EEE101-UNIT4

EEE101-Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

UNIT – 4

Power Semiconductor Devices

1. PN Junction diode

2. Zener diode

3. Bipolar Junction Transistors - BJTs

4. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors - MOSFETs

5. Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistors - IGBTs

 Power Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor theory

Introduction:

Depending on their conductivity, materials can be classified into three types as conductors,
semiconductors and insulators. Conductor is a good conductor of electricity. Insulator is a poor
conductor of electricity. Semiconductor has its conductivity lying between these two extremes. A
comparatively smaller electric field is required to push the electrons to make it conduct. At low
temperature virtually semiconductor behaves as an insulator. However at room temperature some
electrons move giving conductivity to the semiconductor. AS temperature increases its conductivity
increases hence it has negative temperature co-efficient.

Classification:

Intrinsic semiconductor: A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor where even at room
temperature electron-hole pairs are created. Under the influence of electric field, total current through
the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free electrons and holes.

Extrinsic semiconductor: Current conduction is increased by adding a small amount of impurity to

intrinsic semiconductors, so it becomes extrinsic semiconductors
PN Junction Diode
In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by P-type and the other half is doped by N-
type impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN junction.
The N-type has high concentration of free electrons while P-type has high concentration of holes.
Therefore at the junction there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse over to the P-side and
holes to the N-side (process called diffusion). The net opposite charge in each layer prevents further
diffusion into that layer. Thus a barrier is set up near the junction which prevents further movement of
charge carriers. This is called as potential barrier (0.3V or germanium and 0.7 for silicon).

Under forward bias condition:

When positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminal to the N-type of the
PN junction diode, the bias applied is known as forward bias.

The applied positive potential repels the holes in the P-type region so that the holes move towards the
junction and the applied negative potential repels the electrons in the N-type region and the electrons
move towards the junction(When applied voltage VF is less than V0) and hence the forward current IF is
almost zero. Eventually when the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the
barrier will disappear and hence the holes cross the junction from P-type to N-type and the electrons
crss the junction in the opposite direction resulting in relatively large current flow in the external circuit.
A
A
P

N RL
V RL V
C
C
Forward bias Reverse bias

IF(mA)
Reverse bias Forward bias
region region

VR VF
Knee voltage or
Reverse cut-in voltage
Breakdown
voltage IR(μA)
Under reverse bias condition:

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and positive terminal is connected
to N-type of the PN junction, the bias applied is known as reverse bias.

Under this condition, holes form the majority carriers of P-side move towards the negative terminal of
the battery and electrons which form the majority carriers of the N-side are attracted towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Hence the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile
carriers increases. Thus the electric filed produced by applied reverse bias is in the same direction of
electric field and hence the barrier is increased. Therefore, theoretically no current should flow in the
external circuit. But in practice very small reverse current in the order of microamperes flows under
bias. This current is called as reverse saturation current. The magnitude of reverse saturation current
mainly depends upon junction temperature because the major source of minority carriers is thermally
broken covalent bonds.

For large reverse bias is applied, the free electrons from the N-type moving towards the positive
terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valence
electrons from semiconductor atom in the crystal. Thus large number of free electrons are formed
which is commonly called as avalanche of free electrons. This leads to the breakdown of junction
leading to very large reverse current. The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown is known as
breakdown voltage.
Zener diode
When reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in a PN diode, the current through the junction and
power dissipated at the junction will be high. Such an operation is destructive and the diode gets
damaged. However, diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation capability to operate in
the breakdown region. One such diode is Zener diode which is heavily doped than the ordinary diode.

The forward bias condition is same as the ordinary PN diode, but under reverse bias condition,
breakdown of the junction occurs and the breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If
the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently breakdown occurs at lower
reverse voltage, besides the breakdown voltage being sharp. Thus the breakdown voltage can be
selected with the amount of doping. When the reverse bias field across the junction is sufficiently high,
it may exert a strong force on bound electrons to tear them out from a covalent bond. Thus a large
number of electron – hole pairs will be generated through a direct rupture of the covalent bond thereby
resulting in large reverse current at the breakdown voltage. Though Zener breakdown occurs for lower
breakdown voltage and avalanche breakdown occurs for higher breakdown voltage, such diodes are
normally called Zener diode

A
IF
VZ RL Vo (mA)
V
C
VZ

VR VF
Reverse
Reverse bias
Breakdown I (μA)
region R
voltage

Application

From the zener diode characteristics, under the reverse bias condition, the voltage across the diode
remains almost constant although the current through the diode increases. Thus the voltage across the
zener diode serves as a reference voltage. Hence the diode can be used as a voltage regulator.

The arrangement shown is useful when it is required to provide a constant voltage across a load
resistance RL where as the input voltage may be varying over a range. As shown, the zener diode is
reverse biased and as long as the input voltage does not fall below Vz, the voltage across the diode will
be constant and hence the load voltage will also be constant.
Power Transistors
The transistors which are used as switching elements are operated in the saturation region resulting in a
low on – state voltage drop. The switching speed of modern transistors is much high. They are
extensively employed in dc – dc and dc – ac converters with inverse parallel-connected diodes to
provide bidirectional current flow. Transistors are normally used in low to medium power applications.
The power transistors can be classified broadly into five categories

1. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

2. Metal oxide semiconductor field – effect transistor (MOSFET)

3. Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)

4. Static induction transistor (SIT)

5. COOLMOS

We will see the first three in brief

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A bipolar transistor is formed by adding a second p or n region to a pn junction diode. With two n
regions and one p region, two junctions are formed and it is known as an NPN-transistor. With two p
regions and one n region, it is called as PNP-transistor. The three terminals are named as collector,
emitter and base. A bipolar transistor has two junctions, collector-base junction(CBJ) and base-emitter
junction(BEJ).

For an NPN –type, the emitter side n – layer is made wide, the p – base is narrow and the collector side
n – layer is narrow and heavily doped. For a PNP – type, the emitter side p – layer is made wide, the n –
base is narrow, and the collector side p – layer is narrow and heavily doped.

Collector Collector
C C
iC iC
n
p
iB
iB
Base p Base n
B iE B iE
n p

E E
Emitter Emitter

(a) NPN Transistor (b) PNP Transistor

The transfer characteristics of a transistor is as shown There are three operating regions of a transistor:
cutoff, active and saturation.

Active
IC VCE
RC Saturation
VCC
VCE
+ Cutoff
RB IB VCE
–
+
VB VBE IE
–
IB
In the cut-off region, the transistor is off or the base current is not enough to turn it on and both
junctions are reverse biased

In the active region, the transistor acts as an amplifier, where the base current is amplified by a gain and
the collector – emitter voltage decreases with base current. The CBJ is reverse biased and the BEJ is
forward biased.

In the saturation region, the based current is sufficiently high so that the collector – emitter voltage is
low, and the transistor acts as a switch. Both the junctions are forward biased.

Applying Kirchhoff’s law we get

i E = iC + i B

(This equation is true regardless of the bias conditions of the junctions)

We define the parameter α as the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current

iC
α= or i E α = iC
iE

Value of α ranges from 0.9 to 0.999.

Combining the above equations we get

i B = (1 − α )i E

We define another parameter β as the ratio of the collector current to the base current.

iC α
β= =
iB 1−α

Value of β ranges from 10 to 1000. We can also rewrite the above equation as
iC = β i B

Note that since β is usually very large compared to unity, the collector current is an amplified version of
the base current.

The input and output characteristics of transistor is as shown

Active IBn
IB IC region
VCE1 VcE2
Satura- IB2 IBn>IB1> IB0
VCE2> VCE1
tion
IB1
region
IB0=0
Cutoff region
VBE VCE
(a) Input characteristics (b) Output Characteristics
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or Insulated Gate
Field Effect Transistor)
The MOSFET is a voltage controlled device that works on the depletion capacitor concept. In this a layer
of silicon dioxide is grown on the surface, which act as a dielectric media between gate and the channel.
Based on the channel created between the, the MOSFET is broadly divided as shown.
MOSFET

Depletion Enhancement
type type

P - Channel N - Channel P - Channel N - Channel

It has got three terminals, Gate, Drain and source

N-channel MOSFET consists of highly doped ‘P’ type substrate into which two highly doped N regions are
diffused. These ‘N’ regions act as source and drain. A thin layer of insulating silicon dioxide (SiO2) is
grown over the surface of structure and free electrons are cut into the oxide layer, allowing to move
between source and drain Source Gate
Drain
Aluminium layer
++++++
----------- --
Silicon layer
n+ n+

P - Substrate Induced n-channel

The metal area is overlaid on the entire oxide layer and metal contacts are made to source and drain.
The SiO2 layer insulates the gate from the channel due to which a negligible gate current flows even if
the biasing is applied to gate. So no PN junction is existing in MOSFET and hence known as Insulated
Gate Field Effect Transistor.

Depletion Type:

The depletion type MOSFET can be operated in two different modes: a. depletion mode b.
enhancement mode
D
Circuit symbol and Circuit SiO2
Layer N
Drain Drain G
P
Substrate Substrate VDS
Gate Gate
Source Source VGS

P - Channel S
N - Channel

The device operates in this depletion mode, when the gate voltage is negative.
When VGS = 0, a significant current flows for a given VDS

When negative voltage is applied to gate, electrons accumulate on it. If one plate of capacitor (gate) is
negatively charged, induces a positive charge on the other plate. Because of this, free electrons in
vicinity of positive charge area repelled away in the channel

As a result of this, the channel is depleted of free electrons passing through the channel thus the
conduction between source to drain is reduced. Thus as the value of VGs is increased, the value of ID
decreases

The device operated in enhancement mode when the gate voltage is positive

When VGS > 0, the positive gate voltage increases the number of free electrons passing through the
channel. The greater the gate voltage, the greater is the number of free electrons passing through the
channel. This increases ie. Enhances the conduction of channel, this positive gate voltage operation of
MOSFET is called enhancement mode of MOSFET

Drain Characteristics of Depletion type MOSFET Depletion Enhance-

mode ment mode
VGS= 1V Enhance- ID(mA) C
ID(mA)
VGS= 0V ment mode
IDSS
VGS= –1V Depletion B
VGS= –2V mode VGS(OFF) VGS(V)
VDS(V)
A
Drain Characteristics Transfer Characteristics
When VDS = 0, no conduction takes place between source to drain. If VGS < 0, and VDS > 0, then drain
current increases upto a point of time when the drain current reaches saturation called pinch off point.
If VDS is increases above this, ID remains constant. For further increase in VDS, avalanche breakdown
occurs in pinch off region and the Drain current increases rapidly

When VGS > 0, the gate induces more electrons in channel side, it is added with the free electron
generated by source. Again the potential applied to gate determines the channel width and maintains
constant current flow in pinch off region as shown

Transfer Characteristics of Depletion type MOSFET

If VGS = 0, the device has a drain current equal to IDSS. Due to this fact only it is called normally – ON
MOSFET

In depletion mode, when VGS = 0, maximum current will flow between source to drain thus ID = IDSS.

When VGS is increased in negative side, after a certain extend the positive charges induced by gate
completely depletes the channel thus no drain current flows(point A)
 In enhancement mode when VGS is increased in positive side, more free electrons are induced in
channel, thus it enhances the electron resulting in increase of ID

Enhancement Type: D
SiO2
Layer N
Circuit symbol and Circuit
Drain Drain G P
VDS
Substrate Substrate
Gate Gate N
Source Source VGS
S
N – Channel P – Channel

The device operates in this mode, when the gate voltage is positive. The enhancement type MOSFET
has no depletion mode and it operates only in enhancement mode. If differs in construction from the
depletion mode MOSFET in the sense that it has no physical channel. It may be noted that the P type
substrate extends the silicon dioxide layer completely as shown.

The MOSFET is always operated with the positive gate to source voltage. When the VGS = 0, the VDS
supply tries to force free electrons from source to drain. But the presence of P region does not permit
the electrons to pass through it. Thus there is no drain current for VGS = 0. Due to this fact the
Enhancement type MOSFET is called Normally –OFF MOSFET

If some positive voltage is applied to the gate, it induces a negative charge in the P type substrate just
adjacent to the silicon dioxide layer. The induced negative charge produced which would be attracting
the free electrons from the source.

When the gate is positive enough it can attract more number of free electrons. This forms a thin layer
of electrons, which stretches form source to drain. This effect if equivalent to producing a thin layer of
N type channel in the P type substrate. This layer of free electrons is called N type inversion layer. The
minimum gate to source voltage which produces invertion layer is called Threshold voltage. When VGS
is less than threshold voltage no current flows form drain to source. However if VGS is greater than
threshold voltage, inversion layer connects the drain and source and we get significant values of current

Drain characteristics of Enhancement type MOSFET

ID(mA)
ID(mA) ID(ON)
VGS> Vm

VGS=Vm
VGS(th) VGS(V)
VDS(V)
Drain Characteristics Transfer Characteristics

When VDs = 0, ID = 0. The value of drain current increases with increase in gate to Drain to source
voltage upto saturation value (provided VGS > threshold voltage) after which drain current remains
almost constant value
Transfer characteristics of Enhancement Type MOSFET

When VGS < threshold voltage, there is no drain current. However in actual practice, an extremely small
value of drain current flows through MOSFET. This current flow is due to the presence of thermally
generated electrons in the P type substrate. When the value of VGs is kept above VGS(th) a significant
drain current flows as shown in figure.

Power MOSFET find increasing applications in low-power high-frequency converters.

IGBT (Insulated-gate bipolar transistors)
An IGBT combines the advantages of BJT and MOSFETs. An IGBT is a voltage controlled device that has
high input impedance like MOSFETs and low on – state conduction losses like BJTs. However the
performance of an IGBT is closer to that of a BJT than an MOSFET. This is due to the p+ substrate, which
is responsible for the minority carrier injection into the n – region.

IC

C C

G RD
RS G
VCC

E RBE E
VG

The symbol and circuit of an IGBT switch is as shown. The three terminals are gate, collector and
emitter instead of gate, drain and source for an MOSFET. Like MOSFET, when the gate is positive with
respect to the emitter for turn – on, n carriers are drawn into the p-channel near the gate region. This
results in a forward bias of the base of the npn transistor, which there by turns on. An IGBT this is
turned on by just applying a positive gate voltage to open the channel for n carriers and is turned off by
removing the gate voltage to close the channel. Typical output characteristic and transfer characteristic
are as shown
VGE7
IC
IC
VGE6

VGE5 VGE7> VGE6> VGE5

VGE3
VGE2
VGE1
VCE VGE
(a) Output Characteristics (b) Transfer Characteristics

IGBT is finding increasing application in medium power applications such as DC and AC motor drives,
power supplies, solid state relays and contractors