; ** wa ~ ga)
1
( ) 9
Kono ringo wa kireina iro o shite iru.
(This apple has a pretty color.)

(2) :<D!)
Kono ringo wa iro ga kireida.
(This apple has a pretty color.)

suru4 f <5 Vi {hr.)

< a verb that indicates how much s.t. < cost; lapse
<; costs or a duration of time j

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Quantity

it +7JR 1-5 /
Kono tokei wa juman'en suru / shimasu.

(This watch costs 100,000 yen.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

hh L tz. b Sr
A to ichinen shitara daigaku o deru / demasu.

(In another year I’ll graduate from college.)

 suru* I suru to 437

(a) A : H<D C b V'

Sore wa dono gurai shimashita ka.
(About how much did it cost?)

B : Ltc0
Nijugoman'en gurai shimashita.
(It cost about 250,000 yen.)

(b) Y) t.'fc
Mo sukoshi sureba shujin ga kaette mairimasu.
(In a short time my husband will be here.)

When suru* is used to mean ‘ lapse of time ’, it can only be used in a sub¬
ordinate clause, as in KS(B) and Ex. (b). Therefore, the following sentence
in which suru* is used in the main clause is ungrammatical.

(1) fc0

*Sannen shimashita.
Cp. o
Sannen tachimashita.
(Three years passed.)

suru to f3<i: conl

a coordinate conjunction which con- l thereupon ~; then —; and ~

nects two sentences (The second \ [REL. sore de wa\ so suru to]
sentence either describes an event \
which takes place right after the event >
described in the first sentence or it S
expresses a logical guess related to <
the event in the first sentence.) )
438 suru to

4 Key Sentences
(A)

Sentencei Sentence2

V 3 *1/? £ i~z> t rffi t/‘ 4

Jogingu o hajimemashita. Suru to gohan ga oishiku narimashita.

(I began jogging. Then, I began to have a good appetite.)

(B)

A:

^0 it nmn x-t
Kyo wa getsuyobi desu yo.

(Today is Monday, you know.)

B:

1-* t h<D TS'- b it X"t taD

Suru to a no depato wa yasumi desu ne.

(Then, that department store is closed, isn’t it?)

Watashi wa jitensha o kaimashita. Suru to ototo mo hoshigarimashita.

(I bought a bike. Then, my younger brother wanted one, too.)

(b) Ltio'tZ CitS V & Lfr0

Atama ga itakatta node asupirin o nomimashita. Suru to itami ga sugu
tomarimashita.
(I took an aspirin because I had a headache. Then, the headache dis¬
appeared right away.)

(c) A :
Musuko wa ima koko sannen desu.
(My son is now a junior at high school.)

Suru to, rainen wa daigakujuken desu ne.

(Then, he is going to take a college entrance examination next year,
isn’t he?)
 suru to 439

im
To of suru to is the conjunction to*. (■=> to*) Therefore, in KS(A), Sen-
tence2 normally expresses an event that is beyond the control of the speaker;
that is why Sentence2 cannot be a command, a request, or a suggestion.

[Related Expressions]

I. Suru to is the shortened form of so suru to. These two constructions

have identical meanings and can be used interchangeably. They are
related to another expression sore de wa ‘ then but unlike sore de
wa> the second sentence in the (so) suru to construction cannot be a
command, request, suggestion, or something which can be controlled by
the subject of the sentence. (<=> sore de wa) Thus,

[1] A : LV'-Cfo
Kyo wa isogashiidesu.
(I’m busy today.)

B: ttlVlt /*(ta)n4fcbmiU:5.
Sore de wa / *(So) suru to ashita ikimasho.
(Then, let’s go there tomorrow.)

[2] A : (=same as [1] A)

Sore de wa / *(S6) suru to ashita kite kudasai.

(Then, please come tomorrow.)

[3] A: +0
Anata ga konai to komaru n desu.
(It will be difficult if you don’t come.)

Sore de wa / *(Sd) suru to ikimasu.

(Lit. Then, I’ll go.)

II. Sore de wa ‘ then ’ can replace the suru to in KS(B) but not the suru to
in KS(A), because sore de wa requires that the speakers of Sentencei and
Sentence2 be different.
440 -tachi

-tachi il suf.
- -----(
l a plural marker attached to personal S [REL. -domo\ -gata\ -ra\
\ pronouns or to human (proper) nouns $

( i) Personal Pronoun 4-
tachi
fAii (we)
watashitachi
(you [pi.])
anatatachi
•m (they [male]) Cp. m (they [male])
*karetachi karera
(they [female]) Cp. (they [female])
kanojotachi kanojora
Human Proper Noun-fj^
tachi
|JL| P9 £ A/ii! (Mr. Yamada and others)
Yamada-san- tachi
(iii) Human Noun+j^
tachi
(children)
kodomotachi
(men)
otokotachi

Kanojo * she ’ can take -tachiy but kare ‘ he ’ cannot.

[Related Expressions]

In addition to - tachi there are three other pluralizing suffixes: -domo% -gata
and -ra. -domo is attached primarily to formal first person pronouns, yield¬
ing a humble ‘we*, as in:

[1]
Watashidomo wa nani mo zonjimasen.
(We don’t know anything about it.)
 -tachi I tai 441

-domo can also be attached to a very limited number of human nouns such
as otoko * man * and onna ‘ woman ’, yielding the rather downgrading plurals
otokodomo ‘ men ’ and onnadomo ‘ women ’, respectively. Although kodomo
‘child’ is ko + domo, it is no longer used as a plural. Instead -tachi is at¬
tached to it to generate the plural form, as in Formation (iii).
-gata is an honorific plural marker attached to the second person pronoun
anata ‘ you ’ and a very limited number of nouns such as o-ka-san ‘ mother
o-to-san ‘ father ’ and sensei ‘ teacher ’.
[2] a. bo
Anatagata wa itsu irasshaimasu ka.
(When are you going there?)

b. b o L* 9 T'-to
Senseigata wa irassharanai sodesu.
(I was told that the teachers aren’t coming.)
The honorific plural form for hi to ‘ person ’ is katagata (as in kono
katagata ‘ these people ’) which is the plural form of kata.
-ra is the least formal plural marker and is normally attached to personal
pronouns and names.
(1st Person) %
bokura watashira washira *watakushira
(2nd Person)
kimira omaera antara *anatara
(3rd Person) (male) (female) (inanimate)
karera kanojora sorera
(Tanaka and his company)
Tanaka-ra

tai tz l' aux- adJ- (/)

an auxiliary adjective which ex¬ want (to do s.t.); would like

presses a desire to do s.t. (to do s.t.)
[REL. hoshii*; hoshii2]
442 tai

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vmasu

j li *7# fcV' / fcV'T'-t-0

Watashi i wa Nihon e iki tai / taidesu.

(I want to go to Japan.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Direct Object Vmasu

m it * t*-f & / a* fzv' j o

Boku wa ima piza o /ga tabe fa/' / taidesu.

(I want to eat pizza now.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Vmasu

Suzuki-san
it
wa
T/'Jti —
Amerika e
ft*
iki
i
(Lit. Mr. Suzuki is showing signs of wanting to go to America.
( = Mr. Suzuki wants to go to America.))
a*of v's
gaffe
/
iru / ima su.

Vmasu fcV'
tai

fj§L fcV' (want to talk)

hanashi tai

fcV' (want to eat)

fa6e tai

dES3Q5^
(a)
£o£i/ wa tsumetai biru o / ga nomitai.
(I want to drink cold beer.)
 tai 443

(b)
Kyo wa nani o / ga tabetaidesu ka.
(What do you want to eat today?)
(c)
Miki-san wa kuruma o kaita gatte iru.
(Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.)

1. Tai is an /-type auxiliary adjective which expresses a person’s desire to

do something. Since Vmasu tai expresses a very personal feeling, it is
usually used only for the first person in declarative sentences and for
the second person in interrogative sentences. For the third person,
Vmasu ta gatte iru ‘ lit. is showing signs of wanting to do s.t.’ is
usually used, as in KS(C) and Ex. (c). (<=> garu) Vmasu tai with the
third person subject is acceptable, however, in the following situations:
(1) In the past tense
fPH ii t X f? £ tc A' o tz o
Kazuo wa totemo ikitakatta.
(Kazuo wanted to go very badly.)
(2) In indirect / semi-direct speech
a. — oTl'£0
Ichiro mo ikitai to itte iru.
(Ichiro says he wants to go, too.)

Toshiko wa Nihon e kaeritai soda.

(I heard that Toshiko wants to go back to Japan.)
(3) In explanatory situations

if ft £ h (± h
tc t f £ L Tz V'A,V i~ X o
Nomura-san wa anata to hanashi tai n desu yo.
((The explanation is that) Miss Nomura wants to talk with you.)
(«=> no da)
(4) In conjecture expressions
a. fcV'P> Lt'o
Murayama-san wa Noriko to odoritai rashii
(It seems that Mr. Murayama wants to dance with Noriko.)
b. o
Hayata-san wa hayaku kazoku ni aita soda.
(It looks like Mr. Hayata wants to see his family soon.)
444 tai

2. In some situations, if the verb in Vmasu tai is a transitive verb, the

direct object can be marked either by ga or by o, as seen in KS(B),
Ex. (a) and Ex. (b). In general, the choice between ga and o seems
to depend on the degree of desire. That is, when the desire to do some¬
thing is high, ga is preferred; when it is low, o is used. Compare (4)
and (5):
(4) [Situation: The speaker has just run five miles.]

Watashi wa mizu ga / ?o nomitai.

(I want to drink some water.)
(5) [Situation: The speaker has been told by a doctor to drink as
much water as possible. That is, he feels he has to drink water.]
...
Watashi wa mizu o / Iga nomitai ga . . .
(I want to drink water but (my stomach doesn’t accept it any¬
more) . . .)

Under the following conditions, ga cannot be used even if the degree of

desire is high.

(A) When a long element intervenes between the direct object and the
verb:

(6) fij±7k£
Watashi wa mizu o / *ga dekakeru mae ni nomitai.
(I want to drink water before I leave home.)

(B) When the main verb is in the passive form:

(7) /*#««> fcftfcvv,

Watashi wa sensei ni kono e o / *ga homeraretai.
(Lit. I want to have this picture praised by my teacher.)

(C) When the preceding noun is not the direct object:

(8) a. %
Watashi wa hayaku kono densha o / *ga oritai.
(I want to get off this train soon.)

b. %\fck\,
Watashi wa koen o / *ga arukitai.
(I want to walk through the park.) (<=C>o2;o3)

3. In the construction Vmasu ta gatte iru, ga can never be used to mark

the direct object.
 tai / tamaranai 445

(9) /U±$£ /
Miki-san wa kuruma o / *ga kaita gatte iru.
(Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.)

4. Vmasu tai cannot be used to express an invitation. The following sen¬

tences are inappropriate in invitation situations.

(10) a.
Watashi to isshoni iki tai desu ka.
(Do you want to go with me?)

b. h
Ashita shoku/i ni kitai desu ka.
(Would you like to come to dinner tomorrow?)

In these situations negative questions are used, as seen in (11).

(«=> mas ho)

(11) %b—
Watashi to isshoni ikimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to go with me?)

[Related Expressions]

The idea of ‘ want ’ in English is expressed by either tai, hoshii1 or hoshii2.

Tai is used when the experiencer wants to do something. Hoshii1 is used
when the experiencer wants something. Hoshii2 is used when the experiencer
wants someone to do something. (=> hoshii1; hoshii2)

tamaranai tz&btsil' phr-

£ The speaker or whomever he em- \ unbearably ~; extremely; be

^ pathizes with cannot cope with a < dying to do ~
situation expressed by the -te phrase, i [REL. shikata ga nail
< _ <
446 tamaranai

♦ Key Sentences
(A)
Adj (/) stem

40 It * < r titbti^ 1 tit. 1) i-fr/vo

Kyd wa atsu kute tamaranai / tamarimasen.

(It is unbearably hot today.)

(B)
Adj (na) stem

& *1' X titbtev' / 9 ^-fr/uo

Sugaku ga kirai de tamaranai / tamarimasen.

(I really hate math.)

KS(A):
Adj (/) stem < X tzt fcfcV'
/ri/fe tamaranai
^<T (s.t. is unbearably cold)
samukute tamaranai
KS(B):

Adj (rta) stem *t* fc&fb&V'

de tamaranai
T'lIrC tit tbfrV' (s.t. is unbearably inconvenient)
fubende tamaranai

^EbSSDEES^
(a) L5 < 9&-fr/uo
Kono hon wa omoshirokute tamarimasen.
(This book is extremely interesting.)

(b) ^L<-Cfc*9*-frA/0
Chichi ga shinde, kanashikute tamarimasen.
(My father died and I’m awfully sad.)

(c) &V' < Xtit 9 ^-frA/o

Oishii sakana ga tabetakute tamarimasen.
(I’m dying to eat some good fish.)
 tamaranai / tame (ni) 447

(d)
Boku wa ano ko ga sukide tamaranai.
(I just love that girl.)

Ani wa Tanaka-sensei no jugyd ga iyade tamaranakatta.

(My older brother really hated Mr. Tanaka’s class.)

1. ~te I de tamaranai is an idiomatic phrase used to express the fact that

some situation is unbearable in the extreme for the speaker or someone
with whom he empathizes.

2. The adjectives used before te / de refer to human feelings.

3. There is no affirmative counterpart of this construction, / de tamaru.

[Related Expression]

~fe tamaranai (lit. ~ and I can’t stand it) can be replaced by te shikata ga
nai (lit. ~ and I don’t know what to do about it). The only difference is
that the former is more emotive than the latter. But when shikata ga nai is
directly preceded by Vte mo, it cannot be replaced by tamara nai, as shown
in [1].

[1] / *s^T?/■;:££ ft l'G

Sonna hon wa yonde mo shikata ga nai / *yonde tamaranai.
(There is no use reading that sort of book.)

tame (ni) tztb ((c) n.

a noun that indicates a benefit, a on account of —; for the benefit

purpose, a reason or a cause of ~; for the good of —; for
the sake of ~ ; on behalf of ~ ;
for the purpose of ~; in order
to — ; because of ~ ; owing to ~
[REL. kara*; ni5; node; noni2]
448 tame (ni)

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Noun

\ n (0 tzib (c
Gakusei \ wa shiken no tame ni benkydsuru / benkydshimasu.

(Students study in preparation for exams. / Students study because there

are exams.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause
Vinf. Main Clause
(purpose)
nonpast

fl, it 0# co zt £ fztb ((c) 0* - ff< l'iiZZ+o

Watashi wa Nihon no koto o shiru tame (ni) Nihon e iku / ikimasu.

(I’ll go to Japan (in order) to learn about Japan.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause Main Clause

(reason / cause) Vinf

^ it ff ht-v tzib ((c)

Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari tame (ni) suki ga dekinai /

dekimasen.

(Because it hasn’t snowed (lit. doesn’t snow) very much this year, we can’t
ski.)

(D)

Noun Noun Phrase

*HSA <r> tztf) <D V'V' &v' / h 0

Gaikokujin no tame no ii jisho ga nai / arimasen.

(There aren’t (any) good dictionaries for foreigners.)

 tame (ni) 449

Formation

( i) {V / Adj (/')) inf tcib

tame ni
tcib {«! (in order to talk / because s.o. talks/
[hanasu /hanashita} tame ni talked)
tcib l£ (in order to eat / because s.o. eats / ate)
{taberu / tabeta) tame ni
I'Mfrotc) tclb fc (because s.t. is / was high)
[takai / takakatta} tame ni
(ii) Adj (na) stem [t£ / tcotc) fob \c
[na / datta) tame ni
{fM'fr / nfrfrtc o fc} fctf) {c (because s.t. is / was quiet)
{shizukana f shizukadatta] tame ni
(iii) N [<D / tcotc) tcib \C
[no / datta) tame ni
[%%L V> / ti otc) tcib l£ (for the sake of the teacher / because
[sensei no / sensei datta} tame ni of the teacher / because s.o. is / was
a teacher)
(iv) Demonstrative Adj tcib \c
tame ni
{vlO / ^£(0) tcib ic (for the sake of this / that, because of this/
[kono / sono) tame ni that)

Examples

(a) 0 tc ib 1C «£ < m Z £to

Nihonjin wa kaisha no tame ni yoku hatarakimasu.
(The Japanese work hard for the sake of their company.)

(b) ^(Dtctbilc)\cUotc0
Yuki no tame (ni) gakko ga yasumi ni natta.
(The school was closed because of the snow.)

(c) y 'si$h\±W9i<ntct>(\c) K-T 'y\c'{fotcQ

Jakuson-san wa kenkyu no tame (ni) Doitsu ni itta.
(Mr. Jackson went to Germany for the purpose of research.)

(d) fUtltfr'fc/vtctcib (\c) fits fro tc0

Watashi wa chichi ga shinda tame (ni) daigaku ni ikenakatta.
(I couldn’t go to college because my father died.)
450 tame (ni)

Karada o tsuyoku suru tame (ni) mainichi puru de oyoide iru.

(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.)

(f) m*Stf* fr^tztz#>(\C) ^ tz it) \C t£ o tZo

Oya ga amakatta tame (ni) kodomo ga dameni natta.
(Because the parents were soft, the children got spoiled.)

(g) #frT^tefrit)(\£)A^i)tLtz0
Ji ga hetana tame (ni) hito ni warawareta.
(I was laughed at because my handwriting is so poor.)

(h) 7 7 yxlzff o tzibtz0

Furansu ni itta no wa kosui o kau tame da.
(Lit. It was for the purpose of buying perfume that I went to France.
( = 1 went to France to buy perfume.))

1. Tame ni expresses cause or reason when it is preceded by an Adj(/) or an

Adj(/7a), as in Exs. (f) and (g), or when the main clause describes a
noncontrollable situation and / or when the tame ni clause is in the past
tense, as in Ex. (d). In these cases, it never expresses purpose. Con¬
sider the additional examples in (1).

(1) a.
Shigoto no tame ni nani mo hoka no koto ga dekinai.
(Because of the job I can’t do anything else.)

Kaisha no tame ni asa kara ban made hataraite iru.

(He’s working from morning till night for the sake of his
company.)

(la) gets the reason I cause interpretation, because the main clause de¬
scribes a noncontrollable situation, whereas (lb) gets the purpose inter¬
pretation, because the main clause describes a controllable situation.

2. The ni of tame ni can be dropped, as in Exs. (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g),
if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb and tame ni.

[Related Expressions]

I. When tame is used to mean reason or cause, it can be replaced by kara

or node. Thus, KS(C) and Ex. (d) can be rephrased as [la] and [lb],
respectively.
 tame (ni) 451

[1] a. 9 / (DV** — *sW3fe^V'o

Kotoshi wa yuki ga amari furanai kara / node suki ga dekinai.
(We cannot ski because it hasn’t snowed very much this year.)

Watashi wa chichi ga shinda kara / node daigaku ni ike-

nakatta.
(I couldn’t go to college because my father died.)

The difference between tame and other markers of reason / cause is that
tame is more formal than the others and is seldom used in informal
conversation. (■=> kara*; node)

II. When tame is used to mean purpose, it can be replaced by either Vinf*
nonpast noni or Vmasu ni Vmotion. However, tame ni can be replaced
by noni only when one does something in the process of achieving some
goal. Thus, [3a] can be paraphrased as [3b] but [4a] cannot be para¬
phrased as [4b].

[3] a.
Kanji o shiraberu tame ni jisho o tsukau.
(In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.)

b. 5o
Kanji o shiraberu noni jisho o tsukau.
(In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.)

[4] a.
Karada o tsuyoku suru tame ni mainichi puru de oyoide iru.
(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen
my body.)

?? Karada o tsuyoku suru noni mainichi puru de oyoide iru.

(I’m swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen
my body.)

Note also that tame can be replaced by Vmasu ni Vmotion only when
tame is used with a Vmotion. The difference between tame and other
markers of purpose is that tame is the most formal and least colloquial
of the three.
452 — tara

~tara ~tzb conj.

a subordinate conjunction which in¬ if; when; after

dicates that the action / state ex¬ [REL. ba; nara; to*; toki]
pressed by the main clause in a
sentence takes place after the ac¬
tion / state expressed by the subordi¬
nate clause

4 Key Sentence

Subordinate Clause (antecedent)

Main Clause (subsequence)
Sentence (informal past)

it %Ltz 0 fl. fi ^ S / ^!) ~i~o

Yamada-san ga kita ra watashi wa kaeru / kaerimasu.

(When / If Mr. Yamada comes, I’ll go home.)

{V / Adj (/ / na) / N + Copula} inf* past £>

ra
(if / when s.o. talks / talked)
hanashitara
iiifrntzh (if s.t. is / were expensive)
takakattara
bfyfrTi'otzb (if s.t. is / were quiet)
shizukadattara
tz-otzb (if s.o. is / were a teacher)
sensei da ttara

(a)
Sensei ni kiitara sugu wakatta.
(When I asked my teacher, I understood it right away.)

(b)
Watashi wa daigaku o detara shogakko no sensei ni narimasu.
(I’ll be an elementary school teacher after graduating from college.)
 — tara 453

(c) *3<>LZt'vIZb&Ht.'tt', &t> U5 < tefr^tzb

Watashi wa isogashiidesu kara, omoshirokattara yomimasu ga. omoshi-

rokunakattara yomimasen yo.
(I’m busy, so I’ll read it if it’s interesting, but I won’t if it’s not in¬
teresting.)

(d) #x<tzc?V'0
Kiraidattara nokoshite kudasai.
(If you don’t like it, please leave it.)

(e) m&tz^Tzbftti'Z>b^'1t1r0
Eigo dattara wakaru to omoimasu.
(I think I’ll understand it if it’s English.)

1. The meaning of Si tara S2 varies depending on the contents of St and

S2 and also on the situation in which this construction is used. How¬
ever, Si always represents an antecedent and S2 a subsequence. For
example, in KS, Mr. Yamada’s coming precedes the speaker’s returning
home. Likewise, in Ex. (a), the speaker’s asking his teacher precedes
his understanding something. If this relation does not hold, this con¬
struction cannot be used. For example, (1) cannot be expressed by the
tara construction because the event of Si, the speaker’s going to Chicago,
does not precede the event of S2, his going there by car.

(1) When I go to Chicago, I usually go by car.

's i] o tz b tz V' X ^ & -fo
* Watashi wa Shikago e ittara taitei kuruma de ikimasu.

(In this situation, toki is used. (■=> toki)) For the same reason, tara
is ungrammatical in the situation in (2).

(2) If you go to Chicago, go by bus.

* Shikago e ittara basu de ikinasai.

(In this case, nara is used. (=> nara))

2. In Si tara S2, it is often the case that Si represents a condition and S2

an event which occurs under that condition. Therefore, the whole sen¬
tence basically means ‘ when Si is satisfied, S2 takes place ’ or ‘ Si brings
about S2’, as in Exs. (c), (d) and (e).
454 — tara

3. As seen in KS, tara may mean ‘ when’ in one case and ‘if* in another.
Tara means ‘when’ if Si is a certainty; if not, tara means ‘if’. Thus,
in (3), tara means ‘ when ’.

(3) +r
Juniji ni nattara kaerimasu.
(When / *If it is twelve o’clock, I’ll go home.)

Moshi before Si tara makes sentences unambiguous; it always means

‘ if Si’. Example:

(4) t
Moshi Yamada-san ga kitara watashi wa kaerimasu.
(If / *When Mr. Yamada comes, I’ll go home.)

4. In Si tara S2, S2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invi¬

tation or a volitional sentence.

(5) 9 ' a.
Shigoto ga hayaku owattara boku no uchi ni kinasai.

b. MX < tz £ V\,
kite kudasai.

c. Mfr x-t

kitara do desu
ka.

d.
kimasen ka.
(If you finish your work early, / a. come to my place.
b. please come to my place.
c. why don’t you come to my
place? y
d. wouldn’t you like to come
to my place?)

(6) 9 b L&’f'o
Shigoto ga hayaku owattara o-uchi ni o-ukagai shimasu.
(If I finish my work early, I’ll visit your place.)

5. Si tara S2 can also be used in counterfactual situations, as in (7).

 — tara 455

(7) a. o
O-kane ga attar a konna uchi ni wa inai.
(If I had money, I wouldn’t be in such a house.)

b. hovtfte&frh'itzb 0#^?o-CV'fc’C L J: o0
Ano toki o-kane ga attara Nihon e itte ita desho.
(If I had had money at that time, I would probably have
gone to Japan.)

6. When S2 in “Si tara S2” represents a past action, the action cannot be
one intentionally taken by the agent after the action or event represented
by Si. Thus, the (a) sentences in (8) and (9) are acceptable, but the
(b) sentences are not.

(8) a.
Gakko e ittara. guzen Ueda-san ni atta.
(When I went to school, I happened to see Mr. Ueda.)

b. ±miS/vtUt:l,tz0
*Gakkd e ittara. Ueda-san to hanashi o shita.
(When I went to school, I talked with Mr. Ueda.)

(9) a.
O-sake o nondara nete shimatta.
(After I drank sake, I fell asleep.)

b.
*0-sake o nondara neta.
(After I drank saket I went to bed.)

[Related Expressions]

Ba, nara and to4 have similar functions but they are different from tara in
the following ways:

I. In Si tara S2, if the event in Si precedes the event in S2, those events
can be past events. This is also the case with Si to4 S2, but not with
Si ba S2 and Si nara S2, as in [1].

[1] a. StefefcWv'fcfc /|ib< t

ofcc
Sensei ni kiitara / kiku to / *kikeba / *kiita (no) nara sugu
wakatta.
(When I asked my teacher, I understood it immediately.)
456 ~ tara

b. ^r>-or/'- lff< b I I *ft viz

(CD)^bTyf^f '-fcV'tzo
Kyashi no apato ni ittara / iku to / *ikeba / *itta (no) nara
And/ ga ita.
(When I went to Cathy’s apartment, Andy was there.)

II. As stated in Note 4, S2 in Sj tara S2 can be a command, a request,

a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. This is also the
case with S2 in Si ba S2 and Si nara S2 but not with S2 in Si to S2.
Example:

Yasukattara / Yasukereba / Yasui (no) nara / *Yasui to kainasai.

(Buy it, if it’s cheap.)

III. Although S2 in Si tara S2, Si ba S2 and Si nara S2 can be a command,

a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence, the mean¬
ings are not exactly the same. The following examples show the dif¬
ferences clearly.

[3] a.
Ben ga kitara, watashi wa kaerimasu.
(When / If Ben comes, I’ll go home.)

b.
Ben ga kureba. watashi wa kaerimasu.
(If Ben comes, I’ll go home. (If not, I’ll stay here.))

c. &-to
Ben ga kuru (no) nara, watashi wa kaerimasu.
(If it is true that Ben is coming, I’ll go home.)

As seen above, [3a] is ambiguous; it is not clear that Ben is coming. If

Ben’s coming is certain, [3a] indicates the time the speaker will leave.
If Ben’s coming is uncertain, [3a] indicates the condition under which
the speaker will leave. In both cases, however, Ben’s coming precedes
the speaker’s leaving. [3b] is similar to the second case of [3a] (i.e., the
case in which Ben’s coming is uncertain). However, [3b] focuses more
on the condition. That is, [3b] implies something like ‘ the condition
under which I go home is Ben’s coming here ’. In [3b] also, Ben’s
coming precedes the speaker’s leaving. Si in [3c] also indicates the
condition under which the speaker returns home. In this case, how¬
ever, Ben’s coming does not necessarily precede the speaker’s leaving
 — tara / — tara do desu ka 457

because the condition under which the speaker goes home is that Ben’s
coming is true, not that Ben comes (to a certain place).

IV. As stated in Note 5, Si tara S2 can be used in counterfactual situa¬

tions, and so can Si ba S2 and Si nara S2. However, Si to S2 cannot
be used in such situations except for the idiomatic expression S to ii /
yokatta ‘ It would be good / It would have been good if S Example:

[4] / htilfl l*hZ>k

Ano toki o-kane ga attara / areba / atta nara / *aru to Nihon

ni itte ita dard.
(If I had had money at that time, I would have gone to Japan.)

—tara do desu ka phr.

Why don’t you do — ?; What

about doing ~?
[REL. ho ga ii]

♦Key Sentence

Vinf*past

tot 0# <D # £ VfiAjtz b k b T?,t‘ fr0

Motto Nihon no hon 0 yonda ra do desu ka.

(Why don’t you read more Japanese books?)

CBEBI59
Vinf.past b kb 'V'i' frQ
ra do desu ka.

ISbfc b kb fro (Why don’t you talk ~?)

hanashita ra do desu ka.
458 — tara do desu ka / ~ tari ~ tari suru

(b if 9 'C’t* (Why don’t you eat ~?)

tabeta ra do desu ka.

(a)
Sarada mo tabetara do desu ka.
(Why don’t you eat salad, too?)

(b) K ffl v> tz h if 9 v t fro

Yamamura-sensei ni kiitara do desu ka.
(Why don’t you ask Prof. Yamamura?)

1. Vinf*past ra do desu ka is an idiomatic phrase derived from the “Si

tara S2” construction and expressing a suggestion. 0=> ~tara)

2. The informal version is Vinf*past ra do? More polite versions are

Vinf*past ra do desho (ka), Vinf*past ra ikaga desu ka and Vinf*past
ra ikaga desho (ka). («=> dard)

[Related Expression]

Ho ga ii also expresses suggestion, but this phrase is close to a command (es¬

pecially when it is preceded by Vinf*past), and, therefore, is stronger than
tara do desu ka.

~tari ~tari suru ~tzQ ~tzO f-5 phr.

| a phrase which expresses an inex- \ do things like — and —; some¬

\ haustive listing of actions or states j times — and sometimes ~

♦ Key Sentences

■
(A)

Topic (subject)

it
Vinf*past
m
0
Vinf*past

SI 0 fr t) Ltz / LtLLtz0
Watashitachi wa utatta ri odotta ri shita 1 shimashita.

(We did things like singing and dancing.)

 tari ~ tari suru 459

(B)

{Adj (/ / na) / {Adj (/ / /7a) /

Topic (subject) N + Copula} N + Copula}
inf* past inf* past
1
^ CO <D X7—3r : (i 9
Kono resutoran no suteki \ wa okikatta /7 chisakatta

9 T& / L$1~0
ri sm/ / shimasu.

(Steaks at this restaurant are sometimes big and sometimes small.)

(C)

A:

t — 7 £ {IUV'T V'£i~
°

Mainichi tepu o kiite imasu ka.

(Are you listening to tapes every day?)

B: {V / Adj (/ / /7a) / {V / Adj (/ / //a) /

N +Copula} N + Copula)
inf* past inf* past

V'V'Xl, Hl'fc 9 'V'to

ie. kiita ri kikanakatta n desu.

(Lit. No, I listen at one time and don’t listen at another ( = only off
and on).)

CESS&SS^
{V / Adj (/ / /7a) / N+Copula} inf* past 9 (i“&)
ri (suru)
pi§L/i9 (*^~<5) (s.o. (does) things like talking)
hanashitari (suru)
il/j'ofc1) (’t'S) (s.t. is sometimes expensive)
takakattari (suru)
(-f"#) (s.t. is sometimes quiet)
shizukadattari (suru)
(i~Z>) (s.o. is sometimes a teacher)
sensei dattari (suru)
460 ~tari ~tari suru

(a) fi.fi— 3 — —jjLfc 9 ^ h 9 Lfc0

Watashi wa Nyuyoku de myujikaru o mitari konsato o kiitari shita.
(In New York I did things like seeing musicals and listening to con¬
certs.)

(b) h D 1"^>o
Tomu wa kitari konakattari suru.
(Lit. Tom comes at one time and doesn’t at another time. ( = Tom
doesn’t always come.))

(c) ') 0
Ashita wa ame ga futtari yandari suru desho.
(It will probably rain off and on tomorrow.)

(d) 9-t*o
Kono mise no sakana wa atarashikattari furukattari suru.
(This shop’s fish is sometimes fresh and sometimes old.)

(e) r/ V tS^tzV L£-f-0

Nihongo no sensei wa nihonjin dattari amerikajin dattari shimasu.
(Teachers of Japanese are sometimes Japanese and sometimes Ameri¬
can.)

(f) 9 fc 9 VfoXlCte
Ishikawa-san wa kitari konakattari de ate ni naranai.
(Mr. Ishikawa doesn’t come regularly and we can’t count on him.)

1. The “X tari Y tari suru” construction generally expresses an inexhaustive

listing of actions or states. “ Inexhaustive ” means that in a given
situation there may be additional, unstated actions or states. (The ex¬
haustive listing of actions or states is expressed by the re-form. (t=> -fe))
(Cp. tol\ ya)

2. Suru usually follows “X tari Y tari” regardless of the part of speech

of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the aspect (e.g., progressive, per¬
fect) and the formality level of the sentence.

3. This construction usually lists two actions or two states, but it can list
more than two actions or two states, as in (1).
 ~ tari ~tari suru / -tatte 461

(1) LTH*ffiS:jKi&L
TV'60
Hon o yondari. eiga o mi tari. tepu o kiitari shite nihongo o ben-
kyoshite iru.
(I’m studying Japanese by doing things like reading books, seeing
movies and listening to tapes.)

Sometimes only one action or state is listed in this construction, as in

(2).
(2) OT89
Shinbun o yondari shite tomodachi ga kuru no o matte ita.
(I was waiting for my friend to come, doing things like reading
a newspaper.)

4. If “ X tari Y tari suru” is not the final segment of a sentence and the
predicate is an adjective, suru may be omitted, as in (3).

(3) (IT) bX i>mLfr^tz0

Utattari odottari (shite) totemo tanoshikatta.
(We did things like singing and dancing, and it was a lot of fun.)

If the predicate is a verb, however, suru cannot be omitted as in (4).

(4) lx / *0 MhUo
9

*Watashitachi wa tenisu o shitari oyoidari shite / *0 asonda.

(Lit. We played doing things like playing tennis and swimming.)

5. As seen in KS(C) and Ex. (f), a slightly different pattern, X tari Y tari
da, is also used in some situations. This pattern is used when a speaker
describes someone’s or something’s inconstant state.

Ihlllllllllllllll

U
-tatte fcoT conj.

j even if s.o. did s.t. or s.t. were in ^ even if ~

> some state (the desired result would i [REL. te moJ
l not come about) or even if s.o. or s
s.t. is in some state
462 -tatte

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (indirect object) Vinf«past

%><D A ts U fc O X /fti)'*) HL&Aso

Ano hi to ni wa hanashita tte wakaranai / wakarimasen.

(Even if I tell him that, he won’t understand it.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (/) stem!

m | \t *<r> £ itr '■/tz o X S b / iV'ito

Boku \ wa sono kippu o takaku tatte kau / kaimasu.

(I will buy the ticket even if it is expensive.)

(i) Vinf*past of
tte
fj§LTzoX (even if s.o. talks / talked)
hanashitatte
X (even if s.o. eats / ate)
tabetatte
(ii) Adj (/) stem < fco X
ku tatte
i^< /tot (even if s.t. is / were expensive)
takaku tatte
(iii) {Adj (na) stem / N} /;o(/;o)T
dat(tat)te
|H:o(/:o)T (even if s.t. is / were quiet)
shizukadat{tat)te
/:o(/to)T (even if s.o. is / were a teacher)
sensei dat(tat)te

(a) fcv\>
O-kane ga attatte kuruma wa kaitakunai.
(Even if I had money, I wouldn’t want to buy a car.)
 -tatte 463

(b) ^SrKofcoT, ItL < T

Hon o kattatte, isogashikute yomenai.
(Even if I buy books, I’m too busy to read them.)

(c)
Kitanakutatte kamaimasen.
(I don’t care even if it is dirty.)

(d) il< — Aft

Tokute fubendatte mai homu nara kamaimasen.
(Even if it is far away and inconvenient, it doesn’t matter if it is ‘ my
home ’.)

(e)
Donna ni ii sensei datte tokidoki machigaimasu.
(No matter how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.)

1. -tatte is used strictly in informal spoken Japanese, and is used to indi¬

cate something counter to fact. However, the counterfactual (or subjunc¬
tive) nature of this construction is not very strong. See Ex. (a).

2. -tatte can take donna ni (as in Ex. (e)) meaning ‘ no matter how’. More
examples follow.

(1) a.
Donna ni kangaetatte wakaranai yo.
(No matter how hard you think, you won’t understand it.)

b. Ehtt izm < tz o o

Donna ni samukutatte daijobudesu.
(No matter how cold it is, it’s all right.)

[Related Expression]

-tatte can be replaced by te mo. The difference is that te mo can be used in

spoken and written language and that it is less emotive than -tatte. Thus,
if Ex. (a) is replaced by the following sentence, the counterfactuality of having
money is nullified, and the entire sentence sounds much less emotive.

[1]
O-kane ga atte mo kuruma wa kaitakunai.
(Even if I have money, I don’t want to buy a car.)
464 -re

•te T te-form

the re-form ending of verbs and /- $ and; -ing

type adjectives (The re-form ending j
of /73-type adjectives and the re-form <>
of the copula is de.) $

♦ Key Sentences

(V/Adj
(/ / na) / N
+ Copula} re

yA (i 0# ftoX M&L
Jimu wa Nihon e itte benkydshita / benkyoshimashita.

(Jim went to Japan and studied (there).)

— * It £<T /&V'LV'T'1-C
Kokono suteki wa yasukute oishii / oishiidesu.

(Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.)

Z.<D 7/- h
ATo/70 aparo wa shizukade ii / iidesu.

(This apartment is quiet and good.)

% o x te x x & Wltlx v'S / v'£-j-0

Watashi no chichi wa sensei de koko de eigo o oshiete iru / imasu.

(My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school.)

Formation

(i) Gr. 1 verbs:

(a) su-verbs: tt-r - Mtt (s.o. talks and)

hanasu ha na shite
(b) /rt/-verbs: &< — IfrV'X (s.o. walks and)
aruku aruite
Exception: ft < — ft oT (s.o. goes and)
iku itte
(c) gu-verbs: i*C (s.o. swims and)
oyogu oyoide
 -re 465

(d) mu / bu / nu-verbs: — tkAsX (s.o. drinks s.t. and)

nomu nonde

— $±A;X (s.o. plays and)

asobu asonde

-*■ 5E/>T' (s.o. dies and)

shinu shinde
(e) tsu / u / ru-\erbs: -> fifot (s.o. waits and)
matsu matte

- MoT (s.o. buys s.t. and)

kau katte
(s.o. takes s.t. and)
toru totte
Gr. 2 Verbs: Vstem X
te
ig.^X (s.o. eats s.t. and)
tabete
(iii) Irr. Verbs: 3l$£ — (s.o. comes and)
kuru kite

~tz — It (s.o. does s.t. and)

suru shite
(iv) Adj (/): Adj (/') stem < X
kute
^< f (s.t. is expensive and)
takakute
(v) Adj (/7a): Adj (na) stem x
de
ffch'X (s.t. is quiet and)
shizukade
(vi) N + Copula: N X*
de
"C (s.o. is a teacher and)
sensei de
466 -re
^ Examples

Watashi wa koto o nuide hanga ni kaketa.

(Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.)

(b) V4
Wain o nomisugite atama ga itai.
(I’ve drunk too much wine and have a headache.)

(c)
Watashi no hey a wa semakute kurai.
(My room is small and dark.)

(d)
Kono supu wa karakute nomenai.
(This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can’t eat (lit. drink) it.)

(e)
Watashi wa tenisu ga dai-sukide yoku tomodachi to suru.
(I love tennis and often play with my friends.)

(f)
Yumiko wa ima daigaku sannen de senko wa nihonbungaku desu.
(Yumiko is a junior at college now and her major is Japanese literature.)

(8) o
/to-sensei wa konshu byoki de. kawari ni Murata-sensei ga oshieta.
(Prof. Ito was ill this week and Prof. Murata taught for him.)

222^
1. The re-form functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last
element of the predicate of a clause is the re-form, it means that that
clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause
follows it. For example, in Ex. (b) the last element of the predicate
of the first clause is sugitey the re-form of sugiru ‘ do s.t. too much ’, and
sugite is followed by another clause atama ga itai ‘ lit. (my) head aches ’.
2. The meaning of the re-form varies according to context, but generally,
it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions.
3. When the re-form links two predicates, the relationship between the
two is often one of the following:
(Aj: the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A2: the action
or state expressed by the second predicate)
 - fe 467

(A) Ai and A2 occur sequentially, as in KS(1) and Ex. (a).

(B) Ai and A2 are two states of someone or something, as in KS(2),

KS(4), Exs. (c) and (f).

(C) Ai is the reason for or the cause of A2, as in KS(3), Exs.(b), (d),
(e) and (g). (This usage of the fe-form is very common.)

(D) Ai is the means by which someone does A2 or the manner in

which someone does A2. Examples:

(1) fettifri'Ttoofco

Boku wa aruite kaetta.

(Lit. I walked and went home. ( = 1 went home on foot.))

(2)
Kenji wa isoide gohan o tabeta.
(Lit. Kenji hurried and ate his meal. ( = Kenji ate his meal
in a hurry.))

(E) Ai is contrasted with A2. Example:

(3)
Otoko wa soto de hataraite, onna wa uchi de hataraku.
(Lit. Men work outside and women work inside.)

(F) A2 is unexpected in terms of Aj. Example:

(4) h -MiV'o iiSA/T-l'-Cx* MStfJjfeSo

Tomu wa itsumo asonde ite tesuto ga dekiru.
(Tom plays around, yet he always does well on tests.)

4. The fe-form can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the
particle to1 makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the fe-form can list
verbs and adjectives exhaustively. (Cp. ~ tari ~ far/ suru; ya) Ex¬
ample:

(5)
Emi wa utsukushikute akarukute hi to ni shinsetsuda.
(Amy is pretty, cheerful and kind to people.)

5. re-form verbs are also used with such expressions as iru2 ‘be doing
kara ‘after’ and wa ikenai ‘must not do (■=>Appendix 4, Con¬
nection forms of important expressions, F. Vfe +_)
468 te mo

te mo Tfc Conj.

I
I Te mo is used when that which is
expressed in the main clause is not
what is expected from the content of }
the dependent (te mo) clause.
l
?

>
even if; although
[REL. keredo; noni1; -tatte]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Vte

% ! it M Hot ff< /fr££1%

Watashi \ wa ame ga futte mo iku 1 ikimasu.

(I’ll go there even if it rains.)

(B)
Topic (subject) Adj (/' / na)te

% it m<x
Watashi wa samukute mo dekakeru / dekakemasu.

(I’ll go out even if it is cold.)

(C)

Noun

m & hA T* t £1 £ Ltz /T'U;)o

Boku ga Tomu de mo onaji koto o shita daro / desho.

(Even if I were Tom, I would probably have done the same thing.)

(i ) {V / Adj (/ / na)) te t
mo
fStt ii (even if s.o. talks)
ha na shite mo
(even if s.o. eats)
tabete mo
^< X ii (even if s.t. is expensive)
takakute mo
 te mo 469

it (even if s.t. is quiet)

shizukade mo
(ii) N T*
de mo
Jt'iL T* i> (even if s.o. is a teacher)
sensei de mo

(a) 4«|JL|$ /Ui#£;K

Nakayama-san wa hon o katte mo yomimasen.
(Mr. Nakayama doesn’t read books even if he buys them.)

Watashi wa yojikan aruite mo tsukarenakatta.

(I didn’t get tired although I walked for four hours.)

(c) fpISr^T ’k&V'LV'T'-f-o

Nani o tabete mo oishiidesu.
(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)

(d)
Dare ni kiite mo wakaranakatta.
(No matter who I asked, I couldn’t get the answer.)

(e) A : oTkV'V'-el-TK
Tabako o sutte mo iidesu ka.
(Lit. Is it all right even if I smoke? ( = May I smoke?))

B : fiV\ V'V'T'1-0
Hai. iidesu.
(Yes, you may.)

(f)
Donna ni nihongo ga muzukashikute mo yatte mimasu.
(No matter how difficult Japanese may be, I will try it.)

Donna ni jobude mo karada ni wa ki o tsuketa ho ga ii.

(No matter how healthy you are, you’d better take good care of your¬
self.)

(h)
Inoue-san ga senpai de mo boku wa hakkiri iu tsumori da.
(I intend to speak straightforwardly, even if Mr. Inoue is my senior.)
 1. The basic meaning of te mo is the same as the English phrase ‘even
if -’.

2. ~te mo iidesu ka as in Ex. (e) is an idiomatic expression used to request

permission to do s.t. If the answer is in the affirmative, it is “ Hai.
iidesu(Yes, you may.) If it is in the negative, it is “ Je, ikemasen
(No, you may not.)

3. WH-word — te mo means ‘ no matter WH-’, as in Exs. (c), (d), (f), and

(g). ' Typical usages are listed below:

tiki oi§L'‘C t (no matter who s.o. talks to)

dare ni hanashite mo
H £: Mbt t (no matter what s.o. talks about)
nani o hanashite mo

ifZ X f^L'T t (no matter where s.o. talks)

doko de hanashite mo
It&UT it (no matter when s.o. talks)
itsu hanashite mo

)£'5 MbT kt (no matter how s.o. talks)

do hanashite mo

IZ (no matter how much s.o. talks)

donna ni hanashite mo

[Related Expressions]

Te mo is comparable but not identical to keredo ‘ although * and noni ‘ in spite

of the fact that ’. The semantic difference is exactly that of English ‘ even
if’ vs. ‘although’. (■=> keredo; nonix) Thus,

[1] mottkiZ
Nakayama-san wa hon o katte mo / kau keredo / kau noni yomi-
masen.
(Mr. Nakayama doesn’t read books even if / although he buys them.)

However, if te mo is used with a WH-word, it cannot be replaced by keredo

or noni.

[2] /*&'<£ It ft if
Nani o tabete mo / *taberu keredo / *taberu noni oishiidesu.
(No matter what I eat, it tastes good.)
 temo ii 471

~te mo ii phr.

a phrase which expresses permission may; It is all right if

or concession (ANT. ~ wa ikenai)

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

A: Vfe B:

:: T' Tz\tZ. £ f&o "C

Koko de tabako o sutte mo iidesu ka. Hai. iidesu.

(May I smoke here?) (Yes, you may.)

(B)

{Adj (/ / /7a) /N +Copula} fe

rai ^ T ii V'V' /
Takakute mo ii / iidesu.

(It is all right if it’s expensive.)

V ii V'V' /
Gakusei de mo ii / iidesu.

(It is all right if you are a student.)

{V / Adj (/ / na) / N + Copula}re t> V'V'

mo ii

ISLt V'V' (may talk; It is all right if s.o. talks.)

hanashite mo ii

j^j < *C t V'V' (It is all right if s.t. is expensive.)

takakute mo ii

(It is all right if s.t. is quiet.)

shizukade mo ii

V t V'V' (It is all right if s.o. is a teacher.)

sensei de mo ii
472 ~ temo ii

(a)
Kono isu o tsukatte mo iidesu ka.
(May I use this chair?)

(b) M< xi> L5V'<D£#V'T < t££

V'o
Kyo no shukudai wa sakubun desu. Mijikakute mo iidesu ga omoshiroi
no o kaite kudasai.
(Today’s homework assignment is a composition. It is all right if it’s
short, but please write an interesting one.)

(c) A : x — x £;
Tenisu o shimasen ka.
(Wouldn’t you like to play tennis?)

Hetade mo iidesu ka.

(Is it all right if I’m poor at it?)

Nanika tsumetai mono o nomitai n desu ga.

(I want to drink something cold.)
B : if—;VXf i> V'V'Vtti'o
Biru de mo iidesu ka.
(Will beer do?)

1. When te mo ii is preceded by a verb, it means permission.

2. ~nakute mo ii, the negative re-form with mo ii, means ‘ It is all right
if ~ not ~* or ‘do not have to do ~*. (Cp. ~nakereba naranai)
Examples:

Watashi wa sono shiken o ukenakute mo ii.

(I don’t have to take the exam.)

2
( )

Atarashikunakute mo iidesu.
(It is all right if it’s not new (or fresh).)

( 3)
Gakusei janakute mo iidesu.
(It is all right if you’re not a student.)
 ~ re/77o ii / ro1 473

3. Other expressions like yoroshii(desu), the polite form of // ‘good, all

right and kamaimasen ‘ don’t mind ’ can be used in place of ii{desu).
The degrees of politeness in these expressions are as follows:

(4) ii(desu) > kamaimasen > yoroshii(desu)

«-*

less polite more polite

Examples:

(5) h L tzfohX t J; 6 LV'T'-f

Ashita yasunde mo yoroshiidesu ka.
(Would it be all right if I take a day off tomorrow?)

(6)
Tabako o sutte mo kamaimasen ka.
(Do you mind (lit. Don’t you mind) if I smoke?)

Note that kamau ‘ mind ’ must be negated in this expression.

4. Te mo ii sometimes appears with WH-words like nani ‘ what ’ and ikura

‘ how much ’. In this case, the expression means ‘ It is all right no matter
what / who / how much / etc. ~’ or ‘It doesn’t matter what / who /
how much (See te mo, Note 3.) Examples:

(7) ztuttztitfLX tv'V'-e-fo

Sore wa dare ga shite mo iidesu.
(It doesn’t matter who does it.)

(8) l'< ib'k'<Xi>W'Xto

Ikura tabete mo iidesu.
(It is all right no matter how much you eat.)

to1 t Prt-

( a particle which lists things exhaus and

> tively [REL. m (and); to2’, ya]
474 to1

♦ Key Sentence

Noun Noun

t (t) ft t£ 1 V+o
to (to) wa gakusei da / desu.

(Mike and Dick are students.)

(a) mtittkttm&ft-to
Watashi wa eigo to nihongo o hanasu.
(I speak English and Japanese.)

(b) ^ /wx*£ < o t 9 £«,

Miruzu-san wa rainen Doitsu to Furansu to Supein e iku tsumori da.
(Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and Spain next year.)

(c) Xx — y t y * — 9o
Suteki wa naifu to foku de taberu.
(We eat steak with a knife and a fork.)

(d) x ^ x £/yfl>x~x£: LtV'50

Yamamoto-san to Sumisu-san ga tenisu o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.)

(e) h/wa»lifla*CV'50
Nihongo to torukogo wa nite iru.
(Japanese and Turkish are alike.)

1. To is used to list things exhaustively. The final to is usually omitted,

but the others are not. Thus, “A, B, C and D ” is usually expressed
as “A to B to C to D.”

2. To connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for and in

sentences, as seen in (1) - (3). (=» - te)

1
( )

*Koko no hanbaga wa yasui to ii.

(Hamburgers here are cheap and good.)

*Uiruson-san wa Nihon e itta to Kimura-san ni atta.

(Mr. Wilson went to Japan and met Mr. Kimura.)
 to1 475

(3)
*Haruo wa konsato ni itta to Yuriko wa eiga ni itta.
(Haruo went to a concert and Yuriko went to a movie.)

3. “ Nt to N2 (to N3. . .)” is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns

can occur.

4. When Ni fo N2 is used as the subject of a sentence, the sentence may

be ambiguous. In Ex. (d), for example, without adequate context we
cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together.
If the predicate contains reciprocal words such as niru ‘ resemble *, onaji-
da ‘ be the same ’ and kekkonsuru ‘ marry ’, however, sentences with
“ N( to N2” in subject position are not ambiguous, as seen in Ex. (e).

[Related Expressions]

I. When Ex. (d) means ‘ Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis
together ’, it can be restated using to2 ‘with’, as in [1].

[1J a. l 7s LTV'£0
Yamamoto-san wa Sumisu-san to tenisu o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto is playing tennis with Mr. Smith.)

b. 7s X 7 $ k>t x — 7 £ LTV'£0
Sumisu-san wa Yamamoto-san to tenisu o shite iru.
(Mr. Smith is playing tennis with Mr. Yamamoto.)

Note that if the speaker states [la] or [lb] instead of Ex. (d), he is
speaking from Mr. Yamamoto’s or Mr. Smith’s viewpoint, respectively.

II. Ya is also used to list things, but that listing is inexhaustive. Examples:

[2] a. ^ !) ^ J
Miruzu-san ya Harisu-san ga kita.
(Mr. Mills, Mr. Harris, and others came.)

b.
Kore wa supun ya fdku de taberu.
(We eat this with utensils like spoons and forks.)

III. The particle ni can be used to combine two or more objects that usually
come as a set.

[3] a. o
Maiasa misoshiru ni / to gohan o taberu.
(I eat miso soup and rice every morning.)
476 to11 to2

b. &CDA{iV'ot,£V'':/-r'7fZ / 3 y* SrifCV'So

Ano hito wa itsumo shiroi shatsu ni / to akai chokki o kite

iru.
(He is always wearing a white shirt and a red vest.)

The difference between ni and to is that ni always implies that one or

more than one object has been added to the first object as an indis¬
pensable member of the entire set. To, however, does not necessarily
carry that implication.

to2 t Prt-

a particle marking the NP which with; as; from

maintains a reciprocal relationship [REL. /?/4 ; fo1]
with the subject of a clause

4 Key Sentence

%
Noun
■t
Watashi wa to isshoni pati ni itta / ikimashita.

(I went to a party (together) with Andy.)

(a) h Alii? 3 yt
Tomu wa Jon to yoku tenisu o suru.
(Tom often plays tennis with John.)

(b)
Ichiro wa Midori to kekkonshita.
(Ichiro married Midori.)

(c) ~ t
Kono kuruma wa boku no kuruma to onajidesu.
(This car is the same as my car.)
 to2 477

(d) yitrs v t'J?i*»isv^t0

Nihon no kyuri wa Amerika no kyuri to sukoshi chigaimasu.
(Japanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.)

1. When Y is the subject of a clause, X to indicates that X and Y have a

reciprocal relationship. For example, in Ex. (a), the fact that Tom
often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often plays
tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a reciprocal
relationship. Thus, to often corresponds to the English ‘ with ’, as in
‘in the company of’. To also appears with such reciprocal verbs and
adjectives as kekkonsuru ‘ marry ’, kenkasuru ‘ quarrel’, hanashiau ‘discuss
with ’, niru ‘ resemble ’, chigau ‘ differ ’ and onajida ‘ be the same ’. (See
Exs. (b), (c) and (d).)

2. In reciprocal sentences, the subject and X in X to are interchangeable.

For example, Ex. (b) can be restated as in (1).

1
( )

Midori wa Ichiro to kekkonshita.

(Midori married Ichiro.)

Ex. (b) is described from Ichiro’s point of view, while (1) is described
from Midori’s point of view. (c» fo1, REL. I)

[Related Expression]

Some reciprocal expressions take X ni or X to depending on the meaning,

as in [1] and [2].

[1] a.
Masao wa sensei to hanashita.
(Masao talked with his teacher.)

b.
Masao wa sensei ni hanashita.
(Masao talked to his teacher.)

[2] a.
Akira wa Kimiko to butsukatta.
(Akira bumped into Kimiko.)

b.
Akira wa Kimiko ni butsukatta.
(Akira bumped into Kimiko.)
 478 to2 / to3

The difference is that to implies a “ bidirectional ” action while ni implies a

“ unidirectional ” one. For example, [2a] implies that both Akira and Kimiko
were moving, whereas in [2b] only Akira was moving. Thus, to is unaccept¬
able in [3] because hashira ‘ post * is immobile.

[3] /*<h^oa>o/t0
Akira wa hashira ni / * to butsukatta.
(Akira bumped into a post.)

to3 t Prt-
( i

{ a particle which marks a quotation, \ that; with the sound of; in the
sound or the manner in which s.o. / - manner of
£ s.t. does s.t.

♦ Key Sentence

Quotation, sound
or manner adverb
■
MiVish it % (c T* rC. A/lc j t 1
Hiru-san wa watashi ni nihongo de " Konnichi wa.” to itta 1

Lfco
iimashita.

(Mr. Hill said to me in Japanese, “Hello!”)

( i ) Quotation t
to
rfL (i T-foj t (“ I am a student.”)
" Watashi wa gakusei desu." to

% it Tz t (that I am a student)
watashi wa gakusei da to
 to3 479

(ii) Phonomime t
to
/<$,<$ £ (with a clattering noise)
batabata to
(iii) Phenomime t
to
«9> -p < 9 t (slowly)
yukkuri to
(iv) Psychomime t
to
^ ^ £ (cheerfully)
ukiuki to

(a)
Tomu wa Nihon e ikitai to itte iru.
(Tom says that he wants to go to Japan.)

(b) bMzb^'Xh V &1"0

Kore wa jurokuseiki ni taterareta to kaite arimasu.
(It is written that this was built in the sixteenth century.)

(c) T?fT£ 9 t © b o
Watashi wa basu de iko to omou.
(I think I will go by bus.)

(d) fcjfeJUUofco
Kodomotachi wa batabata to hashirimawatta.
(Lit. The children ran around with a clattering noise.)

(e)
Machiko wa shikkari to watashi no te o nigitta.
(Machiko grabbed my hand firmly.)

(f) 'C/fifrooD £J4ioTV'50

Ben wa muttsuri to suwatte iru.
(Ben is sitting sullenly.)

40223!^
1. To is basically used to mark a quotation; the literal meaning of — to
iu is ‘ say with (the sound) ~ ’. This use of to> however, has been ex-
480 to91 to4

tended further to cover indirect quotations, as in Exs. (a) and (b), and
even thoughts (i.e., internal voice), as in Ex. (c). Note that in Japanese
to is necessary for both direct and indirect quotations, as seen in KS
and Ex. (a).

2. To is used to mark the content of such actions as omou ‘think; feel’,

kangaeru ‘ think (with the intellect) ’, kaku ‘ write *, kiku ‘ hear * and
setsumeisuru ‘ explain \
3. To is also used with phonomimes, as in Ex. (d). Again, the idea is that
someone / something makes the sound marked by to when doing some¬
thing. Note that sound symbolisms in Japanese are not children’s
words. Rather, they are an important part of the Japanese vocabulary.

4. When a sound is repeated twice like batabata in Ex. (d), to can be

omitted. When a sound is not repeated, however, to does not drop.
Examples:

(1) a. *vm±'**'**b I* jfcSMUofco

Kodomotachi wa batabata to / ef hashirimawatta.
(Lit. The children ran around with a clattering noise.)

b. I** KTfcfflfcfco
Masao wa batan to / doa o shimeta.
(Masao slammed the door (lit. closed the door with a bang).)

5. The use of to with phonomimes is extended to phenomimes and psy¬

chomimes, as in Exs. (e) and (f), though these are not representations of
actual sounds.
(=i> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)

to4 t conj.

a subordinate conjunction which if; when

marks a condition that brings about [REL. tara Cba. nara); tokf}
an noncontrollable event or state
 to4 481

♦ Key Sentence

Sentencei
(informal, nonpast)
■ Sentence2

-a- 3 — ? K ff<
Nyuyoku ni iku
H & t> L 6V' 0 & hz> / hVH+o
omoshiroi mise ga takusan aru / arimasu.

(If you go to New York, there are many interesting shops.)

{V / Adj (/ / na) / N4-Copula} inf*nonpast t

is-t- t (if s.o. talks)

hanasu to
(if s.t. is expensive)
takai to

m-ti t (if s.t. is quiet)

shizukada to

ti t (if s.o. is a teacher)

sensei da to

(a)
Sore wa sensei ni kiku to sugu wakatta.
(I understood it immediately when I asked my teacher.)

(b) 94 J:0
Taiya wa furui to abunaidesu yo.
(Tires are dangerous if they are old.)

(c)
Sakana ga kiraida to Nihon e itta toki komarimasu ka?
(If you don’t like fish, will you have trouble when you go to Japan?)

(d)
Gakusei da to waribiki ga arimasu.
(If you are a student, there is a discount.)

1. In Si to S2, Si must be nonpast even if it expresses a past event or

action, as in Ex. (a). Tense is expressed in S2.
to4 483
484 — to ieba

—to ieba ~£1Tx.l£ phr.

], an expression which presents as l Speaking of ~

i the topic of a following discourse a $ [REL. ttara\ tte\
\ phrase which has just been uttered \

♦ Key Sentence

A:

r.<d \± pa#^ M {§ 9 tz ^ T'-f0

Kono hon wa Tanaka-san ni karita n desu.

(I borrowed this book from Mr. Tanaka.)

B:

pa#^ t Hx-lf i> 5 fi fkofc O ti'Lbo

Tanaka-san to ieba mo byoki wa naotta no kashira.

(Speaking of Mr. Tanaka, I wonder if he’s gotten over his illness yet.)

(a) A : \)Tz0
< o
Tsugi no nichiyobi wa Kyoto e iku tsumori da.
(I’m going to Kyoto next Sunday.)

b: tf,
Kyoto to ieba, Haruko ga Kyotodaigaku no nyugakushiken ni totta
soda.
(Speaking of Kyoto, I heard that Haruko passed Kyoto University’s
entrance exam.)

(b) A : X <
Konishi-kun wa yoku yasumu ne.
(Mr. Konishi is absent frequently, isn’t he?)

B: Z/ft0
Yoku yasumu to ieba, Yamamoto-kun mo saikin mimasen ne.
(Talking about (someone’s) frequent absences, we don’t see Mr.
Yamamoto these days either, do we?)

1. To ieba literally means ‘if you say that ’, but it is used as a topic
 ~to ieba 485

presentation expression meaning ‘speaking of’.

2. Usually a noun phrase is presented by to ieba, but any sentence ele¬

ment is possible. For example, in Ex. (b), a verb phrase is presented.

3. The informal form of to ieba is tte ieba.

[Related Expressions]

There are several other expressions used to present topics.

I. Ttara is the abbreviation for to kitara or to ittara and is used to

present noun phrase topics in informal conversation. It is more em¬
phatic than the topic marker wa and sometimes means something like
‘ when it comes to ~ ’ or ‘ in the case of — ’. Example:

[1] «t
Yoshie ttara watashi ni wa nani mo iwanai no yo.
(Yoshie didn’t tell me anything, you know.)

II. Tte, the abbreviation for to iu to ‘when you say ~ ’, or to iu no wa

‘ what you say (or call) ~ ’, is also used to present topics in informal
conversation. Like to ieba any sentence element can precede tte, and
that element is usually a part of the conversation partner’s previous
utterance. Examples:

[2] A : LfcJ;0
Shibi o kaimashita yo.
(I bought a CB.)

B :
Shibi tte?
((What do you mean by what you call) a CB?)

[3] a :
RaishO kara eigo o oshieru n desu.
(I’m teaching English from next week.)

B : oT.
Eigo o oshierutte. dare ni?
3
(Teaching English? To whom?)
486 ~ to iu

~to iu Phr-

$ a phrase marking information which ; called; that says that

^ identifies or explains the noun follow- }
l ing the phrase >

" Yukiguni" to iu shosetsu o yonda / yomimashita.

(I read a novel called Snow Country.)

(B)

Message Noun

\hm£/v t- A&Ltc t V' 9

Yamada-san ga nyuinshita to iu shirase o kiita / kikimashita.

(I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been hospitalized.)

(C)

Noun

iot b&<x &v') t V' 0 hz> 1 hy t-to

Motto ganbaranakute wa (naranai) to iu kimochi ga aru / arimasu.

(I have the feeling that I have to keep hanging in there.)

Examples

(a) r-fcA<9f#j t bti'h ')

" Shichinin no samurai" to iu eiga o mita koto ga arimasu ka.
(Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?)

(b)
Jun ga Nihon e iku to iu hanashi wa homo desu ka.
(Lit. Is the story that June is going to Japan true? (= Is it true that
June is going to Japan?))
 ~ to iu 487

So/7o hi to ni aitakunai to iu kimochi wa yoku wakarimasu.

(I am well aware of your feeling that you don’t want to see him.)

(d) tv'? £
Tomodachi ga kyo kuru to iu koto o sukkari wasurete ita.
(I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.)

1. To iu is a combination of the quote marker to and iu ‘call, say’.

(t=> fo3)

2. The head noun in KS(B) is a noun of communication, such as hanashi

‘ story ’, nyOsu ‘ news ’, shirase ‘ information ’, tegami ‘ letter ’ and uwasa
‘rumor’. The head noun in KS(C) is a noun of human emotion, such
as kanashimi ‘ sadness ’, kanji ‘ feeling ’, ki ‘ feeling ’, kimochi ‘ feeling ’,
osore ‘fear’ and yorokobi ‘joy’.
3. To iu is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which
represents a quotation, as in KS(C) and Exs. (c) and (d).

4. When to iu is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (“ I heard

that ~, They say It is said that ~ ”). The sentence-final to iu is
used only in written Japanese, as in (1). (<=> soda1)

(i) 5 1 11' 5o
Gakusei no hanashi ni yoru to Yoshida-sensei wa oshiekata ga
hijoni jozuda to iu.
(According to the students, Prof. Yoshida’s teaching method is
very skillful.)
488 toka

toka £ Conj.

j a conjunction that lists two or more ) and; or

( items, actions or states as inexhaus- > [REL. tari\ ya\
l tive examples >

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun Noun Noun

% j it /< y b ft' ^-77^b b ft' *< — b-'O

Watashi \ wa Bahha toka Motsuaruto toka Betoben

ga sukida / sukidesu.

(I like Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, among others.)

(B)

Sentence Sentence

R# it fcHB 1- AS bft' #■< *3 b ft' Lfr £

Tsukareta toki wa o-furo ni hairu toka hayaku neru toka shinasai.

(When you are tired, do things like taking a bath or going to sleep early.)

KS(A):

N t ft' N t ft' • • •
toka toka. . .

b ft' b ft' • • • (students and teachers . . . (among others))

gakusei toka sensei toka. . .

KS(B):

Sinf b ft' Sinf b ft'

toka toka suru

•r U't* £ US bft' t ft' -fS MO (do such things as watching

terebi o miru toka hon o yomu toka suru TV or reading books)
 toka 489

(a) a>V' o i><0& <fc < £Pk&V'o

Nihon no sado toka ikebana toka iu mono o yoku shiranai.
(I don’t know much about things like the Japanese tea ceremony and
flower arranging.)

(b) A:
Donna Nihon no eiga o mimashita ka.
(What kind of Japanese movie did you see?)

B : mK<D r-tAo^j kfr kfr felHfc,

Kurosawa no “ Shichinin no Samurai" toka " Ikiiu " toka “Kage-
musha " o mimashita.
(I saw Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai, Ikiru and Kagemusha.)

(c) A:
Nichiyobi ni wa donna koto o shite imasu ka.
(What sorts of things do you do on Sundays?)

Ongaku o kiku toka, hon o yomu toka shite imasu.

(I do things like listening to music or reading books.)

1. The conjunction toka is a combination of the quote marker to3 and ka1.
That is why toka is often followed by the verb iu ‘say’, as in Ex. (a).
When toka is followed by iu, as in (1), it is not a conjunction; it is a
quote marker. The ka indicates the speaker’s uncertainty about the
quoted report.

1
( )

Satd-san wa isogashikute ikenai to ka itte ita.

(Mr. Sato was saying he can’t go there because he’s busy or
something.)

2. Ni to ka iu N2 meaning ‘ N2 that is called Ni or something like that’

is another example of toka used in the above sense.

(2) UP k
Noguchi to ka iu hi to ga kita.
(A person named Noguchi or something like that showed up.)
 490 toka I toki

3. S toka S toka suru is used when a statement refers to something in

general rather than to something specific. Thus, this structure is inap¬
propriate in (3). (See Related Expression.)

(3) A : — 3. — a — ? T'fi lik/tiE. £ Li

Nyuyoku de wa donna koto o shimashita ka.
(What sort of things did you do in New York?)

B : *5 a - £i)'L£Lfz o
*Myujikaru o miru toka bijutsukan ni iku toka shimashita.
(I did things like watching musicals and visiting art museums.)

[Related Expression]

~ tari ~tari suru, like S toka S toka suru, indicates an inexhaustive listing of
examples. It differs from S toka S toka suru, however, in that it can be
used in both general and specific statements. As noted in Note 3, the toka
construction can only be used in general statements. Thus, the grammatical
version of (3B) is [1].

Myujikaru o mitari bijutsukan ni ittari shimashita.

When — tari ~tari suru indicates alternative actions or states, it cannot be
replaced by toka.

[2] l*ihZ>£fr AofcU /*A£<t*'LTt'£.

Kodomo ga heya o detari / *deru toka haittari / *hairu toka
shite iru.
(A child is going in and out of the room.)
IIIIIIIUUIIIII

TI

I
tOkl P# n.

a dependent noun which indicates

the time when s.o. / s.t. will do /
does / did s.t. or the time when s.o. /
at the time when; when
[REL. ~tara\ fo4]

s.t. will be / is / was in some state

 toki 491

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subordinate
Topic (subject) Clause Predicate
(informal)t

fA j tt 0£ [Z l\fz
Watashi: wa Nihon ni ita o-cha o naratta / naraimashita.

(I learned the tea ceremony when I was in Japan.)

1[Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and no, respectively.
(B)

Topic (subject) Noun Predicate

it <o B# (fc)
Hiroshi wa shiken no toki (ni) kaze o hi ita / hikimash ita.

(Hiroshi caught cold at exam time.)

(i) (V / Adj (/)) inf Mf

toki
{$%i~ I t^Ltz) B# (when s.o. talks / talked)
{hanasu / hanashita) toki
/Mfi'^tz] B£ (when s.t. is / was expensive)
{takai / takakatta} toki
(ii) Adj (na) stem {& I tzotz) B#
[na I datta] toki
B# (when s.t. is / was quiet)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} toki
(Hi) N [<D ftzotz] B$
[no I datta} toki
O / tiotz) B# (when s.o. is / was a teacher)
{seflse/ no / sensei datta} toki

(a)
Matsumoto-san wa asagohan o taberu toki itsumo terebi o miru.
(Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.)
492 toki

(b) x HIoTfcV'fco
Ten wa jusu ga yasui toki ni takusan katte oita.
(Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.)

(c)
Boku wa shizukana toki shika hon o yomanai.
(I read only when it’s quiet.)

(d) %fr-k¥$LTi o tzmMit £ f:Hotz o tzQ

Watashi ga daigakusei datta toki imoto wa mada mittsu datta.
(When I was a college student, my sister was only three.)

(e) L£-f0
Kore wa shuppatsu no toki ni watashimasu.
(I’ll give this to you when you leave (lit. at the time of your departure).)

1. Tokiy by itself, means ‘time’, but when it is used as a dependent noun

with a modifying phrase or clause, it means ‘ at the time when' or
‘ when

2. The clause preceding toki is a type of relative clause; therefore, the

basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. («=> Relative
Clause) The following two rules are particularly important:

(A) If the subject of the toki clause is different from that of the main
clause, it is marked by ga. Compare (1) with KS(A):

(l) /rv
Meari wa watashi ga Nihon ni ita toki Furansu ni ita.
(Mary was in France while I was in Japan.)

(B) The predicate form is usually informal except that da after Adj
(/7a) stem and' N changes to na and no, respectively.

3. The particle ni after toki is optional. With ni, time is emphasized and
sometimes comes under focus. Compare the two sentences in (2).

(2) a.
Watashi wa gakusei no toki yoku benkyoshita.
(I studied hard when I was a student.)

b.
Watashi wa gakusei no toki ni yoku benkyoshita.
(It was when I was a student that I studied hard.)
 toki 493

4. If S2 in Si toki S2 is in the past tense and Si expresses a state, the tense

of Si can be either past or nonpast, as in (3).

(3) a.
Watashi wa Nihon ni iru / ita toki Tanaka-sensei ni atta.
(I met Prof. Tanaka when I was in Japan.)

b. C' / i§j7&' *3 o
Niku ga takai / takakatta toki wa sakana mo takakatta.
(When meat was expensive, fish was expensive, too.)

5. When Si in Si toki S2 expresses an action, the meaning of the sentence

changes depending on the tenses of Si and S2.

(A) When the verb in Si is not a movement verb :

(4) a.
Watashi wa gohan o taberu toki te o arau.
(I (will) wash my hands (right) before I eat my meal.)

b. fUi r
Watashi wa gohan o tabeta toki te o arau.
(I (will) wash my hands (right) after I’ve eaten my meal.)

Watashi wa gohan o taberu toki te o aratta.

(I washed my hands (right) before I ate my meal.)

d.
Watashi wa gohan o tabeta toki te o aratta.
(I washed my hands (right) after I ate my meal.)

(B) When the verb in Si is a movement verb:

(5) a.
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki sushi o taberu tsu-
mori da.
(I’m going to eat sushi (A) (right) before I leave for iXl
Chicago. / (B) on the way to Chicago.) sa==s

Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki sushi o taberu tsu-

mori da.
(I’m going to eat sushi after I’ve arrived in Chicago.)

Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki sushi o tabeta.

494 toki

((A) I ate sushi (right) before I left for Chicago. (B) I

ate sushi on the way to Chicago.)

Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki sushi o tabeta.

(I ate sushi after I arrived in Chicago.)

(C) When the action in Si and the action in S2 take place simultane¬
ously or concurrently:

(6) a.
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de iku.
(When I go to Chicago, I go by car.)

b. is i] o tzJftMT'fj < o
* Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki kuruma de iku.
c. %L\±'y ft
Watashi wa Shikago e iku toki kuruma de itta.
(When I went to Chicago, I went by car.)

Watashi wa Shikago e itta toki kuruma de itta.

(When I went to Chicago, I went by car.)

[Related Expressions]

Unlike when-clauses in English, fo£/-clauses do not indicate condition. In

other words, fo£/-clauses are genuine time clauses. In order to indicate con¬
dition as expressed in when-clauses, conjunctions like ~tara and to are used.
(=> ~tara; to4) Thus, if [1] expresses a condition which causes the hearer
surprise, toki cannot be used.

[1] You will be surprised when you see it.

In this case, tara or to must be used, as in [2].

[2] -tnSrlEfcb / JISfc „

Sore o {mitara / miru to / *miru toki / *mita toki) odorokimasu yo.
(You’ll be surprised when you see it.)
 tokoro da1 495

tokoro da1 tZZtz Phr-

^ A place is in a location which takes | — is (in) a place where it takes

■> a certain amount of time to get to. \ ~ to get to

♦ Key Sentence

Noun Noun
Topic (subject) Means
(location) (duration)

% <D
Watashi no uchi
?h \
\ wa
12 SR
eki
Hi aru it e
+#
juppun
CO
no
mm
ti /Vto
tokoro da / desu.

(Lit. My house is in a place where it takes ten minutes to get to from the
station on foot. ( = On foot my house is ten minutes from the station.))

(a)
Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun no tokoro desu.
(Lit. My school is in a place where it takes thirty minutes to get to from
home by bus. ( = By bus it takes thirty minutes to get from home to
school.))

Sono bydin wa koko kara kuruma de jugofun no tokoro da.

(Lit. The hospital is in a place where it takes fifteen minutes to get to
from here by car. ( = By car the hospital is fifteen minutes from here.))

Tokoro da is a simplified form of tokoro ni aru ‘ be located in a place

(where).’ This expression can be simplified even more, as seen in (1).

1
( ) ^$12 b Z.Z>)tz0
Gakko wa uchi kara basu de sanjuppun {no tokoro) da.
(By bus my school is thirty minutes from home.)
496 tokoro da2

tokoro da2 £Z*>tz phr.

> S.o. / s.t. is in the state where he / it ? be just about to do s.t.; be in

$ is just about to do s.t., is doing s.t., £ the midst of doing s.t.; have
| has done s.t., or has been doing s.t. s just done s.t.; have been doing
... - —v-' -/■- s.t.; almost did s.t.

[REL. bakari; toki]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast

n ate sisSr ti 1 X'-fQ

Harue wa bangohan o taberu tokoro da 1 desu.

(Harue is just about to eat her supper.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Vte

♦ff j l± eteces Sr *k*x V' <5 b ti 1 T"f„

Harue | wa bangohan o tabete iru tokoro da 1 desu.

(Harue is in the midst of eating her supper.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Vinf*past

♦a; {i Steals Sr bZZ K l r-to

Harue wa bangohan o tabeta tokoro da 1 desu.

(Harue has just eaten her supper.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Vte

! « SfeCffi Sr ‘k'lT bZh ti 1 Xi~o

Harue j wa bangohan o tabete ita tokoro da 1 desu.

(Harue has been eating her supper.)

 tokoro da2 497

(E)

Topic (subject) Vinf • nonpast

% n io 'PL v ®J@ & tz^tz 1

Watashi wa mo sukoshi de shukudai o wasureru tokoro datta 1
XLtz0
deshita.

(I almost forgot (lit. was about to forget) my homework.)

(F)

Topic (subject) Adj (/ / na) Prt

% f± t £6 V— y M iib^tzl
Watashi wa abunai tokoro 0 Jin ni tasukete moratta /

moraimashita.

(I was saved by Gene when I was in a crisis (lit. dangerous state).)

(G)

Noun Prt

CD t £
O-shigotochu no tokoro 0 sumimasen.

(I’m sorry to bother you in the midst of your work.)

(i) Vinf tz
tokoro da

{M't' /fj§Lfc} t Z. 6 tz (be just about to talk/have just talked)

[hanasu / hanashita} tokoro da
tz (be about to eat / have just eaten)
{taberu / tabeta} tokoro da

(ii) Vte (ir'S / V'fc} hZ.% tz

[iru I ita) tokoro da
{I$LT / pf§UT V'fc} t Z. -6 (be in the midst of talk-
[hanashite iru / hanashite ita} tokoro da ing / have been talking)
498 tokoro da2

{^^■C V'S/^^T V'fc} b Z -6 tz (be in the midst of eating/

{tabete iru / tabete ita} tokoro da have been eating)

(iii) Adj (/) inf*nonpast b Z6

tokoro

fCLV' b Z -6 (the state in which s.o. is busy)

isogashii tokoro

(iv) Adj (/7a) stem & b Z%

na tokoro

X^fc bZ^> (the state in which s.t. is important)

daijina tokoro

(v ) N co bz%
no tokoro

co b Z '5 (the state in which s.o. is off duty / on vacation)

yasumi no tokoro

(a) mt^MfrttZbZZX'-ro
Boku wa ima dekakeru tokoro desu.
(I’m just about to go out now.)

(b) t- 9 -bm^XV'Z b
Ten to odotte iru tokoro o Masa ni mirarete shimatta.
(Lit. The state in which I was dancing with Terry was seen by Martha.
( = Martha saw me when I was dancing with Terry.))

(c)
Gohan o tabeowatta tokoro ni Mariko ga tazunete kita.
(Lit. Mariko came (to see me) at the state in which I had just finished
my meal. ( = Mariko came to see me when I’d just finished my meal.))

(d) Hf t i C 6t'gt l ^ o/to

Sansho made yonda tokoro de nete shimatta.
(I fell asleep when I had read up to the third chapter (lit. in the state
in which I had read it up to the third chapter).)

(e) <*>\Zi\Z>bZ?>ti'itc0
Watashi wa abunaku oboreru tokoro datta.
(I was almost drowned.)
 tokoro da1 2 3 4 5 499

O-isogashii tokoro o domo arigato gozaimashita.

(Lit. Thank you very much (for helping me) in the state when you are
busy. ( = Thank you very much for sparing your precious time with me.))

(8) fcoT L

Toshio wa i chi ban daijina tokoro de yoku benkyoshinakatta kara nani

mo wakaranaku natte shimatta.
(Lit. Toshio has come to the point of not understanding anything because
he didn’t study well in the state where (the class) was the most im¬
portant. ( = Toshio has gotten totally lost because he didn’t study hard
when it was most important.))

(h)
O-yasumi no tokoro o sumimasen.
(Lit. I’m sorry (to disturb) the state in which you are off duty. ( = I’m
sorry to bother you when you are off duty / on vacation.))

1. Tokoro itself means ‘ place ’, but it can also mean ‘ state ’ or ‘ time * when
it is used with a modifying verb, adjective or noun.

2. As seen in KS(A) - KS(D), verbs which precede tokoro are either past
or nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and each one of
the four verb forms expresses a different aspect of the action.

3. As seen in KS(E), when the preceding verb is nonpast and non-pro¬

gressive and the following copula is in the past tense, the sentence may
mean ‘ someone or something almost did something.’ (The literal mean¬
ing is ‘ someone or something was about to do something.) When to¬
koro datta means ‘ almost did something ’, such adverbs as mo sukoshi
de ‘just by a little’ and abunaku ‘nearly’ are often used also, as in
KS(E) and Ex. (e).

4. Tokoro can be followed by either the copula, as in KS(A) - KS(E), Exs.

(a) and (e), or such particles as o, niy e and dey as in KS(F) and KS(G),
Exs. (b) - (d) and (f) - (h).

5. When adjectives or nouns with no precede tokoroy tokoro is usually

followed by a particle rather than the copula, as in Exs. (f) and (h). The
following sentences are ungrammatical:
500 tokoro da2

(1) a.
*Watashi wa ima isogashii tokoro desu.
b. h r6T'to
*Watashi wa ima yasumi no tokoro desu.

[Related Expressions]

I. When tokoro is used as a dependent noun, its function appears to be

similar to that of toki. However, these two expressions are different
in that tokoro basically indicates a state, while toki indicates a time.
Thus, [1] makes sense by itself, but [2] does not.

[1]
Boku wa denwa o kakeru tokoro da.
(Lit. I’m in the state where I’m going to place a call. ( = I’m just
about to call someone.))

[2j mitmmwzmzo
*Boku wa denwa o kakeru toki da.
(*I am when I’m going to place a call.)

II. Vte iru / ita tokoro da is similar to Wte iru / ita. The difference is that
the former focuses more on the state or the scene while the latter con¬
centrates on the action. Compare the usages of the two expressions in
[3] and [4].

[3] fc,
A, Jon ga hashitte iru / *hashitte iru tokoro da.
(Look! John is running.)

[4J V xt'-ZLXl'ZtZZVt I'LXl'&to

Kono shashin wa gakusei ga furisubi o shite iru tokoro desu /
*shite imasu.
(This picture shows students playing frisbee (lit. is a scene of
students playing frisbee).)

III. Vinf*past tokoro da is similar to Vinf*past bakari da. However, their

implications are different. That is, the former indicates that someone /
something is in the state of having just done something, while the latter
implies that someone / something did something and not much time has
passed since then. Thus, tokoro da is strange in [5] because isshukan
mae ‘ a week ago ’ is too far in the past to be used to express “ have
just done something”.
 tokoro da21 ~to shite 501

[5] %n& o vtirtz*ti0

Watashi wa Yamamoto-sensei ni wa isshukan mae ni atta bakari
da I * tokoro da.
(I met Prof. Yamamoto only a week ago.)

~to shite ~k LX P't-

^ a compound particle which indicates \ as; in the capacity of

< the capacity, role or function of s.o. £
i or s.t. <

♦ Key Sentence

Noun

pa A, fi •b-JUZV's t LX Lfc0
Tanaka-san wa serusuman to shite saiyosareta / saremashita.

(Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.)

N t LX
to shite
k LX (as a teacher)
sensei to shite

(a)
Watashi wa isha to shite anata ni iimasu.
(I’ll tell you (this) as a doctor.)

(b) Jibuti:
Kimura-san to wa tomodachi to shite tsukiatte iru dake desu.
(I’m just keeping company with Mr. Kimura as a friend.)

(c) Lt^tV'So
Kono heya wa monooki to shite tsukatte iru.
(I’m using this room as a storeroom.)
502 ~to shite wa

—to shite wa — iLTIi PrL

| a compound particle which indicates < for

! a standard for comparisons ; [REL. -—/?/ shite wa]

4 Key Sentence

Noun

Z<D fi t lx n /^xi~0
Kono suteki wa Nihon no suteki to shite wa yasui / yasuidesu.

(This steak is inexpensive for Japanese steak.)

N t LX {i
to shite wa
t LX (± (for a teacher)
sensei to shite wa

(a) v?3 >'j LxnB^m^±^tz0

Jonson-san wa nihongo no ichinensei to shite wa nihongo ga jozuda.
(Mr. Johnson is good at Japanese for a first-year student (of Japanese).)

(b) h t
Kore wa Nihon no apato to shite wa okii ho desu.
(For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.)

[Related Expression]

Ni shite wa is also used to present a standard for comparisons. However,

it is different from to shite wa in terms of the speaker’s presupposition.
That is, sentences with X ni shite wa presuppose that the person or the thing
referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with X to shite wa have no
such presupposition. In Ex. (a), for example, Mr. Johnson may or may
not be a first-year Japanese student. However, if ni shite wa is used, it is
presupposed that he is actually a first-year Japanese student. The two ex¬
pressions are also different in that ni shite wa can be used when the speaker
doesn’t know exactly what he is comparing with the standard he presents,
but to shite wa cannot be used in such situations. For example, suppose
that someone receives a package and doesn’t know its contents. In this situa-
 ~ to shite wa / tsumori 503

tion, he can say hon ni shite wa, assuming that the package contains books,
but he cannot say hon to shite wa, as in [1].

[1] UTIi / *£ LTitmi-gzfro

Kore wa hon ni shite wa / *to shite wa karusugiru ne.
(This is too light for books, isn’t it?)

tsumori «•
an intention or conviction of a intend to ~ ; be convinced that
speaker (or a person with whom the ~ ; believe; feel sure that — ;
speaker can empathize) about his be going to; mean
future or past actions or current [REL. hazu; ~yd to omou]
state

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast

% it til X-to
Watashi wa rainen kekkonsuru tsumori da 1 desu•
(I intend to get married next year.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Adj (/) inf* nonpast

X i it *1' o<> 0 ti 1 Tf-f.

Chichi j wa mada wakai tsumori da 1 desu•
(My father is convinced that he is still young.)
504 tsumori

(C)

Topic (subject) Vinf*past

% \ It <£ < m/otd 9 ti 1 x-i-o

Watashi \ wa yoku yonda tsumori da 1 desu.

(I’m convinced that I read it carefully.)

(D)

Topic (subject) Noun

£ ti 1 (i fcft (D *) ti 1 X-to
Kore \ wa o -rei no tsumori da 1 desu.

(Lit. This is my intention of appreciation, ( = This is a token of my ap-

predation.))

( i ) Vinf o t> 0 td
tsumori da
1Lifc} oy td (intend to talk / s.o. is convinced he
[hanasu / hanashita} tsumori da talked)
(ii) Adj (/) inf*nonpast o 9
tsumori da
o t •) td (s.o. is convinced that he is strong)
tsuyoi tsumori da
(iii) Adj (na) stem ft o H) Td
na tsumori da
o (s.o. is convinced that he is healthy)
genkina tsumori da
(iv) N <d o *) td
no tsumori da
co o^ 9 (s.o. is convinced that he is a teacher)
sensei no tsumori da

(a) 9
Yasumi ni wa nani o suru tsumori desu ka.
(What do you intend to do during the vacation?)
 tsumori 505

(b) o t !)
Boku wa daigaku ni iku tsumori wa nai.
(I have no intention of going to college.)

(c) foAyftAlZtit 9V+o

Anna hi to ni wa mo awanai tsumori desu.
(I do not intend to see that kind of person.)
(d) %fi & &o 9 tZo
Watashi wa mada gen kin a tsumori da.
(I’m convinced that I’m still healthy.)
(e) fgtfco 0 X'Lfcfc,
Hanashita tsumori deshita ga. hanasanakatta n desu ne.
(I thought I talked to you, but I didn’t, did I?)
(f) £ ^ Y) -e-f 0
Kono shigoto wa asobi no tsumori desu.
(This work is intended to be a pastime.)

(8)
Sore de benkyoshite iru tsumori desu ka.
(Are you sure you can study like that?)

1. Tsumori is a dependent noun and must be preceded by a modifier. The

minimal modifier is sono ‘that’.

(1) A : ff < 9 X'i-fro

Iku tsumori desu ka.

(Do you intend to go there?)

B: x.x., y X'ir / 'Dij LJ Xi~0

E. sono tsumori desu / *E, tsumori desu.
(Yes, I do.)

2. The subject of a statement containing tsumori da must be the first

person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In a question,
however, the subject must be the second person or someone with whom
the hearer empathizes.

(2) a. Vtz0
Boku I Haha / Tomodachi / *Ano sarariman / *Anata wa
taberu tsumori da.
(I / My mother / My friend / That salaried man / You in-
tend(s) to eat it.)
506 tsumori

b. *3ul / U4ffl$ A/ / i> 5

*Boku I *Haha / *Tomodachi / Yamada-san / Anata wa
taberu tsumori desu ka.
(Do / Does I / my mother / my friend / Mr. Yamada / you
intend to eat it?)

3. Tsumori da can be negated in two ways. The verb / adjective in front

of tsumori can be negated, as in Ex. (c), or tsumori can be negated as
tsumori wa nai (not *tsumori de wa nai), as in Ex. (b). The difference
between these two negative versions is that the second version implies
stronger negation than the first one, as shown by (3) below:

(3) A :
Konban no ongakukai ni iku tsumori desu ka.
(Do you intend to go to tonight’s concert?)
B: / ??fj<0
tDlttoOtltA, o
Mada yoku wakarimasen ga. tabun, ikanai tsumori desu /
11 iku tsumori wa arimasen.
(I can’t tell for sure now, but probably I’m not going there.)

[Related Expressions]

I. Tsumori should not be confused with hazu which means ‘ expectation ’

rather than ‘ conviction ’. (<=> hazu)

II. Tsumori da is comparable but not identical to yd to omou. Firstly, yd

to omou can replace tsumori da only in KS(A), that is, only when a
verb precedes tsumori da. Secondly, yd to omou indicates a spur-of-
the moment decision while tsumori da indicates a more stable convic¬
tion / intention. Thus, if you are shown a car by a car salesman, you
can say:

[1] a. z. X £•£ 9< bX'i-

Kono kuruma wa yosasona node kao to omoimasu ga
ikura desu ka.
(This car looks nice, so I think I will buy it, but how much
is it?)
But it is strange to say:

b. ??£Oj£tt.fc y-e-f bx-lrfro

11 Kono kuruma wa yosasona node kau tsumori desu ga
ikura desu ka.
 tsumori / -tte1 507

(Lit. ??This car looks nice, so I intend to buy it, but how
much is it?)

Or, if you see an interesting ad for a stereo set in the newspaper, you
can say [2a] but not [2b].

[2] a.
Sutereo no kokoku o mite kao to omottara kanai ni han-
taisareta.
(Lit. Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I thought I would
buy one, but my wife objected to it.)

tc o
??Sutereo no kokoku o mite kau tsumori dattara, kanai
ni hantaisareta.
(Lit. ??Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I intended to buy
one, but my wife objected to it.)

-tte1 o x prt.

£ a colloquial topic-introducer Speaking of ~

[REL. (no) wa; ~to ieba
(ttara)\

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Noun

7 * <J oX
Amerikajin tte futtoboru ga sukida / sukidesu ne.

(Speaking of Americans, they love football, don’t they?)

508 -tte1

(B)

Sentence

oX i X’gT't ft,
Kanji o oboeru tte taihenda / taihendesu ne.

(Lit. To memorize kanji, it’s terribly hard, isn’t it? (= It’s really hard
to memorize kanji, isn’t it?))

KS(A)

N oT
tte
oX (speaking of the teacher)
sensei tte
KS(B)

{V / Adj (/)) inf-nonpast oT

tte

f£1~ oT (to talk (topic))

hanasu tte
oT (to be expensive (topic))
takai tte

(a) i> L^V'T'-f Xo

Kanji tte omoshiroidesu yo.
(Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.)

(b) 0^AoTi t.+te0

Nihonjin tte yoku shashin o torimasu ne.
(Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don’t they?)

(c)
Gaikoku de kurasu tte muzukashii ne.
(Living in a foreign country is hard, isn’t it?)

(d)
Ki ga oi tte ii mono da ne.
(It’s good to have many trees, isn’t it?)
 -tte1 509

(e) ^^j£V'o”CV'V'*'Ci“;teo
!e ga hiroi tte iidesu ne.
(It’s good to have a spacious house, isn’t it?)

1. You should not use Adj (na) stem tte, unless it is an Adj (na) that can
be used also as a noun as in: kenko ‘ healthy / health kodoku ‘ lonely /
loneliness shinsetsu ‘ kind / kindness etc.

(1) a. 9

Kenko tte arigatai desu ne.

(Health is a precious thing, you know.)

*Genki tte arigatai desu ne.

(Health is a precious thing, you know.)

2. You should not confuse -tte1 with -tte2 of hearsay. (<=> tte2) Consider
the following sentences:

(2) a.
Yamazaki ga isha ni natta tte honto desu ka.
(I heard that Yamazaki has become a medical doctor, but is
it true?)

Nihon no niku ga takai tte dono gurai takai n desu ka.

(I heard that Japanese meat is expensive, but how expensive
is it?)

3. -tte1 tends to co-occur with the sentence-final particles ne or yo.

[Related Expression]

When -tte is attached to a noun as in KS(A) and Exs. (a) and (b), it is close
in meaning to the topic marker wa. When -tte is attached to a sentence as
in KS(B) and Exs. (c), (d) and (e), it is close in meaning to ~ (to iu) no
wa. -tte, however, is more colloquial and emotive than wa or (to iu) no wa.
In fact, if the predicate does not express the speaker’s emotive judgment /
evaluation -tte cannot be used. Thus,

[1] a. ihP / StMt'to

Yamaguchi-san wa / *tte sensei desu.
(Mr. Yamaguchi is a teacher.)
510 -tte11 -tte2

b. \h p $ h\t I o
Yamaguchi-san wa / tte henna hito desu ne.
(Mr. Yamaguchi is a strange person, isn’t he?)

-tte2 o T prt.

( a colloquial quotation marker that

[REL. soda*; to3]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)

Vx.-y ! (2 Mbtev'
Jen \ wa odoranai tte.

(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance / They say that Jane won’t dance.)

423Z35E9
(a)
Konban wa yuki ga furutte.
(They say it’s going to snow tonight.)

(b) dHff£ 0 fl'oT.SlV'S Lfc0

Boku mo iko ka tte omoimashita.
(I wondered if I should go there, too.)

1. Quote -\-tte2 is a colloquial version of Quote 4- to3. (t=> fo3) Any quota¬
tion which can precede to3 can precede -tte.

2. When there is a human topic in the -tte construction as in KS, the sen¬
tence is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. The person who is
quoting can be either the topic person or ‘ they \ But if a reporting
verb iu ‘ say ’ is used after -tte, then the sentence means ‘ The person
(topic) says that — ’.
 -tte2 511

(1)

Jen wa odoranai tte itte iru yo.

(Jane is saying that she won’t dance.)
3. When -tte is not followed by a verb, the understood verb is iu ‘say’.
Other verbs (i.e., omou ‘feel, think’) cannot be deleted after -tte, as
shown in Ex. (b).

[Related Expressions]

I. Itta I iimashita ‘ said ’, itte iru / imasu ‘ is saying ’ or itte ita / imashita
‘ was saying’ can be deleted after -tte2, as seen in KS and [1] below, but
not after fo3, as seen in [2].
[1] a.
Jen wa odoranai tte itta.
(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance.)

b. ^x-yiiiP,ftv^T0
Jen wa odoranai tte.
( = KS)
[2] a. S/i — ofco
Jen wa odoranai to itta.
(Jane said that she wouldn’t dance.)
b.
*Jen wa odoranai to.
The difference between -tte2 and to3 is that the former is more emphatic
and emotive owing to its glottal stop.
(«=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)

II. When the subject of the understood iu is an unspecified person(s), as in

the second interpretation of KS, -tte2 is similar to the hearsay soda1
‘ they say — ’. -tte2, however, is more colloquial and informal than soda1.
(«=> soda1) X ga itte ita kedo ‘ X was saying but ’ or its variants are used
when specifying an informational source in the -tte construction, not the
usual X ni yoru to, as shown in [3].

[3] a. v a oTl'frltif,
Jon ga itte ita kedo, Jen wa odoranai tte.
(According to John, Jane is not going to dance.)
b. */3 >IZ£Z£, =
Jon ni yoru to. Jen wa odoranai soda / *tte.
(According to John, Jane is not going to dance.)
512 uchi ni

uchi ni ?1=>tz conj.

5 during a period when a certain situ- \ while; before; during

ation remains in effect [REL. aid a (ni); mae ni; chu
{ni)}

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Subordinate Clause
Topic (subject) Main Clause
Verb (stative)

bIIIB £ kj T / V i] fc 9h l-
Maeda-san wa Amerika ni iru uchi ni eigo ga jdzuni
/ t£\) £ Lfc o
natta / narimashita.

(Mr. Maeda’s English improved while he was in America.)

(B)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vinf • neg* nonpast

LfcL' 9*>
Nani mo shinai uchi ni kotoshi mo owatta / owarimashita.

(Lit. Before I’ve achieved anything, this year is over.)

(C)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Vte

9 M fcfc< ft O tc. 1 ti: j) & Lfco

Hashitte iru uchi ni onaka ga itakunatta / narimashita.

(My stomach started to ache while I was running.)

 ucni ni 513

(D)

Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
Adj (/) inf* nonpast

9^1- & tz<£/v v\,

Wakai uchi ni hon 0 takusan yominasai.

(Read many books while you’re young.)

(i) Vinf* nonpast ^ \z (V:stative)

uchi ni
V'S 9 h (while s.o. is there)
iru uchi ni
? h (while s.o. can talk)
hanaseru uchi ni
(ii) Vinf* neg* nonpast 9 t?
uchi ni
9 (c. (before s.o. talks)
hanasanai uchi ni
9 h (c (before s.o. eats)
tabenai uchi ni
(iii) Vte 9 {^.
iru uchi ni
fSUT 5^1^ (while s.o. is talking)
hanashite iru uchi ni
9 (while s.o. is eating)
tabete iru uchi ni
(iv) Adj (/) inf* nonpast 9 t,
uchi ni
9 (C (while s.t. is expensive)
takai uchi ni
(v) Adj (/7a) stem ft 9 (-
na uchi ni
fM'fr h \Z. 0 (while s.t. is quiet)
shizukana uchi ni
514 uchi ni

(vi) N co t, (z
no uchi ni
co o h f£ (during the vacation)
yasumi no uchi ni

WSMH#
(a)
Anne ga furanai uchi ni tenisu o shite kimasu.
(I’ll go and play tennis (and come back) before it rains.)

(b) t
Wasurenai uchi ni itte okitai koto ga aru.
(There is something I want to tell you before I forget.)

(c)
Kangaete iru uchi ni wakaranaku natta.
(While thinking about it, I got lost.)

(d) i&ttS o
Hatarakeru uchi ni dekiru dake hatarakitai.
(I’d like to work as much as possible while I can work.)

(e)
Atatakai uchi ni nonde kudasai.
(Please drink it while it is warm.)

(f) 0 < 31To

Yasumi no uchi ni yoku nete okimasu.
(I’ll sleep a lot during the vacation.)

1. The uchi ni clause expresses the general time during which a given
action or state occurs. Uchi ni is preceded by verbs describing states
or progressive actions, or by adjectives, or by nouns expressing duration
such as haru ‘spring’, hiruma ‘day time’ and shukan ‘week’. (For
examples, see KSs(A), (C), (D) and Ex. (f), respectively.)

2. The tense before uchi ni is always nonpast, regardless of the tense of

the main clause.

3. The verb before uchi ni is frequently negated, as in KS (B), Exs. (a)

and (b).
 uchi ni 515

[Related Expressions]

I. When it indicates an interval of time, aida refers to the ‘ time space *

between two points, i.e., the beginning and the end. In other words,
the time space indicated by aida can be measured in clocktime. Uchi,
however, does not refer to such measurable time space; it simply means
‘ time space within ’. Thus, in a situation where a mother wants to
read books while her child is away at school, either uchi or aida can be
used, as in [la]. However, in a situation where we want to play tennis
before it rains, we cannot substitute aida for uchi, as in [lb], because
it is impossible to specify a time boundary.

[1] a.
Kodomo ga gakko ni itte iru uchi ni / aida ni hon o yomi-
masu.
(I read books while my child is away at school.)

A me ga furanai uchi ni / *aida ni tenisu o shimasu.

(I’ll go and play tennis before it rains.)

c. /*Mlz
Tsumetai uchi ni / *aida ni b/ru o nonde kudasai.
(Please drink the beer while it is cold.)

II. The uchi ni construction cannot be used for situations where a noun is
an event noun such as jugyd ‘ class ’, kaigi ‘ conference ’ and shiai ‘game’.

[2] a. SH©|Hlz/*ti(|c)/*05^l=J:<»PaS:tfc0
Jugyd no aida ni / chu (ni) / *no uchi ni yoku shitsumon
o shita.
(He frequently asked questions during the class.)

b. IZ I 4«(|C)/*0 9%l=mJ&s»oT3l5fco
Shiai no aida ni / chu (ni) / *no uchi ni ame ga futte kita.
(It started to rain while the game was going on.)
516 wa1

wal \t P*t-

| a particle which marks a topic or - talking about —; as for — ; the

) a contrastive element . [REL. ga1]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject)

ft it ti 1 T-to
Watashi wa gakusei da / desu.

(I am a student.)

(B)
Contrastive Element Contrastive Element2

Ji a* ft it
Sugitasan wa ikimasu ga watashi wa ikimasen.

(Mr. Sugita will go (there) but I won’t go.)

(a) v? a —
Jonzu-san wa ima nihongo o benkydshite iru.
(Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.)

(b)
Kono machi ni wa daigaku ga futatsu aru.
(There are two universities in this town.)
(c) %\h0
Watashi wa biru wa nomimasu ga sake wa nomimasen.
(I drink beer but don’t drink sake.)

(d) tfe*£hiftz0
Haruko ni wa ningyd o, Akiko ni wa ebon o ageta.
(I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.)

1. The origin of wa can be traced to the conditional marker ba. (Com¬

pare the spellings of wa (it) and ba Of).) (=> ba) However, in con-
 wa1 517

temporary Japanese, wa is used, in general, to mark information which

the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer’s register. In other words,
when wa marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hearer knows
what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by wa in
ordinary circumstances are as follows:

(A) Common nouns whose referents have already been introduced

into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example:

(1) —Ac0fcXl'£^£/u*eV'&Lfco
Mukashimukashi. hitori no o-Jf-san ga sunde imashita.
(Once upon a time, there lived an old man.)
1$Cl'ZA,l*hX LV'AT-Lfco
O-ji-san wa totemo yasashii hito deshita.
(The old man was a very gentle man.)

(B) Proper nouns. Examples:

(2) 7 / y iJ ‘America ’; * ^ X$L ‘ Mr. Smith ’

Amerika Sumisu-san
(C) Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified (that is, they
are one of a kind). Examples:

(3) AH ‘sun’; ^ ‘sky’

taiyo sora
(D) Generic names. Examples:

(4) A ‘ man ’; $ ‘car’

hito kuruma
It is noted that wa never marks WH-words such as nani ‘ what ’ and
dare ‘ who ’. Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.

(5) LlUfro
*Dare wa pati ni kimashita ka.
(Who came to the party?)

This is because WH-words do not refer to a known thing and, there¬

fore, their referents can never be in the hearer’s register.

2. More specifically, wa marks a topic and / or a contrastive element.

When wa is used as a topic marker, as in X wa Y, X is something the
rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls
on Y or part of Y. (Cp. ga1) The topic X wa normally appears at
the beginning of a sentence.
518 wa1

3. Wa is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in KS (B), Exs. (c)

and (d). However, whether wa is being used as a topic marker or as
a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear particularly
when there is one element X marked by wa but there is no other ele¬
ment Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some general rules for
determining whether a given wa is topical or contrastive.

(A) When more than one wa appears in a sentence, as in “X wa Y

wa Z wa. . . ”, the first wa is usually understood to be the topic
marker, the second wa is more contrastive than the first one, the
third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Ex¬
amples :

(6)
Taro wa tenisu wa dekimasu.
(Taro can play tennis.)

(7) L&V\,
Boku wa kyo wa tenisu wa shinai.
(I won’t play tennis today.)

(B) When X wa is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive

element. Examples:

(8) mz—stX'i-0
Watashi wa ichinen desu.
((I don’t know about other people but, at least) f am a
freshman.)

(9)
Blru wa nomimasu.
((I don’t drink other drinks but) I drink beer.)

4. When wa is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated element.

This is a special use of wa as a contrastive marker. Compare the
following sentences:

(10) a. fidiqfco 9 h
Watashi wa kino Bosuton e ikanakatta.
(I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.)

Watashi wa kino wa Bosuton e ikanakatta.

(I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.)
 wa1 519

c. 9 h
Watashi wa kino Bosuton e wa ikanakatta.
(I didn’t go to Boston yesterday.)

(10a) simply states that the speaker didn’t go to Boston yesterday. (10b)
negates yesterday, implying that the speaker went to Boston on other
days or that he usually goes to Boston on that day but didn’t yesterday.
Likewise, (10c) negates to Boston, implying that the speaker went some¬
where but it was not to Boston.

5. There are rules for particle ellipsis when wa marks noun phrases with
case markers (i.e., particles such as the subject marker ga (=gal) and
the direct object marker o ( = o1)).

(A) When wa marks X pa or X o, ga or o must drop. (Exs. (a)

and (c))

(B) When wa marks X e or X ni6 (location), e or ni optionally drop.

(Ex. (b))

(C) When wa marks X ni1 / ni2 / ni3 / ni* (time, indirect object, agent,
contact), X de, X to, X kara, X made or X yori, the case marker
usually remains and wa follows it, forming a double particle.
(Ex. (d)) More examples follow:

(11) tfZV'o
Koko de wa tabako o su wan aide kudasai.
(Please don’t smoke here.)

(12)
Tanaka-san to wa yoku aimasu.
(I see Mr. Tanaka often.)

6. The topical wa does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).

(13) a.
Hanako wa watashi ga / *wa kino sake o nonda koto o
shitte iru.
(Hanako knows that I drank sake yesterday.)

b. T'-to
Watashi ga / *wa yonda hon wa " Yukiguni” desu.
(The book I read was Snow Country.)
520 wa1

wa1 2 t) Prt•

a sentence particle used in weak as¬

sertive or volitional sentences by a
<> female speaker

4 Key Sentence

Sentence

% hLtz <o -i — (c ff< fro

Watashi mo ashita no pati ni iku wa.

(I’ll go to tomorrow’s party, too.)

(a)
Oki-san wa mo kaerimashita wa.
(Mr. Oki has already gone home.)

(b)
Hisako wa mada gakusei desu wa.
(Hisako is still a student.)

(c) £CDgflMf2/J>£V';b0
Kono heya wa chisai wa.
(This room is small.)

1. The sentence particle wa is used only in female speech and expresses

the speaker’s weak assertion or volition. In addition, wa sometimes
expresses the speaker’s intimacy or friendliness.

2. Wa can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional
forms of verbs. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

(1) /irobo
*Watashi ga ikimasho / iko wa.
(I will go.)
Note that wa cannot be used in questions.
(2) a. y >£A,\*¥£Xirfrfr0
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu ka wa.
(Is Mr. Jackson a student?)
 wa21 ~wa ~da 521

*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu wa ka.

(Is Mr. Jackson a student?)

c. y :/£yU2^£*C'-J-;b?
*Jakuson-san wa gakusei desu wa?
(Is Mr. Jackson a student?)

3. Other sentence particles such as ne and yo can occur with wa. In this
case, wa must precede these particles.

(3)
Watashi mo iku wa ne.
(1*11 go there, too. All right?)

(4)
Watashi mo iku wa yo.
(I’ll go there, too. (Emphatic))

wa —da — |i — ft str.

> S.o. or s.t. is / was s.o. or s.t. or

£ is / was in some state, or will do /
\ does / did s.t.

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) Noun

* K 1 -C"f„
hon da i desu.

(This is a book.)
522 ~ wa ~da

(B)

Topic (subject) Noun Prt

^ b 1 fi AH# rt'b ti 1 .
Konsato ; wa hachiji kara da f desu m

(Lit. The concert is from eight o’clock, ( = The concert starts at eight
o’clock.))

C^S!3E3S^
(a)
Ano hi to wa sensei da.
(That person is a teacher.)

(b) %\±*Ja->XX'lTo
Watashi wa Jonzu desu.
(I am Jones.)

(c)
Jugyo wa yoji made desu.
(Lit. My classes are till four o’clock. ( = 1 have classes till four o’clock.))

(d) b>*¥bt*o
Kondo no shiai wa Washinton Daigaku to da.
(The next game is against the University of Washington.)

1. “A wa B c/a” is probably the most basic sentence structure in Japanese.

The very basic meaning of this construction is ‘‘A is B However,
this pattern can convey more than that meaning. For example, the
second sentence in (1) literally means ‘My wife is tea’, but actually
means ‘ My wife drinks tea.’ Here, the copula da is used in place of
nomu ‘ drink ’.

(1) —fc — Srlfctfo

Watashi wa maiasa kohi o nomu. Kanai wa kocha da.
(I drink coffee every morning. Lit. My wife is tea. ( = My wife
drinks tea.))

In fact, this structure is used frequently in conversation, as in (2), where

the copula desu in B’s sentence means ikimasu ‘ am going'.
 wa ~da 523

(2) A : ^
Watashi wa Hawai e ikimasu.
(I*m going to Hawaii.)

B : ) yvto
Watashi wa Furorida desu.
(Lit. I am Florida. ( = I’m going to Florida.))

In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the mean¬

ing can be understood from context. Note the following examples:

(3) h<D h y V\tX btz0

Kono resutoran wa sushi ga oishii. Ano resutoran wa tenpura da.
(Sushi is good at this restaurant. At that restaurant tempura is
good.)

(4) =T4 y tit*?- bt>±^t£0 tf-fVlZyZr-tz o

Dikku wa suketo ga jozuda. Poru wa ski da.
(Dick is good at (ice) skating. Paul is good at skiing.)

(5) 'ibtslt&XZAstzo
Mitsuko wa o-ka-san ga byoki da. Tsutomu wa o-td-san da.
(In Mitsuko’s family, her mother is ill. In Tsutomu’s family, his
father is ill.)

What the copula da means may be understood from the linguistic con¬
text, as in (1) - (5), or from the extra-linguistic context, as in (6).

(6) [In an order situation at a restaurant]

Boku wa unagi da.

(Lit. I am an eel. ( = 1*11 have eel / I’d like eel.))

2. In “A wa B da ”, B may be a noun phrase, as in KS(A) or a noun

phrase with a particle, as in KS(B). General rules about particle el¬
lipsis and retention in this construction follow:

(A) Ga, o, e and ni (time (=nil), location (= nfi)) must drop. (See
(1) - (6).)
(B) Ni (indirect object ( = ni2), agent ( = /7/3), direct contact (= ni4)) and
de (location (= del), means (= de2)) may drop. Examples:

(7) A : mtZ'r'slZtcO/vrio
Boku wa Ken ni tanonda.
(I asked Ken.)
524 ~ wa ~da

B : m*TV?j-{\z)tz0
Boku wa And/ (ni) da.
(I asked Andy.)

(8) A : tefiTA*- o
Boku wa apato de benkyosuru.
(I study in my apartment.)

B : &tt@«&0e)*:o
Boku wa toshokan (de) da.
(I study at the library.)

(C) De (reason), to, kara and made usually do not drop. Examples:

(9) A :
Boku wa byoki de yasunda.
(I was absent because of illness.)

B : / ??0 tzo
Boku wa kega de / ??0 da.
(I was absent because I got injured (lit. because of an
injury).)

(10) A : £ Lfco
Watashi wa Ichiro to odorimashita.
(I danced with Ichiro.)

b : mtmt i ??«* vto

Watashi wa Nobuo to / ?? ef desu.
(I danced with Nobuo.)

3. When the copula is used for a predicate, it usually appears in the non¬
past tense regardless of the tense of the predicate, as in (7) and (9).

4. In “A wa B da ”, A wa may drop if it can be understood from context,

as seen in (11).

(11) A : %tU±{
Sore wa nan desu ka.
(What is that?)

B :
(Kore wa) Jisho desu.
(This is a dictionary.)
 wa ~ga 525

—wa —ga str.

j a construction which relates a non- l

} controllable state of s.t. or s.o. to a \
s topic \

♦ Key Sentences

Predicatei
Topic (subjectf)
Subject2 Predicate2

% ft* / ftt)' \) ^”t*o

Watashi j wa eigo \ ga wakaru / wakarimasu.

(I understand English. (Lit. To me, English is understandable.))

Wf- | \t g | SM'KI

Hanako \ wa me I ga kireida / kireidesu.

(Hanako has pretty eyes. (Lit. Speaking of Hanako, her eyes are
pretty.))

(3) mm t>> V'V' / v'V'-e-fo

Jisho wa Webusuta ga // / iidesu.

(Talking about dictionaries, Webster’s is good.)

Examples

(a)
Takashi wa tenisu ga jozuda.
(Takashi is good at tennis.)

(b) 7i/yF^lltv>0
Watashi wa boifurendo ga hoshii.
(I want a boyfriend.)

(c) m±7y h
Boku wa futtoboru ga sukida.
(I like football.)

(d)
Zo wa hana ga nagai.
(Elephants have long trunks.)
526 ~wa ~ga

(e) V'/to
Watashi wa onaka ga suita.
(I am hungry.)

(f) ^
Mira-san wa se ga takai.
(Mr. Miller is tall.)

(g) — 3r^ifliV'0
Nihon wa suteki ga takai.
(Steak is expensive in Japan.)

(h)
Umi wa Nihonkai ga kireida.
(Talking about the sea, the Japan Sea is clean.)

(i)
Nihon no yakyu wa doko ga tsuyoidesu ka.
(Talking about baseball in Japan, who is strong?)

1. “A wa B ga C ” is one of the basic constructions in Japanese. In this

construction, C usually expresses something about B and “ B ga C ”
expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).

2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three classes:

(A) A is human, and “ B ga C ” expresses A’s physical and / or mental
state, for example, ability or desire, as in KS (1), Exs. (a), (b)
and (c).
(B) B is part of A, and C expresses something about B, which, in
turn, expresses something about A, as in KS (2), Exs. (d), (e), (f)
and (g).
(C) B is a member of A, and C expresses something about B, as in
KS (3), Exs. (h) and (i).

3. Listed below are the verbs and adjectives which usually require the
“A wa B ga C ” construction. (Sentences with these verbs and adjec¬
tives belong to Class (A) in Note 2.)
 ~ wa ~ga 527

(2) Ability'.
(be understandable; understand)
wakaru
(can be done; can do)
dekiru
btl% (can) JLx.£ (be visible) (be audible)
rarer u2 mieru kikoeru
_h#fi (good at) Tf/: (poor at)
jozuda hetada
(proudly good at) 97^ti (ashamedly poor at)
tokuida nig a ted a
(<=> kikoeru; mieru; rareru2)
(3) Desire / Need:

fiLV' (desirable; want) tzl' (want to)

hoshii tai
(be necessary; need) (necessary)
iru3 hitsuyoda
(■=> hoshii1; iru3; tai)
(4) Fondness:

1ft (be liked; like) cf b^'tz (be disliked; dislike)

sukida kiraida
(<=> kiraida; sukida)
(5) Emotion:

(embarrassing) (nostalgic)
hazukashii natsukashii
Id < b LV' (hateful) $5^5 LV' (dreadful)
nikurashii osoroshii
£;fc>V' (fearful) 0 LV' (enviable)
kowai urayamashii
(vexing)
kuyashii
 528 — wa ikenai

~wa ikenai ~ia (,'(}&l' Phr-

N/VWV V)

a phrase which indicates prohibi¬ cannot do s.t.; must not do s.t.;

tion Don’t do s.t.; should not do s.t.
[REL. ~wa naranai]
4 Key Sentence

Vte

Z.(D gftM Ao X it o
Kono hey a ni haitte wa ikenai / ikemasen.

(You must not enter this room.)

Vte li V'lt&V'
wa ikenai
fi§LT fi V'lt&V' (must not talk)
hanashite wa ikenai
fe^X li V'ltfcV' (must not eat)
tabete wa ikenai

(a)
Kyoshitsu de mono o tabete wa ikemasen.
(You must not eat (food) in the classroom.)

(b)
Hanako wa mada sake o nonde wa ikenai.
(Hanako must / can not drink alcohol yet.)

1. In Vte wa ikenai, the second person subject is usually omitted, as in

KS and Ex. (a).

2. Vte wa ikenai is often used as a negative answer to “ Vte mo iidesu

ka. (May I ~?).” (<=> ~te mo ii)

[Related Expression]

Vte wa naranai also expresses prohibition. Vte wa naranai, however, sounds

a little stronger than Vte wa ikenai.
 wakaru 529

wakaru 5^5 v- (Gr. l)

can figure out (spontaneously) vari¬ be comprehensible; understand;
ous facts-such as content, nature, can tell; figure out
value, meaning, cause, reason, result [REL. shiru]
-about s.t. whose existence is pre¬
supposed

4 Key Sentence

Object of
Topic (experiencer)
Comprehension

: (|C) j {i £.0 m j
Watashi 1 (ni) j wa kono kotoba \ ga wakaranai / wakarimasen.

(Lit. To me this word is not comprehensible. (=1 don’t understand

this word.))

(a)
Watashi ni wa Mono eiga no imi ga wakaranai.
(I don’t understand the meaning of this movie.)

(b) C0|«|]Httj#L <

Kono mondai wa muzukashikute wakaranai.
(This problem is too difficult to understand.)

(c) h tC t' if 9 9
Ashita made ni kono shigoto ga dekiru ka do ka wakarimasen.
(I can’t tell if I can finish this work by tomorrow.)

(d) A :
Tanaka-san o shitte imasu ka.
(Do you know Mr. Tanaka?)

B: x.x., feoAlit'9 ii X
E, shitte imasu ga. ano hito wa domo yoku wakarimasen.
(Yes, I know him, but he is somehow incomprehensible to me.)

1. The basic pattern for this verb is the ~ wa ~ ga pattern. («=> ~ vva
~ ga) The experiencer of wakaru takes ni optionally, as in KS.
530 wakaru

2. Because wakaru is already a potential verb, it cannot take the potential

form *wakareru ‘ can understand ’.

3. Wakaru normally takes ga to indicate the object of comprehension, but

must take o when ‘ non-spontaneous comprehension ’ is involved, as in
causative sentences ((la)) or sentences in which the experiencer makes a
conscious effort to understand something ((lb)).

(1) a.
Oya no shi o / *ga chisai kodomo ni wakaraseru no wa
muzukashii.
(It is hard to make a small child comprehend the death of a
parent.)

b. I ? b LfcV'o
Jakku wa Rinda no kimochi o / *ga wakard to shinai.
(Jack does not try to understand Linda’s feeling.)

[Related Expression]

Wakaru indicates ‘ the process of figuring something out ’ and is different

from shiru which basically means ‘ to get some raw information from some
outside source ’. The primary difference between the two verbs is illustrated
in the following sentences:

[1] Z. b / WA'otl'fco
Tomodachi ni kiite Ono no kekkon no koto o shitte ita / *ga
wakatte ita.
(I knew about Ono’s marriage by hearing it from a friend.)

[2] /*mz+£0
Yoku kangaereba wakarimasu / *shirimasu yo.
(If you think hard, you’ll understand / *know it.)

[3] A : V' < tti‘0

Ikura ka wakarimasu ka.
(Can you tell how much it is?)

B: /**py*-r0
Hai. shirabereba wakarimasu / *shirimasu.
(Yes, I can tell / *know it, if I check into it.)

[4]
Konban nani o suru tsumori desu ka.
(What do you intend to do tonight?)
 wakaru / wake da 531

Mada wakarimasen / *shirimasen.

(I don’t know yet.)

wake da t>\ltd Phr•

\ the speaker’s conclusion obtained | no wonder; so it means that ~ ;

< through deductive, logical judgment \ that’s why; should ~ ; I take it
‘ or calculation on the basis of what ( that —; naturally
< he has heard or read [REL. hazu da]
< ,

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Sentencei

&0 i> £ MffiLX h X-f

Mainichi sanjikan mo nihongo o benkydshite iru n desu ka.

Sentence2

Vinf

ajjfcs Xf Uo
Yoku dekiru wake desu ne■
(Are you studying Japanese (as long as) three hours every day? No wonder
your Japanese is good.)

(B)

Sentencei Sentence2 Adj (/) inf

hLtz x-f ft Lt' t>\t x-f ;te0

Ashita shiken desu ka. Ja konban isogashii wake desu ne-
(Do you have an exam tomorrow? Then, you must be busy tonight.)
532 wake da

(i) {V/Adj} (/) inf fctf ti

wake da
{fS't* ;bfJ (I take it that s.o. talks / talked)
[hanasu / hanashita} wake da

;bft ti (I take it that s.o. eats / ate)

[taberu / tabeta} vva/re da
{JISV' ;bft (I take it that s.t. is / was expensive)
[takai / takakatta] wake da

(ii) Adj (na) stem {& / ti^tz) bit ti

[na / datta] wake da
{fM'& I wfrfi'ti'itz.} hit ti (I take it that s.t. is / was quiet)
[shizukana / shizukadatta} wake da

(iii) N [tl'o / ti^tz) bit ti

[to iu / da tta] wake da
{&£ t V'5 / ti^tz) bit ti (I take it that s.o. is / was
[sensei to iu / sensei datta} wake da a teacher)

(a) x^ \>*r~X'k\stz<DTit't>±&t£to\-y ti0

Sumisu-san wa junenkan mo tenisu o shita no da kara jozuna wake da.
(Mr. Smith has played tennis for ten years, so he should be good at it.)

(b) A : 7
Raigetsu kara yonkagetsu Furansu ni ikimasu.
(I’ll go to France next month and stay there for four months.)

Suru to. rokugatsu ni kaette kuru wake desu ne.

(Then, I take it that you’re returning here in June.)

(c) H0 jC&tebtfX'l-fro
Mainichi puru de oyoide iru n desu ka. Jobuna wake desu ne.
(Are you swimming in the pool everyday? No wonder you’re healthy.)

(d) iSS-eiRV'fcttrtfo
Kino wa sanjikan shika nete inai. Dori de nemui wake da.
(Yesterday I slept only three hours. No wonder I am sleepy.)
 wake da 533

(e) Xo? -te3fefcfl>ofc;bttfc'o

E? Adachi-san ga nyuinshita n desu ka. Pad ni konakatta wake da.
(What? Was Mr. Adachi hospitalized? No wonder he didn’t come to
the party.)

(f) A: |1jH££[ifpJT-ti£flo-0'£1-0
Yamada-san wa eigo no koto wa nan demo shitte imasu.
(Mr. Yamada knows everything about English.)

B : ^£^^31 fcV' V ’bft'Xr’tfi'o

Iki jibiki to iu wake desu ka.
(You mean he is a living dictionary?)

(g) 3£cOf') £ tv LTt>|£#(c:4 D£i< 4'i^o

Chichi no iu koto ga wakaranai wake de wa nai ga. doshitemo isha
ni naritakunai.
(It is not that I don’t understand what my father is saying; I simply
don’t want to become a medical doctor.)

1. Wake can be used as a full noun, meaning ‘reason’ as in (1) and (2)
below:

Kaisha o yameta sodesu ga. sono wake o kikasete kudasai.

(I heard that you quit the company. Let me hear the reason for
that.)

(2) ^

Koko ni kita wake wa iemasen.

(I can’t tell you the reason why I came here.)
2. Wake de is the re-form of wake da.

O-ka-san to futari dake desu ka. So iu wake de kekkon deki¬

na i n desu ka.
(It’s only you and your mother? For that reason you can’t get
married, eh?)

[Related Expression]

Hazu da ‘ expect ’ is similar but not identical to wake da.

Hazu da can ex¬
press a speaker’s expectation when there is no preceding context; wake
da cannot. In other words, wake da is highly dependent on verbal context.
(=> hazu da)
534 wake da

[1] a.
Ashita wa jugyd ga nai hazu / *wake desu yo.
(I expect that there is no class tomorrow.)

b. I Xo
A no hi to wa wakai hazu / *wake desu yo.
(I expect him to be young.)
 -ya 535

■ya suf.

a suffix attached to names of stores, ^ store

inns and Japanese-style restaurants j
or to persons engaged in certain oc- ^

(a) 7EM (florist)

hana-ya
(bookstore)
hon-ya

mm (drug store)
kusuri-ya

m (butcher)
niku-ya
/'fyal (pinball parlor)
pachinko-ya
(bakery)
pan-ya
(fish monger)
sakana-ya
(liquor store)
saka-ya

Saka-ya-san ni denwashite biru o sandasu motte kite moratta.

(I called the man at the liquor store and had him bring me three dozen
beers.)

Ano hi to wa seijika de wa nakute seiji-ya da.

(He is not a statesman but a mere politician.)

The suffix -ya is sometimes used to downgrade a person. This use, how¬
ever, is very restricted. Examples follow:
536 -ya / ya

(1) (a shy person)

hazukashigari- ya
(a haughty person)
ibari-ya
0M (an affected person)
kidori-ya
Note that these examples are all derived from V masu+ya, as in hazukashigari
+ ya, ibari+ya and kidori 4- ya.

ya >p conj.

I a coordinate conjunction that is used i and

> to list two or more items (nouns or [REL. to1] toka]
S noun phrases) in an inexhaustive j
\ fashion ,

♦ Key Sentence

Subject

Noun Noun

Mia?*- i //>
Yamada-san ya Ogawa-san \ ga kita / kimashita.

(Mr. Yamada and Mr. Ogawa (and others) came.)

(a) ^
Yamamoto-san ya Sumisu-san ga tenisu o shite iru.
(Mr. Yamamoto, Mr. Smith and others are playing tennis.)

(b) y£&A,Tz0
Boku wa biru ya wain o nonda.
(I drank beer, wine and things like that.)

Tsuchida-san wa Okawa-san ya Suzuki-san ni tegami o kaita.

 ya 537

(Mr. Tsuchida wrote a letter to Mr. Okawa and Mr. Suzuki (and
others).)

1. Ya is used to combine two or more nouns or noun phrases. It cannot

be used to combine predicates. Thus, (1) is unacceptable.

1
( )

*Kind wa depato ni ikimashita ya eiga o mimashita.

(Yesterday I did things like going to a department store and
seeing a movie.)

Instead of (1) we have to use ~ tari ~ tari suru to express an inex-

haustive listing of predicates, as in (2). («=> ~ tari ~ tari suru)

(2) HcffofcyttB&Jlfcy LZLtzo

Kino wa depato ni ittari eiga o mitari shimashita.
2. N ya N can be used as a noun phrase in any position where a single
noun can be used. It can be used as the subject, as in KS and Ex. (a),
or as the direct object as in Ex. (b), or as the indirect object as in Ex. (c).

3. N ya N cannot appear in the position of X in the X ga Y da construc¬

tion, because ga in X ga Y da is a highly exhaustive listing marker.
(«=* gax)
(3)
*Jen ya Missheru ga gakusei desu.
(*Jane and Michelle and only they (and others) are students.)

This idea can be conveyed using the construction in (4):

(4) £££.!$i? x. — v 'yx.

Gakusei wa Jen ya Missheru desu.
(The students are Jane or Michelle (and others).)

[Related Expression]

Toka is used to make a rather general, inexhaustive listing of items as ex¬

amples, whereas ya is used to make an inexhaustive listing of items related
to a specific time and place. Consider the following examples:

[1] a. A:
Sumisu-san wa tatoeba donna nihonshoku ga sukidesu ka.
(Mr. Smith, what kind of Japanese cuisine do you like?
Give me some examples.)
 538 ya / yahari

B : *5*C-*-fc0 X/vJ£btfrl P-^JWIr-e-fia.

So c/eso ne. Tenpura toka l?ya sukiyaki toka / lya sashimi
desu ne.
(Well, I’d say tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).)

b. A: %<D 5 Ltch\
Kind ryori-ya de nani o tabemashita ka.
(What did you eat at the Japanese restaurant?)

Tenpura ya I HI toka sukiyaki ya / HI toka sashimi o tabe¬

mashita.
(I ate tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).)

yahari ^>(i £) adv.

an adverb indicating that an actual still; also; after all; as expected;

situation expectedly / anticipatively you know
conforms to a standard based on past [REL. kekkyoku\ sasuga (ni)]
experience, comparison with other (ANT. mas aka)
people, or common sense

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)

it *?i± 9 / &t.-£/vXL tz t20

Beiri-san wa yahari konakatta / kimasendeshita ne.

(As expected, Mr. Bailey hasn’t come, has he?)

(a) H) $tlV'Xi~o
Yukiko-san wa ima demo yahari kireidesu.
==== (Yukiko is still pretty.)

1Y| (b) *)±^Xi-£0

saaass O-ni-san wa tenisu ga jozudesu ga. ototo-san mo yappari jozudesu yo.
 yahari 539

(The older brother is good at tennis, and the younger brother is also
good at it.)

Yahari Nihon no biru wa oishiidesu ne.

(As expected, Japanese beer is good.)

(d) Lfc0
Boku wa yahari kekkonsuru koto ni shimashita.
(I’ve decided to get married, after all.)

1. Yahari is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use is based on the

speaker’s subjective and presuppositional standards. Its overuse in con¬
versation makes a discourse overly subjective, but its proper use in
conversation makes a discourse sound like real Japanese.

2. Yahari can be positioned sentence-initially or sentence-medially, just

like other adverbs. Thus, in KS yahari can be positioned in two ways.

(i) a.
Yahari Beiri-san wa konakatta ne.

Beiri-san wa yahari konakatta ne.

c. *>ttyo
?Beiri-san wa konakatta ne. yahari.

The sentence-initial yahari is more emphatic than the sentence-medial

yahari. The sentence-final yahari as in (lc) sounds like an after-thought,
and its usage is slightly marginal.

3. Yappari is a more emphatic and emotive version of yahari, owing to its

glottal stop -pp-.
(<=> Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 8. Sound Symbolisms)

[Related Expressions]

I. Sasuga is an adverb / adj (na) whose meaning is similar to yahari. Sa-

sugay however, has only one meaning ‘ as expected ’ and indicates that
the speaker is very much impressed or surprised by the given situation.

[1] a. *r#(|z)H*AttJ:<flKo
Sasuga(ni) nihonjin wa yoku hataraku.
(Truly Japanese people work hard!)
540 yahari

b. ')
Sasuga(ni) Amerika wa hiroi.
(Exactly as I expected, America is huge.)

Sasuga(ni) can replace yahari only when yahari means ‘ as expected ’, as

in KS and Ex. (c).

II. The adverb kekkyoku ‘ after all, in short ’ can replace yahari only when
the latter means ‘after all*, as in Ex. (d). More examples follow:

[2] a.
troiro kusuri o nonda ga yahari / kekkyoku naoranakatta.
(I took all kinds of medicine, but I wasn’t cured.)

b.
Yahari I Kekkyoku ikanai koto ni shita.
(After all, I decided not to go there.)

In [2] kekkyoku sounds more formal than yahari, because the former is
a Sino-Japanese word, while the latter is a Japanese word. Yet both
can be used in conversational Japanese.

III. The adverb masaka ‘by no means, on no account, surely not’ is used
when a given situation is far from the speaker’s expectation. In that
sense, it is an antonym of yahari. Masaka is used with a negative pred¬
icate or is used all by itself, meaning ‘ Unbelievable!, You don’t say!’.

[3] a.
Masaka Ogawa-san ga sensei ni naru to wa omowanakatta.
(I never expected Mr. Ogawa to become a teacher.)

b. A: b A^AR&Lfc^ 9 ti0
Tomu ga ny Gin shita soda.
(I heard that Tom was hospitalized.)

Masaka! Kino tenisu o shite ita yo.

(You don’t say! He was playing tennis yesterday.)
 -yasui 541

.yasui aux' a^i' W

>
| S.t. or s.o. is easy to —. \ easy to; ready to; be apt to;
prone to; do s.t. easily
(ANT. -nikui)
♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject)
US
Cl <D It %7L
Kono kanji wa oboe yasui 1 yasuidesu.

(This kanji is easy to memorize.)

Wmasu
yasui
L-(easy to speak)
hanashi yasui
\,\ (easy to eat)
tabe yasui

(a) fo<D\<D 0
Ano hito no uchi wa mitsukeyasui.
(His house is easy to find.)

(b)
Sato-sensei wa hanashiyasuidesu.
(Prof. Sato is easy to talk to.)

(c) v\,
Kono pen wa kakiyasui.
(This pen is easy to write with.)

(d) ±If$/y{±—
Ueno-san wa isshoni shigoto ga shiyasukatta.
(Mr. Ueno was easy to work with.)

(e)
Tofu wa kusariyasui.
(Tofu rots easily.)
542 -yasui

1. Vmasu yasui is an /'-type compound adjective and conjugates as an Adj (/),

as seen in the following:

Informal Formal

Nonpast iSL^-n'
hanashiyasui hanashi yasuidesu
Aff.
Past ML -^1“ ri'ofc ML
hanashi yasukatta hanashi yasukattadesu

Nonpast < fcV'

hanashiyasukunai hanashi yasukunaidesu

hanashi yasukuarimasen
Neg.
Past
hanashiyasukunakatta hanashi yasukunaka ttadesu

ML^t <
hanashi yasukuarimasendeshi ta

2. The following sentences (1) - (4) are closely related to Exs. (a) - (d).

(1) h<D\(D 0 50 (Cp. Ex. (a))

Ano hito no uchi o mitsukeru.
(One locates his house.)

(2i ccP. ex. g>))

Sato-sensei ni hanasu.
(One talks to Prof. Sato.)

(3) £ CD^ o (Cp. Ex. (c))

Kono pen de kaku.
(One writes with this pen.)

(4) (Cp. Ex. (d))

Ueno-san to isshoni shigoto o shita.
(One worked together with Mr. Ueno.)

The noun phrases in (1) through (4) above, such as the direct object
~ ot the indirect object ~ /?/', the instrumental phrase ~ dey and the com¬
bative phrase ~ to are the sources for the topic (subject) of Exs. (a),
 -yasui / yo 543

(b), (c) and (d), respectively. It is important to note that all these
particles drop in the yasa/'-construction, and that the topic is the new
subject of the yast//-construction.

3. If the subject of the yasw/’-construction is under focus, it is marked by

ga, as in (5). (=» ga1)

(5) A:
Dono sensei ga hanashiyasuidesu ka.
(Which professor is easy to talk to?)

Sato-sensei ga hanashiyasuidesu.
(Prof. Sato is easy to talk to.)

4. The antonym of -yasui is -nikui ‘ hard to ~ *, and is used in exactly

the same way as -yasui. (=> nikui)

yo «fc prt.

a sentence-final particle that indi¬ I tell you; I’m telling you; you
cates the speaker’s (fairly) strong con¬ know; contrary to what you
viction or assertion about s.t. that is think
assumed to be known only to him

♦ Key Sentence

Sentence

Sakamoto-san wa tabako o suwanai / suimasen yo.

(Mr. Sakamoto doesn’t smoke, you know.)

(a) A
Nihongo wa omoshiroidesu ka.
(Is Japanese interesting?)
544 yo

B: x.x., t x tio Xo
E. totemo omoshiroidesu yo.
(Yes, it’s very interesting, I tell you.)

(b) A : L J: 90
Ano hito wa sonna hon o kawanai desho.
(He probably won’t buy that sort of book.)

B : V'V'x.,
ie. kaimasu yo.
(Yes, he’ll buy it (contrary to what you think).)

1. In this construction, the sentence preceding yo can be any informal or

formal sentence except a question.

1
( ) a.
*Yomu ka yo.

b.
*Yomimasu ka yo.

The sentences in (1) are unacceptable because the speaker’s strong con¬
viction and his act of questioning contradict each other. If (la) is in¬
terpreted as a rhetorical question meaning ‘ I bet he isn’t going to read
it ’, however, the sentence becomes acceptable. But (lb), the formal
version of (la), cannot be a rhetorical question.

2. A sentence preceding yo can be an informal or a formal request. Ex¬

amples :

(2) a. Mfc&o
Yome yo.
(Read it.)

b. 8£*fc£V'J:0
Yominasai yo.
((From a superior to his inferior) Read it.)

C. o

Yonde kudasai yo.

(Please read it.)

When yo is used in this way, the sentence becomes more forceful.

 yo 545

3. Another sentence-final particle ne may be attached to S yo, yielding the

meaning ‘ I assert S and don’t you agree? S yo ne is used when the
speaker wishes to mitigate the force of his assertion by talking as if the
content of S were also known to the hearer. (=> ne, Note 5) Examples:
(3) a.
Kono hon wa omoshiroi desu yo ne.
(This book is interesting, right?)

Amerika made jujikan wa kakarimasu yo ne.

(It takes at least 10 hours to get to America, right?)
S yo ne can also be used when the speaker is addressing someone who
doesn’t know about an asserted fact and there is another person nearby
who is aware of it. In such circumstances, the speaker asks the person
who shares the asserted fact for his agreement at the end of the sentence.
(4) [The speaker is talking with someone about Mr. Kato, who is
standing nearby.]
J:, fc?

Kato-san wa roshiago ga dekimasu yo, ne?

(Mr. Kato can speak Russian... Can’t you, Mr. Kato?)
4. In nonpolite, informal speech (i.e., intimate speech) sex differences are
expressed by a combination of yo and the female speech markers wa
and no. («=> wa2; no*; Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 7. Sentence-
final Particles) The following chart illustrates the use of yo in informal
male and female speech.

Male Speech Female Speech

Vinf+yo V\r\i+wa+yo
Exs. <fco (PH talk, you know.)
Hanasu yo. Hanasu wa yo.
f&btz «fe0 (I talked, you know.) UistZ. b
Hanashita yo. Hanashita wa yo.

Adj (/)+yo Adj (i)+wa + yo

Exs. pgjV' «J;0 (It’s expensive, you know.) iiiV' b <fc0

Takai yo. Takai wa yo.
j<fc0 (It was expensive, you know.) b <fc0
Takakatta yo. Takakatta wa yo.
546 yo

Male Speech Female Speech

{Adj {na) stem / N)

{Adj stem (na) / N} [da / datta} yo
{da / datta} wa yo

Exs. fftfrtz J:0 (It’s quiet, you know.) (ti b)

Shizukada yo. Shizuka (da wa) yo.
o tzJ:0 (It was quiet, you know.) flints b
Shizukadana yo. Shizukadana wa yo.
tz <fc0 (He’s a teacher, you know.) (ti b)
Sensei da yo. Sensei (da wa) yo.
tz^tz «fc0 (He was a teacher, you Unit, b
Sensei datta yo. know.) Sensei datta wa yo.

n da {yo) no {yo)

Exs. tz (<fc)o (I’ll talk, you know.) U-r <r> (<fc)„

Hanasu n da (yo). Hanasu no (yo).
fgUfc k> tz (<£)<> (I talked, you know.) MLfc <D (£)0
Hanashita n da (yo). Hanashita no {yo).
^ tz (<fc)0 (It’s expensive, you know.) <D («fc)0
Takai n da {yo). Takai no {yo).
]h tz («fc)0 (It was expensive, iiS*<o (J:)0
Takakatta n da {yo). you know.) Takakatta no {yo).
h tz («fc)0 (It’s quiet, you know.) nH'te <n (<fc)o
Shizukana n da {yo). Shizukana no {yo).
h tz (<fc)0 (It was quiet, you ft b tints n (*)„
Shizukadana n da {yo). know.) Shizukadana no (yo).
tn k> tz (J:)0 (He’s a teacher, you 9d± ti <n (J:).
Sensei na n da {yo). know.) Sensei na no (yo).
tz o tz h tz (<fc)0 (He was a teacher, tints n(*).
Sensei datta n da {yo). you know.) Sensei datta no (yo).

5. Ne, the Japanese tag guestion marker, is another frequently used sentence-
final particle. (■=> ne) Yo should not be confused with ne. In contrast
to yo, ne is used when the speaker and the hearer share some specific
information. For example, if the speaker is looking at a delicious-looking
piece of cake with his friend, he would say (5b) instead of (5a).
 yo I yoda 547

(5) a. **5V'L*5'C-*-<fc B
*Oishisddesu yo.
(Looks delicious, I tell you.)

b.
Oishisodesu ne.
(Looks delicious, doesn’t it?)

On the other hand, if he is eating some delicious cake which his friend
has not tasted, he would say (6a) rather than (6b).

(6) a. <fc0
Oishiidesu yo.
(It’s good, I tell you.)

b. *3oV'LV'-e-Nao
*Oishiidesu ne.
(It’s good, isn’t it?)

yoda cfcdfc aux- adJ- (na)

an auxiliary na-type adjective which look like; look as if; be like;

expresses the likelihood of s.t. / s.o. appear; seem
or the likeness of s.t. / s.o. to s.t. / [REL. dard\ rashii; soda
~sdda2]

♦ Key Sentences
(A)

Topic (subject) {V / Adj (/)} inf

fe\U £ A/ i r / V iJ ^ cfc 9 ti / i 9 T'-f <

Sugiyama-san \ \ Amerika e iku yoda / yodesu.

(It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America.)

548 yoda

(B)

Topic (subject)

V 'y "s /5»

Adj (na) stem

ft#
■ J:jC/i5
Ueda-san \ wa bokushingu ga suki na yoate / yodesu.

(Mr. Ueda appears to like boxing.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Noun

&<D a i i± CO X 9 / J: 9 *Ci“0
>4/70 /7/'ro j cva Tanaka-sensei no yoc/a / yodesu.

(That person looks like Prof. Tanaka.)

(D)

A: B: Demonstrative

It i> 9 !l§ 5 Jiv\ X 9 T*f o

/shii-san wa mo kaerimashita ka. Hai. sono yodesu.

(Has Mr. Ishii gone home already?) (Yes, it looks like it.)

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf X 9

yoda

{I5i' / fii*? Ltl}

X 9 t£ (It seems that s.o. (will) talk / talked.)
{hanasu f hanashita) yoda

tz.} X 9 tz (It seems that s.t. is / was expensive.)

{takai / takakatta} yoda

(ii) Adj (na) stem / ti o tz} X 9 tz

{na / datta} yoda

{fM'& Iffifrtz^tz] X 9 (It seems that s.t. is / was quiet.)

[shizukana / shizukadatta} yoc/a

(iii) N {co / fc'ofc} i 9

{no / c/arra} yoc/a
 yoda 549

{%& <&!%:£. td^tc] J; 5 td (It seems that s.o. is/was a teacher.)

{sensei no I sensei datta} yoda
(iv) Demonstrative X 9 td
yoda
•£co X 9 td (It seems so.)
sono yoda

C21E23Q!}
(a) vtd0
Kimura-san wa kind o-sake o nonda yoda.
(It seems that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday.)

(b) td0
J: o tliDV'J: 9
Kono mondai wa gakusei ni wa chotto muzukashii yoda.
(This problem seems to be a little difficult for the students.)

(c) ZZiX^md^tzXStdo
Koko wa mukashi gakko datta yoda.
(It seems that this place used to be a school.)

(d) vl cDtf§fXfa<D
X 9 td0
Kono sake wa mizu no yoda.
(This sake is like water.)

1. Yoda expresses the likelihood of s.t. /s.o., or the likeness of s.t. / s.o.
to s.t. / s.o. In either case, when the speaker uses yoda, his statement
is based on firsthand, reliable information (usually visual information).

2. Yoda can be used in counter-factual situations, as in Ex. (d). In this

case, the adverb marude ‘just’ can be used for emphasis.

1
( ) vfc'o
Kimura-san wa marude sake o nonda yoda.
(Mr. Kimura looks as if he had just drunk sake.)

(2) ')t*to

Ano hito wa marude nihonjin no yodesu.

(That person is just like a Japanese person.)

3. Yoda is a na-type adjective and has the prenominal form yona and the
adverbial form yoni. (■=> yonP) Examples:
550 yoda

(3)
Kyo Tanaka-san no yona hito o mimashita.
(I saw a man who looked like Mr. Tanaka.)

(4) 7X 7
Sumisu-san wa nihonjin no yoni nihongo o hanashimasu.
(Mr. Smith speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)

4. The colloquial version of yoda is mitaida, which is also a na-type adjec¬

tive. The uses of mitaida are exactly the same as those for yoda. The
formation rules are as follows:

(5) {V/Adj (/)} inf

mitaida
(6) {Adj (na) stem / N} {tf/fc'ofc} A/i Wi
a datta mitaida

[Related Expressions]

The conjecture expressions S daro, S rashii and S soda2 convey ideas

similar to S yoda. The differences are as follows :

(A) S dard expresses the speaker’s conjecture, but it is not necessarily based
on any information. In other words, S dard can be used when the
speaker is merely guessing.

(B) S rashii usually expresses the speaker’s conjecture based on what the
speaker has heard or read. That is, the information his conjecture is
based on is not firsthand.

(C) S soda2 expresses the speaker’s conjecture about what is going to hap¬
pen or the current state of someone or something. Although this ex¬
pression is based on what the speaker sees or feels, it is merely his
guess and the degree of certainty in his statement is fairly low. Only
Vmasu or Adj (/ / na) stem can precede soda2.
(D) S yoda is also an expression which is usually based on what the speaker
sees or saw. However, unlike S sdda2f this expression involves the
speaker’s reasoning process based on firsthand, reliable information and
his knowledge. Thus, the degree of certainty in yoda is the highest
of the four expressions compared here.

The following examples demonstrate the differences among these four ex¬
pressions. The sentences in [1] present examples with the adjective takai
‘ expensive ’ before the conjecture auxiliaries.
 ydda 551

[1] a.
Kono hon wa takai dard.
(This book is probably expensive.)

b. Lt'o
Kono hon wa takai rashii.
((From what I heard and / or read,) this book seems expensive.)

c. C tzQ
Kono hon wa taka soda.
(This book looks expensive.)

d. Z & 5 tz0
Kono hon wa takai ydda.
((Considering the prices of similar books,) this book seems ex¬
pensive.)

Here, [la] is mere conjecture, [lb] expresses the speaker’s conjecture based
on what he has heard and / or read. (If the sentence involves little conjecture,
it is almost like hearsay. (=> soda1)) [lc] is also the speaker’s guess, but in
this case it is based on what he sees. [Id] expresses the speaker’s judgment
about the price of the book. Note that in [Id] the speaker knows the book’s
price; therefore, this is not a guess. [2] provides examples with the noun
sensei * teacher ’ preceding the conjecture words. The differences in meaning
among the sentences here are the same as those explained in [1], except that
[2c] is ungrammatical.

[2] a.
Ano hi to wa sensei dard.
(I guess he is a teacher.)

b. Ll'o
Ano hi to wa sensei rashii.
((From what I heard,) he seems to be a teacher.)

c.
* Ano hi to wa sensei soda.

d. fo<DAte9G£.<D&5tz0
Ano hito wa sensei no ydda.
((Judging from how he looks,) he seems to be a teacher. / He
Illlligillilll

looks as if he were a teacher.)

=Y
In [3], the verb furu ‘ fall ’ precedes the conjecture auxiliaries.
552 yoda

[3] a.
Kyd wa a me ga furu daro.
(I guess it will rain today.)

b.
Kyd wa a me ga furu rashii.
((From what I heard,) it seems that it will rain today.)

c.
Imanimo ame ga furi soda.
(It looks like it’s going to rain at any moment.)

d.
Kono hen wa yoku ame ga furu yoda.
((Judging from the abundance of trees and moss,) it appears that
it rains a lot around here.)

Here, [3a] is the speaker’s guess. [3b] is the speaker’s conjecture based on
what he heard or it is almost like hearsay. [3c] is also the speaker’s guess,
but, in this case, he is probably looking at the sky. Like [3c], [3d] is based
on what the speaker sees, but in this case the information is reliable, and
involves the speaker’s reasoning process.

The diagram in [4] summarizes the characteristics of the four conjecture ex¬
pressions and soda1 (hearsay).
 yoni1 553

yoni1 d: *5 fc conj.

! Do s.t. in such a way that \ so that

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf • nonpast(potential)

ME Q3Q| 3= Sr <tz£v\
Yomeru ji o kireini kaite kudasai.

(Please write neatly so that I can read it.)

(B)

Vinf* neg* nonpast

Sr t' 1 % Sr oltt I'Z 1 V'£1“o

Kaze o hikanai ki o tsukete iru / imasu.

(I’m taking care of myself so that I don’t catch cold.)

Vinf* nonpast {pot / neg} <t ?

yoni

l fi§£&V'} <fc 9 (so that s.o. can talk / does not talk)
[hanaseru / hanasanai} yon/'
<£ 9 (so that s.o. can eat / does not eat)
[taberareru / tabenai} yon/

(a) 9^i££ML-C<;ft,fc0
Boku ga wakaru yoni Sumisu-san wa yukkuri eigo o hanashite kureta.
(Mr. Smith spoke English slowly so that I could understand him.)

(b) 9 ? 'y-v'frZ & Ltco

Okurenai yoni takushi de ikimashita.
(I went there by taxi so that I wouldn’t be late.)

(c)
Byoki ga naoru yoni kusuri o nonda.
(I took medicine so that I would (lit. recover from illness) get well.)
554 yoni1 / yoni2

(d) J: 9 {-& t L5-?: 9oX&tc0

Kodomo ga hon o yomu yoni omoshirosona hon o katte kita.
(I bought some interesting-looking books so that my child would read
books.)

1. Although yonix can be used with almost any informal, nonpast verb, it
is most commonly used with potential verb forms (as in KS(A) and Ex.
(a)) and negative verb forms (as in KS(B) and Ex. (b)).

2. ~ydni iu ‘tell s.o. to do s.t.’, ~ydni naru ‘reach the point where ~ ’
and — yoni suru ‘ try to — ’ are idiomatic uses of yoni.
(<=> ~ydni iu\ ~yoni naru\ ~yoni suru)

yoni2 aux- ac^J- (na)

5 an adverbial form of yoda l as; like

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Vinf

% & p 9 <tz£V\
Watashi ga iu kaite kudasai.

(Please write it down as I tell you.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Vinf* past

i « m t fcofc <fc 9 {£• flSfl'V' / X"t0

Kyd j wa haru ni natta yoni atatakai / atatakai desu.

(Lit. Today is as warm as if it had become spring.)

 yoni2 555

(C)

Topic (subject) Noun

Kp’>- j (i CO B*I5 & IS+ /ISLil".

Doroshi \ wa nihonjin no nihongo o hanasu / hanashimasu.

(Dorothy speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)

CBES5D
( i) {V / Adj (/)} inf ± 5 I-
yoni

mi- /fgtft} ±51- (as s.o. talks / talked; as if s.o. (had) talked)
{/7a/?ast7 / hanashita} yoni

/ i^oft} ±51- (as s.t. is / was expensive; as if s.t. were /

{fa/ra/ / takakatta) yoni had been expensive)

(ii) Adj (na) stem { ft / ft o ft} ±5 1-

{/7a/ daffo} yoni
{fM* ft / SM' ft' oft} ±5 (- (as s.t. is / was quiet; as if s.t. were /
[shizuka na I shizuka dattdl yoni had been quiet)

(iii) N {co / ft o ft} ±51-

{ no I dattdi yoni
ftoft} ±51- (like a teacher / as s.o. was a teacher;
{se/7se/ noj sensei dattd yoni as if s.o. were / had been a teacher)

(a) RfK-MLft±5l-fi,{i^^±Sr^«)±i-o
Mae ni hanashita yoni watashi wa raigetsu kaisha o yamemasu.
(As I told you before, I’m going to quit the company next month.)

(b) ±E£A,co±5(-£n±1-7)>o
Ueda-san no yoni hashiremasu ka.
(Can you run like Mr. Ueda?)

(c) ^V'B#0±5Kfi7G^ft<ftoft0
Wakai toki no yoni wa genki ga nakunatta.
(I don’t feel as strong as I used to when I was young.)
556 yoni2 / ~ yoni iu

(d) ±#£/Uiv>o
Doi-san wa itsumo no yoni asa roku/i ni okita.
(As usual Mr. Doi got up at six in the morning.)

Ani ga supotsu ga jozuna yoni ototo mo jozuda.

(Just like the older brother, the younger brother is also good at sports.)

Neko ga kawaii yoni inu mo kawaii.

(Lit. Just like cats are cute, so are dogs. ( = Dogs are cute, just like cats.))

1. Yoni1 expresses purpose but yoni2 doesn’t; it expresses similarity, es¬

pecially in appearance. (=> yoni1)

2. Yoni2 can express a counterfactual situation as in KS(B). The adverb

marude ‘just’ is often used to emphasize counterfactuality. Examples
follow:

(1) a.
Marude ikikaetta yoni genkini natta.
(Lit. He recovered as if he had risen from the dead.)

Ano ko wa marude otona no yoni hanasu.

(That child speaks as if he were an adult.)

~yoni iu —£5 izmo phr.

| Tell s.o. in such a way that he will tell ~ to ~ ; say ~ in such a

^ do s.t. way
 ~ydni iu 557

4 Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Indirect Object Direct Object Vinf* nonpast

: (i | \z. fem | £ *Z>

Sensei j wa gakusei e ni shukudai \ 0 suru

itta 1 iimashita.

(The teacher told his students to do homework.)

(ZB2SE9
Vinf* nonpast <£ 9 i- If o
yoni iu
<fc o If i (tell s.o. to talk)
hanasu yoni iu

<k 9 If 9 (tell s.o. to eat)

taberu yoni iu

(a) X 5 fc-tofco
Sakamoto-san wa Yukie ni toshokan no mae de matte iru yoni itta.
(Mr. Sakamoto told Yukie to be waiting in front of the library.)

(b) i<£ 9 IdUoT < £ V'

Sumimasen ga. Kobayashi-san ni ashita asa kuji ni koko e kuru yoni

itte kudasaimasen ka.
(I’m sorry, but could you please tell Mr. Kobayashi to come here at 9
o’clock tomorrow morning?)

(c)
Watashi wa kikoeru yoni hakkiri itta n desu ga. . .
(I said it in such a way that it was clearly audible, but. . .)

1. Yoni iu can be used either as an indirect imperative as in KS and Exs.

(a) and (b), or to mean ‘ say in such a way that ~,’ i.e., the use of yoni.1
558 — yoni iu

0=> yoni1) In the former case, the verb must be a controllable verb-
a verb that represents something controllable by human volition, such
as suru ‘ do ’, matsu ‘ wait ’, kuru ‘ come ’, yomu ‘ read * and kau ‘ buy \
In the latter case the verb must be a noncontrollable verb, such as wakaru
‘ understand ’, kikoeru ‘ be audible ’ (Ex. (c)), or a potential form of verbs.

2. When yoni iu is used as an indirect imperative, the verb iu can be

replaced by other verbs such as tanomu ‘ ask ’, meijiru ‘ order ’ and
motomeru ‘ request ’.

Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni sugu kuru yoni itta / tanon-

da I meijita.
(Mr. Tanaka told / asked / ordered Mr. Yamamoto to come (to his
place) immediately.)

The direct imperative versions of (1) are something like (2). Notice
that there is more than one direct imperative form if the directive
verb is iu.

(2) a. rt CJ&X < /■££ L' / 3fcl')0j k

fa ^ k- o
Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni " Sugu kite kudasai
(kinasai / koi). " to itta.
(Mr. Tanaka said to Mr. Yamamoto, “ Please come (Come)
here right away.”)

b. r’*'C3fcl'oj .tffaEfco
Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni " Sugu koi.” to meijita.
(Mr. Tanaka ordered Mr. Yamamoto, “ Come here right
away! ”)

c. </c£L'oj bi&AstS0
Tanaka-san wa Yamamoto-san ni ” Sugu kite kudasai.” to
tanonda.
(Mr. Tanaka asked Mr. Yamamoto, “ Please come here right
away.”)
 ~ yoni naru 559

~ydni naru 5 IC&5 phr.

\ Some change takes place gradually. ; reach the point where — ; come
to ~; it has come to be that
~; have finally become
[REL. koto ni naru\ ~naku
naru; ~ydni suru]
♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast

fi 0*15 «•> i 9f- ftofc/

Jakuson-san wa nihongo ga hanaseru yoni natta /

ft 9 $ L fco
narimashita.

(Mr. Jackson has reached the point where he can speak Japanese.)

(B)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast *neg

ft « Sr <t 9 9 & L /io

Hayashi-san wa sake 0 nomanai yo/7/ natta 1 narimashita.

(Lit. Mr. Hayashi has reached the point where he does not drink sake.
( = Mr. Hayashi doesn’t drink sake any more.))

Vinf» nonpast J; 9
yoni naru

[Mi- (s.o. reaches the point where he talks /

[hanasu / hanasanai] yoni naru doesn’t talk)

(s.o. reaches the point where he eats /

{taberu J tabenai} yoni naru doesn’t eat)

Muzukashii nihongo ga yomeru yoni narimashita.

(I am finally able to read difficult Japanese.)
560 — yoni naru

(b) y'y
Pat to wa watashi to hanasanai yoni natta.
(Pat doesn’t talk with me any more.)

(c) t X 0
Mo sugu omoshirosa ga wakaru yoni narimasu yo.
(You’ll soon come to understand the fun of it, I tell you.)

(d) ? \z.tioTV'S0
Kono michi wa ima torenai yoni natte iru.
(Lit. This street has reached the point where people cannot pass. ( = At
present we cannot use this street.))

1. Although ~ydni naru usually indicates a gradual change, when it is pre¬

ceded by an affirmative verb the change may not take place gradually.
Thus, an adverb such as kyuni * suddenly ’ can co-occur with an affir¬
mative verb and ~ydni naruy as seen in (1).

1
( ) ?

Uchi no ko wa saikin kyuni benkyosuru yoni natta n desu yo.

(Lit. Recently our child has suddenly reached the point where
he studies. ( = Recently our child suddenly started to study.))

When ~ydni naru is preceded by a negative verb (as in KS(B)), how¬

ever, the change must take place gradually. If the change is not
gradual, ~naku naru is used in place of ~nai yoni naru.
(See Related Expression II.)

2. Yoni natte iru emphasizes a current state that has come about after a
long process, as in Ex. (d).

3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meanings are
completely different. The verb before yoni can be negated, as in (2a),
or the verb naru can be negated, as in (2b).

(2) a.
Kanji ga oboerarenai yoni natta.
(I’ve reached the point where I can’t memorize kanji.)

b. J: SlCtebtefr'itzo
Kanji ga oboerareru yoni naranakatta.
(I haven’t reached the point where I can memorize kanji.)
 ~yoni naru 561

(2a) means that the speaker can’t memorize kanji any more, and (2b)
means that he is not yet able to memorize kanji.

4. Yoni by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase, along with main

verbs other than naru. («=> yoni1; yoni2)

[Related Expressions]

I. Koto ni naru ‘it has been decided that ~ ’ and ~yoni naru are related
expressions in that both of them indicate some change, but they differ
in that the former implies a passive decision, while the latter suggests
a change brought about by a long process. Compare the following
sentences:

[1] a.
Watashi wa Osaka ni tenkinsuru koto ni / *yoni narimashita.
(It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka.)

b. £ viz 9 £
Watashi wa eigo ga hanaseru yoni /*koto ni narimashita.
(I’ve reached the point where I can speak English.)

II. When the verb before ~ydni naru is negated, as in KS(B), this construc¬
tion can be compared to the ~naku naru construction.

[2] a.
Hayashi-san wa sake o nomanai yoni natta. ( = KS(B))
(Mr. Hayashi doesn’t drink sake any more.)

b.
Hayashi-san wa sake o nomanaku natta.
(Mr. Hayashi doesn’t drink sake any more.)

The nai yoni natta version in [2a] implies a more gradual change than
the naku natta version in [2b]. Thus, adverbs such as kyuni ‘ suddenly ’
or totsuzen ‘ suddenly ’ can co-occur with [2b] but not with [2a].
562 ~ yoni suru

~yoni suru 5 Phr•

S.o. causes some circumstantial or do ~ in such a way that ~;

behavioral change to take place. see to it that ~; make sure
that ~; bring it about that ~
[REL. ~yom naru\

♦ Key Sentence

Vinf • nonpast

% it jSUrf* ~tZ / L't’to

Watashi wa mainichi undosuru yoni suru / shimasu.

(I’ll make sure that I do exercises everyday.)

Vinf* nonpast -P5

yoni suru
(s.o. makes sure that he / s.o. else talks /
{hanasu / hanasanai} yoni suru doesn’t talk)

{'k'tZ / -fZ (s.o. makes sure that he / s.o. else eats /

{taberu / tabenai} yoni suru doesn’t eat)

Dekiru dake nihongo de hanasu yoni shite imasu.

(I’m making sure I speak in Japanese as much as possible.)

(b) o izLfco
Yamakawa ni wa awanai yoni shita.
(I’ve made sure that I won’t see Yamakawa.)

(c) i9iatv^0
Wakaranai koto wa sensei ni kiku yoni shite iru.
(I make a point of asking my teacher about things I don’t understand.)

(d) t o\£LX< ££v\,

Maiasa hachiji ni kuru yoni shite kudasai.
(Please make sure that you come at eight every morning.)

(e) o LTz.0
Ushiro kara mo yoku mieru yoni shimashita.
 ~ yoni suru 563

(I’ve seen to it that people can see from the rear seats, too.)

(f) <&£ <£ 9

Seiseki ga yoku naru yoni shita.
(I’ve made sure that my grades will improve.)

1. ~yoni shite iru expresses s.o.’s habitual act of making sure that he or
s.o. else will do (or will not do) s.t., as shown in Exs. (a) and (c).
2. The subjects in the yoni clause and in the main clause may or may not
be identical. In (la), the subjects are different, but in (lb), they are
identical.

(1) a. V-frftVZ&olzLtzo
Jon wa Meari ga ikeru yoni shita.
(John has seen to it that Mary can go there.)

b. '>'3yte'frVZ&olzLtzo
Jon wa ikeru yoni shita.
(John has seen to it that he (=John) can go there.)

3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meaning changes
according to the pattern. The verb before yoni can be negated as in (2a),
or the verb suru can be negated as in (2b).

(2) a.
Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo deki nai yoni shita.
(Ogawa made sure that Yamamoto couldn’t study.)

b. /WlU±Uj*36Sttgfttfj3fcs J: 9 fc(tt) LfcA'ofc0

Ogawa wa Yamamoto ga benkyo dekiru yoni (wa) shinakatta.
(Ogawa didn’t make sure that Yamamoto could study.)

In (2a) Ogawa is directly involved in preventing Yamamoto from study¬

ing, but in (2b) Ogawa just didn’t bother to assist Yamamoto's studying.

4. When an Adj (/ / na) or N is used before yoni suru, the verb naru is
used as follows:

( i ) Adj (/) stem < &£ £ 9 Id i~Z

ku naru yoni suru

(rti< teZ / i^< < teZ } X 9 ~fZ (make sure s.t. be-
[takaku naru / takakunaku naru} yoni suru comes / won’t be¬
come expensive)
564 ~ ydni suru / yori1

(ii) (Adj (na) stem / N} 9 lc -fS

ni naru ydni suru

(tc / -c It ft 6 i 9(- + 3
shizuka [ni / c/e we /7a/rcv / janaku} /rart/ yd/7/' ac/ra
(make sure s.t. is / won’t be quiet)

{fc I X' hi &</£*/£ < } &£ <£ 9 1- -tS

sensei [ni / c/e we naku / janaku} flare/ yd/?/ sc/rc/
(make sure s.o. is / won’t be a teacher)

[Related Expression]

~ yd/7/ naru ‘ reach the point where ’ is the intransitive counterpart of ydni
suru. The former only indirectly implies human efforts behind some change
that will occur or has occurred, but the latter straightforwardly indicates
human efforts. For example, in [la] the speaker can get up early in the
morning almost effortlessly, but in [lb] he has to make sure that he can
get up early in the morning.

[1] a.
Asa hayaku okirareru ydni narimashita.
(I am finally able to get up early in the morning.)

b.
Asa hayaku okirareru ydni shite imasu.
(I am making sure that I can get up early in the morning.)

yori1 J; t) prt.

£ a particle which indicates that s.t. / l than; rather — than — ; more

| s.o. is being compared with s.t. / s.o. < ~ than ~
[REL. ~ ho ga ~ yori]
♦ Key Sentences

Topic (subject) Noun Predicate

B*fg It XV (t) fct L5V' / L5V'T-fe

Nihongo wa supeingo yori (mo) omoshiroi / omoshiroidesu.

(Japanese is more interesting than Spanish.)

 yori1 565

(B)

Subject
Sentence2 Predicate
Sentencei

m v n< (1 9 | 7&» V fj< ± 5 (i)

Kuruma de iku ho \ ga basu de iku yori (mo) yasui / yasuidesu.

(Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.)

(C)

Topic (subject) Predicatei Predicate2

& n Mfi+Z i. 9 (i>) Oh ^ V'fcV' /

Watashi wa ryokosuru yori (mo) uchi ni itai / itaidesu.

(I’d rather stay at home than go on a trip.)

(D)

Noun / Sentence

zti k 9 (l*/j> (1C)) l± fcV'/*>9i-frA/„

Kore yori (hoka (ni)) /?d/?o wa nai / arimasen.

(There is no other way than this.)

V 'rt< OiiJ' GO) f±jj A* 0

Basu de iku yori (hoka (ni)) shikata ga nai / arimasen.

(There is no other way than to go by bus.)

(A) KS(A) / KS(D):

N J;!)
yori
Cii X !) (than this)
kore yori
(B) KS(B) / KS(C) / KS(D):

( i ) {V / Adj (/)} inf*nonpast ,£ t)

yori
566 yorix

X 9 (than talking)
hanasu yori
<£ 9 (than being expensive)
takai yori

(ii) Adj (na) stem & X 9

na yori
X 9 (than being quiet)
shizukana yori

(iii) N X X9
de aru yori
X* X 9 (than being a teacher)
sensei de aru yori

^23332223^
(a) 9MV^\
Kanji wa hiragana yori muzukashii.
(Kanji is more difficult than hiragana.)

(b)
Hayashi-san wa watashi yori hayaku hashireru.
(Mr. Hayashi can run faster than I can.)

(c) X 9ikOjji>m%Ko
Boku wa suteki yori sakana no ho ga sukida.
(I prefer fish to steak.)

(d) hx^m-r^x 9 x < w&So

Toshokan de benkyosuru ho ga uchi de benkyosuru yori yoku dekiru.
(Studying at the library is more productive than studying at home.)

(e) ZiUXifcb-Bo X9%&\Z'&-t)^fro

Sore wa aka to iu yori chairo ni chikakatta.
(That was closer to brown than to red (lit. rather than saying it was red).)
(f) 7/ 9 h 5X 9
v\>
Nihongo o benkyoshitakattara. Amerika no gakko de benkyosuru yori
Nihon e ikinasai.
(If you want to study Japanese, go to Japan rather than studying at a
school in America.)
 yori11 yori2 567

1. Either a noun phrase or a sentence precedes yori. When verbs precede

yoriy they are usually nonpast. However, there are a few cases where
past tense verbs are used, as in (1).

(1)

Sono shiken wa omotta yori yasashikatta.

(The exam was easier than I thought.)

2. In KS(A), KS(B) and KS(C), mo is optional after yori and does not
change the meaning of the sentence.

yori2 J; D Prt•

a particle which indicates a set point $ in ~ of; inside; outside; be

in terms of space or time ? fore; after
[REL. kara!]

♦ Key Sentence

Topic (subject) Noun (location / time) Noun (location / time)

/ 3r '> 3 i (t mI J: 9 it
Mekishiko ! wa sekido yori

Predicate

hz 1 hv $.-to
ni aru 1 arimasu.

(Mexico is located north of the equator.)

(a) Z<D&£
Kono sen yori uchigawa ni haitte wa ikemasen.
(You must not get inside this line.)

(b)
Sanji yori mae ni kite kudasai.
(Please come before three o’clock.)
568 yori2

(c) ztiX 9 HHtAso

Kore yori saki wa basu ga arimasen.
(There’s no bus service from here (lit. beyond this point).)

The use of yori as a marker indicating a set point in terms of location can
be extended to more abstract locations, as in (1).

(1) y

Hachijutten yori ue wa gokaku desu.

(Lit. Eighty point up is a pass. ( = The passing mark is eighty.))

[Related Expression]

Kara can be used in place of yori2 when kara indicates a set point in
space, as in [1]. (=> kara1)

[1] / &y
Kono sen kara / yori uchigawa ni haitte wa ikemasen.
(You must not get inside this line.)

When yori indicates a point in time, however, kara can replace it only if it
indicates a starting time. Thus, kara in [2a] is grammatical, but kara in
[2b] is not.

[2] a.
Sanji yori f kara a to ni kite kudasai.
(Please come after three o’clock.)

Sanji yori / *kara mae ni kite kudasai.

(Please come before three o’clock.)

It is also noted that yori2 implies a comparison of two things, while kara has
no such implication.
 yd to omou 569

~yo to omou Phr-

| The speaker desires or decides to do ^ — think — will

\ s.t. \ [REL. tsumori]

♦ Key Sentences

(A)

Topic (subject) Vinf»vol

% it 0#S£& k t ®9/®V'£-f0
Watashi wa Nihonrekishi o to omou 1 omoimasu.

(I think I will read Japanese history (books).)

(B)

Topic (subject) Vinf* nonpast

% it ttt t ©9 /©V'£-f0
Watashi wa nomu mai to omou f omoimasu.

(I think I will not drink alcohol any longer.)

KS(A):

Vinf«vol t ®9
to omou

t ©9
9 (I think I will talk.)
hanaso to omou
9 t ©9 (I think I will eat.)
tabeyo to omou
KS(B):

Vinf* nonpast t ©9
mai to omou

t So (I think I will not talk.)

hanasumai to omou

t ©9 (I think I will not eat.)

taberumai to omou
570 ~ yd to omou

(a) )V~f l
Natsuyasumi ni Nihon Arupusu ni noboro to omoimasu.
(I think I will climb the Japan Alps during summer vacation.)

(b) (=17- hVntyf-) i.goTV'lt,

Mori-san wa wapuro (= wado purosessa) o kao to omotte imasu.
(Mr. Mori is thinking of buying a word processor.)

(c) igtehoAb it t 5o
Boku wa ano hi to to wa mo hanasumai to omou.
(I think I won’t talk to that person any more.)

1. When the subject is not the first person, as in Ex. (b), the nonpast form
of omou cannot be used. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.

* Mori-san wa wapuro o kao to omou / omoimasu.

The reason why (1) is unacceptable is that omou represents an internal

feeling of the speaker alone. Therefore, when the subject is the third
person, omou has to be replaced by the stative omotte iru which means
‘he ( = the third person subject) has indicated that he feels ~, in such
a way that the speaker can see and / or hear what he feels ’. Observe
the following sentence.

(2) ft / I J1J: 5 £®v^-f-0

Wat ash i / * Chichi / *Yamashita-san wa sono eiga o miyo to
omoimasu.
(I / My father / Mr. Yamashita think(s) I / he will see that movie.)

It is also to be noted that ~yo to omou cannot be used as a question.

(3) 9
11 Ano hon o yomo to omoimasu ka.
(Do you think you will read that book?)

2. The negative version of ~yo to omou is Vinf* nonpast ~mai to omou,

as seen in KS(B) and Ex. (c).

3. The verb that precedes yd must be a verb that represents something con¬
trollable by human volition. Thus, the following sentences are all un¬
grammatical, because the verbs are noncontrollable.
 yd to omou 571

(4) a. O 90
*Kuruma o kaeyo to omou.
(I think I can buy a car.)

Cp. b&y o
Kuruma o kaeru to omou.
(I think I can buy a car.)

b.
*0-kane o morattara yorokobo to omou.
(I think I’ll be happy if I get money.)

Cp.
O-kane o morattara yorokobu daro to omou.
(I think I will probably rejoice if I receive money.)

c.
*Ame ni furareyo to omou.
(I think I will be caught in the rain.)

Cp. 9o
Arne ni furareru to omou.
(I think I will be caught in the rain.)

A passive verb can be used with ~yd to omout however, if the speaker
perceives the passive situation as somehow controllable, as in (5).

5
( )

Tama ni wa sensei ni homerareyo to omou.

(Lit. I think I will do my best to be praised by my teacher once
in a while.)
572 zutsu

ZUtSU ’f'D prt.

a particle that indicates equal distri¬ by; at a time

bution of quantity

♦ Key Sentence

Direct
Topic (subject) Quantifier
Object

% it SO fo JUS /Ittt.
Watashi wa kanji o mainichi itsutsu zutsu oboeru / oboemasu.

(I memorize five kanji every day.)

(a)
Maitsuki sansatsu zutsu hon o katte imasu.
(I’m buying three books per month.)

(b)
Gorufu ga sukoshi zutsu jozuni natte kita.
(I have become a better golfer bit by bit.)

(c)
Watashi wa kodomotachi ni hon o nisatsu zutsu yatta.
(I gave two books to each of the children.)

(d) H<D?
Dono kurasu ni mo joshigakusei ga rokunin zutsu ita.
(There were six girl students in each class.)

1. The particle zutsu is used only after a quantifier (=an expression of

quantity).

2. A sentence without zutsu can express virtually the same fact. Compare
KS and Ex. (a) with (la) and (lb), respectively.

(1) a. 5e
Watashi wa kanji o mainichi itsutsu oboeru.
(I memorize five kanji every day.)
 zutsu 573

b.
Maitsuki sansatsu hon o katte imasu.
(I’m buying three books every month.)

A sentence with zutsu focuses on equal distribution of quantity, but

a sentence without zutsu doesn’t.
576

Appendixes

Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations

formal, inf.,
inf., neg., nonpast nonpast condi¬ voli¬
nonpast (masu- (dictionary tional tional te-form
form)2 form)
Group 1
verbs1

H< (write) H< Hlftf He 9 Hl'T

kaku kakanai kakimasu kaku kakeba kako kaite
ft< (go) ft A'&V' ft< ft lift ftZ 9 ffoT8
iku ikanai ikimasu iku ikeba iko itte
m- (talk) tit 8£t*tf IS-t-9 ULX
hanasu hanasa- hanashi- hanasu hanaseba hanaso hanashite
nai masu
(wait) ftxtf ftt 9 tt-oT
matsu matanai machi- matsu mateba mato matte
masu
5E& (die) 2Efctf 5E(D 9 ~9ch X
shinu shinanai shini- shinu shineba shino shinde
masu
a& (read) at? Wbft at; 9 a^T*
yomu yomanai yomi- yomu yomeba yomo yonde
masu
Mi (ride) SUfcfcV' Ml)*.ir Mi Mbit Mi 9 lot
noru nor a nai nori- noru noreba nor6 notte
masu
hi (exist) fcV'8 *>y *-*- hi hbit (hioY fcot
aru nai arimasu aru areba (aro) atte
JC 9 (buy) - n? n*.\i Kfc 9 MoT
kau kawanai kaimasu kau kaeba kao katte

fficC (swim) fagtlr ficlftf frl'T-

oyogu oyoganai oyogi- oyogu oyogeba oyogo oyoide
masu
(call) Pf^tf \%AiX
yobu yobanai yobi- yobu yobeba yobo yonde
masu
$5 o 3(say joo L4* $30 1^4*1' iso (3o O b
(Honorific)) tf 6 9)4 T
ossharu osshara- osshai- ossharu osshare- (ossha- ossha tte
nai masu ba ro)
 APPENDIXES 577

inf., neg., impera¬

passive6 causative6 potential6
past tive

Hit
kakanakatta kakareru kakaseru kakeru kake
ff fttfZ m
itta ikanakatta ikareru ikaseru ikeru ike
SJLfc is-y-s mt
hanashita hanasana- hanasareru hanasaseru hanaseru hanase
katta
fintz. fitzhZ fitz&Z fix
matta matana- matareru mataseru materu mate
katta
5E Ajtz ’fctitifr'itz 5E£-fr5
shinda shinana- shinareru shinaseru shineru shine
katta
UAjK ISli'tirS n&z> ISA
yonda yomana- yomareru yomaseru yomeru yome
katta
%-otz %hZ> rnti
notta nor ana - norareru noraseru noreru nore
katta
h^tz (&fa)4
atta na katta (are)
Kofc nx
katta kawana- kawareru kawaseru kaeru kae
katta
miz> ftlf
oyoida oyogana- oyogareru oyogaseru oyogeru oyoge
katta
nhti PftfjxS ufff-frS nf pf^
yonda yobana - yobareru yobaseru yoberu yobe
katta
jo o U •$> o joo ( jo o L-^* fa ( jo O jo -o L •*?>fa'5 jo -o
£)4 -frS)4 l'4
osshatta ossharana- (osshara- (osshara - osshareru osshai
katta reru) seru)
578 APPENDIXES

formal, inf.,
inf., neg., nonpast nonpast condi¬
volitional te- form
nonpast (masu- (dictionary tional
form) form)
Group 2
verbs1

MS (see) M*+ MS Mfttf Met 9 MT

miru minai mimasu miru mireba miyo mite
ms(go to «*+ &S mb wr Set 9 mx
neru bed) nenai nemasu neru nereba neyo nete

Irregular
verbs

i"5(do) L&V' L %-t ■tz i-titi Li 9 LT

suru shinai shimasu suru sureba shiyo shite
5l55(come) <S <ntf £ «t 9 %X
kuru konai kimasu kuru kureba koyo kite
1 Group 1 verbs are those whose negative, informal stems end with the [a]
sound. Group 2 verbs are those whose negative, informal stems end with
[i] or [e].
2 The complete conjugations of formal forms are as follow:
nonpast (#£>**■
(kaki)masu
neg., nonpast (##)*■
(kaki)masen
past
(kaki)mashita
neg., past (mZ)ttAjVLtz
(kakf)masendeshita
volitional (#£)£L.fc5
(kakf)masho
3 Irregular conjugation.
4 This form is usually not used.
5 Some honorific verbs (jrassharu * go; come; be ’, nasaru * do*, gozaru ‘ be ’)
are irregular in the masu-iorm and the imperative form.
6 Passive verbs, causative verbs and potential verbs are all Group 2 verbs.
7 There are also imperative forms like Miyo * See ’ and Seyo * Do.’ These
are used only in written Japanese.
 APPENDIXES 579

inf., neg.,
inf., past passive6 causative6 potential6 imperative
past

Jlfc fLbttZ JL67

mita minakatta mirareru misaseru mirareru miro
mtc mtsitz
neta nenakatta ne rarer u nesaseru nerareru nero

L ft Z&Z L67
shita shinakatta sareru saseru dekiru shiro
£ bii& £ ibJiS
kit a konakatta korareru kosaseru korareru koi
580 APPENDIXES

inf., inf., neg., inf., neg.,

inf., past condition
nonpast nonpast past

/-Adjectives8
< ftv' jc § fr o tz
(big) tz

okii okii okikunai okikatta okikunakat- okikereba

ta

V'V'10 V'V' Xfr'itZ i<*3&»ofc «t tftlti

(good)
// // yokunai yokatta yokunakatta yokereba
8 Auxiliary adjectives -tai (want to), -rashii (seem), -yasui (easy to), -nikui
(hard to), -nai (not) are /-adjectives.
9 Okii (big) and chisai (small) can be either /-adjectives or na-adjectives.
When they are used as /7a-adjectives, they are rather emotive.
10 // is an irregular /-adjective. // is usually used as the inf., nonpast form.

na-
Adjectives11
m\tz tH'tz m'tz^tz
(quiet) ^>tz

shizukada shizukada shizuka- shizuka- shizuka- shizuka-

dewanai datta dewanakat- nara(ba)
ta

ffr £ * fc m'Xhivtf
-?tz'2
shizukajanai shizukaja- shizukade-
nakatta areba

Copula
tz tz V li v' tzotz X*\$t£i)'^tz fcMlf)
(be)
da da dewanai datta dewanakat- nara(ba)
ta
£ ft o VfoiUi
fc12
janai janakatta deareba

11 Borrowed adjectives (including Chinese-origin adjectives) and such auxiliary

adjectives as -yoda (look like), -mitaida (look like), -soda (look) are all na-
adjectives.
 APPENDIXES 581

formal, formal,
prenomi- formal, formal,
te-form adverbial neg., neg.,
nal nonpast past
nonpast past

3:$ <X *£<*>9 tz < *>9

&-frA/8 XX t.itAsXL
tz18
okikute okiku okii okiidesu okikuari- okikatta okikuari-
masen desu masen-
deshita
< t£l)'
'?tzXXx*
okikunai- okikuna -
desu kattadesu
J: < T <t< V'V'T'i- <t < *>9 & <fc fr-^tz X
-frA,18 X -frA/T't/t18
yokute yoku // iidesu yokuari- yokatta- yokuari-
masen desu masende-
shita
i. < &V'T* 4: < t£t)''z>
-^-13
tz XX"
yokunai- yoku-
desu n a katta¬
desu

XX ffrfrXLtz ftfrXteth
9 £-frAy 9 &-&A/T'
L tz
shizuka- shizukani shizukana shizuka- shizuka- shizuka- shizuka-
de desu dewaari- deshita dewaari-
masen masen-
deshita

9 ife^A,12 9 ZitAsX
Ltzn
shizukaja- shizukaja-
arimasen arimasen-
deshita

X — <r> 1 x•&>%> xx T'li£>9 & XL tz T'te&9 £

-frA, &LXL tz
de no 1 dearu desu dewaari- deshita dewaari-
masen rfiasen-
deshita
U*£>9 £ L*?fo 9 £
-frA,12 KhX L tzi2
jaarima- jaarima-
sen sendeshita
12 Ja is the colloquial form of dewa.
13 ~naidesu / ~nakattadesu expresses a stronger feeling of negation than
~arimasen / ~arimasendeshita.
582 APPENDIXES

Appendix 2 Semantic Classification of Verbs and Adjectives

A. Stative verbs:
A stative verb usually does not appear with the auxiliary verb iru.

((of an inanimate thing) exist); V'5 ((of an animate thing) exist);

aru iru
(can do); V'5 (need)
dekiru iru
(All the potential verbs are stative. (e.g., (can drink))
nomeru

B. Continual verbs:
A continual verb with the auxiliary verb iru expresses the progressive
aspect.

(eat); (drink); (walk); (run); 2$5 (dance);

taberu nomu aruku hashiru odoru
SR') (sing); (swim); £po (wait); Mi- (talk); Kl< (hear);
utau oyogu matsu hanasu kiku
sjit* (read); #< (write); JL5 (see); &< (cry); Wtx.Z> (teach);
yomu kaku miru naku oshieru
(show); (use); (make); (laugh); (rest);
miseru tsukau tsukuru warau yasumu
(study); (fly); ^x.5 (think); (meet); (live);
benkyosuru tobu kangaeru au sumu

C. Stative-continual verbs:
A stative-continual verb can be either a stative verb or a continual verb.

(be visible); |lfl£x.5 (be audible); (understand); ii?

mieru kikoeru wakaru chigau
(differ); Mo*? (become; be suitable)
niau

D. Punctual verbs:
A punctual verb with the auxiliary verb iru expresses a repeated action
or a state after an action was taken or something took place.

*05 (get to know); 5E& (die); fctiS (forget); ^ir (lend); ft 9 5

shiru shinu wasureru kasu kariru
(borrow); (jump); flo (hit); ft >5 (get out); A5 (enter);
tobu utsu deru ha iru
 APPENDIXES 583

(stand); M5 (sit down); j|2£5 (get up); (marry);

tatsu suwaru okiru kekkonsuru
fr< (go); &5 (come); i§5 (return); #9 (say); foifZ (give);
iku kuru kaeru iu agent
iibo (get); J&txS (get tired); @35 (get into trouble); ^5 (get on);
morau tsukareru komaru noru
#}£5 (begin (v.i.)); (end (v.i.)); I$< (open (v.i.)); $1£5 (close
hajimaru owaru aku shimaru
(v.i.)); &5 (become); (arrive); rtf;fx5 (clear up); 'Mk.Z>
naru tsuku hareru oboeru
(remember); ^5 (go to bed); lk£5 (stop (v.i.)) It5 (kick); ft<
neru tomaru keru tsuku
(be attached); ^9 (match); ±*5 (stop (v.t.))
au yameru

E. Continual-punctual verbs:
A continual-punctual verb can be either a continual verb or a punctual
verb.

^F5 (wear); BX5 (take); g£;b5 (change (v.i.)); 5 (order)

kiru torn kawaru chOmonsuru

F. Non-volitional verbs:
A non-volitional verb usually does not take the volitional form, the im¬
perative form and the potential form. Non-volitional verbs are classified
into emotive verbs and non-emotive verbs.

F-l. Non-volitional-emotive verbs:

Most of the non-volitional-emotive verbs can take an NP-o. 0=>o4)
(be pleased); (be sad); &5 (be angry); £ 9
yorokobu kanashimu okoru kirau
(hate); ftf-U (like); 035 (get into trouble); (suffer)
konomu komaru kurushimu
CKomaru and kurushimu do not take an NP-o. They take either an NP-ate
or an NP-/7/.)

F-2. Non-volitional-non-emotive verbs:

T*£5 (can do); V'5 (need); £n5 (get to know); ^Lx.5 (be visible);
dekiru iru shiru mieru
Pfl^.x.5 (be audible); 5>^'5 (understand); ii9 (differ); ftt^-9
kikoeru wakaru chigau niau
584 APPENDIXES

(become, be suitable); (get tired)

tsukareru

G. Reciprocal verbs:
A reciprocal verb takes the particle to for the direct object.

(marry); l-fAsfrl-5 (fight); £9 (meet); £9 (match);

kekkonsuru kenkasuru au au
Fort'S (bump into); (consult)
butsukaru sodansuru

H. Movement verbs :
A movement verb can take Vmasu ni to express a purpose.

ff< (go); (come); “IfS (return); AS (enter); $5 (get out);

iku kuru kaeru hairu deru
(*t>)^S (stop by)
(tachi)yoru
 APPENDIXES 585

Appendix 3 Pairs of Intransitive and Transitive Verbs

Intransitive Verb Transitive Verb

A 1. —eru —>—asu

(get out) (take out)

deru dasu
}§f;f£ (run away) (let run away)
nigeru nigasu
|&ft£ (dissolve) (dissolve)
tokeru tokasu
(wither) (let wither)
kareru karasu

A 2. —eru —* —yasu

(get cold) (make cold)

hieru hiyasu
(grow) £^1“ (grow)
ha eru hayasu

B. —iru —> —osu

£5 (get / wake up) 35^.-f (get / wake up)

okiru okosu
&95 (get off) (take / bring down)
oriru orosu
(drop) 1&t1r (drop)
ochiru otosu
i/§ 5 (elapse) (spend)
sugiru sugosu

C. —u —► —eru

ffl < (open) Fg ft 5 (open)

aku akeru
Jg < (reach) JgftS (deliver)
todoku todokeru
(shrink) (shrink)
chijimu chijimeru
Wo (grow) WT5 (raise)
sodatsu sodateru
iL'i (stand) (stand)
tatsu tateru
586 APPENDIXES

D. —ru —» —seru

mz (get on) m&z (put on)

noru noseru
&Z (approach) &&Z (let come near)
yoru yoseru

(return) «KS)i- (return)

kaeru kaesu
mz (pass) Ml- (pass)
toru tosu
0S (turn) 0-t (turn)
mawaru mawasu
fez (be fixed) Uir (fix)
naoru naosu

MHZ (be detached) m-r (detach)

hanareru hanasu
®tiz (fall down) mt (push / knock down)
taoreru taosu
'D&tlZ (crush) o-SJ-t (crush)
tsubureru tsubusu
£?HZ (get dirty) XZ-t (make dirty)
yogoreru yogosu
m(WtiZ (appear) m%)t (represent)
arawareru arawasu
zt>;HZ (break) zt>i- (break)
kowareru kowasu

DB -eru

_h tt'Z (rise) Jh \1Z (raise)

agaru ageru
tk$.z (be decided) fcftZ (decide)
kimaru kimeru
(close) fflfrZ (close)
shimaru shimecu
MZZ (gather) $k#>Z (gather)
atsumaru atsumeru
tezz (begin) jipibZ (begin)
hajimaru hajimeru
 APPENDIXES 587

yaku

uru

torn

kiru

yaburu
iJrZ> (break)
oru
mz> (break)
waru
&< (pull out)
nuku
\il£ < (untie)
hodoku
JftC (take off)
nugu
588 APPENDIXES

I. Others

(be visible) BS (see)

mieru miru
(be audible) ffl< (hear)
kikoeru kiku
(be extinguished) m-t (extinguish)
kieru kesu
AS (enter) AHS (put in)
hairu ireru
#7&>*XS (get separated) ft ft S (separate)
wakareru wakeru
(end) (end)
owaru oeru / owaru

Notes
(1) The “ —u —* —asu ” pattern is not included in this list because this pattern
applies to all intransitive Gr. 1 verbs, changing them into the causative
form (i.e., the transitive form).
(2) Suru ‘ do ' vs. naru ‘ become * and korosu * kill ’ vs. shinu ‘ die ’ make
pairs of transitive and intransitive verbs, though the two in each pair
have no phonological element in common.
 APPENDIXES 589

Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions

A. Vnee-f (Gr. 2: Vstem+ )

___
(without doing ~)
~ nai de
~ / tt < Tfi / fcifci} ft V'
— {nakereba / r?a/ra re wa / /?e6a} naranai
~ {&< "Cfi / /&V'£} V'ft&V' (must do — (Obligation))
~ [nakute wa / nakereba / na/ro} ikenai
~t£ < T t V'V' (do not have to do —)
— nakutemo ii
~t£<t£Z> (do not do — anymore)
~ naku naru
~-f [i (without doing ~)
— zt/ /?/

B. Vmasty+

-w-t (begin to do ~)
~ tfast/
(begin to do ~)
— hajimeru
(how to do — ; way of doing ~)
~ kata
L «fc 9 (Let’s do —; I (We) will do —)
— masho
(while doing ~)
~ nagara
~/icf V' (Do — (Polite imperative))
~ nasa/
~fc(fr<) ((go) to do ~)
— /7/ (//tL/)
~ {C. < V' (hard to do ~)
— /7//TL//
(do — (Honorific))
o ~ ni naru
(do — (Humble))
o ~ sm/
-**•*9 5 (finish doing —)
— owaru
590 APPENDIXES

— Zotl (It looks like — will do —)

~ soda
(do — excessively)
— sugiru
~fcV' (want to do ~)
~ tai
(easy to do ~)
~ yasui

C. Vinf+ —

~|Bi(fc)T (while)
~ aida (ni)
-tin (just)
— dake
~ti*> 9 (probably)
~ daro
(It is expected that —)
~ hazu
— IS 9 (had better do — ; I suggest ~ do ~)
~ ho ga ii
(might)
— kamoshirenai
~t)*Lb / t)'t£h (~, I wonder)
— kashira / ~ kana
-ntin u (although)
— keredomo
~zt\±X (indeed ~ (but))
~ koto wa
~*fcv'£ (It appears that —)
— mita ida
~(<n)t£ bX (if)
~ (no) nara
(must (Certainty))
— ni chigainai
~{<D 1 L)tl (It is that —; The fact is that ~ ; The explanation
— (no 1 n] da is that —)
~<dxX (since; because)
~ node
(in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
~<nn~tl (It is — that ~)
— no wa — da
 APPENDIXES 591
~*bLV' (It seems that ~)
~ rashii
~ Lt (~ and)
~ shi
(I heard that —)
~ soda
~R#t (when)
~ toki
(No wonder It means that That’s why —)
~ wake da
~£o£i (It appears that ~)
~ yoda
~ 9 (in such a way that — ; as ~ do ~)
~ yoni
t The formal form can also be used in very polite speech,
t The formal form can also be used in rather polite speech.
592 APPENDIXES

(in order to do —; because)

~ tame
-it (if; when)
— to
-bzZtS (be about to do —)
— tokoro da
—o i, 9 tS (intend to do —)
— tsumori da
~ 9 *>l-t (while)
— ni
-«fc 9 lift 5 (come to do —)
— yoni naru
— <£ 9 (try to do ~)
— yoni suru

t The formal, nonpast form can also be used in very polite speech.

E. Vinf • past +

~hk V (after)
— ato de
(have done — (Experience))
~ koto ga aru
(used to do —)
— mono da
— bX (if; when)
— ra
— £> if 9 (Why don’t you do — ?; How about doing — ?)
— ra dodesu ka
— 9 — 9 i- £ (do things like doing — and doing —)
— ri — ri suru
~TM (because)
— fame
—oX (even if)
- ffe
- i^6fi (have just done —; just did —)
~ tokoro da
- o t 9 fc' (mean; believe)
~ tsumori da

X The formal, past form can also be used in rather polite speech.
 APPENDIXES 593

F. Vte+
~h\fz> (do — for s.o.)
~ ageru
~fo%> (have been done)
~ aru
~ (5 UV' (want s.o. to do ~)
~ hoshii
~ V' < (do — and go; keep doing ~ from now on)
~ iku
~ V' & (be doing ~ ; have done ~)
~ iru
(after)
~ kara
(Please do ~)
~ kudasai
~ < fts (s.o. does ~ for me)
— kureru
~ < <5 (do ~ and come; come to do ~)
— Ari/ri/
(do ~ and see; try to do ~)
~ miru
~ i> (even if; even though)
~ mo
~ {, V'V' (may (Permission))
~ mo ii
~i>hb (have s.o. do ~ for me)
~ morau
(do ~ in advance)
~ oAri/
~ ') (have done ~; finish ~)
~ shimau
(must not do ~)
— wa ikenai

G. Vcond +_ (Gr. 2: Vstem+re +

(I wish — had done ~)
~ ba yokatta
594 APPENDIXES

I. Adj(/)inf +_

~ffl(fc) (while)
— aida (ni)
~ ti It (just)
— dake
~tz hi (probably)
— daro
~l$-f (It is expected that ~)
— hazu
~ (might)
— kamo shirenai
b / (~, I wonder)
~ kashira / ~ kana
~ tfti £* t (although)
— keredomo
~Z.b\t~ (indeed (but))
~ koto wa ~
~(<D)teb (if)
— (no) nara
(must (Certainty))
— ni chigainai
~{<r)j hti) (It is that ~; The fact is that ~; The explanation
— [no / n)da is that ~)
~co*Ct (since; because)
~ node
— (Diet (in spite of the fact that ~)
~ noni
(It is ~ that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
~ iblA' (It seems that ~)
~ rashii
~ Lt (and)
— shi
(I heard that —)
— soda
(because)
— tame
(when)
— toki
~ot p (believe)
~ tsumori
 APPENDIXES 595

~;b tfti (No wonder ~; That’s why ~)

~ wake da
(It appears that ~)
~ yoda

t The formal form can also be used in very polite speech,

X The formal form can also be used in rather polite speech.

J. Adi(/)inf • nonpast +

~ Cl t (There are times when)

~ koto ga aru
~t (when, if)
~ to
(while)
~ uchi ni

K. Adj(/)inf • past 4-

~ t (There were times when)

~ koto ga aru
~ b (if; when)
~ ra
(~ is sometimes — and sometimes ~)
~ ri ~ ri suru
— o *C (even if)
~ tte

L. Adi(/)re +

(even if; even though)

~ mo
(It is all right if ~)
~ mo ii
(unbearably)
— tamaranai

M. Adi(/')stem +

~ 7^5 (show the sign of)

~ garu
~b- [Noun form of Adj(/)]
~ mi
596 APPENDIXES

[Noun form of Adj(/')]

~ sa
(look)
~ soda
-i-rs (excessively)
~ sugiru

Adj(/?a)stem + fra 1,
N.
(da tta}+-
(while)
~ aida (ni)
(only)
~ dake
~{i-f (It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
(indeed — (but))
~ koto wa ~
~[(Dl A>)td (It is that ~; The fact is that —; The explanation
~ {no 1 n)da is that ~)
~<DX' (since; because)
~ node
~<D|C (in spite of the fact that —)
— noni
(It is ~ that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
~tcib (because)
~ tame
(when)
— fo/r/
(mean; believe)
~ tsumori
~£>Vtz (No wonder ~; That’s why ~)
~■ wa/re da
~ <£ 9 £ (It appears that ~)
~ yoda

O- {Adj(nrem} {^„>
+
(although)
~ keredomo
~ Ll (and)
~ shi
 APPENDIXES 597

-hiti (I heard that ~)

— soda

t The formal form of da / datta (i.e., desu / deshita) can also be used in
rather polite speech.

p. {Adj(-)stemj + {^aj +

(probably)
~ daro
(might)
~ kamoshirenai
1 (~, I wonder)
~ kashira / — kana
(if)
~ nara
(must (Certainty))
~ ni chigainai
~ ib LV' (It seems ~)
~ rashii

[Adj(/7a)stem
Q. | ■ + da -+■
N
-it (when; if)
— to

f The formal form of da (i.e., desu) can also be used in very polite speech.

R. Adi(/7a)stem + /?a +

—ct 5 (There are times when ~)

— koto ga aru
(while)
~ uchi ni

S. {Adj(™)stemj+da(fa +_

~(There were times when ~)

— koto ga aru
~b% (if; when)
— ra
~ — 9 ~t S
V ( — is sometimes ~ and sometimes ~)
~ ri ~ ri suru
598 APPENDIXES

~oT (even if)

~ tte

J The formal form of datta (i.e., deshita) can also be used in rather polite
speech.

T |Ad i(^7a)steml
■ +c/e +
N
~ ii (even if; even though)
~ mo
~ t> V'V' (It is all right if ~)
~ mo ii

U. Adi(/7a)stem +

~£ [Noun form of Adj(na)]

— sa
(look)
~ soda
~i-rs (excessively)
— sugiru

V' N+ &*}+-
-WOO (during; while)
~ aida (ni)
(It is expected that ~)
~ hazu
— tith (for; because of; because)
~ tame
~R# (at the time of; when)
— toki
D (mean; believe)
~ tsumori
~J (It appears that ~; look)
~ yoda

W. N + ■
na 1
datta.
— {co / h)ti (It is that ~; The fact is that ~ ; The explanation
— [no I n)da is that ~)
— cot (since; because)
~ node
 APPENDIXES 599

~£>fc (in spite of the fact that ~)

— noni
~ <012 ~ tz (It is — that ~)
~ no wa ~ da
600 APPENDIXES

Appendix 5 Ko-so-a-do

Non-Modifier

Direction
What is being Demonstrative Location
talked about is Pronoun
nonpolite

close to the speaker ZH Co

kore koko kotchi
(this) (here) (this way)

close to the hearer •tft tc

sore soko 1
(that) (there) 1

removed from both

the speaker and the are asoko atchi
hearer (that over there) (over there) (that way over
there)

being questioned fti i£z )£ o £>

dore doko dotchi
(Which?) (Where?) (Which way?)

Notes
1. Ko-so-a-do of direction can be used to refer to persons as well as things,
places and directions, as in:
(1) a.
Kochira wa Yamada-san desu.
(This is Mr. Yamada.)
b.
Kotchi no ho ga yasui yo.
(This one is cheaper, you know.)

O-tearai wa kochira desu.

(The toilet is this way.)
d.
Kotchi ga boku no kuruma da.
(This one is my car.)
 APPENDIXES 601

Modifier

Demonstrative
Kinds Manner
polite Adjective

Zhb Z<D Zkte d 0

kochira kono konna ko
(this way) (this ~) (this kind of) (like this)

•iE-cq t?
sono sonna so
(that ~) (that kind of) (like that)

<fc b b thh
achira ano anna a
(that way over (that ~ over there) (that kind of) (like that)
there)

E<n> E')
do no donna do
(Which ~?) (What kind of?) (How?)

2. The 50-series can be used to direct attention to a referent removed from

both the speaker and the hearer if information about the referent has been
given to the hearer, as in:
(2) A :
Kino kuruma de mizuumi ni itte kita yo.
(Yesterday I went to a lake by car.)

So no mizuumi ni wa sakana ga ita kai?

(Were there fish in the lake?)
3. The speaker feels most empathetic with an item referred to by the ko-
series, because the item is closest to him. On the other hand, the speaker
feels least empathetic with an item referred to by the a-series, because
the item is removed from him and his hearer.
602 APPENDIXES

Appendix 6 Numerals and Counters

A. Numerals
Native
Japanese Sino-Japanese
Numerals
1 - (o) 1 — 11 + - 21
hito{-tsu) ichi ju-ichi ni-ju-ichi

2 - (O) 2 12 + - 22 n+n
futa(-tsu) ni ju-ni ni-ju-ni

3 H (o) 3 H 13 + H 30 H +
mit{-tsu) san jO-san san-jO

m m (o)
yot(-tsu)
n m
[yon
14 + m 40 m +

\shi r }-*>
m i
5 31 (o) 5 31 15 + 31 50 31 +
itsu(-tsu) PO ju-go go-ju
_i - 60
6 (o) 6 16 A +
mut{-tsu) roku ju-roku roku-ju

m ■k (o)
nana(-tsu)
1 -k
shichi
17 + -k
0_[shichi
70 -t +
shichi\-Q
1 \nana nana ) 1
■ 1
8 8 A 18 + A 80 A +
hachi ju-hachi hachi-ju

9 (O) 9 K 19 + % 90 % +
kokono(-tsu) [kyO kyu-ju
\ku
10 + 10 + 20 - + 100 W
to jo ni-ju hyaku
Notes
1. The native Japanese numeral system is used from 1 to 10 only. For
numbers greater than 10 the Sino-Japanese numeral system is used. The
parenthesized -tsu is a counter for things.
2. 1,000 is usually read as sen, not as is-sen.
3. Telephone numbers are given in Sino-Japanese numerals. For example,
 APPENDIXES 603

Numerals

126 T7-+* 1,352 100,000 + 77

hyaku-ni- sen-san- ju-man
ju-roku byaku-go-
ju-ni

200 - W 2,000 - T 1,000,000 W 77

ni-hyaku ni-sen hyaku-
man

300 H W 3,000 H T 10,000,000 -T77

san-byaku san-zen is-sen-
man

400 m it 4,000 m T 100,000,000 - ft

yon-hyaku yon-sen ichi-oku

500 3C W 5,000 3C T 1,000,000,000 + ft

go-hyaku go-sen ju-oku
600 A W 6,000 A T’ 10,000,000,000 ^ ft
rop-pyaku roku-sen hyaku-
oku
700 -t; W 7,000 -t: T 100,000,000,000 (-)Tft
nana- shichi\ (/s-)se/7-
hyaku nana rsen oku
800 A IT 8,000 /v T 1,000,000,000,000 - ft
hap-pyaku has-sen it-cho

900 % H 9,000 % T
kyu-hyaku kyu-sen

1,000 T 10,000 - 7?'

sen i chi-man
389-2681 is read as “ san-hachi-kyu-no, ni-roku-hachi-ichi". However, 4
and 7 are often read as yon and nana, respectively.
4. The year according to the Western calendar is given in Sino-Japanese
numerals followed by nen, the counter for year. Thus, 1984 is read as
“ sen-kyuhyaku-hachiju-yo(n)nen ”.
604 APPENDIXES

B. Counters (The following chart lists some commonly-used counters.)

Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E

tt * n fit H
-mai -hon -ka -satsu -peji
(thin (long (lesson) (volume) (page)
object: object:
papery pencily
ticket sticky
etc.) etc.)

1 - tt — # - ig - fit - H
ichi-mai ip-pon ik-ka is-satsu
/?/»•} -pSi'

2 - tt — * - ig - fit - H
ni-mai ni-hon ni-ka ni-satsu ni-peji

3 H ft H # H |g H fit H M
san-mai san-bon san-ka san-satsu san-peji

4 m ft m # m Ig m fit m M
yo(n)-mai yon-hon yon-ka yon-satsu yon-peji

5 3l ft 3l 3l Ig 3l fit 51 M
go-mai go-hon go-ka go-satsu go-peji

■j » . i»
6 -X ft A |g fit A M
roku-mai rop-pon rok-ka roku-satsu

7 -tr tie -t; -t m -t* fit -t M

nana \ nana \ nana \ . nana \ ...
shichi) ~ma shichi / ~^on shichi] ~Ka s/?/c/?/} 'sar5£y shichi} "P ^

9
A
hachi-mai

% ft
kyu-mai
ft A #
hachi-hon
hap-pon

% &
kyu-hon
m
% n
kyu-ka
/V

X fit
fit
has-satsu

kyu-satsu
/V

hap Ypel‘

X M
kyu-peji
M

10 + ft + * + Ig + fit + H
ju-mai jup-pon juk-ka jus-satsu jup-peji
 APPENDIXES 605

Type F Irregular Types

A W 0
-to -nin -ka -nichi -ban
(head of (people) (day of (day) (night)
cattle) the month)

- A - 0 - 0 — ft
it-to hi tori tsuitachi ichi-nichi hi to-ban

r. A “ 0 - 0 — ft

ni-to futari futsu-ka futsu-ka futa-ban

H A H 0 H 0 H ft
san-to san-nin mik-ka mik-ka mi-ban

IS gM. m A m 0 m 0 m ft
yon-to yo-nin yok-ka yok-ka yo-ban

2l si A A A 0 A 0 A ft
go-to go-nin itsu-ka itsu-ka go-ban
go-nichi

A A A 0 A 0 A ft
roku-nin mui-ka mui-ka roku-ban
roku- nichi

-t A -t; 0 -t 0 -t; ft
nana 1 nana \ nano-ka nano-ka nana-ban
shichij' shichij ~n n shichi-nichi

A si A A A 0 A 0 A ft
hat-to hachi-nin yo-ka yo-ka hachi-ban
hachi-nichi

A sH A A A 0 A 0 A ft
kyO-to kokono-ka kokono-ka kyu-ban
kkiVin ku-nichi

+ si + A + 0 + 0 + ft
jut-to ju-nin to-ka to-ka ju-ban
606 APPENDIXES

Notes
1. Depending on the initial sound of a counter, the pronunciation of the
number and / or the counter changes. Counters are classified according
to the phonetic modifications they undergo. Type A counters are straight-
foward cases of Sino-Japanese Number+Counter, with no phonetic modi¬
fications. The following is a chart of phonetic modifications for Type B
through Type F. If there is no entry for a given number it indicates
that there is no phonetic modification for that particular number. As for
the remaining irregular types, you have to memorize them piecemeal.

Counters Type B Type C Type D Type E Type F

N umbers^^. h- k- s- P- t-
1 Upp-1 Ukk-] [/SS-] Upp-] [itt-]
3 [sanb-]
6 [ropp-] lrokk-] ([ropp-])

8 ([happ-]) ([hakk-]) [bass-] ([happ-1) [hatt-]

10 [jupp-] [jukk-] [juss-] [jupp] [jutt-]

([ ]) indicates that [ ] is optional.

2. The 20th day of the month and 20 days are not nijunichi but hatsuka.
‘ Twenty years old ’ is referred to as hatachi.
3. The following is a list of other examples of each type:
Type A: -bai ‘ time ’ # -ban ‘ ordinal number ’
-do ‘ frequency ’ i£-jo ‘ tatami mat ’
SB -bu ‘ part ’ ® -men ‘ newspaper page ’
Type A': (Exactly the same as Type A except that number 4 is pro¬
nounced yo not yon.)
B# -ji * o’clock ’ R$|8] -jikan ‘ hour ’ ^ -nen ‘ year ’
Type A": (Exactly the same as Type A except that numbers 4, 7 and
9 are pronounced shi, shichi and ku, respectively.)
A -gatsu ‘name of the month’
Type A (Exactly the same as Type A except that the initial sound
of the counter with number 3 changes from wa to ba.)
33 -wa ‘ bird ’
Type B: 4F -hai ‘cup of’ EE -hiki ‘animal’
Type B': (Exactly the same as Type B except that the initial sound of
the counter with number 3 is not b- but p-.)
 APPENDIXES 607

-haku ‘ stay (overnight) ’ # -hun ‘ minute'

Type C: j&\fj -ka getsu ‘ month * (hJ -kai * frequency ’
% -kan ‘ volume ’ -ko ‘ piece ’
Type C (Exactly the same as Type C except that the initial sound
of the counter with number 3 can be either k- or g-.)
Pg -kai 4 floor ’
Type D: M -sai 4 -year old ’ -so 4 boat ’
Type D (Exactly the same as Type D except that the initial sound of
the counter with number 3 is z- not s-.)
& -soku 4 footgear ’
Type E: Jt’yF -pondo 4 pound ’
Type F: ^ -fo ‘class, grade’ by -ro/7 ‘ton’
il -fsd ‘letter’
608 APPENDIXES

Appendix 7 Compound Words

A compound is a word that consists of two or more independent words with

a meaning which cannot be predicted from the combination of the constituent
elements. For example, hana o miru means ‘ to see flowers but the compound
version hana-mi means specifically ‘the viewing of cherry blossoms’.
The following is a list of basic nominal, verbal and adjectival compounds and
their formation.

Formation Examples

(A) Nominal Compounds

(a) Noun 4- (dabbling in water)

Wmasu (intransitive) mizu-asobi
(Lit. water-play)
(siesta)
hiru-ne
(Lit. noon-sleep)
9 (mountain climbing)
yama-nobori
(Lit. mountain-climb)

(b) Noun-f 7EM (the viewing of cherry blossoms)

Ymasu (transitive) hana-mi
(Lit. flower-view)
L (manslaughter)
hito-goroshi
(Lit. man-kill)
(shoe polishing; shoeblack)
kutsu-migaki
(Lit. shoe-polish)

(c) Vmasu (intransitive) + ^9 4% (vehicle)

Noun nori-mono
(Lit. ride-thing)
thP (exit)
de-guchi
(Lit. leave-mouth)
(nightcap)
ne-zake
(Lit. sleep-sa&e)

(d) Vmasu (transitive)+ (drinking water)

Noun nomi-mizu
(Lit. drink-water)
 APPENDIXES 609

(food)
tabe-mono
(Lit. eat-thing)
fir 9% (borrowed thing)
kari-mono
(Lit. borrow-thing)

(e) Vmasu (intransitive) + _h 9 T *) (ascending and descending)

Vmasu (intransitive) nobori-ori
(Lit. go up-go down)
tHAD (going in and out)
de-hairi
(Lit. leave-enter)
ft £^9 (going and coming back)
iki-kaeri
(Lit. go-return)

(f) Adj(/)stem + Noun (secondhand book)

furu-hon
(Lit. old-book)
Hfrn (black ship that came to
kuro-fune Japan from America and
Europe during the Edo
period)
(Lit. black-boat)
WlMf (a blue beard)
ao-hige
(Lit. blue-beard)

(g) Adj(rta)stem+Noun (safety zone)

anzen-chitai
(Lit. safe-zone)
(health food)
kenko-shokuhin
(Lit. healthy-food)
(calisthenics)
junan-taiso
(Lit. flexible-exercise)

(h) Noun + Noun Jl|& (freshwater fish)

kawa-zakana
(Lit. river-fish)
(co-ed)
joshi-gakusei
(Lit. female-student)
610 APPENDIXES

(the University of Tokyo)

Tokyo- Daigaku
(Lit. Tokyo-University)
 APPENDIXES 611

(b) Noun + Adj(/) (feel secure)

kokoro-zuyoi
(Lit. heart-strong)
MULV' (hard to please)
ki-muzukashii
(Lit. spirit-difficult)
(grateful)
giri-gatai
(Lit. obligation-hard)

Notes
In compound words, the initial voiceless consonant (i.e., plosives such as k-,
tfricatives such as s-, h-y f-\ affricates such as ts-t ch-) of the second
element of the compound tends to become voiced as shown below:
e.g. hito ‘ man ’-\-koroshi ‘ kill ’ —» hitogoroshi ‘ manslaughter ’
ami ‘ net ’ + fo ‘ door ’ -♦ amido ‘ screen door ’
ne ‘ sleep ’+sake ‘ rice wine * —* nezake ‘ nightcap ’
naga ‘ \ong* +hanashi ‘ talk ’ -♦ nagabanashi ‘ long talk *
ki ‘ tree '+fune * boat ’ —* kibune ‘ wooden vessel ’
kokoro ‘ heart ’ + tsuyoi ‘ strong ’ —♦ kokorozuyoi ‘ feel secure ’
hana ‘ nose *+c/»/' ‘ blood ’ -♦ hanaji ‘ nosebleed ’
Voicing, however, does not normally take place if one of the following con¬
ditions is met.
1. The second element is a borrowed word whose ‘foreignness’ is still
strongly felt.
e.g. kyoiku ‘ education ' + terebi ‘television’
—♦ kyoiku ‘ educational television ’

kateiyo ‘home use ’ + konpyuta ‘computer’

- kateiyo ‘ home computer ’

But if a borrowed word is free from ‘ foreignness ’, then voicing tends

to take place.
e.g. ame ‘ rain ’ + kappa ‘ Portuguese capa ’ -» amagappa ‘ raincoat ’
iroha ‘ Japanese alphabet '+karuta ‘ Portuguese carta ’ -+iroha-
garuta ‘ Japanese alphabet cards ’
2. The consonant of the second syllable of the second element is voiced.

e.g. hi ' sun '+kage ' shade ’ -> shade ’

oshiro ‘back '+sugata ‘appearance’ - {^!rVz7ga?a

‘ appearance from the back ’
612 APPENDIXES

Appendix 8 Improving Reading Skill by Identifying an * Extended

Sentential Unit’

In Japanese, the most important principle of word order is that the modifier
precedes what is being modified. (^Characteristics of Japanese Grammar, 1.
Word Order) The typical modifier modified word order in Japanese can be
summarized as follows:

MODIFIER + MODIFIED MEANING

Adjective + Noun

&t) L6V' A ‘ an interesting

omoshiroi hito person ’
(interesting) (person)

Adverb + Adjective

txi, AtV' ‘ very big ’

totemo okii
(very) (big)

Adverb + Verb

m< #< ‘ walk fast *

hayaku aruku
(quickly) (walk)

Noun + Particle

a* ‘ a child (subject) ’
kodomo 93
(child) (subject)

iz. ‘ to a teacher ’
sensei ni
(teacher) (to)

Sentence + Conjunction

t'h ‘ because I buy

hon o kau kara books *
((I) buy books) (because)

‘ although it rained *
a me ga futta keredomo
(it rained) (although)
 APPENDIXES 613

Sentence + Nominalizer

(O / Zb ‘ to see a movie *
eiga o miru no / koto
(see a movie) (to; -ing)

Sentence + Modal

Zhtl ‘ It looks like it will

Ashita wa hareru yoda clear up tomorrow ’
(It will clear up (it appears)
tomorrow)

1 ht* ‘ It is that I am
Boku wa wakai n da young’
(I am young) (It is that)

Let’s call the cohesive unit of modifier + modified an Extended Sentential Unit
(= ESU). If all ESUs started at the beginning of the sentence, students would
have no trouble identifying them. But in reality an ESU often comes some¬
where between the beginning and the end of a sentence. Moreover, in written
Japanese an ESU is quite frequently embedded within another ESU. The
ability to identify each ESU in a complex sentence is a must for reading com¬
prehension.

The following examples will serve to illustrate this point.

(1) a.
Watashi wa \jisho\ o mada tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the dictionary.)

b. fidi/J\$ft &
Watashi wa chisana I jisho o mada tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the small dictionary.)

o X < htz /J\ $ ft o T v' S o

Watashi wa chichi ga katte kureta chisana jisho o mada
tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the small dictionary which my father bought for me.)

d. mm TV'S
Watashi wa chugaku ni haitta toki ni chichi ga katte kureta
chisana [jisho] o mada tsukatte iru.
(I’m still using the dictionary which my father bought for me when
I entered junior high school.)
614 APPENDIXES

If we choose jisho ‘ dictionary ’ as the modified word, where does its modifier
start in each sentence of example (1)? In other words, exactly what part of
each sentence is the ESU1 Since (la) obviously doesn’t have any modifier,
there is no ESU. How about in (lb)? The modifier is a simple adjective
chisana ‘small’. In (lc) the modifier is the entire relative clause which starts
with chichi ga ‘ father (subject) ’. Notice that the sentence-initial noun phrase
watashi wa ‘ I (subject / topic)’ is not a part of the ESU in question, because
watashi wa is the subject of the main verb tsukatte iru ‘ am using ’. Sentence
(Id) is the most complex sentence of the four. Where does the ESU for
jisho start in (Id)? It starts from chOgaku ‘junior high school’, because the
clause chOgaku ni haitta toki ni ‘ when (I) entered junior high school ’ modi¬
fies the verb katte kureta ‘ (he) bought for me ’.
A quick and accurate identification of an ESU is a prerequisite for reading
comprehension. The following is a list of guidelines which will help students
to identify ESUs in written Japanese.

Guideline I
A modified element (= m.e.) is typically a noun, a head noun of a relative clause,
a nominalizer no or koto, a coordinate or a subordinate conjunction (such
as ga ‘ but ’, kara ‘ because ’, keredomo ‘ although ’), a modal (such as hazu
da ‘it is expected that ~’, no da ‘it is that —’, yoda ‘it appears that ~’,
soda ‘ I hear that ~’), an adjective, a verb or a particle, as shown in the
MODIFIER*MODIFIED chart.
Guideline II
If an element preceding an tn.e. modifies some element that comes after the
m.e.% that element is outside the ESU.
Thus, if kyd ‘ today ’ in (2) is judged to modify itta ‘ said ’, an element that comes
after the tn.e. to ‘quote marker’, kyd is outside the ESU. But, if the same
adverb is judged to modify nai ‘ there isn’t ’, then the adverb is a part of the
ESU.

(2) ^3
Jon wa kyd jugyo ga nai [to\ itta.
(Today John said that there wasn’t any class. / John said that there isn’t
class today.)

Guideline III
A sentence-initial topic phrase Noun Phrase + wa(.) is very often considered
outside an ESUt especially when the topic phrase is the main subject of the
sentence. The same is true of a Noun Phrase+mot).
 APPENDIXES 615

Some more examples follow:

(3) a. nutt
Watashi wa / mo kodomo ga byoki datta \kara\ ikenakatta.
(I couldn’t go there (either), because my child was ill.)

b. nut I
Watashi wa / mo Suzuki-san ga ikanakere\ba\ ikanai.
(I won’t go there (either) if Mr. Suzuki won’t go there.)

c. \i\#itl £ 11 Srfofrftvy,
Yamamoto wa / mo Yukiko ga kekkonshita \koto\ o shiranai.
(Yamamoto doesn’t know (either) that Yukiko got married.)

d. # (?) 51£ C C |z fe fc [#] H ii &

Kind wa koko ni atta \hon\ ga kyo wa nai.
(The book which was here yesterday is not here today.)

In (3a) through (3c), wa and mo phrases are outside the ESU of the boxed
m.e.'s, but in (3d) wa is inside the ESU of the m.e. hon ‘book’, because wa
is used in this sentence as a contrast marker, not as a topic marker.

Guideline IV
When two sentences are combined by the conjunction ga{.) ‘ but ’, the first
sentence is very often outside the ESU of the m.e. contained in the second
sentence.

For example, in (4) the first sentence is outside the ESU of the respective
m.e.' s.

(4) a. < s hhotiUtix[grel j- qg-c t &o fc0

Shukudai ga takusan atta ga, tsukarete ita node sugu nete shi-
matta.
(I had a lot of homework to do but I went to sleep right away be¬
cause I was tired.)

b. fcatrotDiEofcj&s, _
" Shogun " o yomu tsumori datta ga, terebi de mita \kara\ yomu
no o yameta.
(I intended to read Shogunt but I quit because I had seen it on TV.)

When two sentences are combined by the fe-form of a verb / adjective, the first
sentence is either inside or outside the ESU depending on the context, as
illustrated by (5).

(5) a.
Yoko wa atama ga itakute shikata ga nai [To] itta.
(Yoko said that she had a terrible headache.)
616 APPENDIXES

b. SrRofc
Yoko wa Kyoto ni itte. mae kara kao to omotte ita \ kimono
katta.
(Yoko went to Kyoto, and bought the kimono which she had been
thinking of buying for some time.)

In (5a) the ESU includes the first sentence, whereas in (5b) it doesn’t.

Guideline V
When an m.e. is a modal, its ESU normally extends to the beginning of the
sentence, including wa / mo phrase.

(6) a. fr lH0
Risa wa rainen Nihon e iku \ rashii.
(It seems that Lisa is going to Japan next year.)

b. oti
Bobu ni wa nihongo wa muzukashisugiru \ yoda
(It appears that Japanese is too difficult for Bob.)

Anna tokoro ni wa ikitakunai In da

(Lit. It is that I don’t want to go to such a place.)

d. o ti
Nanshi wa daigaku o yameru soda
(I heard that Nancy is going to quit college.)

Guideline VI
When an m.e. is the quote marker to, Guideline III is overridden, because
a quote is supposed to follow the original source as closely as possible; if
wa is in the original sentence, that wa has to be quoted. Examples follow:

(7) a. X £ kitiW\ H x Jj /vfrm o tco

Nin gen wa kangaeru ashi da (To] Pasukaru ga itta.
(Pascal said that a human is a thinking reed.)

Hon ni petto wa rojin ni ii fo kaite atta.

(It was written in a book that pets are good for elderly people.)

Guideline VII
Some m.e.’s allow their ESU to extend beyond the sentence boundary. This
is especially true with sentence-initial conjunctions such as shikashi ‘ but ’,
shitagatte ‘ therefore ’, sunawachi * namely ’, tadashi ‘ but *, tokoro ga * but ’
and da kara ‘so’ and the modal no da ‘ it is that
 APPENDIXES 617

(8) a. 1 LfrLltt^ttfcfrofco
Sachiko wa daigaku o deta. \ Shikashi shigoto wa nakatta.
(Sachiko graduated from college. But she didn’t get a job.)

Kyuni mune ga kurushiku natta n desu. \Da kara\ bydin ni

ikimashita.
(Suddenly I had a pain in my chest, so I went to the hospital.)

c. [ hX-jr\o
Ashita wa asa goji ni okimasu. Gojihan no kisha ni noru

(I’ll get up at five o’clock tomorrow morning. It’s because I’m going
to catch the 5:30 train.)

So far, seven basic guidelines which can be used to identify ESU ha\e been
presented. The student should read Japanese carefully, searching for ESUs,
especially for the following four ESUs that create enormous difficulties.
( i) Sentence + Conjunction
(ii) Relative Clause 4-Noun
(iii) Sentence + Nominalizer (no / koto)
(iv) Sentence + Modal
For your practice, a short, simple passage containing 10 boxed m.e.’s is pro¬
vided below. Underline the ESUs for each m.e. The answers are given
below the passage.

Practice Passage
Sjglcfgr 9 fcg]l-C' 7ET $ h -t? ftLfco 13? < li W * * - £:
jfe5[ol2li#)X tintWM L2. L
;* f- tiv\ 9£ Lfc0

ft#b \7ft^fc| b 18%3Ki>*hteK'M< tSi cx t fro v

—fg fC^fcV'T]10SV'i-to
Tomodachi ni karita \kuruma\l de Hanako-san to isshoni senshu Kyoto made
itte kimashita. Boku wa haiwe o hashiru \ no\2 wa hajimete datta 1 node|3 sukoshi
kinchoshimashita. Keredomo ichijikan gurai untenshite iru [To]4 supido ni mo
nareteshimai. tokidoki nemun\sd]5 ni narimashita. Kyoto made ni godo gurai
sabisueria ni haitte kohi o nomimashita. Boku wa tonari ni suwatte ita \ Hanako-
san f to iroiro hanashi[rtagara |7 itta \kara\s Kyoto mo sonna ni toku kanjimasen-
deshita. Konna tanoshii ryoko \nara[9 mo ichido shite mitai [to\l0omoimasu.
(Last week I went to Kyoto with Hanako in a car I borrowed from my friend.
I was a little nervous because it was the first time that I had driven on the
618 APPENDIXES

highway. But after having driven about an hour I became used to the speed,
and every now and then I almost fell asleep. Before we reached Kyoto, I
stopped at service areas about five times and drank coffee. Because I drove
while talking a lot with Hanako sitting next to me, I didn’t feel that Kyoto
was that far. If the trip is this pleasant, I would like to make it again.)

euuo>f euuoy ueuoi ueuoi ueuoi

’01 y/'Y- '6 ffl ‘8 m 'l a '9
unwau uemfiqoi dAAfetf a/Ateq nfoepouioi
a® -s > — •£ -^4 z mn *i
sf}S3 9M* J° spjOM jsjy ajeoipui A\opq usaiS spjoM : sj3Msu y
 619

GRAMMAR INDEX

Note X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y.

adverb amari, do, ichiban, mada, exhaustive listing ga1, to

/77d, sekkaku, yahari existence aru1, iru1
auxiliary c/ard, masho, sdc/a1 experience koto ga aru1
auxiliary adjective hoshii2, mitai- gerund te
da <ydda>, /7/'*t//', rashii, soda2, fa/, giving and receiving verb ageru*»2,
yast//', yoc/a, yon/'2 kureru1’2, morau*»2
auxiliary verb ageru2, aru2, dasu, honorific expression o ~ ni naru
flrart/, hajimeru, iku2, /ri/2, kudasai, ku- honor!lies o-, o ~ ni naru, o ~ suru.
reru2, kuru2, miruy morau2t nasai, okut Characteristics of Japanese Grammar 6
owaruy rareru1*2, shimau, sugiru humble expression o-, o ~ suru
causative saseru, sasu <saseru> imperative na, nasai. Appendix 1
causative passive saserareru <rare- indefinite pronoun no2
rub inexhaustive listing ~ tari ~ tari
cause c/e3, Arara3, noc/e, fame (ni), te suru, ya
cleft sentence ~ no wa ~ da infix -shi-
command ■=> imperative nominalizer koto2, no3
comparison ho ga ~ yori, yori noun hazu, koto1, mama, mono (da),
conditional da, naray tara, to4 tame (ni), toki, tsumori
conjecture darby rashii, s6da2t yoda particle bakari, dai, dake, c/e1’2’3'4,
conjunction ato de, ba, ga2, kara2>\ demo, e, ga1, goto ni, hodo, kal>2, ka
keredo (mo), mae ni, nagara, nara, (do ka), kai, kara1, kashira, kurai, made,
node, non/1'2, shi, sore de, sore de wa, made ni, mo1'2, na, nado, nanka
sore kara, sore nara, soretomo, so- <nado>, ne, /7/,»2*3*4»5»6*7, ni shite wa,
shite, suru to, tara, tatte, te mo, to\ no1'*, o1’2’3’4, shika, to1,2>3, to shite, to
toka, uchi ni, ya, yoni1 shite wa, tte1’2, wa1-2, yo, yori1'2, zutsu
contrastive wa1, jibun2 passive rareru1, Characteristics of
coordinate conjunction ga2 Japanese Grammar 5
copula da phrase aida (ni), ba yokatta, dake
dependent noun ■=> noun de (wa) naku ~ (mo), ho ga ii, ho
direct object marker o1 ga ~ yori, kawari ni, koto ga aru1'2,
ellipsis Characteristics of Japanese koto ga dekiru, koto ni naru, koto ni
Grammar 3 suru, koto wa, nai de, nakereba nara-
empathy «=> viewpoint nai, naku naru, nakute, ni chigainai.
620 GRAMMAR INDEX

ni suru, no dat o ~ ni naru, o ~ structure ~ mo ~ mo, ~ no wa ~

suruy tara do desu kat tamaranaiy ~ da, ~ wa ~ da, ~ wa ~ ga
tari ~ tan suru, te mo ii, to /e6a, to subject marker ga1
/t/, tokoro da1'2, wa ikenai, wake da, subordinate conjunction aida (ni),
yoni iu, yoni naru, yoni suru, yd to ato de, ba, kara2'3, keredo (mo), mae
omou, zu ni <nai de> ni, nagara, nara, node, noni1'2, tame
plural -tachi (ni), tara, tatte, te mo, to*, toki, uchi
polite expression >=> honorifics ni, yoni1
possessive no1 suffix -chan <-sama>, -goro, -kata,
potential kikoeru, koto ga dekiru, -kun, -sa, -sama, -san <-sama> -tachi,
mieru, rareru2 -ya
prefix go- <o->, mai-, o- superlative ichiban
pronoun jibun1'2, no2 tag question ne
purpose ni3, noni2, tame ni f e-form te
quotation to2, tte2 topic to ieba, to ittara <to iebay, to
question marker dai, ka2, kai kitara <to ieba'), ttara <to ieba'), tte1,
reason de3, kara3, node, tame (ni), te wa1. Characteristics of Japanese Gram¬
relative clause Relative Clause mar 2
request kudasai viewpoint agerux>2, ikul>2, jibun1,
Semantic Derivations De, Ni, To kureru1'2, kuru1'2, morau1'2, passive,
sentence-final particle dai, ka2, kai, tai. Characteristics of Japanese Gram¬
kashira, na, ne, no*, wa2, yo. Charac¬ mar 9
teristics of Japanese Grammar 7 volitional masho
 621

ENGLISH INDEX

Note: X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y.

at the time when toki

A audible kikoeru
a(n) gax
about bakari, -goro, gurai ikurab, B
kurai be arux, irux
across o2 be -able rareru2
after a to de, kara2 be able to koto ga dekiru, rareru2
after all kekkyoku <yahariy, yahari be about to do s.t. tokoro da2
after that sore kara because kara2, mono (da), node
almost did s.t. tokoro da2 because ~ not — nakute
along o2 because of de2, tame (ni)
a lot of oi, ozei <o/>, takusan <ob be done aru2
already mo be -ed rareru1
also mox, yahari before mae ni, uchi ni
although keredomo, noni1, te mo begin to dasu, hajimeru, kuru2
and de2, ni <to>, soshite, te, to1, to- be in a place where it takes ~ to get
ka, ya to tokoro dax
and so on nado be -ing iru2
and the like nado be in the midst of doing s.t. tokoro
and then sore kara da2
and what is more shi be like yoda
any mo2 be ready to do s.t. bakari
appear soda2, yoda both ~ and ~ mo ~ mo ~
approximately bakari, gurai <kurai>, but daga <ga2>, dakedo (gab, demo
hodo, kurai <ga2>, ga2, keredomo, shikashi <ga2>
around goro by de2, made ni, ni2
as to shite, yoni2 by (the time when) made ni
as expected yahari, yappari iyaharb
as far as made C
as for wa1 called to iu
as it is mama can do s.t. koto ga dekiru, rareru2
as many / much / long as ~ mo2 can hear kikoeru
at dex»4, /7/"1 cannot do s.t. wa ikenai
622 ENGLISH INDEX

can see mieru even though noni1

come kuru1 every goto ni, mai-, oki ni <goto ni>
come about kuru2 exist aru1, iru1
come to kuru2
continue iku2 F
considering that ni shite wa feel suru3
cost suruA feel like soda2
few sukunai, wazuka <sukunai>
D finish doing s.t. -owaru, shimau
decide on ni suru for de2, ni2, ni shite wa, to shite wa
decide to do s.t. koto ni kimeru ~ for example nado
<koto ni suru'), koto ni suru for the purpose of ~ noni2, tame
despite the fact that noni1 (ni)
difficult to do s.t. nikui for the sake of ~ tame (ni)
dislike kiraida from de2, kara1, ni3
do suru1
do in such a way that yoni suru G
do me or s.o. a favor by doing s.t. get morau1
kureru2 get -ed rareru1
do not do — and — nai de get s.o. to do s.t. saseru
Don’t do s.t. na, wa ikenai get to know shiru
do s.o. a favor by doing s.t. ageru2 give ageru1, kureru1
do s.t. and see miru go iku1
do s.t. for s.o. ageru2 go ahead and do s.t. oku
do s.t. in advance oku go on -ing iku2
do §.t. too much sugiru grow kuru2
do things like ~ and ~ ~ tari ~
tari suru H
due to de3 had better do s.t. ho ga ii
during (the time when) aida (ni), hard to do s.t. nikui
chu (ni) <uchi ni>, uchi ni have aru1, suru2, ~ wa ~ ga
have been done aru2
£ have done s.t. iru2, koto ga aru1, shi¬
easy to yasui mau
either mo1 have just done s.t. bakari, tokoro da2
either ~ or ~ soretomo have s.o. / s.t. do s.t. morau2, saseru
even demo, made, mo2 have s.t. done by s.o. morau2
even if tatte, te mo have to nai to ikenai <nakereba nara-
 ENGLISH INDEX 623
naby nakereba ikenai (nakereba nara¬ it is ~ that — ~ no wa ~ da
nab, nakereba naranai. nakute wa ike¬ it will be decided that ~ koto ni
nai <nakereba naranab y nakute wa na¬ naru
ranai <nakereba naranab, neba naranai I wonder kashira
<nakereba naranab
hear suru8 J
how do just bakariy dake
How could —! mono da
how to hohdy -kata L
leave oku
I leave as it is mama
I expect that ~ hazu Let's do s.t. masho
if bay ka2y narat tar a, to4 let s.o. / s.t. do s.t. saseru
if it is the case that ~ nara like sukida, yonfl
if it is true that ~ nara little sukunai, wazuka <sukunai>
if (or not) ka (do ka) look soda2
I hear / heard that ~ soda1 look as if yoda
I tell you yo look like rashii, soda2, yoda
in del>\ /7/1*6, o2
indeed ~ (but ~) ~ koto wa (~ M
ga) make it ni suru
indeed s.o. does s.t. alright (but ~) make s.o. / s.t. do s.t. saseru
~ koto wa (~ ga) manner of -kata
in front of mae ni many o/, ozei <d/>, takusan <oi>
-ing koto2y no\ te may te mo ii
in order to do s.t. nonfly tame ni might kamoshirenai
in place of kawari ni more ~ than ~ ho ga — yori
in spite of the fact that ~ nonfl most ichiban
in such a way that yonfl Mr. / Mrs. / Miss / Ms. -sama, -san
instead of kawari ni <-sama>
intend to tsumori day yo to omou much oi, takusan <d/>
in that case sore nara must be ni chigainai
in the process of doing s.t. nonfl must do s.t. nakereba naranai (=t>
isn't it? / is it? / etc. ne have to)
it is all right if ~ te mo ii must not do s.t. wa ikenai
it is expected that ~ hazu
it is natural that ~ hazu N
it is that ~ ~ no da need iru*
624 ENGLISH INDEX

neither ~ nor ~ ~ mo ~ mo (~
nai) R
-ness -mi <-sa>, -sa rather ~ than ~ yori
no ~ but shika reach the point where ~ yoni naru
no matter wh- demo receive morau1
(not) any mo2
(not) any longer mo S
(not) ~ any more mo (nai), (nai) 's no1
yoni naru, naku naru seem rashii, yoda
(not) as ~ as hodo -self jibun1*2
(not) ~ either mo1 Shall I / we do s.t.? masho
(not) even (one) mo2 should hazu, mono(da), ~ ho ga ii
not only — but also ~dake de should like to ~ -tai
(wa) naku ~ mo should not do s.t. wa ikenai
(not) very (much) amari, anmari show signs of ~ -garu
<amarb since kara2>\ node
(not) yet mada smell suru3
no wonder wake da so kara\ node, sore de
now mo sometimes ~ and sometimes ~
~ tari ~ tari suru
O so that yoni
of no1 Speaking of ~ to ieba, ttel, wa
on del,2fi, /7/l,4,fl start to do s.t. dasu, kuru2
one no2 stay iru1
only bakari, dake, shika still mada, yahari
onto ni* store -ya
out of kara1
or kal, soretomo T
over o2 take the trouble of doing s.t. sek-
owing to tame (ni) kaku, wazawaza <sekkaku>
own jibunx>2 Talking about ~ to ieba, tte1, wa1
tell to do s.t. yoni iu
P than yori
per mai- that koto2, no2, to2, to iu, tte2
play suru1 that's all dake
Please do s.t. kudasai the wa1
probably daro then sore de wa, sore kara, sore nara,
suru to
 ENGLISH INDEX 625
there are times when — koto ga
aru2 W
there was a time when ~ koto ga want s.o. to do s.t. hoshii2
aru1 want s.t. hoshii1
therefore sore de want to do s.t. -tai
thing kotox, mono <koto> way of -kata
things like nado what koto1
think ~ will yd to omou What about doing s.t.? ~ tara do
though keredomo desu ka
through o2, made when tara, to*, toki
till made whether ka2
to (infinitive) koto2, no3 whether or not ka do ka
to e, ni2>7 while aida (ni), nagara, uchi (ni)
to do s.t. /7/'5, tame ni, non)2 Why don’t you do s.t.? ~ tara do
to make up for kawari ni desu ka
to the extent that hodo (I / We) will do s.t. masho
too mo1, sugiru (I) wish ~ had done s.t. -ba yokatta
towards e, ni1 with de2, to2
try to do s.t. miru, yo to suru <miru> with effort sekkaku, wazawaza <sek-
kaku>
U without doing s.t. nai de, zu ni <nai
unbearably tamaranai de>
unchanged mama would nara
understand wakaru would like to do s.t. -tai
until made
up to made, made de Y
used to mono da yet mad a, mo
using de2 you know ne, yo

V
visible mteru
626

JAPANESE INDEX

Note: X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y.

dakedo <ga2y . 120

A ~dara <~taray .455
ageru1 *s.o. gives s.t. to s.o.’. 63 daro . 100
ageru2 ‘ s.o. gives s.o. a faver by do¬ ~dasu . 102
ing s.t.’. 65 -datte <-tattey. 462
aida (ni) . 67 de <-tey. 464
amari . 72 dex [location] . 105
anmari iamarb . 72 de2 [instrument]. 106
aru1 * exist * . 73 de3 [fe-form of desu] . 107
aru2 ‘ s.t. has been done ’ . 76 de* [time]. 109
ato de . 78 de ageru <ageru2y. 65
de aru <aru2y . 76
B de hoshii <hoshipy . 146
ba . 81 de iru drub . 155
bakari . 84 de itadaku <moraub . 263
bakari de (wa) naku ~ (mo) <dake de kara ikarab . 177
de (wa) naku ~ (mo)>. 97 de kudasai <~kudasaiy . 209
ba yokatta .-. 87 de kudasaru ikurerub. 216
de kureru ikurerub . 216
C de miru <miruy . 246
-chan <-sama> . 384 demo ‘ even ’ . Ill
chau <shimau> . 405 demo <ga2y. 120
chimau <shimau> . 405 de mo <te mo> ‘even if ~ ’. 468
chittomo iamariy . 72 de mo ii <~te mo ib. 471
chu (ni) iuchi niy. 512 de moraitai <hoshi/b . 146
de morau (.moraub . 263
D de oku <okuy. 358
da <~ wa ~ day. 521 de sashiageru iagerub . 65
daga <gab . 120 de shikata ga nai <ta mar a nab . 447
dai. 90 de shimau ishimauy. 403
da kara <sore de>. 413 desho <daro> . 100
dake . 93 desu <~wa ~da>. 521
dake de (wa) naku ~ (mo) 97 de tamaranai <tamaranaiy . 446
 JAPANESE INDEX 627

de wa ikenai <~wa ikenab. 528 itadaku <moraub . 262

de wa naranai <~wa ikenab . 528
de yaru <agerub . 67 J
do . 114 jau <shimau> . 405
-domo <-tachi> . 440 Jibun1 [empathy marker]. 159
jibun2 [contrast marker] . 161
E jimau <shimau> . 405
e [direction] . 116
eru <rareru2> . 370 K
kal ‘ or ’ . 164
G ka2 [question marker] . 166
gal [subject marker]. 118 ka {do ka) . 168
ga2 ‘but’. 120 kai. 170
~garu . 123 kamoshirenai . 173
-gata i-tachb. 440 kana <kashira> . 182
go- <o-> . 343 ka ne <ne> . 288
goro . 126 kara1 * from ’ . 176
goto ni. 128 kara2 ‘after doing s.t. ’. 177
gurai ikurab . 213 kara3 ‘because’ . 179
kara ne <ne> . 288
H kashira. 181
~hajimeru . 131 -kata. 183
hazu . 133 kawari ni. 184
hodo. 135 kedo <keredomo> . 188
hoho <-kata> . 183 kedomo <keredomo> . 188
ho ga ii . 138 kekkyoku iyaharb . 538
~/?o ga ~yori . 140 keredo <keredomo> . 188
hoshii1 ‘ want s.t.’. 144 keredomo . 187
hoshii2 ‘ want s.o. to do s.t.’. 146 kesshite <amarb. 72
kikeru <kikoeru> . 188
I kikoeru. 188
i chi ban. 148 kiraida . 190
ikaga <do> . 114 koto1 ‘thing* . 191
iku1 ‘ go ’. 149 koto2 [nominalizer]. 193
iku2 ‘go on -mg’ . 151 koto ga aru1 * there was a time when
iru1 ‘ exist ’ . 153 . 1%
iru2 ‘be -mg’. 155 koto ga aru2 * there are times when
iru2 ‘ need ’ . 157 - ’. 198
628 JAPANESE INDEX

koto ga dekiru . 200 mon <mono (da)>. 260

koto ni kimeru <koto ni suru) . 204 mono {da). 257
koto ni naru . 202 mono ikotob. 191
koto ni natte iru <koto ni naru> . 202 morau1 ‘ receive ’ . 261
koto ni shite iru <koto ni suru> ... 204 morau2 ‘ receive a favor of doing
koto ni suru . 204 s.t.’. 263
koto wa ‘ indeed ~ but * . 206 motte iru <arub . 73
~kudasai. 209
kudasaru <~kudasai, kureru1’2). N
.210,215,218 na . 266
-kun . 211 nado. 267
kurai. 212 nagara . 269
kureru1 ‘s.o. gives s.t. to me’ . 213 ~nai de . 271
kureru2 * s.o. gives me a favor by do¬ ~nai de < ~kudasab . 209
ing s.t.’. 216 ~nai to ikenai <~nakereba nara-
kuru1 ‘ come ’ . 219 nab . 274
kuru2 ‘ begin to, come to ’. 221 ~nakereba naranai . 274
~naku{t)cha <~nakereba naranab
M . 276
mada. 224 ~naku naru . 277
made. 225 ~nakute . 279
made de imade nb. 228 ~nakute wa ikenai <~nakereba
made ni . 228 naranab . 274
mae ni. 231 ~nakute wa naranai <~nakereba
mai- . 233 naranab . 274
mama . 236 nanka <nado>. 267
masaka iyahari). 538 nara . 281
~mashd . 240 naru <o ~ ni naru>. 358
mettani iamarb. 72 ~nasai. 284
-mi <-sa>.,. 381 ne . 286
mieru. 243 ~neba naranai <~nakereba naranab
mirareru <mieru) . 243 . 274
miru . 246 n da <no da>. 325
mitaida <yoda) ..550 n desu <no da). 325
mo1 ‘ also ’ . 247 ni1 [point of time] . 289
mo2 ‘ even ’. 250 ni2 [indirect object marker] . 291
mo. 254 ni3 [agent / source marker]. 292
~mo. 255 ni4 [direct contact] . 295
 JAPANESE INDEX 629
/7/5 [purpose] . 297
/?/® [location (existence)] . 299 R
ni7 [direction]. 302 -ra (-tachb. 440
ni ‘and’ <tob. 473 rareru1 [passive]. 364
ni chigainai . 304 rareru2 ‘can (potential)’. 370
ni kimeru <~ni suru> . 310 rashii . 373
-nikui . 307 Relative Clause . 376
~/7/' shite wa. 309 reru <rarerub . 364
~/7/' suru. 310
no1 [possessive marker] . 312 S
no2 ‘one (pronoun)’. 315 -sa. 381
no3 [nominalizer] . 318 -sama . 384
noA [sentence-final particle] . 322 -san <-sama> . 384
no da . 325 sappari (amarb . 72
node. 328 saserareru (saserub. 392
no desu <no da> . 325 saseru . 387
no ho ga <~hd ga ~yori> . 140 sashiageruiagerub. 64
noni1 ‘even though’ . 331 sasuga (ni) (yaharb. 538
noni2 ‘ in the process of doing ~ ’ 335 sekkaku . 392
no wa ~ da . 337 seru (saseru> . 387
shi. 395
-shi- . 397
shika. 398
o1 [direct object marker]. 347 shikashi <ga2t kawari nb.120,184
o2 [space marker] . 349 shi kata ga nai (tamaranab. 445
o3 [a point of detachment]. 351 shimau. 403
o* [emotive marker]. 352 shiru. 406
oi . 354 soda1 [hearsay] . 407
oki ni <goto nb. 128 ~soda2 ‘ looks ’. 410
oku . 357 sore de . 413
o ~ ni naru . 358 sore de wa. 414
o ~ suru . 360 sore kara. 416
6 to omou <~yd to omow>. 569 sore nara. 419
o tsukatte (.deb. 106 soretomo. 421
~owaru . 362 soshite. 422
ozei (ob . 354 sugiru . 423
sukida . 426
sukoshimo <amarb . 72
630 JAPANESE INDEX

sukunai . 427 te shimau <shimau>. 403

suru1 ‘do, play’. 428 te tamaranai <tamaranai> . 446
suru2 ‘ have ’ . 434 te wa ikenai (~wa ikenab . 528
suru3 [sensation]. 435 te wa naranai (~wa ikenab. 528
suru4 ‘ cost / lapse * . 436 te yaru (agerub . 67
suru <o ~ suru (humble)). 360 te yokatta (ba yokatta> . 89
suru to. 437 to1 ‘ and ’. 473
to2 ‘ with ’ . 476
T to3 [quote marker]. 478
-tachi. 440 to4 ‘ if, when ’. 480
-tai. 441 ieba. 484
takusan (ob . 354 to ittara <~fo ieba>. 485
tamaranai . 445 iu. 486
tame (ni) . 447 toka . 488
~tara . 452 toki . 490
~tara do desu ka. 457 to kitara (~to ieba>. 485
~tari ~tari suru . 458 tokoro da1 ‘place’. 495
-tatte. 461 tokoro da2 ‘ moment ’ . 496
-te. 464 toku (oku} . 358
-te (~kudasab . 209 ~ro shite. 501
te ageru (agerub . 65 ~fo shite wa. 502
te aru (arub . 76 tsumori. 503
te hoshii (hoshiib. 146 ttara (~to ieba} . 484
te iru drub. 155 -ttex ‘speaking of* . 507
te itadaku (moraub. 265 -tte2 [quote marker]. 510
te kara <kara2> . 177
te kudasai (~kudasab . 209 U
te kudasaru (kurerub . 218 uchi ni. 512
te kureru (kurerub . 216 ushiro ni (mae ni} . 231
te miru (miru} . 246
te mo . 468 W
~te mo . 471 wa1 [theme] . 516
te moraitai (hoshii2} . 147 wa2 [female speech marker] . 520
te morau (moraub . 263 ~wa ~da . 521
te ne <ne> . 288 ~wa ~desu (~wa ~da}. 521
te oku <oku> . 357 — wa ~ga . 525
te sashiageru (agerub . 67 ~wa ikenai. 528
te shikata ga nai <tamaranai> 447 wakaru. 529
 JAPANESE INDEX 631

wake da . 531 yoni1 ‘ so that ~ ’. 553

~wa naranai <~wa ikenab . 528 yo/7/2 ‘ like ’. 554
wazawaza <sekkaku> . 392 ~ydni iu. 556
wazuka <sukunab. 427 ~ yoni naru. 559
~ yoni suru. 562
Y yorix ‘ than ’. 564
-ya ‘store’ . 535 yori2 ‘ side *. 567
ya ‘ and ’ . 536 to omou. 569
yahari . 538 ~ yo to suru <miru> . 246
yappari iyaharb . 539
yaru <agerul, surub.64,428 Z
-yasui . 541 zenzen iamarb . 72
yo . 543 ~zi/ ni <~nai de> . 271
yoda . 547 zutsu. 572
yo ne <ne> . 288
632

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