OPEN, DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING DEPARTMENT

SECONDARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA

MODULE NO:

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

(FIRST YEAR)

©2015
By: MASUWA KALUSO C

MSC-CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (UNZA), B.A.ED-PSYCHOLOGY (UNZA)

Edited by: CHUUNKA V. KAMBAILA

B.A (UNZA)
 Table of contents
Content Page
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………. i
Copyright ……………………………………….……………………. ii
Introduction to the module……………………………………………. iii
Module learning outcomes……………………….................................. iv
Timeframe/duration …………………………………………………… v
Assessment criteria……………..……………………………………… vi
Margin Icons……………………………………………..…………….. viii
How to use the module…………………………………………………. ix
Need help………………………………………….................................. x
Prescribed readings……………………………….…………………….. xi

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY___________8

UNIT 2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT______________________________________25
UTIT 3: ADOLESCENCE DEVELOPMENT______________________________45
UNIT 4: THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT_______________________55
UNIT 5: LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT__________________________________97
UNIT 6: LEARNING__________________________________________________105
UNIT 7: MEMORY___________________________________________________123
Acknowledgement

Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, Open, Distance and Flexible Learning
Department would like to acknowledge and thank the following people sincerely for their
contributions to this module:

Mr. Masuwa Kaluso (Writer)

Mrs. Chuunka V (Editor)

Mr. Mutale Brian (ICT specialist)

Copyright

“All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, recording, photocopying, or
otherwise, without permission from Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce”.
Introduction

Welcome to Evelyn Hone College of applied arts and commerce, particularly to the Open,
Distance and Flexible Learning (ODFL) department. I also welcome you to Educational
Psychology, which is one of the subjects in Secondary Teachers’ Diploma. In this subject,
you will be exposed to the Psychological techniques and concepts that you will use in your
profession as a teacher. As a Secondary School Teacher to be, you will encounter adolescents
(pupils), from different social backgrounds, with different expectations, different challenges,
different intellectual abilities, and different personalities which may influence their
behaviours. It is not easy to handle this group, but with the journey we are going take in
Educational Psychology, you shall not wait to join the Educational Sector. The subject is
centred on understanding human behaviour; however it is both demanding and interesting.
You will be expected to have a number of tasks and assignments. You are advised to
effectively use this module as we will have limited face to face interaction during residential
school. This module is made up of seven units. The main aspects covered in this course
are as outlined in the table contents

Learning outcomes

On completion of this module, you will be able to:

 Describe the relevance of psychology to the teaching and learning process.
 Discuss and compare various perspectives and theories of child, language and thought
development.
 Explain various approaches and theories of learning, memory and personality
development.

Duration

You are expected to complete this module in one academic calendar according to UNZA and
EHC specifications.

Assessment criteria

You will be assessed through written assignments, test, oral presentations, observations,
practical’s and group work. You will be expected to do three official assessments each term
except for third term when you will only have two assessments translating into a total of eight
assessments making your Continuous Assessment (CA). Tests will be written during
residential school. The actual distribution of marks will be:
1) Continuous Assessments
(i) three assignments
(ii) Five tests
Total marks………….. 40 marks
2) Promotional examination
Total marks…………. 60 marks
It is very important that you do your continuous assessments as well as promotional
examination because you cannot graduate if you do not write or fail the promotional
examination or continuous assessment-in fact you cannot seat for promotional examination if
you fail or do not complete your continuous assessment.

Help?

When you need help you can use these contacts details:

College website: http/www.evelynhone.edu

Evelyn Hone College-ODFL department: phone number:

Email:

Fax:

You can also visit the college to meet specialists through the ODFL department located at
printing building during working hours from 08: 00 to 17:00hrs.

Prescribed readings

Child D. (1986). Psychology and the Teacher. London: Cassell.

Dembo, H.H (1994). Applying Educational Psychology. London: Longman.

Derville, L. (1970). The use of psychology in teaching. London: Longman.

Melintosh, D.M (1976) Statistics for the teacher. Oxford : pegman press.
Vander Zanden J.W (1980) Educational Psychology and Practice. New York: Random
House.
Recommended readings.

Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Essentials of human memory. Hove, England: Psychology Press.

Fontana, D. (1988). Psychology for teachers. London : mellen.

Hilgard, E.R., Atkison R.L., and Carison J.G (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.
Kakkar S.B (2012) Educational Psychology. New Deihi: PHI learning ltd.
Munsaka E. (2011). Mastering the Psychology of Teaching and Learning. Lusaka: UNZA
Press.
Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development from Conception to
Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Shaffer David. R. (1985). Developmental Psychology. Belmont: Wadsworth Inc.

How to use this module

This module should be studied together with the recommended readings given in each unit.
Each unit will comprise of learning outcome that you should use as yardsticks as you study.
A variety of self-assessment activities will help you grasp the theory and practical part of this
subject. Familiarise yourself with the marginal icons used in this module to depict different
activities and emphasis. Consistent and frequent use of psychological concepts in daily
interactions with human organisms will enhance and promote deeper understanding of the
subject.

Marginal icons

Timeframe/Duration Need help

Learning outcome

Assessment Group work

Tip
 Unit
summary Activity Self-assessment

New terminology Discussion Reading point

Quick Tip Personal reflection Case study

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Learning outcomes: On completion of the unit, you will be able to:

 Define Psychology
 Describe and explain fields and branches of psychology.
 Explain the nature of Psychology
 Define Educational psychology
 Give the significance of Educational Psychology in the training of teachers.
 Give at least 3 content areas of Educational Psychology; and
 Give the major components of this subject.

PREAMBLE:

Psychology will make you explore peoples’ minds, it will give you new ways to look at and
interpret your world and the individuals who inhabit it. These individuals are found in various
occupations, in various societies, with various beliefs and values, in various social groups. In
this subject the concern is on individuals found in the education sector. Before understanding
what educational psychology is, it is vital to explore the concept Psychology through its
nature and scope.

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

All psychologists share a strong interest in behaviour and mental processes, and in the value
of scientific research. Some psychologists are mainly interested in research - investigating
factors that explain behaviour and mental processes. Other psychologists consult (or provide
direct social services), meaning, they apply their knowledge by providing some form of
psychotherapy to help people. Yet other psychologists teach – sharing their knowledge and
focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) and attitudes (what they think).

Basically Psychologists ask and answer the following questions: What must people do to
successfully change their behaviours? What factors make behaviour-modification programs
successful? Do most people need help changing behaviour, or can they be self-changers?
What is psychology?

The term "psychology" is derived from two Greek words – psyche (soul or mind) and logos
(science or study). Thus, literally it means study or science of soul or mind. But now it is no
more considered as science of soul. It has moved away from this focus and established itself
as a scientific discipline which deals with the various processes and behaviour of organism.

Psychology has been defined in various ways by various scholars, some definitions include
the following:

 Psychology is the science of the activities of an individual in relation to the environment

(Woodworth).
 Psychology is the positive science of behaviour (Watson).
 Psychology is the science of human behaviour and experience (Cruze).
 Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism (Guilford).
 According to Skinner, psychology deals with the responses to any and every kind of
situation that life presents.

Most of the contemporary psychologists agree on a definition of psychology as the scientific

study of behaviour and mental processes of an organism. As behaviour and thinking
processes are very diverse, so is the study of psychology. Psychology is also a science and as
such, it approaches the study of behaviour from an empirical, scientific perspective.

There are four key terms in the above definition of psychology which have been clarified
below:

Scientific study means using techniques such as observation, description, and experimental
investigation to collect information and then organising this information. This justifies the
argument that “psychology is not common sense, but a science.”

Mental processes refer to private and cognitive process such as attention, perception,
remembering (memory recall), problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making, feelings,
thinking, motives etc.
Behaviour refers to all the actions or reactions of an organism (person or animal) in response
to external or internal stimuli. Behaviour may be simple or complex, short or enduring.
Human behaviour may be overt (expressed outside) or covert (expressed inside). Covert
behaviours-these are inward behavioural characteristics and activities such as emotions and
feelings, they are not easily noticed, and they are hidden. Overt behaviour-these are activities
that are easily noticed especially through the sense of sight and hearing, such as walking and
singing. Both overt and covert behaviour can be measured.

Further, according to Leagans (1961), behaviour refers to what an individual knows

(Knowledge), what s/he can do (skill – mental or physical), what s/he thinks (attitude), and
what s/he actually does

Organism refers to every living person or animal (birds inclusive). In the past animals were
only used for research and experimental purposes, until recently with the introduction of
branches like animal psychology, parapsychology etc. Meaning People who study
psychological phenomena are not necessarily limited to the study of human beings only; they
also study the behaviour of animals.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

In general, scientists seek to describe, explain, predict, and control the events studied.
Hence Psychologists observe, describe, explain, predict and sometimes even control
behaviour and mental processes to better understand the human psyche (remember the
meaning of psyche).

Ideally, Psychologists study the behaviour and mental processes of an individual not of
group/community. Thus, when they are studying groups, the focus is generally on how
individuals perform within the group rather than the study of the group as a whole.
Psychology also studies emotions (feelings). Emotions affect both behaviour and mental
processes.
SOME PROMINENT HISTORICAL FIGURES IN PSYCHOLOGY

 Aristotle: believed that one must observe the thing being studied – look at it, listen to
it, touch it. Argued that the body and mind were not separate components as taught by
his mentor Plato.

 Plato: discovery can occur by just thinking about it. He taught that the body and
mind are two distinct elements.

 The German scientist Wilhelm Wundt opened the first laboratory and faculty of
Psychology in the University of Leipzig in 1879 and established the first
Psychological Journal in 1881. He is estimated to have written over 54,000 pages of
work. He was the first to apply the scientific method to the field.

 William James taught the first course on psychology and in 1890, published the first
psychology text. William James was influenced by Charles Darwin. Others argue that
William James deserves the honor for a less publicized laboratory at Harvard
University which opened in 1875.

 One of Wundt’s students was G. Stanley Hall who was vital for bringing the science
of psychology to America. He founded the American Psychological Association
(APA) and became its first president, he started America’s first research laboratory at
John’s Hopkins University in 1883, and he began the first journal of psychology in
America.

 Edward Titchener was a student of Wundt. He taught at Cornell University.

Titchener sought to identify the basic elements of conscious experience.

 In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov studied digestion in dogs. Classical
conditioning and the field of Behaviorism were born.

 1920s John B. Watson trained in Functionalism. But he rejected these ideas based
on Pavlov’s work. Known for Little Albert Studies.

 1885 Germany’s Hermann Ebbinhaus published a book entitled, “On Memory”. He

described in his book a series of experiments that he conducted over 6 years where he
was both the scientist and the only subject! He developed the nonsense syllable, as
indicated in unit 7 below.
  Max Wertheimer, a professor of psychology at the University of Frankfurt, began
developing his own ideas on perception about 25 years after the pioneering work of
Wundt.

 Alfred Binet –In the 1890s the Paris Ministry of Education asked Binet to help
provide education for all “intelligent” children and more practical, less academic
school for less intelligent children.

 Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician who practiced neurology. Unlike other
founders of psychology, he was not a professor doing research. He was working with
physical problems.

 Jean Piaget: Known for child cognitive development, he was initially a biologist who
obtained his PHD at the age of 22 after studying on an albino sparrow.

 B.F Skinner: Known for operant conditioning and instrumental learning.

 Margaret Floy Washburn: the first woman to actually receive her Ph.D. in
psychology – from Cornell University. 1920 elected president APA.

BIG DABATES IN PSYCHOLOGY

 Nature vs. Nurture – Are human traits and psychological characteristics inborn OR
do they develop over time through experience, and interaction with the environment?

 Rationality vs. Irrationality – What is rational and what is not?

 Stability vs. Change – Are certain human traits stable or do they change?

FIELDS AND BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

There are so many branches and fields of psychology which stem from the following schools
of thoughts and from various perspectives.
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Structuralism:

Structuralists were led by Edward Tichner, they believed that the task of psychology was to
analyse consciousness into its basic elements and study how these were related. These
elements would include ideas like sensations, emotions, and images. These investigations
were based on introspection by trained subjects.

Introspection – careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.

Functionalism:

Functionalism is a part of contemporary psychology today, even though it is no longer

viewed as a separate school of thought. It has influenced the way psychologists emphasize
the role played by thinking and perception in human behavior. Functionalism became popular
with the publication of Principles of Psychology in 1890 by William James.

SIGNIFICANT PERSPECTIVES:

Humanistic Perspective The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to
grow, develop and be in control of their lives and behaviour. It was developed by Carl
Rogers, trained in the psychoanalytic tradition, began humanistic approach through his
theories on personality and his psychotherapy methods. It studies behaviour and mental
processes primarily by studying each individual’s uniqueness and capacity to think and act.

A humanistic psychologist would argue that to fully understand a person’s behaviour and
mental processes you must appreciate the individual’s perceptions and feelings experienced.

Today, the humanistic perspective has limited influence in psychological research mainly
because humanistic theories tend to be too broad and therefore difficult to test scientifically.
Humanistic psychology is primarily an approach in psychotherapy.

Cognitive Perspective The approach that focuses on how people think, understand and know
about the world. Understands behaviour and mental processes by focusing on how
individuals sense, mentally represent, and store mental information. Focuses on how we think
(or encode information). How do we see the world? How did we learn to act to sad or happy
events? Cognitive Therapist attempt to change the way you think. Use the analogy between
mind and computer, not based on introspection but it assumes that only by studying mental
processes can we fully understand what organism do. They study mental processes in an
objective fashion by focusing on objective behaviour.

Psychodynamic Perspective: The approach based on the view that behaviour is motivated
by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control. Rooted in Sigmund
Freud’s psychoanalysis, it assumes that all behaviour and mental processes reflect the
constant and mostly unconscious psychological struggles within the individual. Freud
believed that unconscious conflicts stemmed from unresolved childhood conflicts. Today,
this perspective has been transformed and is reflected in a number of contemporary theories
explaining personality, psychological disorders, and psychotherapy.

Behavioural Perspective-The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behaviour

should be the focus of study. It seeks to specify neurological processes that underlie
behaviour and mental processes. If you bit your fingernails when you were nervous, a
behaviourist would not focus on calming you down, but rather focus on how to stop you from
biting your nails.

Neuroscience Perspective-This is an approach that studies behaviour from the aspect of the
biological functions of the brain, the nervous system, and other body systems.

Evolutionary Perspective- Focuses on Darwinism. We behave the way we do because we

inherited those behaviours. Thus, those behaviours must have helped ensure our ancestors
survival.

Sociocultural Perspective Here, psychologists focus on the influence of cultural factors on

the individual’s behaviour and mental processes. It seeks to understand human behaviour and
mental processes by studying cultural factors such as gender, culture, ethnicity, race, and
socioeconomic status etc. Even in the same high school, behaviours can change in accordance
to the various subcultures.
SOME OF THE IMPORTANT BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY ARE:

Developmental psychology-It studies how human being grows and changes through the life
span, domains of development; physical and motor, intellectual, personal, emotional, moral
and social, sequences and rate of maturation, size and ability in relation to age. It explains
human development factors that shape behaviour from birth to old age.

Personality psychology studies human differences, factors that make the differences in
patterns of behaviour and thought that make up an individual. Understanding of personality is
based on many perspectives; psychoanalytic, social learning, behavioural, humanistic, and
cognitive.

Social psychology-It studies how the behaviour of a person or a group influences the
behaviour of another person or group, how people learn attitude and emotions, skills, actions,
new perceptions, new ways of speaking and of living with others. These behaviours are
learnt through interaction, communication and interpersonal relationships. In school setting
children learn new behaviour, perceptions, beliefs, thoughts, actions and attitude as a result of
interaction and communication with teachers and other children.

Industrial/Organizational psychology-It studies behaviour of workers at working places;

industries, companies, institutions or at any working situation, various aspects of behaviour in
relation to work interest, efficiency, satisfaction, diligence and commitment leading to
maximum production and profit, causes of low production as related to human behaviour.
Social, personal and counselling needs of workers, supervision and training needs, workers’
levels of motivation, morale, working schedules, working routines as related to their attitudes
and values, how conflicts affect commitment and diligence of workers and how to resolve
them.

Clinical psychology-It deals with behavioural problems, emotional disorders and behaviour
that indicate that the person is abnormal. Specialists in this area are medical personnel but
they use psychotherapy in treating abnormal behaviour.

Psychotherapy: a procedure of treating abnormal behaviour using interview techniques.

Examples of abnormal behaviour: Phobic disorder: irrational fear of objects or situations, fear
of water, animals, insects, darkness or rain, fear of strangers (xenophobia). Mood disorders:
depression; sadness, discouragement, loss of joy, loneliness, loss of appetite, dizziness. If this
situation persists for a long time it leads to inability to function in life.

Counselling psychology-It deals with helping people to make decision about life; work,
education or marriage. This is applied in various institutions, schools or in society.

Clinical and Counselling Psychology are interrelated. They tackle almost the same problems
and use the same methods but differ in degree of severity.

Experimental Psychology: Experimental method is used in understanding behaviour, for

example perception, sensations, memory, and learning. It studies basic causes of behaviour,
biological and social, that cut across different species formulate theories that can be applied
in other situations. Examples; closeness & attachment, pain and avoidance

School Psychology- Work with children to evaluate learning & Emotional problems.

Physiological psychology-It studies biological basis of behaviour, the function of the body
and behaviour. For example, the causes of anger, brain and memory, secretion of hormones
and emotional arousal, genes and behaviour patterns.

Comparative psychology explores the differences and similarities in the behaviour of

animals of different species. Psychologists in this field make systematic studies of the
abilities, needs, and activities of various animal species as compared with human beings.

Abnormal psychology deals with behavioural disorders and disturbed individuals. For
example, researchers might investigate the causes of violent or self-destructive behaviour or
the effectiveness of procedures used in treating an emotional disturbance.

Educational psychology-is an applied branch of psychology because it applies knowledge of

general psychology in teaching and learning. Every branch of psychology contributes
something in Educational psychology. Understanding the scope of other branches of
psychology is important for the teacher.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which deals with teaching and learning.
It takes its meaning from education; hence it is vital to understand the concept education
before talking about educational psychology.

What is education? In order to know the educational psychology; we have to first

understand what education is. The world education is derived from Latin word educare which
means to bring-up. Education is also derived from another Latin world educere which means
to lead out. Education as educere is more acceptable as it means leading an individual from
ignorance to knowledge.

Education can be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge and habits
through instruction or study. It can also be defined as a process in which human behaviour is
modified so as to be in closer agreement with some model or ideal determined by the values
of society. If education is to be effective, it should result in changes in all the behavioural
components.

Educational psychologists study what people think and do as they teach and learn a particular
curriculum in a particular environment where education and training are intended to take
place. They help in developing instructional methods and materials used to train people in
both educational and work settings. They are also concerned with research on issues of
relevance for education, counselling and learning problems.

Education may be seen as the attempt to shape or modify behaviour of an individual with a
view of equipping him or her with desirable skills, habits and attitudes to adequately adjust to
the communal life and contribute effectively to its growth and preservation. The Institution
which is specifically charged with the above responsibly is the school.

The modification of behaviour or learning itself entails behavioural change. In order to do

this effectively the knowledge of the science of behaviour and mental processes become
imperative. Thus, Educational Psychology is an important aspect of teacher education.
WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
Educational Psychology is one of the branches of applied Psychology which focuses on
educational processes. Human learning is the central core of educational psychology.

It is a combination or overlapping of two separate fields of study; psychology and education.

It is a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems and techniques.
Educational psychology is distinct from other fields of psychology due to its focus on
understanding the processes of teaching and learning that takes place in formal environments.

Definitions of Educational Psychology

C.V. Good: “Educational psychology is (i) the investigation of psychological problems

involved in education, together with the practical application of psychological principles to
education (ii) a study of nature of learning.”

J.M. Stephon: “Educational Psychology is a systematic study of educational growth.”

Crow and Crow say “Educational Psychology describes and explains the learning
experiences of an individual from birth through old age.”

Educational Psychology is the discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes;
applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well (Woolfolk, 1995).

Oladele’s (1987): “Educational Psychology is the application of Psychological principles,

techniques and other resources of Psychology to the solution of educational problems
confronting the teacher as he attempts to direct the process of learning and growth of the
child towards the objectives set by the teacher, the school and the society”.

Others: Educational Psychology is that special branch of Psychology concerned with the
nature, conditions, outcome and evaluations of learning outcomes.
From these and other definitions we can surmise that the hallmark of educational psychology
is the solution of educational problems as they affect the teacher, student, and the teaching
-learning situation.

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOL

The objective of educational psychology in the school is basically to make teaching and
learning more effective.

In specific terms, the knowledge of Educational Psychology will help the teacher to
understand the:
 Individual differences among students/pupils and cater for them.
 Principles behind various teaching methods and when to use each.
 Measurement of learning outcomes using various assessment methods.

The result of this will help to improve the learning strategies.

 Methods of diagnosing learning difficulties.
 Students with special needs and adjustment problems will be helped appropriately.
The knowledge of educational Psychology also helps to develop research skills in the teacher
and improves his administrative skills.

The contents of educational psychology covers human growth and developments, learning
theories and processes, measurement of learning outcomes, behavioural modification, study
of memory and principles of motivation.

The knowledge of educational Psychology thus will help the teacher to understand the
developmental characteristics and tasks of the child and adapt instructional strategies
accordingly.

Basically, Educational Psychology is the application of Psychological principles, research

findings and theories to solve educational problems.

THE SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

There is a popular saying that teachers are born not made. Teaching is becoming more
scientific these days and the teacher requires an extensive background in foundation courses
in education. One of these foundation courses is Educational Psychology, which aims at
equipping the teacher with insights regarding student behaviour and learning.

The scope of educational psychology is quite extensive. It can be expanded into 5 broad
spheres.

1. Human Growth and Development.

In order to get people to learn, we have to understand their capabilities, what they already
know, how they think, etc. So, the various facets of human development - physical,
intellectual, linguistic, moral, social etc. are of great interest.

Besides, we do know that people are differently endowed and how their environments have
made them different. Of special interest are the environmental factors that have been very
beneficial in development.

2. Learning and Instruction

Educational Psychology is concerned with the general nature of the learning process, the
factors that influence learning, how and when different types of materials are learnt. Do
people learn skills?

Of particular concern is how to ensure that knowledge acquired in school is transferred to life
outside school not just immediately it is learnt but several years after the students have left
school.

3. Personality and Adjustment.

Educational Psychology is interested in how people develop and maintain healthy
personalities and attitudes especially students and teachers. For instance in social
relationships and how students at Canisius High School adjust to the school situation make
friends and interact with everyone in the educational setting as well as character formation.

4. Psychological Measurement.
Educational psychology is interested in measuring those psychological characteristics on
which individuals differ e.g. intelligence, learning ability, and aptitude and in the applications
of the results of the measurements to enhance learning and development.

5. Research, Techniques and Methods.

The scientific study of educational problems and practices are of interest to Educational
Psychologists. The implementation of research findings and techniques in the classroom
settings is also of primary importance, e.g. through the practice of child study in Educational
Psychology course.

RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO TEACHERS

Educational Psychology occupies a central role in the preparation of a teacher because it
helps the teacher to understand better whom he is teaching and how he should teach.

Expertise in a subject matter does not necessarily make the teacher effective but according to
research evidence, the single most important factor in the teacher's effectiveness is his
personality including the way he relates to the children in his class. Clearly, Educational
psychology is important to the teacher for many reasons, which include the following:
 It helps the teacher to understand the leaner.
 It helps the teacher to improve learning and teaching.
 It facilitates the teacher's understanding of himself.
 It helps to advance the course of education through proper appreciation of its role and
through research.

1. UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNER

It is important that the teacher should understand the child whom he teaches and
Educational Psychology furnishes him with this knowledge.
a. Understanding how children develop:
Especially bearing in mind that you shall be dealing with adolescents, who are exposed to
various changes in growth, this point is very vital. The pre-school child behaves differently
from the child in lower or upper primary and the teacher realises that the handling of the
children must depend on their developmental levels. So Educational Psychology furnishes the
teacher with knowledge of the development of the child as he progresses from infancy
through childhood to adolescence.

b. Understanding Individual Differences:

Children are different from one another. Some come to school rather young others are more
matured, some develop fast, and others are not. Educational Psychology helps to explain the
ways in which individuals differ, and suggests ways of coping with these differences Genetic
and environmental factors which gives rise to and affect these differences. For instance at
Canisius High School, junior sections are out of bounds to senior sections (e.g. grade eights
are out of bounds to grade nine section, grade nines to grade ten section and so forth), and
each grade twelve is accommodated an individual room in the hostels. This is so to promote
privacy, self-esteem and other emotional facets of growth.

c. Understanding & Educating Exceptional Children

Closely allied to the idea of individual differences is that of exceptionality.
There are physically handicapped and mentally retarded children in our school. There are also
gifted children. These children are special in some ways that make them different from the
majority of children in the class.
The deaf or hard of hearing, the blind or partial blind, those who have suffered loss of limbs
or any form of structural damage are physically handicapped children. There are others who
are very slow in learning although they may look normal physically but their intelligence is
low.
There are those children who are superior in intelligence. Educational Psychology equips
teachers to provide adequate learning experiences for these children first by contributing
towards their identification and specifying how they can be rehabilitated.

For instance there is a trend at Canisius High School were pupils at senior secondary are put
into classes dependant on their level of performance at Junior secondary. The very intelligent
ones are put in a class known as Science, and are exposed to pure sciences, whereas others
are put in A and B.

d. Understanding Behavioural Problem of Children

Educational Psychology helps the teacher to acquire knowledge of children's behavioural
problems. Some problems are normal and will disappear with age and greater maturity. Some
are genetic while others have environmental origins.

For instance some children tell lots of lies, others are aggressive, and some are hyperactive.
Not only must the teacher be familiar with these, he must also know how to help children
grow out of them, and how to manipulate the environment to prevent children from becoming
maladjusted in school.

2. IMPROVEMENT OF INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING

a. Knowledge and Use of a Variety of Techniques. It is known that when children do not
learn, the teaching environment and methods are at fault.
Educational Psychology has proposed tested principles and techniques, which promote
learning. For instance, strategies to get the learner to be very active as well as the use of
rewards and incentives have been proposed. These techniques and principles are specified for
different learning and teaching of different types of materials - skills, concepts, problem
solving etc.

b. Familiarising Materials and Methods to the Developmental Level of Learners

People learn materials which they find relevant. By discovering the needs, characteristics,
interests and abilities of different groups of children, the curriculum, and its interpretation can
be made relevant. Teaching methods too can be related to the needs and level of maturity of
learners.

Educational Psychology provides help in deciding whether certain categories of learners

would benefit most from individualized instruction, small group or whole class instruction.

c. Assessment of abilities, progress of learning and learning outcomes.

Educational Psychology assists the teacher not only to assess the abilities of students but also
learning progress. Although some of the psychological traits can only be measured by
professional psychologists, there are certainly many facets of the learner's behaviours which
the teacher has to assess. When children make mistakes the teacher may mark the answer
wrong but a more helpful way is to ask why the child made the mistake.

3. TEACHER'S UNDERSTANDING OF HIM/HERSELF

a. Self-acceptance:
It is well known that no one is perfect, we all have strengths and weaknesses, but the most
important thing is how we handle them. Teachers are models for learners and therefore some
of the things they do mirror back out qualities. Hence Educational Psychology helps us to
understand and accept our strengths and weaknesses.

b. appreciations of Limits of the Teachers' Contribution

By analysing the various factors that influence development and learning, Educational
Psychology makes the teacher understand what he can influence and what he cannot change.
Although Educational Psychology encourages you to promote learning, not all children can
learn the same level even with the best of teaching techniques. Similarly, a teacher uses the
instructional techniques that fit in with his personality. So even when Educational
Psychology presents many theories, techniques etc. the teacher still has to choose those with
which he can profitably make use of.

4. ADVANCEMENT OF THE CAUSES OF EDUCATION

a. Appreciation of the Importance of Educational Intervention
One of the first things you will learn is that human abilities are not fixed, that development is
not static. Because of this, the teacher can have tremendous influence on the course of
development. Educational Psychology analyses for us the influence of our environment on
development, on learning and other aspects of behaviour. Sometimes, the environment has
retarding effects on development and schooling. With good stimulating learning
environments the teacher can overcome such retarding effects.
b. Research Orientation
Some time in second year, you shall be required to carry out a case study, known as child
study. The Best way to understand children better and improve learning is through research.
The educational Psychology course is based on the results of research. It therefore impresses
on the need to conduct private child study within the classroom. It also encourages teachers to
keep records of behaviour.

ACTIVITY:
1. Define Psychology in your own words.
2. Show the relationship between Educational Psychology and other branches of
psychology.
3. With practical examples from the Zambian context, explain the scope of educational
psychology.

REFERENCES

Hilgard, E.R., Atkinson, R.L., and Carison J.G. (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.

Ibeh, A.E. (1990). Psychology of Education Lagos: Kola: Okanlawon Publishers.Inc.

Lahey, Benjamin B. (2001). Psychology: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill Comp.

Oladele, J.O. (1987). Fundamental Foundations of Education. (Rev. Ed.) Lagos: John Slad
Publishers.

Vander Zanden J.W (1980). Educational Psychology and Practice. New York: Random House.

UNIT 2 CHILD AND ADOLESCENCE DEVELOPMENT

Learning outcomes: On completion of the unit, you will be able to:

 define development;
 identify different types and stages of development; and
 Explain factors that affect development.

INTRODUCTION

When we say development in Psychology, we imply a number of factors and change that
occur as one grows in during the life cycle (conception to death). Though the focus in this
unit is on child development, meaning adulthood will have less or no mention. We are going
to discuss the physical, cognitive, emotional and social changes children experience in the
process of growing up. These changes, to a great extent, are dependent on several factors.

These factors range from the type of diet a child eats, the diseases he may have had to the
socio-economic status of his parents .Of all these factors, the socio-economic status of the
parents is the most important because all other factors such as diet, the quality of life he
enjoys etc. depend largely on it. Development is described in three domains, but growth in one
domain influences the other domains.

 Physical Domain: body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor
development, perception capacities, physical health.

 Cognitive Domain: thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention,

memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday
knowledge, metacognition, and language.

 Social/Emotional Domain: self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual

identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions,
self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and
friendships.

HUMAN DEVLOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Development begins with conception. Conception occurs when fertilization creates a zygote,
a one celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg. All of the other cells in the
body developed from this single cell. Each of the cells contains enduring messages from the
parents carried on the chromosomes that lie within the nucleus.
Each chromosome houses many genes, the functional units in hereditary transmission. Genes
carry details of your hereditary blueprints, which are revealed gradually throughout life.
(Wayne,2001).
We are going to discuss the physical, cognitive, emotional and social changes children
experience in the process of growing up. These changes, to a great extent, are dependent on
several factors.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Maturation is the process of learning to cope and react in an emotionally appropriate way. It
does not necessarily happen along with aging or physical growth, but is a part of growth and
development. A situation a person must deal with at a young age prepares them for the next
and so on into adulthood. Maturation does not stop when physical growth ends - it continues
through adulthood. An adult who loses a parent, for instance, learns to cope with a new
emotional situation that will affect the way he or she deals with situations that follow.

The American theorist and researcher Arnold Gesell (1880 1961) was an early proponent of
maturational theory. He identified the role of nature or heredity in children’s development.
There is a long-running debate about whether our biological heritage ( nature ) is more
important than the environment we are brought up in ( nurture ). In this context, environment
or nurture is seen to be everything external that contributes to our development, such as care
giving strategies, parenting styles and other influences. Nature is considered to be our
biological inheritance. The genes in our bodies determine what colour eyes we have, for
instance, and also at what age we start walking.

Gesell gathered normative data on a range of children and made this information accessible to
the general public. He strongly believed that each child’s development unfolded according to
a genetic timetable. He developed a timetable of developmental events which we still use
today.

Inherited Characteristics
For us all, life beings in the same way, each person originally beings as a single cell, from
that one cell each person develops into a unique individual. Children inherit many of their
physical characteristics from their parents, light or dark skin, brown or blue eyes, tall or short
stature, all these are traits passed from parents to children. The inherited characteristic
operates through genetic material called genes found in the nuclei of all human cells. Genes
are arrayed on strips called chromosomes. All human cells except the sex cell have 46
chromosomes. The 46 chromosomes are arranged in 23 pairs.
When cells are divided in the normal process of tissue growth and repair, they create exact
copies of themselves. However, when the sex cells (sperm or ova) are formed, the
chromosome split so that the resulting sex cell has its own 23 unpaired chromosomes. These
23 single chromosomes unite when the sex cells fuse (in the act of fertilization) to form 23
pairs of chromosomes. The new cell called a zygote has a full complement of 23 of
chromosomes, 23 from the farther (sperm) and 23 pairs from the mother (ovum).

The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines what sex a person will have. The other 22 pairs of
chromosomes are responsible for the characteristic in males and females. The 23 rd pair in
males contains one X and one Y chromosomes, females have two X chromosomes. Since
females have two Xs, they always pass on an X to the zygote. Therefore, it’s the male whose
chromosome determines the sex of the zygote. If he passes on an X, the child will be a girl. If
he passes on a Y, the child will be a boy.

TYPES OF TWINS
There are two kinds of twins formed in two very different ways. In the case of identical or
monozygotic twins, a single fertilized cell or egg divides into two separate babies. These
babies will be identical not only in appearance but also in genetic structure since they came
from the same fertilized egg.

Fraternal or dizygotic twins, are formed when the female produces two separate eggs that
are fertilized by two different sperm cells. These two fertilized eggs each grow into babies
that are born at about the same time but they are not genetically identical. Fraternal twins are
no more alike genetically than siblings who are born at different times. Like other siblings,
zygotic twins share only about 50 percent of their genes.

STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

There are various stages and sub stages of child development, these are:
 Prenatal (conception to birth)
 Neonatal-neonate- (birth to a few weeks)
 Infancy-infant (few weeks after birth till walking 17 months)
 Early Childhood-toddler (15 months -2 ½ yrs) then 2-3 yrs)
 Middle Childhood (6-12yrs)
  Adolescence (12 To 20 Yrs)

1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPTION: The genetic makeup of a child is determined at conception.
Conception takes place when a sperm from the man fuses with the egg (ovum) from a
female to form a zygote in a process called fertilization. This is the beginning of
human development. This stage is called pre-natal stage and usually lasts for nine (9)
months. The development at this stage is rapid and the body structures are formed.
The environment of the growing human organism is of extreme importance at this
stage.

The zygotic stage

The fusing of the male gametes and the female gametes results in conception and the
formation of a zygote, the stage of human development. During this stage the zygote
develops rapidly as it becomes attached to the walls of the uterus. By the end of the first
week, amniotic sac (amnion), umbilical cord and placenta are formed. The zygote divides
repeatedly through the process of mitosis until the cells are differentiated into tissues and
organs. By the second week of conception, the human embryo has been formed with some
human characteristics (Hill & Haffner, 2002).

The Embryo
By now, the embryo is firmly held in place by the umbilical cord attached to the uterus
through the placenta. This is also a period of rapid cell divisions during which cell
differentiation and specialization take place. The various body tissues and organs develop and
by the 8th to 9th week (2 months), the embryo has fully developed with functional organs and
systems i.e. the heart, sex organs, other internal organs for specific functions and nervous
system. This develops into the foetus (Sadler, 2004).

The Foetus or Foetal Stage

This is the final stage before the baby is born. This stage extends from the third month to
birth. The foetal stage is characterized by continued growth and development of the major
body systems. By the end of the fourth month, external body parts including fingernails,
eyebrows and eye as has are formed. Fetal movements may be felt at this time as the baby
engages in motor behavior involving movements of head, arms and legs.
DETERMINANTS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH-Nature Vs Nurture
“Like father, like son” or “charity begins at home”
 Heredity: This factor is best seen in the physical appearance of the child e.g. the
tendency is for the child to be more like his parents than to differ from them.
 Environment: Environmental factors include nutrition and balanced diet.
Opportunity offered to the child in his community also matters i.e. bicycles, good diet,
and games etc. helps in developing good physical fitness. Balanced diet is very
important during the period of fast growth.
 Emotional Factor: The separation of the baby from his parents during infancy and
early childhood can result to retardation of growth.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

During prenatal development, there are a number of influences that may endanger the life of
the foetus. Some of the environmental influences are nutrition, drugs, maternal diseases,
alcohol, smoking, age and emotional state of the mother.

Teratogens- anything that can cause birth defects.

A teratogen is anything that can disrupt the development of an embryo or foetus in a pregnant
mother's womb. A teratogen may cause a birth defect, malformation, or terminate the
pregnancy.

It can be in the form of harmful drugs or chemicals, like birth control pills, nicotine, alcohol,
or some types of medication. Exposure to infectious agents like Chicken Pox has also been
found to have teratogenic effects. Physical factors such as exposure to x-rays or increased
body temperature from taking hot baths may also have negative effects on the developing
foetus. Certain medical conditions of the mother like diabetes may also lead to defects or
foetal death. Also emotional wellbeing of the expectant mother, if she is full of negative
thought and emotions, it may affect the development of the foetus, no wonder it is advisable
to be conscious with how we treat expecting mothers. Teratogens are influenced by the
factors below:
Nutrition
The food eaten by the expectant mother should contain essential food nutrients such as
proteins, carbohydrates and protective food, if the mother lacks balanced diet this will
adversely affect the developing fetus. Inadequate nutrition can make a child have fewer brain
cells and therefore may end up by being intellectually less able and retarded. Malnutrition can
also lead to miscarriage, infant death, stillbirth, cerebral palsy epilepsy, premature birth,
mental retardation, low birth weight and longer labor.

Drugs
In addition to poor nutrition, many drugs consumed during pregnancy are harmful to the
baby. In the case of strong drug such as heroin, being used by the expectant mother, it may
lead to a child becoming addicted to the drug. The mortality rate of such children is very
high. Infants who have been exposed to drugs may be smaller in size, be irritable, vomit, cry,
shake, have disturbed sleep and poor appetites, and may not gain in weight as they should.

Alcohol
Heavy drinking pregnancy leads to miscarriages, birth defects, small size babies, low birth
weight, mental retardation and infants who have learning disabilities. Alcoholic mother are
likely to have infants suffering from fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is characterized by
severe mental retardation, lags in motor development, retarded growth, deformities of the
face (widely space eyes, short nose, long upper lip).

Smoking
Mother who smokes has significantly higher rates of premature births, low birth weight,
increased foetal deaths still births, poor physical growth, impaired intellectual and emotional
development, and smoking affects the supply of oxygen to the fetus due to nicotine contained
in tobacco.

Maternal Diseases
Any disease the expectant mother contracts are likely to be transmitted to the foetus. For
example contracting rubella (German measles) may lead to the birth of a child with an
abnormality such as blindness or deafness. Contracting syphilis can also lead to brain
damage, deafness and blindness, bones and lung abnormalities. One of the most serious
sexually transmitted diseases is AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). The AIDS
virus can be passed from the mother to the child before birth, during the birth process or after
the child is born.

Mother’s Age
The age of the mother is also an important factor in birth defects. Women who are either
above 35 years or below 18 years have high chances of giving birth to an abnormal child.
Teenage mother belong to the highest risk group both for complications and for fetal
abnormalities.

Mother’s Emotional State

The emotional state of an expectant mother is related to the health of the unborn baby. A
mother experiencing stress resulting from anger, tension or serious conflict may have baby
who is irritable, hyperactive, sleep less and cry more frequently than expected (Mwamwenda
1995).

2. Infancy 0-2 Years

Reflexes of children

 Rooting reflex –You can often stroke the baby’s cheek and see this reflex
 Eye blink Reflex-Reflexive blinking that protects baby from bright lights and foreign
objects.
 Sucking Reflex-Babies instinctively begin to suck at objects placed in the mouth.
 Moro Reflex-When the baby hears a loud noise or their head falls back, they may
instinctively extend arms out, arch its back and bring arms toward each other as
though they are trying to grab someone.
 Palmar-Curling of the fingers around an object that touches the palms.
 The tonic neck reflex, or fencer response, is present at birth-This reflex usually
disappears by 4-9 months.
 Babinski's reflex-occurs when the great toe flexes toward the top of the foot and the
other toes fan out after the sole of the foot has been firmly stroke abnormal after the
age of 2.

Sensory Development

Discerning faces - 1 month old babies appear to be able to distinguish mother’s face from
strangers as long as they hear the mother’s voice as well. At 3 months, baby appears to
distinguish mother from stranger with face alone.
Sight

Babies are born legally blind with a vision of 20/600 – you need to be no more than 8 inches
from their face. By 6 months they are at 20/100 – you need to be at least a few feet away. By
9 months they are at 20/60 – they can see you across the room. For the first couple of months,
babies will be able to distinguish patterns, but tend to respond to blacks and reds. By 5 or 6
months, babies begin to discern colors.

Hearing

By 1 month, babies can distinguish between the smallest variations in sound. By 6 months,
they have developed the ability to understand and make all of the sounds necessary for their
language structure

Touch

New-borns have a well-developed sense of touch and will, over time, come to use this sense a
lot. Babies will begin to explore their world using tactile sensations, which is why many of
the toys for infants have different textures

Smell

1-day-old infants can distinguish between some smells. 1 ½-month-old infant can distinguish
between the smell of their mother and that of a stranger (which is why people tell you to
leave the baby with something that has your smell on it).

Taste

New-borns appear to prefer the taste of sweet and salty and dislike bitter-tasting things. It has
been observed that during pregnancy infants will lick the placenta wall which may help to
develop a sense of tast

3. Early childhood (Toddlerhood)-Pre-primary period (2-6 years)

There are many remarkable changes during this period especially at the early stage though
they tend to level off as child grows older, except the growth spurt of adolescence; children
during this period grow faster both in absolute and relative terms, size and proportion.

There is a more co-coordinated neuromuscular development during this period and we notice
both gross and fine motor co-ordination. Large muscles of leg and arm joints grow making
them more prone to injury. Fine motor skills and control of smaller muscles in the fingers are
more difficult to be manipulated than the mastery of the gross motor skills which involve
large muscles. By age of four, many children are able to manipulate the smaller muscles. The
child’s ability to manipulate things during this period is as a result of daily practice. There
may be variation in the physical development of children. It may be due to genetic factors,
malnutrition and neglect and severe emotional stress. Malnutrition increases children
susceptibility to diseases and it impair their intellect and affects their motor skills.

4. Middle Childhood-Primary school period (6-12years):

During this period, growth is more uniform than it was during the pre-primary stage. There is
gradual increase in both height and weight. The weight gain at this time is basically a result
of growth in muscle and bone tissues. There is a noticeable growth difference between boy
and girls during the stage. Between ages of 9-10 years, girls experience growth spurt while
boys experience growth spurt anytime from age 12. Girls retain more fatty tissues which
leave their bodies softer and with more rounded contours, boys on the other hand become
more muscular and angular. One significant change that takes place during this period is the
loss of baby teeth and by age 12, the more permanent teeth have developed. Typically, girls
lose their teeth earlier than boys.

5. Adolescence- Secondary School Period (12 years and above). Adolescence is the
period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It is a period marked with
accelerated growth. The remarkable and obvious physical changes during this period
are usually in height, weight and body.

These changes are quite closely controlled and at the same time, integrated by the central
nervous system (CNS) and the endocrine (hormonal) system. Adolescent growth spurt in girls
begins at about ages 9-11 and reaching a peak at 12 or 13 years, it slowly declines and
completely ceases between ages 15-18 whereas for boys, it starts about two years later than
the case for girls and also lasts longer. The growth spurt in boys starts between the ages of 11
and 14 peaking at age 15 and gradually declining until about 20 or 21 years of age.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
As children change physically and develop their cognitive skills, they also become more
aware of whom they are. They get socialized through their family members and significant
others into the societal values, norms and morals. The process of socialization begins early in
life and it is a lifelong process (Osarenren 2001).

Bonding occurs in children and their mother and later extends to other members of the
family. This is strengthening when the child’s basic needs like food etc. are met. If babies are
not securely attached and they lack social bond, it affects the child’s social behaviour. The
parents play a fundamental role in the socialization and discipline of their children.

Friends are also seen as momentary physical play mates. They make friends with other
children of their age in their neighbourhood, which are called peers. The influence of peers
on child development is very crucial and has far reaching effect on the personality
development of the child.

Apart from parents and peers, children also get socialized into societal norms and values by
teachers. When the child gets to school, he does not attach importance to the sex of his play
mates but from age 8-10 sex becomes an important issue and boys choose to play with boys
while girls will play with themselves.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Emotional development involves a person’s awareness and the expression of an affective

experience. This affective experience might be pleasurable or not. If not pleasurable, it may
be mild or intense. Every individual has emotions and the kinds of emotion we feel play a
great role in how we relate with others as well as how we get along with ourselves. When a
person experiences unpleasant emotions, most of the time, he becomes an unhappy person.

On the other hand, an individual who experiences pleasant emotions often will lead a
relatively happy life. Human beings differ in the ways they experience and handle emotions.
One of the major studies on development of emotional pattern in infants was carried out by
Bridges (1932). Her findings and evaluation are still accepted today. The approximation ages
when emotions develop during a child’s first two years of life are as follows:
 Birth - General state of excitement
 3 months - Distress and Delight
 6 months - Fear, disgust and anger
 12 months - Elation and affection
 18 months - Jealousy, affection for other children and adults
 24 months - All the emotions mentioned above become permanent in addition to joy

Emotional development is directly related to cognitive development; therefore, further

emotional development is linked with perceptual maturation. At the age of three, the child has
completed the sensory motor stage of cognitive development. Therefore, he can experience
emotions but unfortunately he does not have the capability of conceptualizing his emotional
experience or those of other people. Crying and anger decrease while laughter increases.

Instead of such physical expressions of rage as yelling, biting or even hitting and kicking;
verbalization of these emotions is expressed. They also tend to make use of aggression in
their bid to achieve a desired goal. For boys there is more reliance on physical combat in
expressing emotional displeasure whereas in the case of the girls, they tend to contend with
verbal charges. An interesting aspect of this expression of displeasure by both boys and girls
is that seconds after the expression of aggressive behaviour, friendship amongst them
resumes. No wonder it is not advisable for parents or teachers to take sides when kids fight.

It is also natural for a child to like some individuals in the home or community in this case
the child wants to associate with the person. On the other hand, if the child does not like
somebody, he does not take interest in whatever the person is doing. This has a far reaching
effect on the teacher-pupil relationship which will in turn contribute to the child’s interest in
the teacher and the subject he teaches. Teachers must embrace all children.

How Environment Influences Development

Since environment makes it possible for hereditary gifts to grow and bloom we can say that
all aspects of development are influenced by environment. Environment provides food for
growth as well as opportunities for learning. However, there are some which are virtually
under the control of environment.
These are mostly the aspects of development which are learned and only a few examples will
be given.
 Language: The child's competence in language depends on the way he is taught
language in the home, in school etc.
 Social relationship: How the child relates with people depends on his experiences and
the skills which he has for interacting with people.
 Motor skills: Although the child does not need to be taught how to crawl, stand, walk,
how he performs many skills depends on the environment. For example, we can all
walk but you will agree that marching which is a kind of walking has to be learnt. If
you have watched the march past during Children's Day or Independence Day
celebrations you will understand what I mean. The same thing applies to many other
motor skills - jumping, throwing etc.
 Intellectual ability: Even though we have said that heredity has a strong influence, the
child has a strong influence, the child has to be stimulated for intellectual
development to progress well.
 Physical development: Environment cannot change the physical structure except there
is an incident and a limb or other part is completely destroyed. But how well a child
grows depends on the nutrients and generally healthy conditions free from infections
and other debilitating hazards.
 Moral values and judgment are learnt in the family and the home in which the
children live. The way we are attached to our families and kin group here, the way we
respect elders in our communities are not universal. They are important to us in our
environment.
EFFECTS OF URBAN AND RURAL SETTINGS ON LEARNING

Whether a learner lives in a rural area or in an urban area has serious implications for his/her
learning ability and achievement. Rural areas suffer from the absence of modern facilities and
government presence which can facilitate learning. The urban areas on the other hand, most
often, have good infrastructural facilities, such as electricity, water supply, good schools,
good road network, amenities and other conditions that promote learning ability and
achievement.
THE RURAL AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Environment plays a very important role in the development of the child. It provides food for
growth as well as opportunities for learning. This important role of the environment can be
enhanced or limited by the conditions that exist in the learner’s immediate environment.
Below are some of the areas in which rural or urban location affects learning.
Socio-economic conditions:
The income earning power tends to be higher in the urban areas than in rural areas. There
seem to be better conditions and opportunities for income generation in the urban areas than
in the rural areas. This is because of wide variety and lucrative jobs and business that exist in
urban centres.
We also have better infrastructural facilities in urban areas than in rural areas. In urban
centres, there are good network of roads, power and water supply, telecommunications,
amenities such as schools, libraries, hospitals, play grounds, sporting and recreational
facilities, etc.
These favourable conditions in urban settings create an enabling environment for teaching
and learning. Urban schools benefit from availability of qualified and well trained teachers.
Their schools are better built and more equipped than rural areas. The result is that schools in
urban centres are more likely to produce higher achievers than rural schools.
Government Presence
In the urban centres, there is higher government presence than in rural centres. This nearness
to the seat of government means that urban schools are likely to be better provided for and
supervised. The implementations of educational policies are likely to begin in urban centres
before getting to the rural areas. For example, supply of books, teachers, instructional
materials, etc. is likely to be in favour of urban areas.
Background of Parents
The urban parents are likely to be more educated; more enlightened and know the value of
education than their rural counterparts. Their perceptions may also differ. These differences
will have impact on the learning achievement and ability of the pupils.
Cultural Factor
Closely related to the above is the fact that the cultural factors are likely to play a more
important role in the upbringing of the rural child than the urban child. The rural child is
likely to have a different perception, beliefs system, local knowledge and prejudices (e.g.
Sex roles), than the urban child who is likely to be more cosmopolitan. This has implications
for learning ability and achievement.
Presence of Mass Media and Information Technology
In the urban centres, there is high presence of mass media and telecommunication facilities.
There is ready access to information and communication technology especially the radio,
television, computer and the internet.
The urban child is in a position to connect to the global village. He has access to a wide
variety and plenty of educational resources. The rural child may lack this access and therefore
the ability to benefit from such opportunities. There is no doubt that his ready access and
availability of the mass media and computer technology places the urban child at learning
advantage.

THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

We have realized from the introduction to this unit that no two persons are exactly the same.
Because no two persons are alike, there is what is called individual differences. This is an
important concept which we should know as educators. Basically this concept means that no
two persons are exactly the same, even identical twins. Children and adults differ in age, even
though they might be regarded as a homogenous group. Children also may differ in their
height, complexion or even intellectual ability.

The teacher should have a thorough knowledge of these individual differences and bear them
in mind any time he is dealing with his pupils. We discovered earlier on that identical twins
differ in many ways. Imagine then the number of differences which are bound to occur
among non-twins. Because of this concept that no two persons are the same, modern
education is becoming sceptical over the class method of teaching which apparently ignores
this concept.
The class method has to accept that each child is a unique human being, different in rate of
growth and development. Each, therefore, differs in achievement. The concept of individual
differences seems to permeate all aspects of life but many class teachers tend to ignore it.
Each individual comes into the world with a unique inherited capacity. For example, a close
examination of children reveals that children differ in a large variety of ways. Their talent in
creative, writing, musical and dramatic abilities differ. Children's adjustment patterns are
different. There are differences in speech, hearing, vision and physical skills. One may see
how easy it is also to notice among children differences in height, weight, general health and
dentition or teeth formation. All these are individual differences.

AREAS IN WHICH CHILDREN DIFFER AND HOW TO CATER FOR THEM

Differences in Physique and Sex
There are many differences which are observable in children in terms of their physical
appearance and sex. At the early stages of development, the classroom teacher should take
note of differences in physique and sex. Some children are boys others are girls. At the
adolescent stage physical differences among children are greater. Some children are tall
others short. Some are fat others are slim. Girls may not be able to perform certain physical
exercises which boys perform.

They may not be as strong as boys. Boys and girls may perform differently in certain
subjects. For example, performance of boys and girls may differ in sewing and cookery,
woodwork and blacksmithing. Girls may perform better in the first two and boys in the last
two subjects. It is also argued that boys excel in mathematics and the sciences while girls
excel in arts and languages. On the average, girls perform better than boys in reading,
comprehension, vocabulary and language skills.

To cater for these differences you must pay special attention when teaching girls mathematics
and other science subjects. Also you should make arrangements so that the smaller children
sit where they can see the board. During Physical Education lessons, you should bear in mind
the size, strength and sex of the children when grouping them for exercises.

Differences in Intelligence
The teacher should bear in mind that intelligence is a factor of heredity and environment
differs among children. Some children are lucky to possess a high level of intelligence.
While some children are of normal or average intelligence, some are bright or have above
average intelligence.

The very bright ones are able to learn rapidly and easily. They can see relationships and are
aware of many things children at their age are not aware of. Above all, very bright children
have the capacity for creativity and originality.
Awareness of these differences in the intellectual-ability of your class children should
influence your teaching methods. Exercise a lot of patience for slow learners in the class.

You should also use a variety of methods for teaching which will involve activities,
demonstrations and the use of different senses of the body. Also, try and make use of
different kinds of aids while teaching and as much as possible teach children individually.
Above all, regulate the teaching to suit the slow learners and also move fast on the basis of
individual progress with the bright ones.

Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity

The classroom has children with great differences and there is no way of removing individual
differences. Therefore, even though a number of children may be grouped together in the
same class, there may be differences in their ages. This implies that all children in a class
cannot perform equally all tasks given to them. Some children may not be mature enough to
perform certain physical or mental exercises while some will be capable of doing both.
Educators who emphasize the concept of maturation believe that all development occurs in
definite, internally controlled sequences.

These sequences apply not only to the growth of tissues and organs but also to their functions
and behaviours. Because of this, the rate at which children mature differs. This difference in
the rate of maturation obeys the law or concept of readiness. This law of readiness simply
states that for the learner to learn successfully, he must be ready to learn. Readiness is a
function of maturation and stimulation. Children should be taught a task or skill only when
they are ready notwithstanding the fact that they are all in the same class.

To cater for differences in the maturity level of children, you should only introduce concepts,
and skills to the children who are mature enough to learn such. The most effective way to
determine readiness to learn is to give the child the opportunity to learn and then observe his
behaviour. If the child is ready he would respond pleasurably to the learning experiences
before him. If the child is not ready, it becomes a waste of effort and may result in frustrating
the child, to force him to learn. You must not set or expect the same performance standards
for all children in class even if they are of the same age.
Above all make use of teachable moments. This is the optimum time when you can introduce
and stress any skills or attitudes you want to teach your children.
Differences in Health
There is a common saying that "A healthy mind is found in a healthy body". Some children
inherit weak health potentials from their parents, while others are lucky to inherit very good
health potentials. Some are partially deaf or dumb, others have either bad sight, deformed
hands or legs.
They sit in the class side by side with children who speak well, hear well and have no
physical deformity. Some children are sickly while others are sicklers. Others by virtue of
luck are very beautiful or handsome with strong health and this makes people anxious to help
them. The concept of individual differences makes it mandatory for teachers to bear these
differences in mind while teaching the pupils.

To cater for these differences a teacher must make sure that tasks assigned to handicapped
pupils are tasks that are feasible given their limitations. It does appear to be a great injustice
to expect that the handicapped children should grasp lessons at the same rate as their more
fortunate counterparts. As the teacher you should display a lot of understanding, tact and
resourcefulness.

Vary the methods of teaching and make a lot of aids for the teaching of the weak pupils.
Sick pupils should move at their pace while extra effort to appeal to their senses should be
exploited. Medical attention should be sought for the sick ones and periodic check-up for the
healthy ones.

Differences in Children's Background

Apart from differences in children as a result of heredity, there exist differences which result
from different types of environment in which children find themselves. A child who grows in
the hands of well-to-do parents is likely to enjoy a good environment. He will probably have
access to some modern gadgets found in the homes such as electricity, good water supply,
radio sets, television sets. This child is exposed intellectually by the possession of different
types of magazines and children's books. He enjoys good medical attention.

This child so described will differ significantly from a child who lives in an out-post of the
town such as the village farm. This second child lives in a thatched house with no modern
facilities. Such a child, no matter his intelligence may be handicapped by his environment.
Most of the modern gadgets found in the homes of well- to-do parents are inaccessible to
children in a poor environment.

The role of the classroom teacher is to recognize the fact that children come from different
homes, environments and socioeconomic backgrounds. This has to be taken into
consideration while teaching and learning activities go on. The teacher should not take some
of the topics slated for teaching for granted. For example, concepts like the Railway Station,
the Car park, shopping complexes like Levy Park or Manda hill may be unfamiliar to a child
in a poor environment.

Give as many examples as possible while teaching. Visual aids and visits to such places of
interest may help to minimize environmental differences. Before asking your class pupils to
contribute money or real things for class projects like dramatization, make sure each child
can afford to execute his own assignment.

Differences in Character
Some children differ in disposition. This difference is both genetic and environmental. A
child may be a confident child and would grow up as a confident adult. Some children are
emotionally stable and are never withdrawn or dull in appearance. Such children are exposed
to and are surrounded by healthy influences. The result is that the children appear bright,
confident and see the teacher as a friend. They are not afraid of their class teacher and ask
questions and seek help from him. But some children are not stable.

They may come from emotionally unstable homes where parents fight very regularly.
They are never confident of themselves. Because of the unhealthy influences which surround
such children they are generally timid or fearful. Timid children may resort to withdrawing
from social interactions which go on in the class.
As a teacher, it is your duty to remember the differences in disposition and character among
your children when you teach them. A good teacher should check and pilot the curiosity or
inquisitiveness of his emotional stable children. Answer their questions and give them more
challenging tasks. Expose them more to wholesome influences and problem solving
situations. For the children who are not emotionally very mature try to be patient with them.
They need plenty of love, assurance and confidence. Stimulate them with simple tasks which
they can perform and encourage them as they attempt the tasks. Timid ones should be shown
areas where they excel more than their counterparts to instil confidence.

CONCLUSION: The development of a child from infant to adulthood has been discussed.
The importance of each stage of development to the teacher cannot be over emphasized.
The areas of development include the physical, cognitive, social and emotional. The theories
of development have a great role to play in the teaching and learning process of children.
SUMMARY
 In this Unit, we have discussed that all hereditary endowments of an individual are
determined at conception.
 The hereditary factors are carried on genes found in chromosomes of the germ cells.
 Even where an individual has a good genetic makeup, it requires a conducive
environment to nurture it to maturity.
 The influence of the environment starts from womb till adulthood.
 Teachers should therefore provide conducive environment for children to develop
well and for learning to take place.

1. Explain with practical examples, the effects of teratogens on a developing child.

2. Explain the various stages of physical growth.
3. Show in five ways, the relevance of child development studies to a teacher.

REFERENCES
Akinboye, J.O. (2000) Psychological Foundations of Education. Ibadan: Heinemann.
Eke, E. (1998) Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context’. Ibadan: Heinemann.
Herbert , M. (2003). Typical and Atypical Development from Conception to Adolescence.
Berlin: BPS Blackwell.
Hill. J.B. & Haffner, W.H.J. (2002). Growth Between Birth. In M.Batshoaw (ed), children
with disabilities (5th ed). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Osarenren N. (2001). Child Development and Personality. Lagos: Hiwits
Sadler. T. W. (2004). Longman Medical Embryology (9th ed). Philadelphia: Lippincott,
Willians, and Wilkins.
Santrock, J. (2001). Child Development (9th ed). Boston: McGraw hill.
Wayne W. (2001). Psychology. Themes and Variation (5th ed). Belmont :Nadswrith.

UNIT 3. ADOLESCENCE

OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 explain in detail, the term “adolescence”.

 the adolescence growth spurt.
  identify developmental concerns/problems of adolescence; and
 discuss the implication of adolescence to the teacher

Introduction

As secondary school teachers in making, this component of human development is critical

and more relevant to you. Because, in Zambia, most; if not all secondary school pupils fall in
the adolescence stage. The term Adolescence has been defined in various ways. Some
describe it as the period between puberty and adulthood. It may also be referred to as the
transitional period between childhood and adulthood.

Adolescence is generally signalled by a final surge (rapid changes) of physical growth.

Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence begins with
the onset of puberty and extends to adulthood, usually spanning the years between 12 and
20. Puberty is the period during which the reproductive system matures, a process
characterized by a marked increase in sex hormones. The changes are usually accompanied
by new and often times confusing emotional, social and cognitive responses.

In trying to discuss adolescence, most people tend to confuse the terms adolescence and
puberty, and use them synonymously. However, puberty refers to the physiological changes
involved in the sexual maturation of a child, as well as other body changes that may occur
during this period of time. Adolescence refers to the stage from puberty to adulthood, and
includes the psychological experiences of the child during this period. Puberty decides the
onset of adolescence. Therefore, adolescence occurs in some children as early as nine years
of age. As earlier mentioned, during this period of time the child has a great deal of concern
over his/her body image and any discrepancies in the child’s eye such as obesity, early or late
maturation, etc. (Shaffer, 1985).

During adolescence there is a large degree of psychological growth as children make

adjustments in their personality due to the rapid physical and sexual development which is
characteristic of this period of life; this is known as Growth Spurt.

They face ongoing conflict and difficulty adapting to the sudden upsurge of sexual and
aggressive drives. These changes cause unrest and confusion in the adolescent’s inner selves
and in the way they perceive the world.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development in adolescence includes a growth spurt as the body fills out, voice
changes (especially in males), and an increase in sex hormones. Secondary sex
characteristics, such as breasts in females and beards in males, appear. Girls' first
menstruation (menarche) usually occurs between the ages of 11 and 14 (Herbert , 2003).

Puberty

Puberty refers to the physiological changes that the adolescent undergoes in order to reach
sexual maturity. It is best characterized as the gradual onset of mature reproductive hormonal
activity, triggered by the central nervous system, mainly the hypothalamus and pituitary
gland (Shaffer, 1985). Most people look at puberty in three distinct stages as the pre-
pubescent, pubescent, and post-pubescent.

The prepubescent stage includes the first evidence of sexual maturation, primary sexual
characteristics, and terminates at the first appearance of pubic hair. During this stage,
reproduction is virtually impossible. During the pubescent stage the growth spurt begins to
accelerate, males experience their first emission of semen (usually in the form of wet
dreams), and menarche occurs in the females. The post-pubescent stage is characterized by
the deceleration of growth spurt, completion of both primary and sexual characteristics, and
fertility is possible.

The Onset of Puberty in Adolescents

Amazing as it may seem, sexual maturation is programmable for the primary sexual
characteristics to begin their development, the pituitary gland must first release stimulating
agents called gonadotropins into the bloodstream. Once they reach the testes in the male and
the ovaries in the female, a number of changes will occur (Adams, 1976).

As the adolescent grows older, the pituitary releases increased amounts of gonadotropins,
ovaries and the testes grow more rapidly, and produce larger amounts of estrogen and/or
androgen.

SEXUAL MATURATION:
Male Adolescent

Even though the male adolescent’s growth rate varies from child to child, a sequential pattern
has been identified. The typical sequence of events occurs as follows:
 The testes and scrotum begin to increase in size.
 Pubic hair begins to appear.
 The penis begins to enlarge, and the adolescent growth spurt begins.
 The larynx starts to grow and the voice deepens.
 Hair growth begins on the upper lip.

 Nocturnal emissions (ejaculation of semen during sleep) may occur as sperm

production increases.
 Pubic hair becomes pigmented, and growth spurt reaches its peak.
 The prostate gland enlarges.
 Hair growth begins in the armpits.
 Sperm production becomes sufficient for fertility, and the growth rate decreases.
 Physical strength is at its peak.

Female Adolescent

Just as in males, even though the female adolescent’s growth rate varies from child to child, a
sequential pattern has been identified. The typical sequence of events occurs as follows:
 The adolescent growth spurt begins.
 Non-pigmented pubic hair (downy) appears.
 The budding stage of development (breast elevation) and the rounding of the hip
begins, accompanied by the beginning of downy axillary (armpit) hair.
 The uterus, vagina, labia and clitoris increase in size.
 Pubic hair growth becomes rapid and is slightly pigmented.
 Breast development advances, nipple pigmentation begins, and the areola increases
in size. Axillary hair becomes slightly pigmented.
 Growth spurt reaches its peak, and then declines.
 Menarche occurs.
 Public hair development is completed, followed by mature breast development and
completion of axillary hair development.
 Adolescent sterility ends, and the girl becomes capable of conception.

Menstruation

The menstrual cycle is controlled by the hypothalamus, which acts as a menstrual clock. The
clock operates through the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland
cyclically secretes two hormones which directly stimulate the ovary these hormones are
follicle stimulating and luteinizing hormones. As follicle stimulating and luteinizing
hormones act on the follicle, its cells multiply causing a large fluid filled cavity to form
(Harighurst, 1972). The growth and activity of the follicular cells result in the secretion of
estrogen by the cells, and this hormone is found in the fluid of the follicle.

Luteinizing hormones cause the cells of the follicle to rupture and expel the ovum. Then the
fluids and cells form a new structure called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is
stimulated by the gonadotropins and initiates the production of the hormone, progesterone.
Progesterone causes the lining of the uterus to change, thus getting it ready for the reception,
embedding, and gestation of a fertilized ovum (Adams, 1976). The coordinated action of
progesterone and estrogen makes the lining of the uterus an environment where an embryo
can survive during pregnancy.

Menstruation occurs approximately every three to four weeks. If the ovum is not fertilized,
most of the lining of the uterus mixed with blood is expelled through the cervix into the
vagina. This bloody discharge is referred to as menstruation (menses) or a menstrual period.
The entire cycle repeats itself with regularity throughout the reproductive life of the female.
However, at its onset after puberty, menstruation may be irregular for up to a year or two.

Brain Development

Frontal lobe development lags behind emotional limbic system-impulsiveness, emotional

storms, risky behaviours. When the frontal lobe matures, emotions and judgment also mature.
Before prefrontal cortex fully develops, amygdala has major control (Shaffer, 1985).

EMOTIONAL / PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

As earlier mentioned, the physiological changes have impact on the emotional, social and
mental changes. In other words, physical development – primary sex and secondary sex
characteristics will lead to emotional changes. For instance, Adolescents tend to develop the
imaginary audience and the personal fable. Imaginary audience is when one believes that
others are very concerned about what is happening with them. Personal fable is an
exaggerated sense of one’s uniqueness in life – so unique that no one could possibly
understand their feelings (Osarenren, 2001) .
The psychoanalyst Erikson stated that children in adolescence strive to be free of parental and
authoritative control which leads to withdrawal from parents and other family members.
Arcording to the Psycholigist Marcia, adolescents end up having identity statuses such as
Foreclosure-when the child is forced to live out the dreams of the parents, which may lead to
bitterness and resentment. And Diffusion-when child has not achieved an identity and feels
confused about who they are and where they want to go in life, which often take dead-end
jobs.

The developmental psychologist Gilligan discovered that female adolescence self-esteem

occurs as follows:

 Prior to adolescence, female and male self-esteem is similar.

 During adolescence, female self-esteem drops.
 Girls tend to doubt themselves more.
 May be torn between sexual maturity and being the “nice girl”.
 Pressure to engage in close cooperative relationships which may reduce autonomy.
 Girls tend to fight the “feminine ideal” – those who are too tall tend to slouch, those
who are too short tend to try to look taller. Often become preoccupied with looks and
weight.
 Girls tend to report a higher incidence of depression, dissatisfaction with their bodies,
eating disorders and lower self-esteem (Shaffer, 1985).

Males tend to have stress at the onset of adolescence and tend to level off by the time they
are in their teens. Hence not much emotional stress as in girls, however late maturing males
tend to be more anxious, more eager, more attention-seeking, if rated by teachers and
friends, for instance, as less masculine and less physically attractive, they feel socially
inferior and feel inadequate, eventually tend to perform poorly in class.

Early maturing females tend to be at a disadvantage in that they tend to be less outgoing
and less popular, may be more anxious and depressed, may be more likely to be drawn into
relationships that they are not emotionally ready for. And late maturing females tend to be
less popular with boys, temporarily more well-adjusted than early maturing females.
Generally emotional development is characterised by a period of storm and stress (full of
anxiety and worries).
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development is characterised by a number of behaviours, for instance they begin to

move in crowds more, interact more with peers, and the search for intimacy intensifies, and
increased distance from family towards independence.

According to Erik Erikson, appropriate social development in adolescence requires solving

the major challenge of ego‐identity vs. role diffusion. To resolve this life crisis, adolescents
must form an ego‐identity, a strong sense of “who I am and what I stand for,” or they may
suffer role diffusion (running from activity to activity), with the increased likelihood of
succumbing to peer pressure (Munsaka & Mutafwali, 2013).

Gender differences in behaviours or mental processes continue to develop during

adolescence. Research has indicated that experience and learning have a greater impact on
such behaviours than do biological factors.

Gender identity, the recognition of being male or female, develops by age 3. Once they have
established gender identity, children usually try to adapt their behaviour and thoughts to
accepted gender‐specific roles.

A gender role consists of the behaviours associated with one's gender. Gender‐related
activities help an individual to establish an identity. Sometimes a person adopts gender‐role
stereotypes, beliefs about the “typical” behaviour of males and females expected by society.
One meaning of the term androgynous is having adopted both behaviours associated with
males and those associated with females. Androgynous males can do hard physical labour
and yet care for babies; androgynous females can be homemakers and yet fix cars or drive
taxis (Harighurst, 1972).

Peer pressure, a term used to denote legitimization (acceptability) of activities by a peer

group, has been used to explain many adolescent societal difficulties. Although a peer group
rarely forces an adolescent to try new activities, it may legitimize those activities by
indulging in them.

Sexual behaviour
One of the critical aspects of social development in adolescence is sexual behaviour. During
the past few decades, the sexual behaviour of adolescents has been heavily investigated.
While the threat of HIV/AIDS has changed some behaviour, many surveys indicate a
dramatic increase in adolescent sexual activity through the 21st century. In Zambia, this may
be attributed to a number of factors, such as contaminated media, poor child rearing practices,
moral degradation, lack or poor sexual education, and much of cultural diffusion. Hence as
teachers, you have a greater role to play.

Independence-self esteem

The maturation into adulthood from childhood makes adolescents become able to accept
responsibility for actions and choices. More time spent among peers than adult influence (i.e.
mandatory school, clubs, sports, and after school activities), and in turn, it has effect on
independence. They feel they can now stand on their own; they are now men not boys,
women not girls. They are also egocentric (self-centred).

GENERAL DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OFADOLESCENTS

The period of adolescence is termed “the Crisis period” with its attendant stress and conflicts
which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concerns. Some of these concerns
according to Harighurst (1972) are as listed below:

1. Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes.

2. Achieving masculine and feminine social roles.

3. Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively.

4. Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults.

5. Achieving assurance of economic independence.

6. Selecting and preparation for an occupation.

7. Preparing for marriage and family life.

8. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.

9. Desiring and achieving social responsible behaviour.

10. Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behaviour i.e. developing an
ideology.

Apart from the above named concerns there are some basic and fundamental problems that
confront adolescents which include:

Identity Formation: This is the first crucial concern of Adolescents. The search for self is
unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the sum total of a person’s idea and
attitude about whom and what he is. His problem is compounded when sometimes he
behaves like adult and he is accepted and at another time he is told that he is not matured for
such yet.

Effect of peer on Adolescence: Adolescents have lesser dependent on parents but draws
comfort from members of his age group and they provide support and security for him. The
influence of peers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are
not met. Teachers and parents are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong
to. Efforts should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements. (Bad company ruins
good morals).

Substance abuse-Alcohol and drugs: This is a behaviour some adolescents learn from their
peers or influence by significant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difficult to stop and
it may lead to drug addiction and its attendant problem like mental disorder. Stiffer rules
should be provided in Zambian Schools to combat this vice.

IMPLICATION OF ADOLESCENCE STUDY FOR THE TEACHER

As earlier mentioned, this stage is vital for consideration by teachers, after all they spend
more time with adolescents than any other social group. Some of the ways the study of
adolescence is relevant to teachers or would be teachers include the following:

1. It affords the teacher the opportunity to know their behaviour. It enables the teacher to use
appropriate technique/method to handle his class.

2. Teacher should give responsibility to adolescents and provide support and guidance-
remember a teacher is a counsellor.

3. The teacher should give the students some degree of independence.

4. Teachers should provide task that are achievable to arouse the adolescents and make them
experience success (of course under the guidance of the teacher).

5. 6. Any bad group should be disbanded before harm is done.

7. Girls especially, should be warned on the danger of engaging in premarital sex because of
problem like unwanted pregnancy, dropping out of school contacting sexual transmitted
diseases like HIV/AIDS etc.

SUMMARY

The term Adolescence has been described as period between childhood and Adulthood. It is a
transitional period with its attendant problem. They love experiments, they feel, think and
react differently. They also try to do what adults do. The stage is very important because any
mistake may lead to delinquency.

The physical changes that take place during adolescence will have impact on the social,
emotional and eventually mental changes. Teachers must take adolescence stage seriously
and with caution, as it is a very sensitive stage of human development.

1. Define adolescence from your own words.

2. Show the influence of physical development to emotional and social development.
3. Show in 6 ways with practical examples, the relevance of adolescence study to
teachers.

REFERENCES

Adams J.E. (1976). Understanding Adolescence, Current Development in Adolescence

Havighust R.J. (1972). Adolescent Character and Personality. New York: John Weily &

Herbert , M. (2003). Typical and Atypical Development from Conception to Adolescence.

Berlin: BPS Blackwell.

Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development From Conception to

Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Osarenren N. (2001) Child Development and Personality. Lagos Hiwits press.Psychology
(3rd Ed) Boston Allyn & Bacon Inc.

Shaffer David. R. (1985). Developmental Psychology. Belmont: Wadsworth Inc.Sons.

Wayne W. (2001) Psychology.Themes and Variations (5th Ed) Belmont: Wadsworth.

Thomson Learning.

UNIT 4. THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain and understand the role of theory in Psychology.

 explain various theories of child development
 Compare and contrast various theories of child development.
 Apply theories of child development in real life phenomena.

PREAMBLE:
A Theory is an orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict behaviour. Theories
are important to give meaning to what we observe. They work as a basis for action - finding
ways to improve the lives and education of children.

As it has been shown in the previous units, understanding human development is so complex,
however Psychologists have formulated different theories depending on the psychological
perspective thy stem from, have made the child development an interested aspect of
Psychology. Different theories shall be considered in the following aspects:
 Cognitive development theories-Piaget, Vygotsky and Brunner
  Personality development theories-Freud, Erickson, Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, McCrea
and Costa etc.
 Moral development theories-Piaget and Kohlberg
 Language development theories (as an independent unit, after this unit)

COGNITIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

The child’s physical development has a direct relationship with his intellectual or cognitive
development. Specific cognitive abilities develop largely due to interaction between inherent
and innate capacities and environmental experiences which is closely related to other
changes- social or emotional.

1. PIAGET’S THEORY
Jean Piaget has contributed immensely to our understanding of cognitive development. The
uniqueness of mental abilities of a certain child from his age mate or even some other
children younger than him is essentially cognitive structures. This depends on the stages of
cognitive functioning. It equally determines what the child can assimilate at any particular
time. Children at different age range usually exhibit cognitive structures, which are
quantitatively, and remarkably different from other children of different age range, they think
differently.
Their assimilation and accommodation of cognitive structures is determined by adaptation
to environment. Nevertheless, their rate of progress at the different age range or stage cannot
change remarkably or radically as a result of specific instruction. They have to mature and
most importantly be ready for the next stage.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world.
This happens through:
 Assimilation– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or
situation?
 Accommodation– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
  Equilibration– Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do
not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new
challenge (accommodation). Piaget believed that cognitive development did not
progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information
cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Once the new information is acquired
the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to
make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation
A 2 year old child sees a cow and shouts ‘doggy’
Example of Accommodation
Then the dad explains that not all four legged animals are dogs, that one is cow. With this
new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “dog” and make this idea fit better
to a standard concept of “cow”.

PIAGET’S STAGE THEORY

There are four stages of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget. Each of the stage is
assigned a specific age range. The chronological ages designated and specified for each of the
stages are as follows:
  Sensory motor stage 0-2 years
 Preoperational stage 2-7 years
 Concrete operational stage 7-11 years
 Formal operational stage 11-15 years
The main activities of each of the above listed stages are summarized below:
1. SENSORY MOTOR STAGE (0-2 YEARS)
This is the period when a child employs the capacities he is born with i.e. it is primarily
reflexes. It is also the period a child achieves conquest of object permanence. Objects move,
fall, disappear and also reappear. The child finds all these exciting. If his toy drops, he either
cries or simply ignores it.

At this stage, he does not know that he can still look down and see the same toy. He explores
and learns at the same time. The child would want to touch some of the objects he has not
been able to touch before now. When the child is not able to interact with the physical world,
there is a tendency that his physical and emotional development will be affected.
Sub stages:
a) Reflex activities (0-1 month):
Most of the behaviours exhibited by the child at this level are primarily reflexive and also
assimilative e.g. sucking the thumb.
b) Primary circular Reactions (1-4 months)
During this period, manifestation of acquired behaviour is noticeable in a child. There is
better coordination of the earlier activities e.g. thumb to mouth. The child may follow an
object presented to him with his eyes but once it is out of sight, he losses interest in the
object.
c) Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
The child is able to extend his ability at coordination of other objects in his environment. He
will be able to identify objects based on some clues e.g. the arrival of mother or father in the
evening by the sound of the doorbell or car. These secondary circular reactions make room
for occurrence of viability and provision of the basis for awareness of one’s abilities through
reality testing.

d) Coordination of secondary circular reactions. (8-12 months)

A child will show a more definite coordination of two schemata i.e. the child had the mental
skills to understand new varying skills. At this stage, he is able to search for an object that has
disappeared which he could not achieve before this age. This only happens when the child
has had a considerable interaction with his environment.
e) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
During this phase, a child exhibits some degree of inventiveness in his ability at coordination.
For instance, if a toy is taken away from him and kept in a place beyond his reach, he will
seriously search for it until he is able to locate it.
f) Beginning of Representational thought (18-24 months)
This phase marks the eventual completion of the previous phases. He could imitate someone
very well even when the person is not around. He is able to store a proper mental picture of
behaviour which he will imitate later. Therefore, at the end of this sensory-motor stage, a
child has the ability to use symbolic behaviour.

2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 YEARS)

This is a very important period for mental development. The child achieves conquest of
symbols. It is during this period that language and vocabulary are developed. The child is
able to report what happened to him to his parent. He learns that every object has a name and
that name stands for many properties of objects.

Children learn of good and bad behaviour at this stage, they only appreciate rules and their
consequences on behaviour. They do not yet have mental capacity to consider the motives for
judging good or bad behaviours. Children at this stage are fascinated with symbolization
especially among 3 or 4 year old. They give name to things and it makes meaning to them.

They have the problem of classification. For instance, if fruits like guava, mango, paw –paw
etc are put together; they see each as an entity i.e., Paw- paw cannot be represented as fruit to
them. This means that they can only handle one dimension at a time.
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11 YEARS)
This is when there is conquest of reasoning by children. There is an interaction of cognitive
skills and experience used in the performance of logical process of thought. He is able to
internalize actions that will enable him to think about what he would have done by
manipulating objects. He is able to perform reasoning operations and is able to follow
instructions step by step. The mental ability at this period includes class inclusion,
conservation and serial ordering e.g. all dogs are animals and not all animals are dogs. He can
deduce that seeds planted the same day may not grow equally because of some reasons like
nature of soil. In a nutshell, his mental ability shows an improvement over the pre-operational
stage.
 Centration-they only have the ability to focus on one aspect of a problem at a time.
 Irreversibility-they are unable to envision reversing an action that has already been
done.
 Egocentrism-they are unable to take another’s point of view.
 Animism-when child assigns human qualities to inanimate objects.
 Artificialism- the child’s belief that natural objects are manmade.
 Literalism-takes the spoken word seriously.
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11-15 YEARS)
During this period, the nature of abstract thoughts and logical reasoning is achieved. This
stage is very important to parents and teachers because the child have the ability to recognize
hypotheses and assimilate assumptions, concepts, theories, relationships and so on. He can
also verify the result of his reasoning and at the same time is able to review his reasoning
process. He can also express ideas in symbols which may not be linked or tied to physical
works experiences.

The key patterns of reasoning at this stage are:

 Combinational Reasoning
 Proportional Reasoning
 Probabilistic Reasoning
 Correlational Reasoning

Combinational Reasoning: There is proper consideration of all possible relation of

experimental or theoretical condition in a very systematic and orderly manner.
Proportional Reasoning: A child recognizes and at the same time interprets relationships
that exist in any given situation that is described in observable or abstract terms.
Probabilistic Reasoning: The child recognizes the fact that natural phenomena are
probabilistic. Therefore, before any conclusion or explanatory models are made, the
probabilistic dimension has to be considered.
Co relational Reasoning: A child is able to decide whether events are related and can go
together. They also understand that there might be some differences and the relationships
may not always turn out to be so.
 2. LEVI VYGOTSKY
Basic Assumptions: Thinking is influenced by one’s culture (social forces, historical forces).
Psychological tools aid and change one’s thought processes. Social interaction is the primary
cause of cognitive development. Two of the Vygotsky’s unique ideas were his concepts of
the Zone of Proximal and Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The zone of Proximal Development is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too
difficult for children to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance
from adults or more-skilled children. It is the difference or the gap between what a child can
do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance.

The lower limit of the ZPD is the level of problem solving by the child working
independently alone. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can
accept with the assistance of an able instructor. Thus, the ZPD involves the child’s cognitive
skills that are in the process of maturing and their performance level with the assistance of a
more skilled person. He called these the “buds” or “flowers” of development to distinguish
them from the “fruits” of development, which the child already can accomplish
independently.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a technique of changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching
session, a more skilled person (teacher or a more advanced peer of the child) adjusts the
amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance level. Instruction is given when
introducing new knowledge but guidance is reduced as the child gains competence.

Supporting learning during its early phases; as students become more capable of working
independently, supports are withdrawn. Well-designed instruction should be aimed slightly
ahead of what a child knows and can do.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky’s theory is constructivist, emphasizing that children actively construct
knowledge and understanding rather than being passive receptacles. However, Vygotsky’s
theory is a social constructivist approach which emphasizes the social contexts of learning
 and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed. That is, knowledge is distributed
among people and environments, which include objects, tools, books and communities in
which people live.

There are three claims central to this theory:

 The child’s cognitive skills can be understood only when they are developmentally
analyzed and interpreted. To understand any aspect of the child’s cognitive
functioning, one must examine its origins and transformation from earlier to later
forms.
 Cognitive skills are mediated by words, language and forms of discourse, which serve
as psychological tools for facilitating and transforming mental activity. To him,
language is the most important of these tools. He argued that in early childhood,
language begins to be used as a tool that helps the child plan activities and solve
problems.
 Cognitive skills have their origins in social relations and are embedded in a socio-
cultural backdrop. This portrays that the child’s development is inseparable from
social and cultural activities. He believed that the development of memory, attention
and reasoning involves learning to use the inventions of the society such as language,
mathematical system and memory strategies.
Vygotsky viewed children as having rich but unsystematic, disorganized and spontaneous
concepts whereas the skilled helper has more systematic, logical and rational concepts. As a
result of the meeting and dialogue between the child and the skilled helper, the child’s
concepts become more systematic, logical and rational.

Vygotsky’s view of the importance of socio-cultural influences on children’s development

fits with the current belief that it is important to evaluate the contextual factors in learning.

However, this theory has been criticized for over emphasizing the role of language in
thinking.

COMPARING VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S THEORIES

Topic Vygotsky Piaget

Stages No general stages of development Strong emphasis on stages sensorimotor,

 proposed preoperational,
concrete operational and formal
operational

Key Processes Zone of Proximal development, Schema, assimilation, accommodation,

language, dialogue, tools of the culture. operations, conservation, classification,
hypothetical dedicative reasoning.

Role of Major. Language plays a powerful Minimal. Cognition primarily directs

Language role in shaping thought language

View on Education plays a central role, helping Education merely refines the
Education children learn the tools of the culture. child’s cognitive skills that already have
emerged.

Conceptual Shift Focus on collaborating, social Attention is on the individual

interaction and socio-cultural child
activity

Knowledge Children construct knowledge Knowledge is constructed by

Construction through social interaction with transforming, organizing,
others. and reorganizing previous knowledge.

Teaching The teacher is a facilitator and Also views the teacher as a

Implications guide, not a director, establish many facilitator and guide, not a
opportunities for students to learn director, provide support for
with the teacher and more-skilled peers. children to explore their world
and discover knowledge

INCORPORATING VYGOTSKY’S THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

 Use the student’s Zone of Proximal development in teaching.
 Use scaffolding to help students move to higher level of skill and knowledge.
 Use more-skilled peers as teachers.
 Monitor and encourage children’s use of private speech.
 Assess the student’s ZPD and not IQ to determine the level at which instruction
should begin.
 3. JEROME BRUNER
Bruner, another psychologist, regards the human brain as having three modes of
representations, enactive mode, iconic mode, and the symbolic mode.

Enactive Mode
This refers to event being represented in terms of action. Very young children can often
understand things best in terms of action. Children, for example, can best understand the
concept of balances by referring to their experience on a balance. For example, if the child on
one end of the bar is heavier than the child at the other side, it will tilt. That is enactive
thinking.
Iconic Mode
Iconic mode of thinking is indicated in images of the world formed in concrete terms. Objects
are conceivable without action. An object is known by means of a picture or image. Children
now know and understand concept by means of schematic picture in the mind. The world is
formed in concrete terms, but these are not related. One aspect of a situation tends to
dominate the child’s judgment than the rest.
Symbolic Mode
Children are able to develop abstract images at this stage because they can now translate their
experiences into language. They can also use language as an instrument of thinking. Three
methods of representation are:
The wordless messages of enactive level of communication;
A picture often tells a thousand words: the iconic level; and Language – the symbolic level.

COGNITIVE CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE

1. Changes in Reasoning
There is a growing capacity for reasoning, so that the adolescents are capable of solving
complex mathematical and scientific problems. They are also capable of formally testing
hypotheses. This is known as prepositional thinking. They can imagine solutions in problem
and test the solutions in imagination before putting them into practice.
2. Increasing Objectivity of Thought
Adolescents like adults can use fantasy as an escape for something depressing, unwilling to
face realities of life. Unlike children, however, they are aware of the differences between
their fantasy and reality.
Adolescents think of the reaction of imaginary audience. Younger adolescents take into
account the reactions of their peer group; they continually try to project an image to their
friends. This explains some of their attention-getting manoeuvres, such as eccentrics dressing
and behaviour, but towards the end of adolescence, this type of thinking becomes
introspective. They no longer think about themselves in the egocentric ways. They are
capable of empathy. They can look at their situation in terms of other cultures.

Older adolescents are aware of political and social realities; they think about issues
objectively and consider such issues independently of their particular needs.

Sex Difference in Adolescents’ Cognition

In adolescence, young people become very conscious of their sexuality and become cautious
of the fact that they are expected to get married. The adolescents become aware of sex
differentiation in academics.

Boys tend to study technical and science subjects, though more and more girls nowadays
study medicine, law, architecture etc. In terms of reasoning and the ability to solve problems,
where differences between the sexes exist, they can be traced to differences in upbringing and
training.

Educational Implications
As teachers we must take into account the relevance of Piaget’s and Bruner’s theories and
apply them for effective teaching and learning.
Activity and Cognitive Growth
A major educational implication of cognitive development is that growth in any stage
depends on activity. That development of brainpower is not fixed at birth, but is a function of
appropriate activity during any particular stage which produces cognitive growth.

It is advisable however for you as a teacher of students at this stage, to realize that not all
children actually reach the cognitive development level at the same time as others. This is
because the thinking of some 12-15 year old children is more or less still like that of the
children of 7-10 who are at the concrete operational stage.
Therefore, your teaching methods must be varied to incorporate both concrete representations
and abstract ideas in your lessons. Games, such as monopoly could be used in teaching such
students to stimulate abstract thinking among them. This can be achieved by asking the right
questions relating to the general concept being taught. In a like manner, viewing films and
movies and participating in art forms like painting, drama, dance and music, could also
greatly stimulate the young adolescents to think in more abstract terms.

Curriculum and Cognitive Development

Curriculum should not take cognitive development for granted but should provide specific
educational experiences based on children’s developmental levels and ability.
This is particularly important at the formal operational stage. Simply because they have
reached formal logical thought processes does not necessarily mean they can automatically
think logically.
Problem solving should be encouraged based on logical scientific methodology, and where
possible with models that will help to conceptualize the problem.

Learning Materials
Piaget’s theory tells us that since children have developed full formal pattern of thinking,
they are able to attain logical, rational abstract strategies, symbolic meaning and metaphors.
Stories with morals can be generalized, simulations and games can be presented and
understood, e.g. in monopoly game.
We should at all times examine curriculum materials. If they are clearly above their ability,
we should revise the lessons and use material that they can understand rather than assume
that all our students are capable of understanding them. Failure day by day will make them
lose interest completely in the subject e.g. in mathematics. We should provide experiences
and activities that stimulate thinking.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

People are not always what they seem to be, some look aggressive yet they are shy, some
look innocent yet they are covered with guiltiness and shame. Attempt to answer the
following questions:
 1. Who am I?
2. What makes who I am?
3. Am I the same person today that I was 10 years ago?
4. How did I get to be the way I am?

In trying to answer such questions, Psychologists have taken a critical analysis of the concept
personality. But, you do not necessarily need to be a psychologist to speculate about
personality. In our everyday conversations we refer to the personality traits of people we
know. For instance Novels, playwrights and filmmakers make constant use of the personality
of key figures in their stories, and this is one of the great attractions of popular fiction.

The term ‘personality’ is now part of everyday language and theories of personality are
generated by all of us every time we answer the question, ‘What is she or he like?’

Some Terminologies:

Character: Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated.

Temperament: Hereditary aspects of personality, including sensitivity, moods, irritability,

and distractibility

Personality Trait: Stable qualities that a person shows in most situations.

What then is Personality?

The term has been defined differently by different psychologists.

However they to include the following elements in their definitions:

 Individual/Uniqueness
 Behavioural patterns or personality traits or characteristics
 Continuity/ Persistence

Various Definitions
 As a branch of psychology, personality psychology dates back to the beginning of the
twentieth century and the psychoanalytic approach of Sigmund Freud.
 Personality is a dynamic organisation, inside the person, of psychophysical systems
that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings
(Allport, 1961).
 Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and
behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind
those patterns (Funder, 2004).
 According to Myers, personality is defined as an individual’s characteristic pattern of
feeling, thinking and acting.
 Macmehem et al says personality is a person broad long lasting patterns of behaviour.
 Russo and Bruno define personality as an individual’s characteristics of individual
patterns of thought, emotions and behaviour.
 Other psychologist say personality is a combination of long lasting and instinctive
behaviour of thought, motives and emotions that show we react to other people and
situations. Others say it is a person’s internally based characteristic way of acting and
thinking.
 Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that
are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her interactions with,
and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments (Larsen &
Buss, 2005).
 Personality psychology is the scientific study of the whole person…psychology is
about many things: perception and attention, cognition and memory, neurons and
brain circuitry…We try to understand the individual human being as a complex
whole…[and] to construct a scientifically credible account of human individuality
(McAdams, 2006).
 Personality is the organized, developing system within the individual that represents
the collective action of that individual’s major psychological subsystems (Mayer,
2007).
 Personality refers to those characteristics of the person that account for consistent
patterns of feelings, thinking, and behaving (Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005).
 Personality Defined “Personality is the Set of Psychological Traits… And
Mechanisms…Within the Individual…That Are Organized and Relatively
Enduring…And that Influence…His or Her Interactions with… and Adaptations to…
the Environment.
  The definitions above share in common the view that (a) personality is a
psychological system, (b) composed of a group of parts (c) that interact, (d) and
develop, and (e) that impact a person’s behavioural expression. Clear enough (to me).

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

There are so many theories of personality in psychology and they are classified in the
following perspectives and approaches.

1. Trait Perspective (Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell).

2. Humanistic Perspective (Carl Rogers, Raymond Cattell)
3. Psychoanalytic (Sigmund Freud and Erick Erickson)
4. Behavioural Perspective (Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner, A Bandura, E Thorndike)

ONE: PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE

The most influential, most comprehensive systematic and most widely studied personality
approach of all time is the psychoanalytic approach of the Viennese physician Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939).

Sigmund Freud, M.D. Viennese physician who thought his patients’ problems were more
emotional than physical. Freud began his work by using hypnosis and eventually switched to
psychoanalysis. Freud had many followers: Jung and Adler, to name a few. More than 100
years later, his work is still influential and very controversial. He looked at personality from
three aspects: Psychosexual stages, the structure of personality, and the topographical (the
mind).

1. THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY.

Id: Innate biological instincts and urges; self-serving & irrational

• Totally unconscious
• Works on Pleasure Principle: Wishes to have its desires (pleasurable) satisfied now,
without waiting and regardless of the consequences.
Ego: Executive; directs id energies

• Partially conscious and partially unconscious

• Works on Reality Principle: Delays action until it is practical and/or appropriate.

• Ego is always caught in the middle of battles between superego’s desires for moral
behaviour and the id’s desires for immediate gratification.
• Neurotic Anxiety: Caused by id impulses that the ego can barely control.
• Moral Anxiety: Comes from threats of punishment from the superego.

• The Ego employs defense mechanisms as a way to resolve the id anxieties, and the
conflict between id and superego.

Superego: Judge or censor for thoughts and actions of the ego.

• Superego comes from our society.

• Works on the moral principle. Considers what society upholds as morally right.

Two parts of superego:

Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has been punished (e.g., what we shouldn’t
do or be).

Ego Ideal: Second part of the superego; reflects behavior one’s parents approved of or
rewarded (e.g., what we should do or be).

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM:

A process used by the ego to distort reality and protect a person from anxiety. They come out
as a helping hand for the ego in a quest to resolve the Id vs Superego conflict. You can liken
this to two strong individuals fighting (i.e. id vs superego), then you (ego) wants to stop the
fight, but you are not strong enough, hence you call for help (defense mechanisms), no
wonder they are referred to as ego defense mechanisms.

Psychologists have categorized defense mechanisms based upon how primitive they are. The
more primitive a defense mechanism, the less effective it works for a person over the long-
term. However, more primitive defense mechanisms are usually very effective short-term,
and hence are favored by many people and children especially (when such primitive defense
mechanisms are first learned). Adults who don’t learn better ways of coping with stress or
traumatic events in their lives will often resort to such primitive defense mechanisms as well.

Most defense mechanisms are fairly unconscious – that means most of us don’t realize we’re
using them in the moment. Some types of According to Freud there are three levels of
personality, namely the conscious, the preconscious or subconscious, and the unconscious’s,
which he on a continuum ranging from consciousness. The preconscious contains life
experiences that can be brought to consciousness if sufficient attention is directed to them.
The preconscious also has the function of blocking unconscious experiences from emerging
at the conscious level and therefore serves as a buffer zone. The unconscious stores ideas,
events and experiences that have been repressed and therefore are not readily available to the
conscious, except in subtle ways through a person’s behavior or a ship of the tongue or
dreams. The unconscious, although not available to a person’s conscious, is regarded as being
responsible for most of man’s behavior can help a person become aware of what defense
mechanisms they are using, how effective they are, and how to use less primitive and more
effective mechanisms in the future.

Denial: Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or
feeling did not exist. It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms
because it is characteristic of early childhood development. Many people use denial in their
everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they don’t wish to
admit. For instance, a person who is a functioning alcoholic will often simply deny they have
a drinking problem, pointing to how well they function in their job and relationships.

Regression: Ego seeks the security of an earlier developmental period in the face of stress.
E.g. an ODL Psychology student at Evelyn Hone College, anxious of failing Psychology
exam, wets the bed.

Displacement: Ego shifts unacceptable feelings from one object to another, more acceptable
object. E.g. a mistress frustrated by the husband at home, insults his pupils.

Sublimation: Ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one. E.g.
Kondwani likes fighting; he joins a boxing or wrestling club.
Compensation: Compensation is a process of psychologically counter-balancing perceived
weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas. By emphasizing and focusing on one’s
strengths, a person is recognizing they cannot be strong at all things and in all areas in their
lives. For instance, when a person says, “I may not know how to cook, but I can surely do the
dishes!” they’re trying to compensate for their lack of cooking skills by emphasizing their
cleaning skills instead. When done appropriately and not in an attempt to over-compensate,
compensation is defense mechanism that helps reinforce a person’s self-esteem and self-
image.

Reaction Formation: Ego transforms an unacceptable motive or feeling into its opposite.
Moonde hates women, but he is seen matching with a banner on women’s day. Or Limpo
hates soccer, but he wears a Chipolopolo jersey.

Projection: Ego attributes personal shortcomings, problems, and faults to others. An

overprotective father tells his daughter that boys are nothing but a danger to her life.

Intellectualization: Intellectualization is the overemphasis on thinking when confronted with

an unacceptable impulse, situation or behavior without employing any emotions whatsoever
to help mediate and place the thoughts into an emotional, human context. Rather than deal
with the painful associated emotions, a person might employ intellectualization to distance
themselves from the impulse, event or behavior. For instance, a person who has just been
given a terminal medical diagnosis, instead of expressing their sadness and grief, focuses
instead on the details of all possible fruitless medical procedures.

Rationalization: Ego justifies an unacceptable motive by giving a false acceptable (but false)
reason for behavior. You do not want to assist street kids, and then you say the more we give
them money, the more they stay on the street.

Compartmentalization: Compartmentalization is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts

of oneself are separated from awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate
sets of values. An example might be an honest person who cheats on their income tax return
and keeps their two value systems distinct and un-integrated while remaining unconscious of
the cognitive dissonance.

2. TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL (THE MIND)

 Conscious: Everything you are aware of at a given moment

  Preconscious: Material that can easily be brought into awareness

Unconscious: Holds repressed memories and emotions and the id’s instinctual drives.

3. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Discussion on personality and how it develops is not a new exercise. The issue has been
severally discussed right from the pre-Freudian era during which the early years of a child
were assumed to be insignificant and of no effect in his personality. He was assumed to be
only a human in the making, beginning to interact only at the age of six and seven. Based on
this early conception of the child, attention of different societies and cultures shifted to
satisfying adult needs only, ignoring that of the child. This has left the most vital parts of his
life unattended to and with entirely no psychological significance in the study of his growth
and development.

A shift in this perception of the child however, started with the work of Sigmund Freud, who
believed that adult personality can only be understood viewing from the early childhood
experiences (before entering school). These experiences, according to him, have everlasting
implications on the kind of his personality later in life.

He identified five important stages of development, namely, the oral stage (0 to 18 months),
the anal stage (1 ½ to 3 years), the phallic stage (3 to 7 years),the latency stage( 6 to 11
years ) and the genital stage(11 to 14+ years). These years are very incredible in the
development of adult’s personality.
Excessive punishment or reward from parents or traumatically stressful events experienced
during a period of development can leave a person’s personality “Stuck or Fixated, at that
stage.
This fixation of personality development will leave a lifelong mark on the personality.
Fixation, according to Freud, is an emotional attachment to an early stage of development
which makes it difficult for a developing child to form new attachments, develop new
instincts or establish new adaptations. Fixation reveals inadequately resolved problems in
the developmental stage during which it occurs.

Regression, a special type of fixation may occur in later life of an individual. Regression is
the return or reversion to an earlier stage of psychosexual development. The individual will
actually display the childish behaviour appropriate to the period in question i.e. bursting into
tears and sucking of fingers. The weaker the resolution of psychosexual conflicts, the more
vulnerable the individual is to the forces of regression under conditions of emotional or
physical stress later in life.

The developmental stages of development result from a shifting of the primary outlet of
libidinal energy of the id from one part of the body to another. These parts are called the
Erogenous Zones.

According to Freud, personality develops in stages; everyone goes through same stages in
same order. Majority of personality is formed before age 6.

Erogenous Zone: Area on body capable of producing pleasure

Fixation: Unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by overindulgence or frustration
or conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first
occur.

1. Oral Stage: Ages 0-1. Most of infant’s pleasure comes from stimulation of the mouth.
If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits will develop.

Oral Dependent Personality: Gullible, passive, and need lots of attention. Fixations
create oral-aggressive adults who like to argue and exploit others.

Erogenous zone: mouth (oral).

2. Anal Stage: Ages 1-3. Attention turns to process of elimination. Child can gain
approval or express aggression by letting go or holding on. Ego develops. Harsh or
lenient toilet training can make a child either:

Anal Retentive: Stubborn, stingy, orderly, and compulsively clean

Anal Expulsive: Disorderly, messy, destructive, or cruel

Erogenous zone: anus

3. Phallic Stage: Ages 3-6. Child now notices and is physically attracted to opposite sex
parent. Can lead to:

• Oedipus Conflict: For boys only. Boy feels rivalry with his father for his mother’s
affection. Boy may feel threatened by father (castration anxiety). To resolve, boy
must identify with his father (i.e., become more like him and adopt his heterosexual
beliefs).

• Electra Conflict or Penis Envy: Girl loves her father and competes with her mother.
Girl identifies with her mother more slowly because she already feels castrated.

Erogenous zone: phallus, genitals.

4. Latency: Ages 6-Puberty. Psychosexual development is dormant. Same sex

friendships and play occur here.
 5. Genital Stage: Puberty-on. Realization of full adult sexuality occurs here; sexual
urges re-awaken.

CRITICS FOR FREUD

• Freud overemphasized sexuality and placed little emphasis on other aspects of the
child’s experience.
• Freud’s theory is largely untestable. Particularly, the concept of the unconscious is
unprovable.
• According to Freud, the only way that people in psychological distress can get relief is
to undergo length therapy, to identify unresolved conflicts from infancy and childhood.
• Freud’s view of people is overly negative and pessimistic.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT-Erick Erickson

Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson (also a Psychoanalyst) believed that personality develops
in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes
the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we face each
new stage of development, we face a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder
the development of identity.

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. The formation of identity is something
that begins in childhood and becomes particularly important during adolescence, but Erikson
believed that it is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of
us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow as we age.

In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates
behaviours and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming
competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of
mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the
conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well
for the rest of their life. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of identity and self.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.

 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the

dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the
child is utterly depending upon adult caregiver for everything – food, love, warmth,
safety, nurturing. Everything. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love,
 the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his
or her life.

 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to
feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in
fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

 Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent
doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance
between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which
Erikson described as openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger
may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal
control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little bit of
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.

 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believe
that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense
of independence.

 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.

 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those
who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

 Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt
would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within
reason and limits.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

  During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.

 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.

 When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.

 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their

accomplishments and abilities.

 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful.

 Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the

strength known as competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set
before us.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

 During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.

 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal

exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
  Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
committed and secure.

 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.

 Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by
the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

 Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of
your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a
sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.

 Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.

 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.

The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which
to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social
nature of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on
development. Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and
have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation. Some research also suggests
that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of
forming intimate relationships during early adulthood.

In summary:

1.Compare and contrast Erickson’s and Freud’s theories of development.

2.Show the effects of fixation on child development.

TWO. TRAIT PERSPECTIVE

A trait perspective mainly concentrates on personality characteristics and traits. And the
major assumption or argument in this perspective is that human personality is governed by
different traits, expressed in words like honesty, friendly, outgoing, trustworthy etc.

Psychologist Allport discovered about four thousand (4000) different words in the English
dictionary to define personality trait. However other trait psychologists broke down these
words into respective categories, and theories as reflected below.

A. Gordon Allport personality theories.

He argued that personality is categories into 3 different traits.

 Cardinal trait
 Central trait
 Secondary trait

Cardinal Trait

These are traits that determine behaviour in a widest range of circumstances they essentially
describe an individual personality everything that that person does.

Most people do not have cardinal traits but when one exists its very passive and this persons
uniqueness is named by influential people that bearing this particular trait for instance one
can be called Napoleonic-Violent, Quixotic -Peaceful, Narcistic-Loving yourself not others

Central Traits

These are personality building blocks (Gordon Allport). They are not as dominant and broad
as cardinal traits but they are still general such that even casual quittances are able to notice
them, they associate with words such as outgoing, friendly, punctual, honesty, gloomy etc.

Secondary Traits

These are less consistent, less conspicuous and less generalized than central traits according
to Allport Gordon. They apply in a limited range of circumstances for instance Chiwala is
happy in the morning, Angela is happy when she eats pizza, Nelson weeps when he is
dumped. Good examples of secondary traits are moods and mood swings.
Generally according to Gordon Allport, all individual possess central and secondary traits but
only a few possess cardinal traits. Allport theory has been criticized on the part that it is
vague (open) on the other hand it has been accepted because it describes everyone
personality. As a result other trait theorists formulated their trait theories.

B. The Three Dimension of Personality-Hans Eysenck (1916-1973)

Eysenck employed factor analysis to identify super traits. All traits can be subsumed within
three basic personality dimensions:

 Introversion and Extroversion

 Stable and Unstable (Neuroticism)
 Psychoticism

Introversion and Extroversion

Refers to our entire tendency to speak stimulation from other people e.g

 Do you like being with other people?

 Do you prefer being home alone and read a book?

Neuroticism (Feeling or Emotion)

Reflects ones degree of moodiness and anxiety e.g

 Does your often mood go up or down?

 Are you anxious in new situations?

Psychoticism

Reflects the degree to which you are in contact with reality. This is a rare trait. He found out
that most people had traits that fall under introversion and neuroticism. Someone who is very
stable and very extroverted would probably have leadership qualities. The third dimension is
more relevant to those with psychological disorders. To elaborate this in depth, he formulated
the following diagram.
 C. The Big Five Personality Factors

The controversy about the number and personality trait is still here and most trait theorists are
trying to categorise the traits. The big five personality factor argues that there are only five
categories of personality traits and McCrea and Costa are behind this theory. It is stemming
from a three dimension society. The big five traits include

1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Neuroticism
4. Openness to experience (intellect)
5. conscientiousness

I. Extraversion is described by traits such as sociable against retaining, fun loving

against sober and affectionate vs reserved. This factor is responsible for indicating
whether the student is sociable or retiring and whether he is fun-loving or usually
 sober. It also shows how affectionate or reserved one is in his association with others
or during events.

II. Agreeableness is described with traits such as soft hearted vs ruthless, trust worthy vs
suspicious, helping vs uncooperative. It matters a lot to determine whether the student
is soft hearted or ruthless in his dealings with others. Is he a trusting type or generally
a suspicious person? We need to know his position when it comes to whether he is
helpful or uncooperative in his behaviour.

III. Emotional Stability or Neuroticism is described by traits such as calm vs

anxiousness, secure vs unsecure. The emotional stability of an individual affects his
personality by determining whether he is calm or anxious in his approaches. It also
tells whether he considers himself as secure to perform or insecure to participate in
activities. And whether he is self-satisfied with his tasks or is self-pitying is also
indicated by his emotional stability.

IV. Openness to experience (intellect) is describe by traits such as imaginative vs

practical, preference for variety vs preference to routine, independent vs conforming.
The student’s imaginative power or his practicability is known by his openness to the
relevant experience. It indicates whether he is more interested in variety or in routine
and whether he is more independent in his dealings or simply conforming to others
instructions and suggestions.
V. Lastly, the factor of conscientiousness affects the personality of an individual by
helping to determine whether he is usually organized or disorganized, careful or
careless. It also suggests whether he is a disciplined individual or is normally given to
impulsive behaviour. Consciousness is described by traits such as well organised vs
disorganised and careful vs careless.

As it is noticed, there are lower levels of personality traits sub divided into the above five and
the more one diverts from the factor the worse their personality and the more one adapts to
one factor the best their personality.

D) 16 personality factors- Raymond Cattell.

Raymond Cattell constructed the wide used 16 personality factors to measure the strength of
the 16 dimensions in any normal adult individual. Raymond Cattell reduced the number of
main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by
eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics.

Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Then, using a
statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and
eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits. According to Cattell, these 16
traits are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely used
personality assessments known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

THREE-THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the
development of personality. Humanist theorists emphasized the concept of self-actualization,
which is an innate need for personal growth that motivates behavior. Humanist theorists
include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

A. Self-Actualization Theory (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs).

B. Self-Theory -- incongruence between the self and personal experience. Healthy people
have congruence between the self and the ideal self.

FOUR-THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

This approach rejects the importance of biological factors in favour of the environmental
forces. Instead of traits, behavioural approach proponents believe that behaviour is a function
of environmental factors and learning.

A. Operant Conditioning Theory -since operant conditioning was already discussed in an

earlier section, we won't go into much detail.

B.F. Skinner was a major proponent of this perspective and believed that what most people
referred to as personality was simply a person's distinct behaviour pattern that emerged in
specific situations. For example, you may think that your teacher is very timid and a straight
arrow because you see them only in a very specific situation (the classroom or in the school
setting). However, your teacher may behave very differently in another situation that
contradicts your perception of their "personality".

B. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura) - this perspective is quite similar to the
behavioural perspective, but here cognitive factors are also considered important in
determining behaviour (remember that cognitive factors are ignored in strict behavioural
theory). So, according to the Social Cognitive Perspective, the environment/learning and
cognition are the determining factors in behaviour. In addition, there are two important
concepts you need to be familiar with:

1) Reciprocal determinism -Bandura’s belief that personality traits, environmental factors,

and overt behaviour don't determine behaviour in isolation. Rather, these factors affect each
other to determine our behaviours. Reciprocal determinism also relies on a person's self-
efficacy.

2) Self - efficacy - a person’s belief that he or she can perform behaviours that is necessary to
produce a desired outcome. Self-efficacy influences what choices we make in different
situations, the situations we enter, and the outcomes. For example, do you think a person with
low self-efficacy would enter a situation in which they must perform a difficult task in front
of a large crowd of people?

C. Behavioural Assessment - to measure a person's personality, there are several tools

Psychologists with a behavioural perspective may use:

 Behavioural observation
 Experience sampling
 Situational interview
 Behavioural checklists
 Cognitive-Behavioural Assessment (Rotter’s Internal/External Locus of Control
Scale).

B. Analytic Psychology -Carl Jung

Unlike the Psychosexual approach, the analytic approach de-emphasizes the sex motive

 Personal Unconscious - the individuals own unconscious mind.

  Collective Unconscious - the unconscious mind that is shared by all human beings
and that contains archetypal images passed down from our prehistoric ancestors.
 Archetypes -inherited images which are passed down from our prehistoric ancestors
and reveal themselves as universal symbols in art, dreams, and religion.
 Extrovert - a person who tend to focus on the external world and people. People
often associate being socially outgoing with extroversion, but that is a little too
simplistic. Extroverts may be more outgoing in that they gain energy from the other
people and the external environment, and usually prefer to be with others.
 Introvert - a person who is focused on (often preoccupied) with his or her private
mental experiences, feelings, and thoughts.

FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Even though we are going to discuss the various theories of personality development, it is
necessary for us to examine those forces that influence personality development on a general
basis.

1. The Home: The child inherits some behavioural traits from his parents. Apart from this,
the parents are the first teachers of the child and he learns a lot from them. The care and
affection either materially or psychologically which the child enjoys helps him to have a
sense of security, trust, respect for authority and so on. A child who enjoys no love from his
parents is bound to develop hatred for others in his later life.

2. The School: The influence of the school in the personality development of the child is
tremendous. The teacher's behaviour, attitude and reaction to his colleagues and pupils go a
long way to influence the children's personality. Teachers should note that whatever they say
or do are in most cases emulated by the pupils. If the teacher is friendly, warm, considerate,
cooperative and well adjusted, his pupils will grow up to produce similar personality
characteristics.

3. Personal Experiences: Every child has his unique past experiences which might be
pleasurable or unpleasurable. If a child does not experience crises in the family like loss of
beloved ones, failures, frustrations, serious illness, he will grow up to be happy and this will
enhance a wealthy personality development. But for others who are less fortunate, their
personality development will be the negative side.
4. Cultural Influence: The moral and social values of a society also have strong influence on
the personality development of the child. A child who grows in a society which lays emphasis
on personal achievement tends to work hard without necessarily relying on others.

5. The Peer Group: The influence of the peer group becomes more dominant on the child
during the adolescent period. At that stage, parents' influence becomes very insignificant.

Each peer group has its own code of conduct which every member must respect. This is why
many parents become alarmed at the sudden changes in the behaviour of their children during
the adolescent stage. What is responsible in most cases is the influence of the peer group.

6. The Child's needs and motives: Every child has his own unique needs and motives and
efforts are usually made to meet such needs. A child who takes interest in the game of
football might later become a professional footballer. Our needs and motives which often
direct our behaviour also influence our personality either in the positive or negative way.

It is, therefore, the duty of teachers to assist his children develop positive goals and work
vigorously towards their achievement. Through an understanding of the physical, social, and
psychological needs of their children, teachers are in a position to assist in promoting healthy
personality development of their pupils.

However, based on the general assumption that personality refers to the peculiar thinking of
the individual, his emotions and behaviours in adapting to the world, some psychologists
proposed five major factors that make it up. These include emotional stability, extraversion
and openness to experience. The other two are agreeableness and conscientiousness. Apart
from these major factors, however, there are other equally important ones such as how
positive or negative and how self-assertive a student can be. By positive and negative, they
mean how joyous or happy and how angry or sad a student is respectively.

THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

PREAMBLE

What would you do?

You are in your final year at Evelyn Hone College. You are close to failing your Psychology

exam. You will pass the class if you do very well on your Psychology final exam. You are

looking through your Mr. Masuwa’s table for a stapler when you come across the final exam.

Do you take it?

Morality is based on a set of ideas or principles that help a person make a distinctions

between right and wrong and act on these distinctions. Having a common morality allows

people to live peacefully together. And moral standards vary across cultures.

Moral development -children’s reasoning about morality, their attitudes toward moral

lapses, and their behaviour when faced with moral issues.

Ideally, moral development involves children learning how to tell the difference between
right and wrong; to use this knowledge to arrive at appropriate decisions when faced with
complicated choices; and to have the strength and independence to act in accordance with
that right decision (to “do the right thing”) despite the fact that it may not be a convenient
thing to do. As with other components of development, morality is shaped by multiple
factors. Children’s interpersonal experiences with family, peers, and other adults, as well as
their maturing physical, cognitive, emotional and social skills combine to influence moral
development.

1. Piaget: Moral Development

Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist best known for his theory of cognitive development, also

proposed a theory of moral development in the early 1930s. It was influenced by his

cognitive theory and had the same basic format, being based on stages that children are

supposed to pass through at certain approximate ages.

The first stage is known as pre-moral judgement and lasts from birth until about five years of

age. In this stage, children simply do not understand the concept of rules and have no idea of

morality, internal or external.

This stage roughly coincides with the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages of Piaget's

cognitive theory and is related to them in the sense that since the child has a poor conception

of other people's consciousness (if at all), and is incapable of carrying out complex mental

operations, it is impossible for them to have a sense of morality.

Children’s understanding of right and wrong develops in line with their understanding of

other problems to be solved. Thus, thinking about right and wrong is related to sensory-

motor, pre-, concrete, and formal operational thinking.

Piaget hypothesized two stages of moral development

Heteronomous morality and Autonomous reality

Heteronomous Morality (Younger Children) – About 4 to 7 years

• Morality of constraint (moral realism)-Rules are sacred; consequences determine all

guilt.

 Based on relations of constraints

 Rules are seen as inflexible requirements (moral realism)

 Badness is judged in terms of the consequences of actions

 Punishment is seen as the automatic consequence of the violation of rules

Autonomous Morality (Older Children)- About 7 to Adolencence.

 Morality of cooperation (moral relativism)-Rules are flexible; intent is important

in determining guilt.
  Based on relations of cooperation among equals

 Rules are viewed as products of mutual agreement (rational moral attitudes)

 Badness is determined the person’s intentions

 Punishment should be affected by human intention

2. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a

psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg
began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago in
1958, and expanded and developed this theory throughout his life.

• Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

The first level of morality, pre-conventional morality, can be further divided into two
stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.

• Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation

Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of

punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the
rules. For example, we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.

• Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it
satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from
another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In
Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of
the serious need of the doer.

• Level 2: Conventional Morality

 The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development.
Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality
of an action.

• Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social
expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships”
phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she
thinks doing so means being nice.

• Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing
a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For
instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the
offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.

• Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned
with the universal principles that relate to the action done.

• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people
before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.

• Stage 6 : Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers
universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may
even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles
of justice.

Examples of applied moral dilemmas

• Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation.
During the roughly 45-minute tape recorded semi-structured interview, the
interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a
person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which
a person has to make a moral decision. The participant is asked a systemic series of
open-ended questions, like what they think the right course of action is, as well as
justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong. The form and structure of
these replies are scored and not the content; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an
overall score is derived.
• Heinz dilemma
• A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's dilemma:
Heinz Steals the Drug in Europe.
• A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the
doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same
town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium
and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz,
went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about
$ 1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I
discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate
and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.
• Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or
why not?
• From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the participant thinks that
Heinz should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the participant offers is
what is significant, the form of their response. Below are some of many examples of
possible arguments that belong to the six stages:
• Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because he would
consequently be put in prison, which would mean he is a bad person. Or: Heinz
should steal the medicine because it is only worth $200, not how much the druggist
wanted for it. Heinz had even offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else.
• Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much
happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz
 should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would probably
experience anguish over a jail cell more than his wife's death.
• Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it;
he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is
bad and he is not a criminal; he tried to do everything he could without breaking the
law, you cannot blame him.
• Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law
prohibits stealing, making it illegal. Or: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but
also take the prescribed punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what
he is owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law; actions have
consequences.
• Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a
right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine
because the scientist has a right to compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not
make his actions right.
• Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a
human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person. Or:
Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine just as
badly, and their lives are equally significant.

OTHER THEORIES:

URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S Ecological Systems Theory or Bio-Ecological Theory

The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a
child's development. Both the environment and biology influence the child's development.
The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.

Bio-Ecological Model

 The microsystem - activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings:

parents, school, friends, etc.
  The mesosystem - relationships among the entities involved in the child's
microsystem: parents' interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the
daycare provider

 The exosystem - social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work
settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community resources

 The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources

 The chronosystem - changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like
the birth of a sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.

1.Explain the theories of moral development.

2.Explain the relevance of rules in each and every society, including the education sector.

3.Explain with practical examples from the Zambian context, the ecological theory of
development.

References:

Best & W.Rabinowitz (Eds) Encyclrpeedia of Educational Research (5th ed) Vol 3.

Harighurst R.J (1972) Adolescent Character and Personality. New York: John Welly & New
York Freeman Press.

Hilgard, E.R., Atkison R.L., and Carison J.G (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.
Kakkar S.B (2012) Educational Psychology. New Deihi: PHI learning ltd.
Kohlberg. L. (1981). Essays on moral development. Vol.1, The Philosophy of Moral
Development. New York: Happer & Row.
Munsaka E. (2011). Mastering the Psychology of Teaching and Learning. Lusaka: UNZA
Press.
Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development From Conception to
Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Nixon D, Aldwinckle M (2003) Exploring: Child Development from three to six years (2nd
ed). Social Science Press, Katoomba.
Nixon D, Gould K (1999) Emerging: Child development in the first three years (2nd ed).
Social Science Press, Katoomba.

Osarenren N. (2001) Child Development and Personality Lagos: Hiwits

Slavin, R. E. (2003). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 7e. Boston, MA. Allyn
and Bacon.
UNIT 5. LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain language development.

 Explain the relationship between language and thought.
 Discuss various theories of language development.

Preamble
Zambia has about 72 languages dominated in different regions, as you travel from Lusaka to
Chama, you will notice that the Nyanja spoken in Lusaka and the surrounding places is not as
deep as the Nyanja spoken as you go deep East, later you will come across Chewa, Ngoni,
then Tumbuka etc. Imagine a world without language? Am sure it would be a strange and
weird world. Language has existed from time in memorial. In this component of human
development, we shall explore how we develop language.

It is a known and common phenomenon that infants begin making sounds at birth. They cry,
coo, and laugh, but in the first year they do not really do much talking. It could be argued that
they do communicate with others, but do not have language. Infants can distinguish many of
these sounds, some of them as early as 1 month after birth can discriminate sounds they have
never heard before such as phonemes from a foreign language.

What is language?
Think about your language, maybe you even speak more than one! What makes a language?
This is a broad concept. Well, language is a system that relates sounds or gestures to
meaning. Language is expressed through speech, writing and gesture. It is a commonly held
view that language evolved as a tool for communication.

Human language can be seen primarily as a socially, or culturally determined tool for
communication. Alternatively, language can be seen primarily as a cognitive mechanism for
structuring utterances and thoughts.

The precise form of language must be acquired through exposure to a speech community.
Words are definitely not inborn, but the capacity to acquire language and use it creatively
seems to be inborn. Chomsky calls this ability the LAD (Language Acquisition Device).
Children begin developing language at birth as they interact with their caregivers. This is
why, Children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are exposed to diverse
experiences; this diversity creates the concepts to which children attach symbols, or words.
Chewa children will speak and behave differently from Bemba or Lozi children.

Basic elements of language

i. Phonology refers to the sounds of a language.
ii. Semantics refers to words and their meaning.
iii. Grammar refers to the rules used to describe the structure of a language. This
involves syntax or rules that specify how words are combined to form sentences.
iv. Pragmatics refers to how people use language to communicate effectively.
v. Phonemes refer to the basic building blocks of language, the unique sounds that
can be joined to create words. For example, the sound of “p” in pen, pet, and pat,
or the sound of “b” in boat, bat, and bird.

The language environment for infants is not solely (only) auditory. Much language exposure
comes from face-to-face interaction with adults. Parents and adults help infants master
language sounds by talking in a distinctive style.
Infants use many tools to identity words in speech. They do not understand the meaning of
the word yet, but they can recognize a word as a distinct configuration of sounds.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Theories of language development and their respective perspectives will provide a deeper
understanding on how language is acquired. The perspectives will include the cognitive
approach, the social approach, the nativist approach, the behavioural approach, and the
interactivist approach.

Behavioural Perspective: BF Skinner, John Watson and Albert Bandura.

Skinner, Watson and Bandura belong to a group of theorists called the behaviourists. The
behaviourists have played an important role in our understanding of language development.
One main premise of behaviourism is that if behaviours are rewarded, they will be repeated,
but behaviours that are ignored or punished will decrease. For example, when a child says
Tata for the first time, we promptly get very excited and repeat the sounds to the child,
reinforcing the behaviour so the child is more likely to try to reproduce it.
Behaviourists focus on the process of how language is acquired. The emphasis is on
environmental factors of imitation, learning and conditioning. Skinner explains acquisition of
verbal behaviour. Verbal behaviours are learned under appropriate conditions of stimulation,
response, and reinforcement. He breaks verbal behaviour down into echoics, mands, and tacts
(Goldfield & Snow, 2005).

The environment plays a critical role in language development, for instance: a). the child’s
cultural and linguistic environment is a big influence upon language learning. b) Each child
has unique characteristics that she brings to the language learning situation.

Nativist Approach-Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky developed the nativist approach. Proponents of this approach believe that
children have innate abilities to learn language an in in-built language acquisition device (lad)
which is wired to help them learn language.

Chomsky argues that all children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). LAD
(language acquisition device) is an area of our brain which facilitates the development of
language. This is a specialized processor that is a physiological part of the brain. Children
have an innate capacity to acquire language.

Chomsky believes that the LAD facilitates language and enables children to derive the rules
of grammar from everyday speech, regardless of the native language. Language is
experience-expectant, words are expected by the developing brain-Chomsky believes that
children are pre-wired for language

Once they begin to hear language around them, nativists suggest that children are
programmed to understand the structure of that language. Nativist theory focuses on
biological dispositions, brain development and cognitive readiness. It emphasises the need for
language in the environment to stimulate children’s innate abilities.

The process of learning language and processing data is not a random phenomenon; human
beings are innately imbued with the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that other
mammal’s lack. While many animals are capable of communication, only the human can
adequately articulate his need through vocal representation (Munsaka & Mutafwali, 2013).
Cognitive development theory-Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget emphasizes cognition, or knowledge and mental processes. Language acquisition
is made possible by cognition and general intellectual processes. Cognitive abilities are
prerequisites to language skills. Language will not develop without cognitive abilities.

Attention to cognitive science has increased dramatically since the middle of the twentieth
century. While some mental processes are measurable, it is virtually impossible to adequately
establish what determines how an individual perceives, remembers, thinks, or solves
problems.
Cognitive psychology concerns how people perceive, understand, evaluate and think, it
argues that the mind is a processor of information we receive information through the senses,
we try to understand that information and its relation to us, and we transmit information to
others.
Thus, without cognition, full understanding and realization of mental processes is impossible.
Perception is influenced by emotion and cultural background. What appears one way to one
individual will vary greatly to the next.

Social Interactionism Theory- Lev Vygotsky

Interactionists see language development as a result of the interaction between both nature
and nurture (the environment and experiences of the child).

Language function, not structure, is emphasized. Language develops as a result of children’s

social interactions with the important people in their lives. Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):
language knowledge is acquired through social interaction with more competent and
experienced members of the child’s culture.

Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky identified four different stages of speech development.
Primitive speech stage Birth to 2 years- During this stage, the child is beginning to learn to
speak, mainly imitating words and naming objects, or responding emotionally (crying) or
socially (laughing).
Naïve psychological stage 2 to 4 years- The child in this stage is beginning to realise that
words are symbols for objects. They have a great curiosity as to what objects are called.
Egocentric or private speech stage 4 to 7 years- Children often talk aloud to themselves as
they perform tasks or solve problems in this stage of development. This private speech is the
child’s demonstration of their thinking.
In growth or inner speech stage 8 years on- During this stage children’s private speech
declines and becomes much more internalised. They solve problems in their head or using
inner speech, however people still use private speech when faced by complex problems.

MILESTONES IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language Stage Beginning Age
 Crying! Birth
 Cooing! 6 weeks
 Babbling! 6 months
 Intonation patterns! 8 months
 One-word utterances! 1 year
 Two-word utterances! 18 months
 Word inflections! 2 years
 Questions, negations! 2 1/4 years
 Rare and complex constructions! 5 years
 Mature speech! 10 years

Pre-Verbal Language Development

 Cooing: Non-linguistic. Exercising the articulatory apparatus. Imitation and the
beginning of turn-taking.
Babbling: here infants are clearly producing syllable like sounds. No meaning
attached to the babble. Syllables are often found in repetitive sequences (babababa).
Children clearly utilise their babling to tune their vocalisation to the sounds of the
local language. Babbling is part of the biologically determined maturation of
language abilities. Around 9-14 months infants restrict their babbling to native
language sounds (Hoff, 2004).
First words
 Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to understand words, and around that
birthday, they start to produce them. Words are usually produced in isolation; this
one-word stage can last from two months to a year.
 Children's first words are similar all over the planet. About half the words are for
objects: food (juice, cookie), body parts (eye, nose), clothing (diaper, sock), vehicles
(car, boat), toys (doll, block), household items (bottle, light), animals (doggie, kitty),
and people (mama, dada, baby).
 There are words for actions, motions, and routines, like (up, off, open, peekaboo, eat,
and go, and modifiers, like hot, all gone, more, dirty, and cold.

Lexical Development
 Children start producing their first words around 12 months.
 Words are used holophrastically: A word stands for an entire sentence.
 By 24 months they have an expressive vocabulary of between 50 to 600 words.
 Experience matters for vocabulary growth.
 Privileged children hear about 2,100 words/hour.
 Disadvantaged children hear only about 600 words/hour.

Syntactic Development
 18-24 Months: Two-word utterances
 95% of utterances: Correct word order.
 Telegraphic speech (few function words).
 How do children fit long thoughts into two word utterances?
 Children appear to use vertical constructions of utterances (Moskowitz, 1991).
 Breaking thoughts down into two-word utterances.
• Child: Tape recorder. Use it. Use it.
• Adult: Use it for what?
• Child: Talk. Recorder talk. Brenda talk.

Childish creativity
Despite the obvious impact the environment has on the choice and general direction of
mother-tongue learning, children are prone to come up with all kinds of words and
expressions which they have never heard in their environment.
Daughter: Somebody’s at the door.
Mother: There is nobody at the door.
Daughter: There is yes-body at the door.

If we can provide early intervention for children with language impairments

• We will prevent many future problems and help these children achieve their social,
academic, and professional potential.

Early Errors in Language

i. One common inaccuracy is underextension –using a word too narrowly.
 Using the word “cat” to refer only to the family cat.
 Using the word “ball” to refer only to a favourite toy ball.
Sarah refers to the blanket she sleeps with as “blankie”. When Aunt Ethel gives her a new
blanket Sarah refuses to call the new one a “blankie” – she restricts that word only to her
original blanket.
ii. Overextension
The use a given word in a broader context than is appropriate
Common between 1 and 3 years of age
More common than Under-extension
Toddlers will apply the new word to a group of similar experiences
“Open” – for opening a door, peeling fruit, or undoing shoelaces
iii. Over-regularization
These are speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were
regular e.g applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule. This leads young children
to talk about foots, tooths, sleeps, sheeps and mouses.
Although technically wrong, Over-regularization is a sign of verbal sophistication because it
shows children are applying the rules to grammar.
Children overextend because they have not acquired another suitable word or because they
have difficulty remembering a more suitable word.

Examples:
Ball referring to ball, balloon, marble, egg, or apple
Moon referring to moon, half-moon shaped lemon slice, or half a Cheerio
Car referring to a car, bus, truck, or tractor
  Daddy referring to dad or any man
 Doggie referring to dog or any four-legged animal.

Every human child has the biological ability to acquire language. Developmentally normal
children construct the grammar of his or her native language without the help of others.
However, two conditions exist in order for the child to perform: “(1) he must recognize the
physical and social events which are encoded in language and (2) he must be able to process,
organize, and store linguistic information” (Slobin, 2004)

In other words, the child must be able to comprehend both the meaning and the form of the
syllables in order to process them internally.
Spoken language can be broken down into phonology, syntax, semantics, morphology, and
pragmatics.

ACTIVITY
1.Explain the various theories of language development.
2.Explain the various stages of language development.

REFERENCES
Goldfield, B.A. & Snow. C.E. (2005). Individual Differences In Language Acquisition. In
J.B. Gleason (ed.), The Development of Language (6th ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Hilgard, E.R., Atkison R.L., and Carison J.G (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.
Hoff, E. (2004). Language Development(3rd). Belmont, C.A: Wadsworth,
Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development From Conception to
Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (1980). Social interaction and cognitive development in children.
London: Academic Press.

Santrock, J. (2001). Child Development(9th ed). Boston: McGraw hill.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Vander Zanden J.W (1980) Educational Psychology and Practice. New York: Random
House.
Woolfolk, A.E. (2003). Educational Psychology (9th ed). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
UNIT 6. LEARNING
Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define learning and related concepts.

 Explain the role of environment in learning.
 Discuss various theories of learning.

How did you know how to wear clothes? How did you know you are Zambian? How did you
know how to eat? How did you know how to walk, how did you start talking? How did you
make your friends? How did you change your childhood behaviour? How did you decide to
do ODL at Evelyn Hone College? How did you know the right from the wrong? Generally,
how did you begin to behave the way you do? The concept of learning will try to answer
these and related questions about humanity. And for teachers to be, this aspect of Psychology
is very cardinal.

Definitions of Learning:

 Any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by

experience.
 Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation (Skinner, 1960).
 Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behaviour through
self-activity (Leagans, 1961).
 Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience (Kolb, 1984).
 Van den Ban & Hawkins (1988) defined learning as the acquiring or improving the
ability to perform a behavioural pattern through experience and practice.
 Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience or practice (Weiss, 1990).
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from practice
(Atkinson et al, 1993).
 According to Woolfolk (1995), learning occurs when experience causes a relatively
permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behaviour.
Features of learning

Learning involves change: change may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable. The
change must be relatively permanent: temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to
represent any learning. Therefore, the requirement of learning is that it must be relatively
permanent, which rules out changes due to drugs, habituation, illness, fatigue, hunger, or
temporary adaptations. For example, a person who has gone without food for two days does
not learn to be hungry, and a person who is ill does not learn to run more slowly. Of course,
learning plays a part in how we respond to hunger or illness.

The change must be brought about by experience: The change may be deliberate or
unintentional, for better or for worse. To qualify as learning, this change must be brought
about by experience – by the interaction of a person with his or her environment. The
experience may be acquired directly through practice or indirectly, through reading or
observation. Change due to maturation, such as growing taller or turning grey, do not qualify
as learning.

Learning situation: An effective learning situation is one in which all the essential elements
for promoting learning; i.e., teacher, learner, subject matter, teaching materials and physical
facilities, relevant to a particular situation, are presented in a dynamic relationship with one
another

Learning experience: A learning experience is the mental and /or physical reaction one
makes through seeing, hearing, or doing the things to be learned, through which one gains
meaning and understanding of the material to be learned.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING-Ivan Pavlov, J.B Watson.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of
thought in psychology known as behaviourism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between
an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Let us take a journey through classical conditioning. It is the early 1900s, and you are
working as a technician in Russia in the laboratory of Ivan Pavlov. He has already won a
Nobel Prize for his studies on the reflexes involved in digestion. For example, he found that
when food is placed in a dog’s mouth, the food triggers the reflex of salivation.

As a lab technician, your task is to place various kinds of food in a dog’s mouth and measure
the amount of salivation. But soon you encounter a problem. After you have placed food in a
dog’s mouth on a number of occasions, the dog begins to salivate merely at the sight of the
food.
At first, Pavlov considered this sort of anticipatory salivation to be a bothersome problem.
Later, he reasoned that the dog’s salivation at the sight of food was also a reflex, but one that
the dog had somehow learned.

In a well-known experiment, Pavlov rang a bell before putting food in the dog’s mouth. After
a number of trials of hearing a bell paired with food, the dog salivated at the sound of the bell
alone, a phenomenon that Pavlov called a conditioned reflex and today is called classical
conditioning.

Behaviourism is based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the
environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes
behaviour and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into
consideration is useless in explaining behaviour.

It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a
naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was
the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By
associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of food),
the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be
familiar with the basic principles of the process.

The Classical Conditioning Process

Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two stimuli

resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process:
Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically
elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally
occurring stimulus. During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (USC)
results in an unconditioned response (UCR). At this point there is also a neutral stimulus that
produces no effect - yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will
come to evoke a response.

 The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favourite foods, you
may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the
unconditioned stimulus.
 The Unconditioned Response (UCR).
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus
is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an
association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point the
neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

 The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming

associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favourite food,
you also heard the sound of a drum. While the drum is unrelated to the smell of the
food, if the sound of the drum was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound
would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the drum
is the conditioned stimulus.
Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned
stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).

 The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In
our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the
sound of the drum.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates
both in experimental and real-worlds settings:

A Fear Response

One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson's experiment
in which a fear response was conditioned in a young boy known as Little Albert. The child
initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the presentation of the rat was paired
repeatedly with loud, scary sounds, the child would cry when the rat was present. The child's
fear also generalized to other fuzzy white objects. He even feared his father’s beards and
mum’s woollen coat.

Let's examine the elements of this classic experiment. Prior to the conditioning, the white rat
was a neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was the loud, clanging sounds and the
unconditioned response was the fear response created by the noise. By repeatedly pairing the
rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus) came to
evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).

This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many
cases, a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience
(being bitten by the dog) can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).
Classical Conditioning in the Real World

In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous
real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use
classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.

These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. Teachers
are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking
situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student
learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will
learn to stay relaxed and calm.

OPERANT CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT- BF Skinner

Definition - Type of learning in which the consequences of behaviour influence whether the
organism will act in the same way in the future - the animal learns the relationship between
his own behaviour and a reinforcing or punishing stimulus.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an

individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior may change in form,
frequency, or strength. Operant conditioning is a term that was coined by B.F Skinner in 1937
in an experiment on a rat in his skinner box.

The word operant can be described as, "an item of behavior that is initially spontaneous,
rather than a response to a prior stimulus, but whose consequences may reinforce or inhibit
recurrence of that behavior".

REINFORNCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT

Reinforcement - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and increases
the probability of a response.

Punishment - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and decreases the

probability of a response.

Reinforcement Punishment
 
(behaviour increases) (behaviour decreases)
Positive
Positive Positive Punishment
Reinforcement:
(something Something added decreases
Something added
added) behaviour
increases behaviour
Negative
Negative Negative Punishment
Reinforcement
(something Something removed
Something removed
removed) decreases behaviour
increases behaviour

The ABCs of Behaviour (Functional Analysis) of learning.

A = Antecedent - Stimuli happening before the behaviour such as instructions or gestures.

B = Behaviour - This is simply the act itself, the individual's response.

C = Consequence - This is the event that follows the behaviour.

Example - A = A teacher asks Mubanga to answer a question. B = Mubanga answers the

question. C = the teacher tells Mubanga that he did well (reinforcement).

Four ways to administer contingent consequences:

Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive
refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction.

1. Positive stimulus presented (positive reinforcement) occurs when a behavior (response) is

followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that
behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be
delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever- presentation of a
stimulus increases the probability of a response. Example (give a present for passing exam)

2. positive stimulus removed (response-cost) - Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called

"Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by
the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior,
resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Should produce a suppression of the behaviour, for
example revoke drivers licence from careless driver.

3. Negative stimulus presented (punishment) - Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called

"Punishment by contingent stimulation"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a
stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. It
decreases the probability of the behaviour, example (spanking).

4. Negative stimulus removed (negative reinforcement) Negative reinforcement (Escape):

occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus,
thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative
reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages
in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed-
Results in increase in probability of behaviour. Example (kid wants a cookie, he cries until
mother gives him one, mother's cookie giving behaviour removes negative stimulus, crying,
more likely to give cookie again to escape from crying - child however was positively
reinforced for crying).

Reinforcement

1. Primary Reinforcement -A stimulus that does not require an organism to learn its
reinforcing qualities, for examples (food, water, sex).

2. Secondary Reinforcement -A neutral stimulus that, through constant association with

primary reinforcers, acquires its own reinforcing qualities. For examples (money, grades).

3. Extinction - When we withhold a reinforcer than you should have extinction of the
behaviour it was reinforcing. Hope not always the case - when have added behaviour through
reinforcement, hope other things will have taken over reinforcing properties or it has become
intrinsically reinforcing.
3. Bribery vs. Reinforcement - some say reinforcing someone for acting the way they should
is Bribery but offering incentives is not necessary Bribery. Is a salary for working Bribery?

Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Reinforcement

When using consequences to modify a response, the effectiveness of a consequence can be

increased or decreased by various factors. These factors can apply to either reinforcing or
punishing consequences.

 Immediacy of Reinforcement - The greater the delay in administering the reinforcer

the less the effect. After a response, how immediately a consequence is then felt
determines the effectiveness of the consequence. More immediate feedback will be
more effective than less immediate feedback. If someone's license plate is caught by a
traffic camera for speeding and they receive a speeding ticket in the mail a week later,
this consequence will not be very effective against speeding. But if someone is
speeding and is caught in the act by an officer who pulls them over, then their
speeding behavior is more likely to be affected.
 Verbalization - It helps verbalizing the connection between the behaviour and the
reinforcement to strengthen the connection.
 Shaping - If behaviour not in repertoire you will never have the opportunity to
reinforce it. To get it in repertoire you reinforce successive approximations of
behaviour. Example: Nonverbal child getting them to ask for things instead of
grabbing - first, grunting and pointing, then attempting to say cookie, then saying
cookie, then cookie please, then may I have a cookie?
 Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a consequence will be reduced if the
individual's "appetite" for that source of stimulation has been satisfied. Inversely, the
effectiveness of a consequence will increase as the individual becomes deprived of
that stimulus. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for
behavior. Satiation is generally only a potential problem with primary reinforcers,
those that do not need to be learned such as food and water.
 Contingency: If a consequence does not contingently (reliably, or consistently)
follow the target response, its effectiveness upon the response is reduced. But if a
consequence follows the response consistently after successive instances, its ability to
modify the response is increased. The schedule of reinforcement, when consistent,
leads to faster learning. When the schedule is variable the learning is slower.
  Size: This is a "cost-benefit" determinant of whether a consequence will be effective.
If the size, or amount, of the consequence is large enough to be worth the effort, the
consequence will be more effective upon the behaviour. For example, the best pupil at
Canisius High School, receiving a scholarship award, than just mere clapping for him.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

i. Continuous vs. Partial Schedules

Continuous - A reward is given every single time the response is elicited. Generally used
only to establish behaviour, it is easy to extinguish.

Partial - The subject is only occasionally rewarded for the proper response, more resistant to
extinction.

ii. Partial Schedules Either Ratio or Interval

Ratio - Based on the number of correct responses the organism makes between
reinforcements.

Interval - Based on the amount of time that has elapsed between reinforcements.

iii. Fixed or Variable Schedules

Fixed - regular schedule

Variable - irregular schedule

iv. Four Possible Partial Schedules

 Fixed-Ratio - Reinforcement depends on a certain amount of behaviour being emitted,

for example every fifth response is reinforced. For example a typist who gets paid
after a certain number of pages is typed. Pattern - people generally work hard on FR
schedules, pausing briefly after each reward. Problem - if the amount of work
responses required before the next reward is large you will likely see low morale and
few responses at the beginning of each cycle.
 Variable-Ratio - The number of required responses varies around some average. For
example a Salesman who sells something to the second customer, then to the sixth,
the eighth, etc. also gambler at a slot machine, the faster he puts money in machine
 the faster he will hit jackpot. People tend to work at a high steady rate. No delay
because reinforcement may come on next response.
 Fixed-Interval - Reinforcement is given at a predetermined time no matter how many
responses have been emitted. For example not many naturally occurring examples but
studying just before a test may be one.
 Variable-Interval - The time a reinforcer will be available varies around some average
time. Example, dialling a phone number when the line is busy, will get through but
don't know when.

COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioural
Psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. In order to
understand how each of these behaviour modification techniques can be used, it is also
essential to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one
another.

How Classical Conditioning Works

Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about Pavlov's
dogs. In his famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a
tone after the sound had been repeatedly paired with the presentation of food. Pavlov quickly
realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning
process.
Classical conditioning involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a
bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food). This unconditioned stimulus
naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as
the unconditioned response.

After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell
alone will start to evoke salivating as a response. The sound of the bell is now known as the
conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned
response.

The Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant
conditioning is to focus on whether the behaviour is involuntary or voluntary. Classical
conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus,
while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behaviour and
a consequence.

In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical
conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is
passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively
participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by
teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers and many others. In animal training, a trainer
might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste
of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response
that the taste of food would.

In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as

rewards for good behaviour. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of
reward such as treat or extra play time.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY-Albert Bandura

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most
influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of
traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for
all types of learning.

While the behavioural theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of
associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social
learning theory proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the actions of
others.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and
behaviours by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modelling), this
type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.
Bandura explained that learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory:

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate
behaviours they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed
an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in
a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out

behaviour.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of
behaviour.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours
in books, films, television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to
influence learning and behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal
reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal
thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.
While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioural theories, Bandura
himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour.

While behaviourists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behaviour,

observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviours.

The Modelling Process

Not all observed behaviours are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the
learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and
steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning
and modelling process:

 Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model
interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to
dedicate your full attention to learning.
 Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information
later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

 Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned
behaviour leads to improvement and skill advancement.

 Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated
to imitate the behaviour that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment
play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be
highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or
 punishment? For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for
being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had
important implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize
the importance of modelling appropriate behaviours. Other classroom strategies such as
encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

 Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response

after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
 Extinction A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously
conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
 Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring
about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response
 Conditioned Response (CR)- A response that, after conditioning, follows a
previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)- A response that is natural and needs no training
(e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular
response without having been learned.
 Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently
distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does
not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
 Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that
is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the more similar the two stimuli are,
the more likely generalization is to occur.
  Neutral Stimulus-A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about
the response of interest
 Observational learning- Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or
model.
 Shaping-The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior.
 Punishment-A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will
occur again.
 Negative Reinforcer An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in
the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
 Schedules of Reinforcement Different patterns of frequency and timing of
reinforcement following desired behavior.
 Operant Conditioning Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or
weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
 Variable-interval schedule A schedule by which the time between reinforcements
varies around some average rather than being fixed.
 Variable-ratio Schedule A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying
number of responses rather than a fixed number.
 Reinforcement The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated.
 Reinforcer Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will
occur again.
 Fixed-interval Schedule A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only
if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
 Fixed-ratio Schedule A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a
specific number of responses are made.

THORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNING:

 Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of
Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused
through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If
one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example,
unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much
progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

 Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that practice helps in
increasing efficiency and durability of learning, The ‘law of exercise’ is also understood as
the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are
weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning.
Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical
table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many
times.

 Law of Effect:-

The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, that if the responses satisfy the subject, they are learnt
and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must
be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words,
greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important
condition of ‘law of effect’.

ACTIVITY

1.Define learning.

2.Explain with examples the reinforcement schedule.

3. Distinguish punishment from reinforcement.

4. Show the relevance of awards day in secondary schools.

5. Show the application of Classical Conditioning in secondary schools.

REFERENCES

Fontana, D. (1988). Psychology for teachers. London : mellen.

Hebb, DO (1949) The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York:
John Wiley

Hilgard, E.R., Atkison R.L., and Carison J.G (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.
Hull, CL (1943) Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Kakkar S.B (2012) Educational Psychology. New Deihi: PHI learning ltd.
Kandel, ER and JH Schwartz (1982) Molecular biology of learning: Modulation of
transmitter release. Science 218:433-443

Kandel, ER, JH Schwartz and TM Jessell (2000) Principles of Neural Science. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Kimble, GA (1961) Hilgard and Marquis’ Conditioning and Learning. 2nd Edition. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Melintosh, D.M (1976) Statistics for the teacher. Oxford : pegman press.
Munsaka E. (2011). Mastering the Psychology of Teaching and Learning. Lusaka: UNZA
Press.
Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development From Conception to
Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (1980). Social interaction and cognitive development in children.
London:Academic Press.
Psychologist, 30, 42–49.
Sadler. T. W. (2004). Longman’ Medical Embryology (9th ed). Philadelphia: Lippincott,
Willians, and Wilkins.
Santrock, J. (2001). Child Development(9th ed). Boston: McGraw hill.
Skinner, B. F. (1975). The steep and thorny road to a science of behavior. American
Vander Zanden J.W (1980) Educational Psychology and Practice. New York: Random
House.
Woolfolk, A.E. (2003). Educational Psychology (9th ed). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
UNIT 7. MEMORY

OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define memory and related concepts.

 Explain the types and processes of memory.
 Discuss forgetting and remembering.
 Explain the cues to improving memory.
 Relate memory to learning.

PREAMBLE

Take a minute to imagine life without memory! Am sure it has not been easy, if you are like
me, you might have been tempted to bring forth old memories. As I tried to imagine life
without memory, oooh! I was taken back to as far as my secondary days at Canisius High
School-a wonderful Catholic Boarding School, chatting with friends at the hostels awaiting
lunch shortly after an interesting argumentative class, telling adolescence stories, enjoying
the lessons with our Chinese-American Math teacher, Fr. Hidaka, cerebrating awards day, a
moment when great achievers were recognised, and when new prefects were unveiled,
playing soccer in the dormitory lawns…It was a lovely memory journey.

Interesting quotes:

 “Memory can change the shape of a room, it can change the colour of a car”.
 ‘’God gave us memories that we might have roses in December-J.M Barrie.
 “Memory is the cabinet of the imagination, the treasury of reason, the registry of
conscience, and the council chamber of thought”- St. Basile.

Without memory we would be unable to acquire skills, learn languages or remember faces.
Other functions such as thinking, learning, social interactions are dependent upon memory.
Retention of information over time and ability to recall events, places, faces and other
information is a vital cognitive function that is essential for everyday life and our survival.
Definition of memory : Persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of
information, as Any relatively lasting storage of information in the brain, which is currently
hypothesized to involve processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of the information, the
ability to remember information.

TERMINOLOGIES

 Mnemonic devices-unusual associations made to material to aid memory.

 Recall-measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned
earlier.
-as on a fill-in-the blank test
 Recognition-Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items
previously learned.
-as on a multiple-choice test

TYPES OF MEMORY

Types of memory are arranged according to its possible adaptive functions: spatial ability,
physical properties of the world, social relationships, social values, motor skills, perceptual
skills.

SENSORY MEMORY- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the

memory system.

 Iconic or Eidetic- visual temporal memory, about 1 – 10 seconds.

 -Echoic or Acoustic-auditory memory, about 4 – 10 seconds.

SHORT TERM MEMORY

-activated memory.

-duration: 20-30 seconds

-capacity: 7+2 items.

LONG TERM MEMORY

“Describe a memory that has had a lasting effect on you” “describe your earliest memory-was
it based on dream or a story”
LTM is dynamic, constantly being modified, revised and reconstructed in the light of new
information and experiences.

MEMORY PROCESSING

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

ENCODING → STORAGE → RETRIEVAL

Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system, i.e., extracting meaning

The common forms of encoding are:

 Visual representations
 Acoustic representations (speech, sound, music
 Motor representation
 Sensory representation

Storage: the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval: process of getting information out of memory

EXPLICIT VERSUS IMPLICIT MEMORY

Explicit- it is Declarative, it holds LTM knowledge that can be retrieved and then reflected
on consciously. It refers to recollection of skills and abilities that have been acquired
previously. Non declarative memory does not involve conscious recollection of previous
experience. Not considered as a system but a collection of memory for a variety of tasks,
more enduring than declarative memory.

 Episodic (Autobiographical)-Stores personally experienced events–(e.g. your 15th

birthday)
 Flashbulb Memories–Vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an
emotion provoking event.
 Semantic »Stores general world knowledge–(e.g., concepts, categories, facts)
Implicit- it is Non-declarative and Procedural, it holds Knowledge that can influence
thought and behaviour without any necessary involvement of conscious awareness.

Procedural memory- Memory for motor, perceptual and intuitive cognitive skills, it applies
more on knowing how, rather than knowing that. It also involves Conditioning and Priming.
Further it promotes the enhancement of the efficiency of identification through previous
experience.

RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM MEMORY

 Retrieval Cues »Stimuli that are associated with information stored in memory and
aid in recall when recall is not spontaneous
 Context-Dependant Recall »Material learned in one environment or context is easier
to remember in a similar environment or context
 State-Dependent Recall »It is often easier to recall material stored in LTM when our
internal state is similar to that which existed when the information was first entered
into memory

Levels of Processing

 Shallow Processing »Verbally repeating a word

 Medium Processing »Do words rhyme?
 Deep Processing »Semantic

FORGETTING

Loss of information previously stored in the long term memory, it is part of our day to day
living.

 Retrieval Failure-When a memory is lost in the system versus lost from the system.
It occurs when the information is available, but not accessible.

The memory was encoded and stored, but sometimes you just cannot access the memory.
  Memory Decay–Loss of a memory trace due simply to the passage of time
 Primacy Effect » it is more effective for the first items in a list.
 Recency Effect » it is more effective for the last items in a list.
 Interference –Loss of a memory trace due to competition from other events.
i. Retroactive Interference »New info interferes with old info (e.g., a busy
signal erases memory of a phone number).
ii. Proactive Interference »Old info interferes with new info (e.g., walking
today to where you parked your car yesterday).

Variables attributed to interference:

 meaningfulness of material.
 similarity of material.
 time between learning and recall.

 Motivated forgetting (knowingly).

 Repression (unknowingly).
 Tip of the Tongue States »When a person is temporarily unable to remember some
shred of information that they know is stored in LTM
REMEMBERING-memory cues:

 Rehearsal.
Information is held in the STM by the process of rehearsal (repetition of items in
one’s mind and sometimes verbal repetition -maintenance rehearsal).
Rehearsal involving more extensive understanding of the meaning of the material is
called elaborative rehearsal (process involving LTM).
 Chunking. Putting items in chunks.
Ebbinghaus- used nonsense syllables e.g: FBI PHD PF WHO UN EHC MOH,
ODL.
 Imagery. Attaching events and objects to images, e.g attaching Zambian colours to
patriotisms, wearing the jerseys not only when Chipolopolo is playing, but also on
independence day and national mourning.
 Mnemonic techniques.
-memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational
devices
 Deja Vu (French -meaning already seen) cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this
before."
 Mood-congruent-Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.
 State-dependent Memory: what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state.

COMMON MEMORY DISORDERS:

Amnesia (maybe caused by damage to the limbic system): A partial or total loss of memory,
either temporarily or permanently.

 Retrograde amnesia: the total or partial loss of memory for past events
 Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new long term memories.

Alzheimer’s disease: A progressive form of dementia that usually starts in the 40s or 50s.
It only affects the elderly folk, due to the wearing out or damage of brain tissues. It is
characterised by impaired memory, impaired thought and speech, finally complete
helplessness

IMPROVING MEMORY

 Learn from general to specific

 Before learning something new, get a general overview to use as a framework on
which to hang specific details
 Relevance of the information
 Use associations
 Relate what you’re learning to something that you already know
 Learn actively (Manipulate or change the information in some way by creating a
mind map, diagram, pictures, or note cards)
 Always put information that you’re trying to learn into your own words
 Reduce distractions
 Monitor what you’ve learned
 Check yourself to make sure that you’re learning
 Check your attitude and anxiety
 Distribute learning
 Try to remember something that is related to the forgotten experience or what you
were doing at the time that you learned it.
 Do not learn similar topics at the same time to avoid confusion
 Use songs to help you remember
 Use acronyms
 Avoid learning material in the same sequence
 Organise items in groups for easy recall e.g:

Hopkins Verbal Learning Test:

Lion Cave Lead Tiger Zinc Cow Hut Copper Horse Tent Iron Hotel

Animals: Lion Horse Tiger Cow .Metals:Copper Iron Lead Zinc

Shelter: Tent Hotel Cave Hut

LEARNING & MEMORY

Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the acquisition of skill or
knowledge, while memory is the expression of what you’ve acquired. Another difference is
the speed with which the two things happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge
slowly and laboriously, that’s learning. If acquisition occurs instantly, that’s making a
memory.

ACTIVITY: 1. Define memory in your own words.

2. With situational example, practice some memory cues.

3. Show with examples the relationship between learning and memory.

REFERENCES.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and
motivation:Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 80–195). New York: Academic
Press

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control of short-term memory. Scientific
American, 225, 82–90.
Cole.
Dudai, Y (1989) The Neurobiology of Memory: Concepts, Findings, Trends. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Kakkar S.B (2012) Educational Psychology. New Deihi: PHI learning ltd.
Kandel, ER and JH Schwartz (1982) Molecular biology of learning: Modulation of
transmitter release. Science 218:433-443

Munsaka E. (2011). Mastering the Psychology of Teaching and Learning. Lusaka: UNZA
Press.
Munsaka, E., and Mutafwali, B. (2013). Human Development From Conception to
Adolescence. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
Nicoll, RA, JA Kauer and RC Malenka (1988) The current excitement in long-term
potentiation. Neuron 1:97-103.

Reed, S. K. (1996). Cognition: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/
Selkoe, D. J. (2002). Alzheimer’s disease is a synaptic failure. Science, 298, 789–791.

END OF MODULE

THERE’S NO ELEPHANT THAT FINDS ITS TRUNK TOO HEAVY: GOOD LUCKY.