MEDIA HANDBOOK

Codes & Conventions

Codes + Conventions = The Media Narrative

 FROM THE STUDY DESIGN

MEDIA CODES
Technical, written and symbolic tools used to construct or suggest meaning in media forms and products.
Media codes are the physical elements that the audience experiences, which bring the narrative
conventions to the media form.

Media CODES include the use of:

• Camera
• Acting
• Setting
• Mise En Scene
• Editing
• Lighting
• Sound
• Special effects
• Typography
• Colour
• Visual composition
• Text and graphics

MEDIA CONVENTIONS
Rules or generally accepted ways of constructing form and informing meaning in media products.
Narrative conventions are usually implied; that is, they exist in the minds of the audience rather than being
explicitly seen in the narrative. They are how audience both constructs and makes sense of the narrative.

Media CONVENTIONS include the use of:

• Story principles
• Form and structure
• Generic structures
• Character and Story Arcs
• Cause and effect
• Point of view
• The Structuring of Time
• Elements of page layout
• Paper stock for print
• Titles and Credits Sequences
• Hyperlinking and Mounting
• Framing of Images
• Technical codes are created using technology or skills.
• Symbolic codes are those elements that contain deeper, connotative meanings.
• Written codes are obviously those that have been written, either text or words that we can see on screen,
or the written word of the script, such as character dialogue, or the lyrics of songs used in a film.

CODE & CONVENTIONS OF MOVING IMAGE

VISUAL ELEMENTS AUDIO ELEMENTS TECHNICAL WRITTEN ELEMENT S
ELEMENTS
• Costume • Music • Acting • Headlines
• Camera Angle & or Position • Sound Effects • Lighting • Subtitles
• Framing Dialogue • Editing • Adjectives (An adjective is
• Lighting • Jingles • Colour Grading a word that modifies a noun
• Location • Catch Phrases (or pronoun) to make it
more specific: a "rotten"
• Setting
egg, a "cloudy" day, a
• Visual Composition
"lovely" lady).

CODE & CONVENTIONS OF CODE & CONVENTIONS OF

CODE & CONVENTIONS OF PRINT > PHOTOGRAPHY STORYTELLING

• Layout > White space / Negative • Lighting • Opening Development &

space • Camera Sizes and Closure
• Colour Angles • Multiple Storylines
• Images > Size & Position • Colour > Tone & • Narrative Possibilities
• Text > Typography Contrast • Character Development
• Composition & Layout • Composition • Cause and Effect
• Paper stock > Quality, Size, • Mise-en-scene • Setting
Quantity, Type • Exhibition • Structuring of Time
• Framing • Point of View
• Distribution
• Readership

CODE & CONVENTIONS OF ADVERTISING

SYMBOLIC CODES WRITTEN CODES TECHNICAL CODES
• Mise En Scene, props, settings, • Headlines • Camera techniques, framing, depth of
costumes and colors. • Captions field, lighting, exposure, sound and
 These codes help symbolize the • Speech bubbles editing.
meaning of something, for • Language style  These codes include camera angles,
example if you see a very well- shots, lighting, editing and sound.
dressed man in an elite sports  Camera, position, angles and shots can be
car in an exotic location the used to show different perspectives.
audience would automatically  The lighting can be used to create an
think that he is successful and atmosphere and/or mood.
link the product with success.  Sound can be used for dialogue, as a voice
over to speak about what the product is or
music also to create mood.
 MEDIA CODE: CAMERA

Techniques & qualities including shot selection, movement & focus.

The way the camera moves, pans, the angle and the framing help tell the story. It can provide an insight to the
characters and their lives, place importance on or emphasise certain objects, events and actions, help set the mood
of a scene and/or provide a point of view.

ANGLE
The angle of the camera is the angle from which the image is viewed. The straight on angle is the most common.
The camera angle can have a major impact of how the audience will perceive a character, object or place. The high
angle positions the audience looking down and the low angle positions the audience looking up. Low camera angles
will often emphasise height or power, making a character look large and domineering. A high angle will often make
character or object appear small and vulnerable.
Camera angles can also identify a character’s point of view (not to be confused with point of view from which the
narrative is presented) by taking a position that corresponds to that which we imagine that the character’s sight line
would occupy. We see what the character would be seeing. This can be very effective in enhancing audience
identification with character’s experiences.

MOVEMENT
How the camera moves will reveal information the audience. Panning from left to right or vice versa can be used
to follow action, an actor’s sight line or reveal something of significance to the audience. The speed of the pan can
have a dramatic effect, fast (zip pan); to indicate quick paced action while slow can indicate the opposite. Panning
the camera can also be used for point of view of a character as it can imitate the movement of the spectator’s eye as
they survey the scene around them. If the camera is mounted on a crane the audience can zoom in at odd angles to
gain a better look at characters, objects or places. They will feel as if they have a bird’s eye or intimate view of the
action. Also, if the camera is on tracks or dolly it can follow the action and further engage the audience by enabling
them to move with the characters and the action.

DISTANCE/PLACEMENT
The distance of the camera in the scene will dictate to the audience how involved they will become with the
characters or settings. In general, the closer the camera is to the subject the more importance and attention that
the subject is given. For example, in a romantic scene the most logical place for the camera is close to the lovers so
that the audience can experience the intimacy of the moment. If it was presented only in a long shot the audience
would be distanced and wonder, why it was shot in this manner. The height and the distance of the camera from the
subject can also have an effect on the meaning of a shot.

SHOT SELECTION
Extreme close-up > can be described as a very tight shot. It is a very dramatic shot that can be used to draw
attention to fine detail or places importance to the detail it captures.
Close-up > a close-up is not as tight as an extreme close-up but there is still very little background shown in the shot.
Medium shot > more than one object or subject can be show in a medium shot. Actors are captured from the waist
up and this shot is commonly used when there are two actors in the shot.
Medium long shot > in this shot the subject in the foreground is equally balanced with the background.
Long shot > this allows the subject to still be prominent although the background dominates the scene.

HEIGHT
The height of the camera can give the audience a varied perspective. This is not referring to angle, for the angle in
this type of shot is usually straight on.

LENS/FOCUS
Alterations in focus can have a signifying effect. Most films use a deep depth of field in which both the foreground
and backgrounds are in sharp focus. Hard focus invokes a very real and sharp image while soft focus provides a
dreamlike or romantic effect. This could be used for close ups or big close ups to provide a more flattering image of
the actor. It will also suggest romance and mystery to the audience.
 MEDIA CODE: ACTING

Acting is the most obvious production element to observe and analyse when watching a moving image. An
actor’s performance in a film consists of visual elements (appearance, gestures, facial expression) and
sound (voice and effects). The character the actor creates is essential to the narrative of the film.

Acting can be broken up into the following discussion points:

• Body language
• Tone of voice / Accent / Pace of speech
• Facial expression
• Any distinctive common movement by the character
• Stance / Walk / Movement

It is important to note that Character & Acting are two different elements when looking at narrative.
The actor or actress is playing a character.

When analysing narrative for media it is crucial you write the Actor or Actress’s real name. For
example, ‘Kate Winslet’ not Tilly Dunnage.

Films may contain a wide variety of acting styles. In a stylised film a realistic performance would seem out of place
in the film’s context and vice versa. If the actor looks and behaves in a way that is expected to their character’s
function in the film then the actor has given a good performance whether or not they have behaved as a real person.

An actor’s performance can be analysed by the way they use their voice, body and face. Other factors to consider are
the reasons they may have been cast, attributes like physical appearance, acting skill and reputation can all play a
role in this. When discussing an actor’s performance, it is important to refer to correct acting terminology.

CASTING
Casting is important in a film. The use of a star can have an influence on audience expectation. Stars are often
watched for their own sake rather than for their representation of a scripted character. However, there are actors
who are stars, but their trademark is a strong ability in characterisation. Previous roles/experience may also have an
influence on why an actor is cast in a film. The physical appearance of the actor is also a significant aspect of acting,
whether the actor is physically suitable in the role is just as essential as their acting ability. Is their voice, face or body
suitable for the role? What is their prior work and does this have an influence on their casting? Are they renowned for
playing certain types of characters?

ACTING TERMS
STYLE
Acting can be broken into three main styles:
 Classical
 Naturalistic
 Stylised
• Contemporary films employ naturalistic acting that is far subtler and more realistic. This style appears natural
and doesn’t draw attention to itself. This is often referred to as Method acting where actors try to create in
themselves the thoughts and emotions of their characters to develop lifelike performances.
• Stylised acting is when an actor deliberately exaggerates their acting style. They are not performing in a way
that is natural.
PERFORMANCE - USE OF VOICE
Volume > loud/soft
• Loud – Forceful, overbearing, shrill
• Soft - gentle, quiet, faint, muted, low, hushed
Speed > fast/slow
• Slow - lingers on certain words, spoke in a careful/deliberate manner
• Fast - spoke in a rushed/manic manner
Tone of voice
• Disturbing, chilling, intimidating, shaky, agitated, shrill, condescending, Calm, unruffled, serene, composed,
self-assured, relaxed, refined
• Meek, childish, shy, whiny, emotional
• Collected, self-possessed, cool, calm and collected, self-possessed, relaxed, sympathetic

USE OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

• Gentle, eyes, evil eyes, wide eyed, sullen mouth, aggravated expression, grimace, wide smile, pained

USE OF GESTURES/BODY LANGUAGE/MANNERISMS

• Casual, tense, agitated, anxious, calm, cool, fidgeted, robotic, rigid, straight, slumped, relaxed

Actress Margot Robbie Tonya Harding (Margot Robbie) Tonya Harding

Gillespie praised his stars for doing their “homework” when it came to prep for their characters. “It’s something as a director you
hope they’re going to do it, but you never know exactly what their discipline is.” This preparation included watching actual footage
of their real-life counterparts, getting the accents and physicality down, and for Robbie— becoming a figure skater.

In order to play the disgraced Olympic figure skater in I, Tonya, actress Margot Robbie did 5 months of figure skating, put on 15 lbs
(6.8 kg) of muscle, and used cheap hair dye and drugstore makeup that Tonya would have worn in order to channel Harding from
the early 1990s. “To me, the hair and the aesthetic, the way she put on makeup — it told the story beautifully,” Robbie told
PEOPLE. “It wasn’t about replicating the looks, it was about embodying the life and spirit of someone who grew up the way she
did.”
 MEDIA CODE: SETTING

The time (time period) and place in which the film's story occurs, including all of the other additional factors,
including climate (season), landscape, people, social structures and economic factors, customs, moral attitudes, and
codes of behaviour.

Setting is a vital part of the story telling within the narrative. It provides answers and understanding to the audience.
How a Director reveals the setting is crucial when discussing this story element. For example; Is there a train station
on screen revealing the name of the city. Or does the Director choose to shoot the opening scene in a bustling, cold,
windy, Manhattan city street in peak hour. Providing evidence to the audience that this film text will be set in New
York in Winter.

The media language to include when discussing setting are as follows:

• Time period
• Location
• Climate / Season
• Landscape / City / Country / Sea / Land / Desert
• Culture / People
• Social and Economic status
• Moral attitudes or codes of behaviour

The story is set in a 1950s fictional Australian country town, Dungatar. The costumes and the irony of the
middle-of-nowhere setting enhance the element of transformation.
 MEDIA CODE: MISE-EN-SCENE

Mise-En-Scene refers to the composition of everything visually within the physical boundaries of the shot /
frame. The way in which figures and elements are moved around within a frame can provide many effects. Mise-en-
scène also includes the positioning and movement of actors on the set, which is called blocking. Mise En scene can also
be described as a look or style of a film (for example gothic), a mood or atmosphere in a whole film or an individual
scene (for example a threatening feeling).

These elements are also applicable to still photography also and include subject placement, framing, angles, creating
mood and depth of field.

Mise en scene refers to the visual elements in a frame including:

Set design
• The look and the feel of the set can help establish audience expectations about the film. Set design is the setting
of a scene, the objects (props) and the decor. Props are often to use to provide clues to the audience about
characters and storylines. Sometimes props reappear from scene to scene reminding the audience of it
significance. Sometimes these props can become motifs in the narrative.
Set design can be used to amplify character emotion or the dominant mood of a film, or to establish aspects of
the character.

Lighting
• The intensity, direction, and quality of lighting have a major effect on the way an image is perceived, including
mood, time of day or night, season or atmosphere.

Space & Shot Selection

• The representation of space affects the reading of a film. When a character fills a frame, the audience can
usually be assured that they are a major character central or important to the narrative. Equal space given to
two actors within a frame would indicate equal importance in the scene to these characters. Cramming the
frame can have a claustrophobic effect

Costume & Make-Up

• Costume simply refers to the clothes that characters wear. Using certain colors or designs, costumes in narrative
cinema is used to signify characters or to make clear distinctions between characters. Costume often gives
important information about characters, including their background, profession, attitudes, personalities, their
state of mind or their role in the narrative. For example, black or dark clothing often suggest evil (antagonist)
while white or light clothing suggests goodness (protagonist). Change in costume can represent an evolution of
a character.

How the Color-Coded Costumes Advance the Plot in Jordan Peele’s Horror Hit
Some might categorize Allison Williams’s clothes as reflective of a typical preppy,
slightly naive girl. Did you take her character’s personality traits into account when
dressing her for the role? I wanted to make Rose look young and give her a very
easy, effortless vibe. She had to be incredibly approachable and couldn’t be
thought of as strange like the other characters immediately come off. The first
time we see Rose she’s in a denim dress and that was very purposeful denim
represents the All-American girl. In fact, we really wanted Rose and Chris to look
like the All-American couple and in some scenes, they’re in a red, white, and blue
colour scheme. I tried to only use clothes made in the U.S. as well, dressing Chris
in Levi’s and Red Wing boots and Allison in Free People and Keds.

Nadine Haders - Costume Designer for Get Out.

 MEDIA CODES: EDITING

Editing creates the illusion that a film is unfolding naturally, without the intervention of the filmmaker. Good
editing is invisible with seamless connecting shots that create the illusion of continuity of time and space.
There are numerous editing techniques:

• Cut – where one shot is cut to the next. Sudden cuts can produce surprise, horror, and disruption.
• Fade - where the image disappears into black and generally represents a brief lapse of time
• Dissolve - where a fade coincides with the gradual superimposition of a new image and generally represents a
longer lapse of time
• Wipe - where one image replaces another proceeded by a divisional line moving across the screen
• The fade, dissolve and wipe can be used to indicate the passing or expansion of time. The longer the edit
techniques are can indicate more or less time passed.
• Shot-reverse shot – is used to represent a conversation. The characters speak to each other appearing on
opposite sides of successive frames, each looking in the direction of the other. This is shot over a continuous
sound track and edited together.
• Graphic match – shots are edited together in relation to how they visually correspond with each other. Visual
relationships are significant but visual/aural relationships in editing are also very important this includes the
overlapping sound from one shot to the next with an image depicting the dialogue spoken.
• Crosscutting – is cutting back and forth between scenes linking stories or events together or indicating events
happening simultaneously.
• Timing - can be used to enhance the energy of the action, or to slow it down. Action sequences can take on
greater drama if cuts occur within moments of high action. For example, if a car is about to crash, the viewer
may see several successive and separate views of the same moment. A cut in a moment of relative steadiness
can slow down action. A character deep in thought may be shot from several positions in order to expand the
moment and instil significance into it.
• Rhythm of editing is important. Many films have a rhythm throughout their duration. The pacing and rhythm
of the editing can dramatically affect single scenes. Editing can increase or decrease the pace of the film.
Quick edits are editing brief shots together before cutting to the next shot while slow edits allow shots to
continue for a long time before the cut to the next shot. The filmmaker may choose to construct a steady
rhythm by making all the shots approximately the same length. An accelerating rhythm may arise from
successively shorter shots; a spasmodic, irregular rhythm may be produced by a combination of shots of widely
different lengths.

Harding was the first American to perform the move in a skating competition, and fewer than 10 women have ever pulled it
off in competitive skating. And yet in I, Tonya, actor Margot Robbie appears to perform a triple axel — in extreme slow
motion, with the camera clearly focusing on her face. Gillespie directs the scene in a way that challenges viewers to catch
the digital cheat, giving them plenty of time to study the jump, and see why it’s so impressive and challenging for any
athlete.
 MEDIA CODES: LIGHTING

Lighting can define the space within a frame, separate foreground from background, create textures, mould
and shape, reveal or conceal. Lighting can be expressive – setting a mood or a look in a film. An entire film
can be lit in an expressive way. Thrillers or Film Noir is often dark and gloomy with low key lighting.

Features of lighting:
• Intensity
• Source
• Direction
• Colour
The colour of lighting can determine the mood of a scene. Red light can emphasise danger or warmth; blue light can
emphasise mystery or coolness.

The intensity is how bright the light and how much of it is directed on a specific area, character or object. Low key
lighting exploits shadows creating a sense of threat or suggests romance, mystery or danger. For example, if a face
is only partly lit with a shaft of light reflecting from the eye the effect is sinister. High key is lighting that is bright
and can suggest happiness or be reassuring to audiences that all is well. Low key lighting is usually expressive while
high key lighting is realistic.

Lighting can be used to emphasise certain elements, objects characters or actions within a frame. Framing with light
can draw the audience’s attention to one feature while obscuring others.

The texture of light refers to how hard or soft the light is. Hard light creates clearly defined shadows and crisp
textures and edges. Soft light creates diffused illumination, blurs contours and gentler contrasts between light and
shade.

The direction of light can have an impact on a scene. For example, back lighting from behind an object or character
creates a silhouette so the audience can only see the outline of an object or character or under lighting where the
light is positioned below the object or character both these can produce an ominous effect.

Three-point lighting
In standard three-point lighting there are three main positions for the lights:
• Key light – the hardest and brightest, focused to one side of subject
• Fill light – softer, more diffuse light that is placed to the other side
• Backlight – placed behind the subject
Day for night
A lighting technique that involves shooting in the daytime to make it look like moon light night.

Tilly arrives under the cover of night, dark Romantic scenes are softly lit when Dark, foreboding red lighting in this scene
lighting to establish mystery and intrigue. things heat up between Tilly and stands out from the rest of the film. It
Teddy. employs a production element from the
horror genre, and we know something
bad is about to happen.
 MEDIA CODES: SOUND

Sound falls into three categories:

• Dialogue
• Music
• Sound effects

Sound is important in a film’s narrative; it can provide powerful emotional accompaniment to a film’s high points; it
enhances realism by reproducing the sounds one would associate with the actions and events depicted visually, draw
attention to a particular aspect of a shot, enhances audience expectations of what might occur and sound can be
used as a transitional device in editing with dialogue, music or sound effects carrying over from one scene to the
next.

In the moving image sound can come from only one of two sources. Either it comes from inside the story or it is
happening outside the story:

DIEGETIC SOUND – Sound from within the story is called diegetic sound because it happens within the diegesis (the
world of the story). This means that the characters and the audience must be able to hear the sound. Usually the
audience can see the source of the sound. Diegetic sound comes from the on-screen action that we observe and that
the characters participate in

NONDIEGETIC SOUND – does not emanate from the story space. This is sound that is imported to the on-screen
action. Non-diegetic sound may contribute to the story or it may build atmosphere or enhance the emotional power
of the scene, but its source isn’t seen on screen. If the characters can’t hear it, it is non-diegetic. Voice-overs and
narration are non-diegetic sound.

MUSIC
Music in films is usually non-realistic and the audience rarely sees its source in the frame. It is used to amplify the
mood or atmosphere and conveys the emotional significance of a scene.
Reference can be made to its:
• Tempo/beat - how fast or slow the music is
• Style – classical, rock, jazz
• Volume – how loud or soft the music is or whether the volume changes. For example, when dramatic events
occur the volume of the music may increase.
Adjectives to describe music:
• Gripping, Riveting, Thrilling, Suspenseful, Mesmerizing, Spellbinding, Enchanting
DIALOGUE
Through dialogue important information can be revealed about the storylines and/or characters. Often a significant line of
dialogue in the text can convey important information about the narrative. It can provide a prediction of what may occur, help
identify themes and assist in establishing or explaining a character’s motivations or actions.

NARRATION
Conventionally the narrator of a film is usually the protagonist also audiences have the tendency to believe that if a character
narrates a film then the narrative is from that character’s point of view.

SOUND EFFECTS
Sounds are added to improve the realism or impact of a scene or event.

FOLEY
• Any kind of natural sound caused by movement or nature, which can be recorded in a studio. Any other sounds of this
nature EG; the sound of engine of a car, which cannot be recorded in a studio are called sound effects. These are also
added to the soundtrack.

SCORE
• The musical component of a movie's soundtrack, usually composed specifically for the film by a film composer; the
background music in a film, usually specially composed for the film; may be orchestral, synthesized, or performed by a
small group of musicians; also refers to the act of writing music for a film
• Also, a soundtrack can convey the emotional significance of a scene by helping the audience to identify with the
character’s emotions. Music can ‘feel’ for the audience by indicating when a powerful moment is occurring.
• Music can be used ironically by deliberately accompanying an image inappropriately. For example, a happy, upbeat song
contrasted with a violent event to make the violence seem more perverse.

The non-diegetic sound in this scene is calming romantic music which would suggest that the
film would be a rom com or romantic. There is also diegetic laughter from the characters which
make the audience believe that the film is going to be focused on the relationship between the
two characters in the shot due to the non-diegetic music along with it.
 MEDIA CODES: SPECIAL EFFECTS

Special effects (often abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television,
theatre, video game and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world.

Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of optical effects and mechanical effects. With the
emergence of digital film-making a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter
referring to digital post-production while "special effects" referring to mechanical and optical effects.

Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects) are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting.
This includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric
effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a
building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a set may be
built with break-away doors or walls to enhance a fight scene, or prosthetic makeup can be used to make an actor
look like a non-human creature.

Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are techniques in which images or film frames are created
photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in postproduction
using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.

Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It
gives filmmakers greater control and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and convincingly and—as
technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been
superseded by CGI.

This is how the tech effects by which Margot Robbie face is morphed onto her skating body double to look like a master
figure skater in 'I, Tonya'
The high-flying figure skating landing those triple axles is not Margot Robbie. Instead, it's a combination stunt doubles and
complex visual effects to create movie magic. Post production company, 'Eight VFX' faked some of Robbie's moves through
face replacement and other techniques.
‘Eight VFX” used two different face replacement techniques. One used the traditional green screen approach and the other
involved a full 3D head scan used to capture textures and expressions. ‘Eight VFX’ also set up six ‘witness’ cameras around the
rink in order to track Robbie’s face from multiple angles. The entire visual effects took 3 months
 MEDIA CODES: TYPOGRAPHY

An important design convention of print is typographical style.

Typefaces communicate a variety of meaning for the audience. Typography organises text and creates meaning. It
does this through hierarchy, the use of fonts to emphasise some content over others. Hierarchy helps readers scan a
document and understand the relationship between different sections.

The best typography is aesthetically pleasing, invites readers into a publication and encourages them to continue
reading while not drawing attention to it-self. (Nelson Media, Jo Flack)

It is important when exploring your concepts and ideas for your media products that you investigate the typography
selected by the creator and understand what meaning you are receiving by the choice of typeface.

Print production terms:

• Serif: a slight projection or decorative flourish finishing of a letter in certain typefaces.
• Sans Serif: Typefaces without serifs.
• Copy: The written material that will appear on your print product.
• Typesetting: The process of arranging and laying out copy.
 MEDIA CODES: COLOUR

Colour has a huge impact psychologically on audience both in print and the moving image. This media code is often
referred to as the explicit convention when reading any media publication or watching a media text. Colour is often an
element that a creator will rely on to convey ideological meaning for the audience.

Colour grading as an editing technique has a psychological effect on an audience’s reading of a narrative. By
manipulating colour, the creator suggests a preferred reading of the text. For example; Golden tones of Westerns
and Grey wash tones for colder environments and large cities.

In film colour is used to set the tone of the scene before any of the actors have even muttered a word of dialogue.
Red denotes passion, power, love and danger. Pink signifies femininity, innocence, and beauty. Yellow is associated
with joy, naivety, and insanity. Blue symbolises isolation and calmness.
 MEDIA CODES: VISUAL COMPOSITION

Visual composition specifically refers to the placement and relationship of all the elements within the shot.
For instance, two characters within the same shot can be shown as being distant in their relationship with
each other if there is a large space or object between them.

Alternatively, two characters who are in close proximity can be shown to the audience as being in a
relationship. Likewise, a character can be represented as being powerful or authoritarian if they are sitting at
an office desk.

Hierarchy between characters and objects is used to suggest various things. Some artists rely heavily on
visual composition to please the audience and ensure they receive the hidden messages they intended.

The term composition means 'putting together' and can apply to any work of art from music to writing to
photography that is arranged using conscious thought. In the visual arts, composition is often used
interchangeably with various terms such as
design, form, visual ordering, or formal
structure, depending on the context. In graphic
design for press and desktop publishing,
composition is commonly referred to as page
layout.
 MEDIA CODES: TEXT & GRAPHICS

Text and Graphics are essential for representation and narrative understanding. Typefaces are selected to
ensure their typography is clean, consistent and easy to read.

We all know that an image is worth a thousand words. Graphics make impact instantly. It is the creator’s job
to ensure that the appropriate images reinforce the appropriate message to the audience.

The masthead, or title of your publication, is probably the most distinctive and important element of your
print publications cover. Magazines and Print publications will often experiment with font type, size and
weight and space between the letters until they end up with something that is pleasing on the eye.

Things to discuss when referring to text and graphics:

• Styles
• Fonts
• Body Text
• Masthead
• Space
• Visual composition
• Colour
• Hierarchy
 MEDIA CONVENTION: STORY PRINCIPLES

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STORY & PLOT

While the terms ‘story’ and ‘plot’ are often used interchangeably, it is important to consider the differences between
them.
• A story is a series of events recorded in their chronological order. The story includes all the events of the
narrative – those made known to the audience, and those inferred but not necessarily revealed.
• A plot comprises only events in a narrative text deliberately arranged to reveal their dramatic,
thematic, and emotional significance.

The way I think of it, a plain story is like history: boring. ;) But a plot is someone’s telling of the story. It may
be biased or inaccurate, but it’s more interesting! Many works of fiction are based on the same basic stories
or actual events. Is there even such a thing as a truly original story? I doubt it.

I’m sure I’m not the only one that gets frustrated when trying to come up with an original story.
Everything’s been done before! I need to constantly remind myself that the originality is all in the plot, the
telling of the story.

MULTIPLE STORYLINES
Most narratives comprise multiple storylines or story arcs. These storylines may run parallel to, comment on, or
intersect with the main storyline. They are designed to add depth and colour to the narrative by complicating
the lives of characters, adding to the range of narrative possibilities, illustrating a moral dilemma, providing a
false lead, contrasting characters, situations or ideas or to provide relief to a distressing point.
Concurrent storylines - where storylines run parallel to each other
Interrelated or interconnected storylines – where story lines intersect or impact on each other

Events and conflicts in the story also motivate the storyline such as character actions and motivations.

THEMES:
A theme is a values statement that motivates or shapes a narrative. Themes will often point to the ideology behind the text.
Creators will often use technical codes to convey the themes throughout the narrative. These codes are employed to reinforce
themes within the narrative and help propel the plot. They also help the audience understand and connect with the genre of
the text.

MOTIFS:
These reoccurring events, sayings, objects, sounds are connected to themes and will be a good discussion point for all media
students.

Social issues such as family violence and schoolyard bullying are tackled sensitively and deftly, and, occasionally, avenged with
devastatingly grim humour. The film is important because it shows the dangers of small-town mentality. Where tradition meets
expectations without room for change. Where growth is frowned upon and difference is belittled. The disparities segregating class
becomes generational and it appears to be a tough cycle to crack.

The isolation of small towns can trap toxicity and be really devastating on a community. There is a reluctance to progress and
townsfolk are often set in their ways. We see themes of domestic violence, alcoholism and little services for the elderly or children
with special needs. There is little hope for any of the victims. Although set in the 1950s, these issues present as a glass mirror into
some of the issues still suffocating our rural Australian communities today.

Themes: death, marriage, betrayal.

 MEDIA CONVENTION: OPENING, DEVELOPMENT, CLOSURE

The opening provides the audience with a basis of things to come; it integrates them into the film.
Causes of subsequent events, significant motifs, and important features of the initial plot are all laid out in the
opening. The opening sets up a range of possibilities, raising the audience’s expectations about what is to come.

Narrative possibilities and expectations are set up in the opening of a film and throughout the narrative; information
is revealed and expanded upon. The audience expects a resolution usually at the end of a film so narrative
possibilities need to be established in the opening and developed during the duration so that a conclusion can come
to fruition at the end. Expectations need to be established so as the story unfolds, and events occur the audience
has an acceptance of what is occurring on screen and can make sense of them.

Characters, situations and settings are often introduced so the audience understands where, what and whom the
narrative is about.

As the film progresses most narrative possibilities are developed and played out and by the time a film reaches its
conclusion, very few narrative possibilities remain unresolved. The audience expects that the narrative possibilities
and expectations that were established in the opening sequence and expanded on throughout the narrative will be
resolved to some extent at the end of the film.

The ending will resolve the influence of cause and effect – the hero wins, the lovers are reunited, the bad guy is
punished, and everyone lives happily ever after.

Not all films have this sense of finality. Some endings may be ambiguous or open and the audience is left uncertain
as to the nature of the final consequences. This is a tactic played out by Directors. It could also open the idea of a
sequel.

THE DRESSMAKER
Opening scene - Deserted rural country road
Set-up – “I’m back you bastards”
Catalyst – Tilly remembers what happened
B-stories – Include the Pettyman’s, Teddy and Tilly etc.
(The “A story” will be the primary focus of your story. Meaning it will usually be about the lead and have the greatest number of scenes (i.e. screen-time).
The “B story” is generally a parallel storyline headed by more secondary characters).

It is your job as the media student to ensure you discuss all three components of this story element. Where
students let themselves down is only analysing one or two parts to this element. Be mindful that each
component has important narrative structures to play out for the audience.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: FORM & STRUCTURE

The structure of the Hollwood three-act narrative structure (Opening, Development & Resolution) is not always fixed.
Regardless of how the narrative is teased out, there are some essential elements that ensure the audience can
recognise and follow the action.

• STEP 1: Establish normal

• STEP 2: Disrupt normal
• STEP 3: Create turning points
• STEP 4: Develop the characters
• STEP 5: Restore normal
Audiences decode tests both logically and emotionally; both interact with each other. One person may laugh, while
the other may cry to a particular scene. So regardless of the form and structure of the narrative, the audience can
decode the messages vastly different and is sometimes out of the creator’s hands.

“I like a film to have a beginning, a middle and an end, but not necessarily in that order”. Jean-Luc Goddard

The most common narrative form is the linear narrative in which the narrative runs chronologically. All the events
occur in the order in which they happen. For example: Orientation – Complication & Conflict – Resolution.

Another popular structure if the circular narrative, where the action begins and ends at the same point or where
plot points are repeated.

The structure of flashback or flash-forward is another structured technique employed by creators to reveal the
narrative to the audience. This is often where the audience are presented with the resolution at the beginning of the
text and then must join the dots as to what unfolds through a sequence of flashbacks or flash-forwards.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: CHARACTER

In narrative, a central character, known as the protagonist, will often drive the action forward. This will create
engagement for the audience and help them understand the attitudes and behaviours of the leading characters. The
creator will often place the antagonist in the way of the protagonist and prevent them from achieving their goals.
However, how these characters appear and how they are constructed and reveal themselves is essential to keeping
the audience engaged in the plot.

There are four aspects to the study of character:

• Establishment
• Development
• Motivation
• Relationships

Creators understand audiences can make their mind up about characters in an instant. Directors select from a rich palette of
techniques to establish each character. The opening of any narrative is critical in audiences forming opinions about each
character.
Code and conventions such as setting, costume and props provide clues to the establishment of character. Dialogue, music and
sound effects may also build understanding. Occasionally we hear a character before we see them. This narration or voice-over
can help the audience frame an opinion about the character via tone of voice and what the dialogue says.
Nelson Media, Flack

Directors position audiences to relate to characters. The creators will expect the audience to have a pre-existing idea
or feeling about each of their characters. This could be a reason as to why the actor/actress is cast for the role.
• How do they behave?
• What do they say?
• How do they appear?
• Why have they been included?
• How do they help propel the story?
• How does their relationship with other characters affect the narrative?
• What type of character are they how do they compare to or compliment the others?
Character development involves the interrelationship between location, story and characters. Character
development and resolution are usually based around motivation and or portrayal of relationships between
characters. This will often follow how audiences will like, dislike and then like a character as the narrative progresses.

Character & Ideology:

• Character motivation is a good indicator of ideology. In mainstream texts, the protagonist is often motivated by the need to
restore order and set the social values right, according to the society and its beliefs at the time the text was produced and
distributed. Their motivation will often reflect the dominant ideology of the time and society.
• Antagonist will often reflect the opposite belief and as a result the audience will seek revenge against the character and want
them to be punished for their actions or have the character feel a sense of reflection for their attitudes and behaviours.
Unless in the resolution the character has a change of heart and their evil turns to good.
• Audiences can often predict character motivation, development and resolution. Creators will do this in family orientated
texts. Audiences of this genre want happy endings and feel at peace with the conclusion of the narrative.
• Relationships between characters are constructed to develop the narrative, building its sense of realism through dialogue
and actions that represent how audiences expect characters to react to the narrative triggers introduced into the text.

Nelson Media, Flack

The fourth wall is a performance convention in which an invisible, imagined wall separates actors from the audience. While the audience can see
through this "wall", the convention assumes, the actors act as if they cannot.

“As I was working on this movie and trying to figure out how to tell the story, the one situation that was going to be challenging, I knew, was the
domestic abuse.” “Analysing how Tonya would process that, my feeling was that growing up with the violence, she was very used to it and she was
almost numb to it,” Gillespie continues. “It was part of how she could live with the abuse in her marriage. I thought the way to show the violence was
if she breaks the fourth wall while this is happening. It shows how immune she is to what’s going on and how disconnected from the moment she is in
the scene, that she can step out of it and talk to us about it. I felt it reinforced how she was in her mental state at the time.”
- director Craig Gillespie ‘I, Tonya’
 MEDIA CONVENTION: STORY ARC

The difference between STORY and PLOT:

While the terms story and plot are often used interchangeably, it is important to know the difference.
• The story includes all the events of the narrative –
those made known to the audience, and those
inferred but not necessarily revealed.
• The plot comprises only those events in a narrative
text that are revealed to the audience, including any
added non-diegetic material such as special effects.

Parts of a story arc are:

• Exposition
• Conflict
• Rising action
• Climax
• Falling action
• Resolution

Story arc is the term used to describe the introduction, development and resolution of a storyline that spans time
throughout a text. The story arc will vary depending on the genre or style of the narrative. For example, most
romantic narratives will follow the story arc of – Success to Failure to overcome Triumph to Victory.

Try and consider the story arc of your media production and the narrative being conveyed to the audience. Consider
how the arc helps the audience engage with the narrative.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: CAUSE & EFFECT

Cause and effect equal change. For every action there is a reaction. Events are motivated because there is a clear
reason for the actions of the characters and the events in the film.

The cause effect relationship assists in engaging audiences as they will consider what happened previously in the
narrative and then anticipate what effect that moment or event will have later in the narrative.

Sometimes there are twists in a narrative where events occur without the audience expecting. At times a twist can,
be used to resolve a narrative or make the audience rethink what has occurred in the film.

CAUSE & EFFECT STORYLINES:

• Human mishap
• Illness and disability
• The search for love
• The achievement of a sporting goal or entertainment goal
• The impact of crime
• Good versus evil
• Coming of age
• The popular verses the misfits
Usually the characters are instrumental in cause and effect. If the characters didn’t desire something to be different
from the way it is at the start of the film, change wouldn’t occur. The narrative is centred around and driven by
character choices, decisions and traits. For example, if one character had a goal then they need to act in a way to
achieve that goal and as a result of this their actions affect other characters in the narrative. Characters can be
motivated by, love, greed, revenge, power, wealth, self-preservation.

In most narratives a counterforce is provided to create conflict so that the protagonist can come up against a
character whose goals are opposed to his or hers. As a result, the protagonist is usually the one who must seek to
change the situation so that they can achieve their ultimate goal, causing the plot to alter.

At the end of most films the causes are resolved with a final effect/s and equilibrium is restored. For example, goals
are achieved, the fates of the characters are determined, romances are consummated, the mystery is solved,
conflicts are resolved the protagonist overcomes any obstacles facing them.

Tilly Dunnage is characterized by cause and effect. This is revealed through flashbacks which crack the temporal order
(arrangement of events in time) because they are displayed through several parts of the film which focuses attention
on a pivotal moment in the story and makes the audience crave a resolution. Temporal frequency is recontextualized in
the flashbacks as the restricted information about the death of Stuart Pettyman is revealed to the audience piece by
piece at the same time Tilly is receiving the new information. This gives the audience a sense of familiarization with Tilly.
Flashbacks are used to develop Tilly’s character. The use of flashbacks helps the audience to understand her motivation,
and to build dramatic tension as the mystery is solved.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: POINT OF VIEW

The term ‘point of view’ has two meanings; one applies to all narrative, the other is specific to film, TV and
photographic narratives:
• The first relates to story and refers to the point of view from which the narrative is presented.
• The second is the production code and refers to a shot that is taken from a character’s point of view. The shot is
abbreviated to POV.

In most narratives, one character’s point of view is privileged over others. More if often revealed to the audience
through code and conventions such as narration, flashbacks, POV shots and acting. This character will usually have
more on-screen time than the others.

Filmmakers can sometimes, manipulate point of view to add depth to the narrative.

Creators of media product can use point of view to express their opinions and values, constructing the narrative to
reflect the ideology. Narratives may demonstrate political or social commentary on the dominant ideology of the
time and place in which the media product was made and distributed.

The POV shot in the sunken place scene is where Chris is staring straight at the camera. Little
Chris is sitting in the chair in the basement watching details stand out about him; he’s wearing a grey
a television screen tell him exactly what is going to hoodie and T-shirt, there’s a slight crease on his
happen. The camera is a little bit above the screen’s forehead, but these are otherwise hard to really
level, as Chris would be, almost suggesting that notice because of his eyes, which are wide and
Chris is looking down on his future in sadness and wet and red and give the unmistakable impression
despair. The sunken place scene is this metaphor for of a person frozen in pure, cold fear.
the system that is suppressing the freedom of black
people, of many outsiders, many minorities. The
audience can see what Chris is seeing.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: THE STRUCTURING OF TIME

The order, duration and frequency of events are important in the narrative. It can be examined for its expansion and
contraction of time. Narratives are often in linear (chronological) order as it makes the story easier to follow for the
audience. This however is not always the case. Some narratives are nonlinear (non-chronological). They may begin
at the end, as a flashback or jump around in time. These may also present later events first; only towards the end of
the film does the audience discover that certain events came earlier and caused the ones they have already seen.

The structuring of narrative time is made up of a combination of three events:

• Temporal order: The order in which the story is screened, which may include chronological order, flashbacks
and or flash forwards.
• Temporal duration: The manipulation of time from real time, the foreshortening or expansion of time through
editing the duration of events on screen.
• Temporal frequency: The number of times an event or part of an event is shown to an audience.

There are quite several techniques used for representing the passing or manipulation of time:
• Expansion of time: screen time can be expanded to draw out some events, thereby creating tension. Several
codes and conventions have developed to assist this, one of which is parallel editing, or cutting from one scene
to another scene happening at the same time
• Compression: the audience sees on the screen the seasons rapidly changing; the calendar may be flicked over
to show the passing of days, there may be a fade, dissolve or wipe between scenes. All these things can
indicate that time has passed. The film may eliminate days or years of narrative action, yet the audience
accepts condensation of the time into the length of the film.
• Ellipsis: a long series of events is cut down to a few significant shots. For example, a character may have to train
for an event over a month rather than show every training session a few examples are showing to represent the
month’s training.
• Freeze frame: a still image appears on screen and a voice-over tells us significant time has passed
• Slow motion: time can be stretched (lengthened) giving emphasis to a scene or event.
• Fast motion: the pace can be increased to pick up the speed of a scene or event
• Flashbacks and flash-forwards: the filmmaker can make the audience travel in time, either to the past or
future. This doesn’t confuse the audience because they mentally rearrange the events into order to which they
would have logically occurred. Flashbacks are often shown in black and white footage.
• Repeats: some shots are repeatedly shown to create coherence. The audience can experience several times
exciting bits again shown from different camera viewpoints.
• Parallel actions: the audience can experience what is going on in different places at different times.

The Dressmaker: 26-year storyline > 6-month plotline > 2-hour screen duration.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: ELEMENTS OF PAGE LAYOUT

Page layout is a design element of print that is highly considered before any media print production is created and
distributed. It is part of the preproduction phase.

You wouldn’t consider any page layout decisions without understanding what your audience expects to see on the
page. Thinking about the conventions that will make the layout easy to interpret and to ensure your message is
decoded the way you intended.

Page Layout Considerations:

• Space
• Hierarchy
• Images & Size
• Colour
• The use of White space / Negative space
• How much text and where the text resides?
• Headlines and size of font
• Audience expectations
• Where the eye tracks across the page

HIERARCHY
When consideration is given to page layout the crucial elements that media producers consider is hierarchy. The
size of the elements on a printed page often indicates their importance to readers. The heading and photographs
associated with the newspaper article are often the largest and most dominant feature of the design, followed by
subheadings, body text and captions. Increasing the size or limiting the size of the image or text will reveal the
greater prominence to the audience. This all seems obvious to the reader / audience but there are people in the
Media industry whose job it is to consider this important page layout convention.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: PAPER STOCK FOR PRINT

Paper stock is often something the reader takes for granted when purchasing or flicking through a printed media
product. Paper stock can be used as an effective tool to ensure the magazine is exclusive and a marketing tool to
increase the price of the product.

When looking at paper stock for print productions often these things will be considered:
• Weight
• Thickness
• Colour
• Pattern
• Feel
• Matt / Glossy

Research into what readers anticipate and want when reading and purchasing the print production is a factor into
the paper stock selection. For example, if low cost is a factor for the audience then selecting paper stock that is
cheaper in cost and easier to run through the print machine then the producer will select that variety.

Magazines like, ‘Frankie’ take pride in the paper stock selection they use for the print production. The magazine feels
different and more exclusive than its competitors. The paper stock was a huge factor when considering who their
audience is and what they want. The magazine itself feels different. The paper is weighted, thicker, matt finish and
has a rough patterned surface. A reason for this would be so they reader does not throw this magazine out. They
often use this a coffee table book. This in turn will give the brand more recognition. Doing this however, increasing
the price of production, which results in a more expensive final product.

Magazines such as, ‘New Idea, Women’s Day, People’ use very cheap, glossy, thin paper. These magazines are
distributed weekly and therefore the producer knows that they are tossed out the moment the reader flicks through
them. Low cost is what their audience is expecting, therefore the producer must use cheaper paper stock to ensure
the final purchase price for their reader is minimal.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: TITLES & CREDIT SEQUENCE

Most people that when it comes to Titles & Credits that this is an add on to any moving image. They would be very
wrong. When you consider the fact that the first thing an audience is presented with is the Titles and Opening
sequence then the Producer and Director will know this is their moment to capture their attention.

The title sequence is an important part of film and TV narratives. At the conclusion of a title sequence, even a very
short one, the audience knows a great deal about the narrative. Some title sequences are extensive, and others can
pack a punch by only keeping the sequence short.

The timing and duration of a title sequence can be as important as its content.
Nelson Media – Jo Flack

Things to consider when thinking and discussing Title & Credit Sequence:
• Font choice
• Background selection (Colour or location – moving or still)
• Duration – Length of Opening sequence
• How much information you wish to give away to your audience
• Narrative possibilities
• Closure of the narrative or sequel possibilities

You want to analyse these elements and why they were considered for their audience and the impact they had on
them.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: HYPERLINKING & MOUNTING

HYPERLINK: Embedded links within online text or images that allow the user to
branch away from the main narrative.

MOUNTING: Placing the media product on its final destination. Creating a

platform for the media product to be viewed by the audience.

Both these conventions are considered in the post-production phase of

production. They are a critical design and marketing element to any media
product. Different audiences will have expectations on what they want to see
and access when it comes to mounting and hyper-linking.
 MEDIA CONVENTION: FRAMING OF IMAGES

Framing is the process of which the final print production will be framed. There are many effective techniques to
framing a still image.

This section is where you need to visualise and plan how you will present your images and where they would
be exhibited. Some things to consider:
• Location of exhibition (e.g. inner-city gallery, café etc.)
• Size of paper (A4, A5, A3, A1*)
• Border colour or borderless
• Mounting (mount card, foam core etc)
• Order of images
• Presentation style (all in a row, a grid, 3 by 3 square etc.)

Framing consists of five main components:

Glazing > Type of glass (or acrylic) used.
Frame > This includes raw, stained or painted wood or wood composites or a metal or a synthetic frame
material.
Mat board > This creates a window around the picture. It gives a sense of space and leads your eye
towards the art. It’s also a creative way to accent colours and add depth.
Back board > Also known as backing board or mount board, this is what sits behind your photo in the
frame.
Backing Paper/Tape > Adding a paper backing to your frame adds a clean, finished look that keeps dust
and other particles from sneaking inside of your frame.