Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89

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Children and Youth Services Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

Influencing factors on mothers' parenting style of young children at risk

for developmental delay in South Korea: The mediating effects of
parenting stress
SungHee Nam ⁎, JongSerl Chun
Department of Social Welfare, Ewha Womans University, 11-1 Daehyun-Dong, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 120-750, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Parenting style is regarded as one of the most significant factors for children's development, especially for chil-
Received 13 September 2012 dren with or at risk of developmental delay. Due to the importance of parenting style, this study explored factors
Received in revised form 7 November 2013 that affect the parenting style in families with children at risk for or with developmental delay in South Korea.
Accepted 7 November 2013
Guided by the Transactional Model of Development and the Belsky's Model of Parenting, this study specifically
Available online 16 November 2013
addressed the influence that parent, child, and social context characteristics have on parenting style. This study
Keywords:
is a secondary data analysis of 470 mothers who participated in the second wave of the Panel Study on Korean
Parenting style Children conducted in 2009. The results showed that mother's employment, mother's age, parenting stress,
Children with or at risk of developmental delay and social support were significantly related to mother's parenting style. There were two major implications.
Parenting stress First, early intervention programs need to provide services to both parents and children in order to improve
children's outcomes. Second, mothers of children at risk of developmental delay need to be encouraged to partic-
ipate as active agents in their children's development.
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of or associated with children's cognitive, communication, and social–

emotional development (Kochanska & Aksan, 2004; Landry, Smith, &
The autism spectrum prevalence in South Korea was 2–3% in 2011, Swank, 2006). In particular, for young children under 3 years of age,
although under- or over-estimation is possible (Kim et al., 2011). This parenting style has been identified as a primary factor affecting child de-
surprising percentage attracted attention from both professionals and velopment (Bornstein & Tamis-Lemonda, 1997; Paavola, Kunnari, &
parents. In June 2011, the “Welfare Support Act for Children with Moilanen, 2005; Van Londen, Juffer, & Van IJzendoorn, 2007). Although
Disabilities” bill, which was designed to support the well-being of parenting style that reflects their own cultural value (Jullan, McKenry, &
children with disabilities and to promote early diagnosis and early inter- McKenry, 1994; Zervides & Knowles, 2007) might differ by ethnic
vention programs, was passed in South Korea. To comply with this Act, groups (Cote & Bornstein, 2004), parenting style is still essential for
the Korean government recently began to build a service delivery the early development of all young children, whether they are at
system for young children with disabilities. risk of developmental delay or are developing normally (Lee, 1998;
Parallel to this social environment, the capacity for detecting and Park, 2007).
diagnosing developmental delay increases when children are less than Despite the importance of positive parenting, parents of children
three years of age (Landa, Holman, & Garrett-Mayer, 2007; Lord & who have or are at risk of developmental delay face parenting chal-
Luyster, 2006). A number of studies have suggested that children who lenges. The characteristics of these children might make it difficult for
are diagnosed with or at risk of developmental delays need to receive parents to sustain pleasurable interactions, which may consequently
attention and intervention as early as possible to fully develop their po- generate stress and feelings of failure (McConachie, Randle, Hammal,
tential (Dawson et al., 2004; Majnemer, 1998; Shonkoff, & Hauser- & Le Couteur, 2005; Park, 2007). In addition, parents of children with
Cram, 1987). Timely engagement with early intervention programs developmental delay show a higher rate of directiveness compared
and responsiveness to children's risk or impairment will reduce the with parents of normally developing children (Mahoney, Fors, &
magnitude between a typical developmental trajectory and a develop- Wood, 1990). Instead of being sensitive and responsive, which are key
mentally delayed trajectory (Ramey & Ramey, 1998). characteristics for parenting young children, parents tend to teach or
During the past 30 years, a large number of empirical and theoretical demand tasks to make children meet the expected developmental mile-
studies have supported the argument that parenting style is predictive stones associated with their chronological age (Han, 1995). When chil-
dren who have or are at risk of developmental delay are not capable of
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 3277 2753; fax: +82 2 3277 4531. conducting these tasks, both children and parents might want to stop
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Nam), [email protected] (J. Chun). their interaction (Mahoney & MacDonald, 2007).

0190-7409/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.11.008
82 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89

Given the importance of a positive parenting style and the challenges behaviors. Sameroff and Fiese (1990) additionally explained that a
these parents face, it is crucial to explore the factors that contribute to par- child's difficult temperament might motivate parents to reduce the
enting style in order to strengthen supportive protective factors and re- time spent with their children due to decreased pleasure from interac-
duce risk factors. However, few investigators have examined the factors tion. Clark, Kochanska, and Ready (2000) state that social–emotional
influencing parenting style in families of children who have or are at problems, such as negative emotionality, behavioral problems, dis-
risk of developmental delay, although many researchers have empha- tress–proneness, low sociability, and irresponsibility, are obstacles to
sized the need for a positive parenting style. Therefore, this study at- positive parenting that arise in early childhood. In the same matter, sev-
tempts to explore the factors that influence mothers' parenting style in eral studies posit that children's enhanced language may encourage
South Korea and to encourage positive parenting in families with children greater engagement with parents and promote joint attention to objects
who have or are at risk of developmental delay. and active interactions. These child capacities could inspire a more pos-
itive parenting style (Bornstein, Hendricks, Haynes, & Painter, 2007;
2. Background Steelman, Assel, Swank, Smith, & Landry, 2002; Yoder & Warren,
2001). The developmental status of children who have or are at risk of
2.1. Definition of parenting style developmental delay has unique and differentiated characteristics com-
pared with normally developing children, and these differences may af-
Parenting style has various definitions according to specific areas of fect parenting style. Keogh, Garnier, Bernheimer, and Gallimore (2000)
research focus and child age. Baumrind (1967) introduced three types stress that families of children with developmental delays make adapta-
of parenting styles: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritativeness. In tions (e.g., time spent together and degree of activity complexity) ap-
brief, the permissive parenting style includes non-punitive, acceptant, propriate to their children's developmental level. Based on the TMD
and affirmative methods to address children's impulses and actions. and the research supporting it, the temperaments and levels of develop-
The authoritarian parenting style includes shaping, controlling and eval- ment of children with or at risk of developmental delay might be the
uating the child's behaviors and attitudes to make child meets an abso- critical factors that influence the parenting style in their families.
lute parental standard. The authoritative parenting type, which The TMD additionally considers social contextual factors, such as
has been reported to be an optimal style (Baumrind, 1973; Steinberg, economic factors and social support, to be factors that influence parent-
Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994), follows the child's ing style (Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003). Social support is defined as the
own interest and needs while emphasizing the parent's perspective as “emotional, psychological, affiliative, informational, instrumental, or
an adult. These parents might direct the child's activities through emo- material aid and assistance provided by personal social network mem-
tional support, high standards, and granting autonomy (Baumrind, bers” (Dunst, Trivette, & Jordry, 1997, p. 501). Several professionals
1967). Although Baumrind's (1967) definition has been used in many have highlighted that positive supportive relationships for parents are
studies, it is rarely used for children who are under 3 years. linked to more positive parental functioning in areas such as maternal
Instead of grouping parenting styles into typologies, researchers interactive behavior and maternal parenting satisfaction (Crnic &
who study young children define parenting styles as specific interperson- Stormshak, 1997; Sameroff & Chandler, 1975).
al parental behaviors or characteristics that influence child development. Belsky (1984) emphasized parents' own contribution to their par-
For example, sensitivity, responsiveness, affect, reciprocity, directiveness, enting style. Notably, research has reported that parents' psychological
negativity, quality of stimulation, frequency of interaction, and involve- wellbeing in terms of depression and parenting stress influence their
ment have been identified to be great influences, either positive or nega- ability to effectively interact with their children (Hassall, Rose, &
tive, on child development (Bornstein & Tamis-Lemonda, 1997; Landry, McDonald, 2005; Mahoney, 2009). This observation potentially exists
Smith, Swank, Assel, & Vellet, 2001). In this case, any elements of parental because stressed mothers may be more irritable, critical, and severe in
interpersonal behaviors that are associated with various areas of child their interaction with their children (Webster-Stratton, 1990). Symp-
development are defined as parenting style. As this study focuses on toms of depression, including loss of interest, fatigue, anxiety, and irrita-
the young children, the parental behaviors or characteristics will be bility, may be associated with parenting difficulties (Lovejoy, Graczyk,
used as the definition of parenting style. O'Hare, & Neuman, 2000; Mezulis, Hyde, & Clark, 2004). Parental self-
efficacy, defined as the parents' judgment about their own effectiveness
2.2. Conceptual framework and literature review in managing parental tasks and duties, is additionally considered to be a
parental characteristic that contributes to parenting style (Jones &
Like other child development related theories, the Transactional Prinz, 2005; Sanders & Woolley, 2005; Tucker et al., 1998). A high
Model of Development (TMD) (Sameroff & Chandler, 1975) posits that level of parental self-efficacy is associated with positive parenting
child development is influenced by the quality and frequency of interac- behaviors, maternal sensitivity, and warmth (Teti & Gelfand, 1991;
tions between parents and children. However, the TMD also emphasizes Tucker et al., 1998).
the important effects that children have on parent–child interaction.
The TMD presupposes that both the parent and the child can mutually 2.3. Mediating role of parenting stress
alter and shape their relationship (Belsky, 1984). Both parents and chil-
dren learn how to interact with each other and mutually shape their re- Hastings (2002) conceptualized the model that postulated the circu-
lationships over time. Parents develop their parenting style through lar relationship between behavior problems in children with develop-
repetitive interaction (Kaye, 1976). In particular, young children with mental disabilities, parental stress, and parental behavior. According
or at-risk for developmental delay are more likely to influence their re- to Hastings (2002), parental stress mediates the relationships between
lationship with parents due to their difficult behaviors and special char- child behavior problems and parental behavior. Parental behavior sub-
acteristics. Because the TMD places a strong emphasis on how the child sequently influences child behavior problems. Hastings (2002) addi-
influences the parent, it is suitable for the research in the field of early tionally emphasized the need for empirical research on these complex,
intervention. Thus, the TMD is widely used by researchers as a concep- related variables.
tual model (Cicchetti & Tucker, 1994; Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998) or for the Although most parents experience some degree of parental stress,
purpose of developing early intervention programs (Mahoney, Boyce, research indicates that parents of children who have or are at risk of de-
Fewell, Spiker, & Wheeden, 1998). velopmental delay are more likely to have higher levels of parenting
Several studies support the TMD. Korner (1971) described the influ- stress (Davis & Carter, 2008; Estes et al., 2009). Major contributors to
ence of young children's behaviors and capacity to take in external situ- parental stress include challenging behaviors and other characteristics,
ations on parenting style because parents try to tune in to child as well as autism-related symptoms, such as lower levels of social
 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89 83

reciprocity and communication (Bebko, Konstantareas, & Springer, 3.2. Measures

1987; Estes et al., 2009; Kasari & Sigman, 1997). These child character-
istics influence parenting stress. As mentioned above, parenting stress 3.2.1. Parenting style
influences the caregiver's ability to express their positive parenting The Panel Study on Korean Children adapts Bornstein et al.'s (1996)
style, particularly the ability to respond sensitively and appropriately Parental Style Questionnaire (PSQ) which is designed to analyze parent-
to their children (Calkins, Hungerford, & Dedmon, 2004; Ostberg, ing behavior with infants and toddlers. The PSQ originally includes 16
1998). Thus, it is hypothesized that child characteristics had a direct items with three domains: social exchange, didactic/material interac-
effect on a mother's parenting stress, and parenting stress had a direct tion, and limit setting. Because the second wave of the Panel Study on
negative effect on parenting style. Korean Children includes very young children between 12 and 23 -
The following questions were developed based on the aforemen- months, only the social exchange domain was collected by the Panel
tioned theories and literature review: Study. Social exchange, including maternal sensitivity, expressions of af-
fection, and positive responsiveness, has been demonstrated to be the
1. How do children's characteristics (levels of development and tem- key factor for young children's development, especially in children
perament) influence mothers' parenting style in a family of children with developmental delays or at-risks (Bornstein & Tamis-LeMonda,
who have or are at risk of developmental delay in South Korea? 1989; Van Londen et al., 2007). Thus, social exchange may represent a
2. How do social contextual characteristics (support from partners and positive parenting style for very young children. Three items that cannot
perceived social support) influence mothers' parenting style in a be applied to this young age category were removed from the nine over-
family of children who have or are at risk of developmental delay all items. The following six PSQ items were used:
in South Korea?
• “I spend time playing with my child”;
3. How do mothers' individual characteristics (psychological wellbeing
• “I instantly take proper action if my child gets frustrated or becomes
and parental self-efficacy) influence their own parenting style in a
fretful”;
family of children who have or are at risk of developmental delay
• “I perform the actions that my child needs. I show positive, affection-
in South Korea?
ate, and warm interest in my child”;
4. Does mothers' parenting stress mediate the impact of children's
• “I show positive, affectionate, and warm interest in my child”;
characteristics on mothers' parenting style in South Korea?
• “I am flexible to some degree regarding my child's behaviors”; and
• “I know what my child wants and how he or she feels”.
3. Methods Each item was rated with a five-point Likert scale with a possible
rating range between 6 and 30. Higher scores denote a more positive
3.1. Sample parenting style. Cronbach's alpha was .82. The principle component
analysis for testing the validity was conducted with 6 items and re-
This study used data from the second wave of the Panel Study on vealed a single component that explains 52.7% of the variance within
Korean Children, which the Korea Institute of Child Care and Educa- the 470 mothers.
tion has conducted annually since 2008. As a longitudinal study, this
Panel Study began collecting data concerning 2078 babies born be- 3.2.2. Parenting stress
tween April 2008 and July 2008 in hospitals throughout Korea, as Parenting stress was measured with an instrument developed by
well as their parents. The second wave of data collection in 2009 in- Kim and Kang (1997) for Korean parents. This instrument was devel-
cluded information concerning 1904 children aged between 12 and oped based on the Parenting Stress Index/Short Form (Abidin, 1990),
23 months, as well as their parents. The second wave was chosen be- Parenting Daily Hassles (Crnic & Greenberg, 1990) and Maternal Guilt
cause children are supposed to show rapid growth during this time Scale (Mann & Thornburg, 1987) and tested the validity and reliability
(Fernald, Pinto, Swingley, Weinberg, & McRoberts, 1998; Woodward, with 236 Korean mothers of young children (Kim & Kang, 1997). This
Markman, & Fitzsimmons, 1994), and parents of children who have or instrument has three domains: personal stress regarding childcare, par-
are at risk of developmental delay begin to be aware that their children enting distress about their role, and guilt feelings about non-parental
are different from other normally developing children during this time care. The Panel Study only used data regarding parenting distress
period. Thus, parents could begin to form a particular parenting style dur- about their role domain, which potentially focuses on negative psycho-
ing this time period. logical states stemming from parenting demands (Reitman, Currier, &
Out of 1904 responses from parents, this study selected 473 cases Stickle, 2002). Parenting distress about their role domain has 10 items
based on the Children's Denver II Developmental Screening Test with a five-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate that parents expe-
(Frankenburg et al., 1990). This screening tool covers four domains of rience higher level of parenting stress, and Cronbach's alpha was .86.
child development: gross motor, fine motor-adaptive, language, and
personal social development. Each domain has four potential results: 3.2.3. Parental depression
normal, caution, delayed, and untestable. Children with two or more The presence of depressive symptoms among parents was measured
cautions or one or more definitive delays across the domains are catego- with the Kessler 6 (K6; Kessler et al., 2002). This measure is composed
rized as “Suspect,” and other children are categorized as “Normal” of six major dimensions of depression: nervousness, sadness, restless-
(Frankenburg et al., 1990). Only children categorized as “Suspect” ness, hopelessness, worthlessness, and difficulty in completing any
from Denver II screen test results were included in this study to focus activity. This measure is a self-administered instrument that has six
on families with children at risk of or diagnosed with developmental items with a five-point Likert scale. The total score ranges from 6 to
disability/delay. One child was diagnosed with brain lesions, and the 30, and higher scores indicate that parents have a higher level of depres-
other children were not diagnosed with any illness. sion; a score of 19 or higher is considered to be severely depressed.
This study focuses on the primary caregivers as major contribu- Cronbach's alpha was .91.
tors of child development. Generally, mothers are considered to be
primary caregivers (Cote & Bornstein, 2004). Also, in this study, out 3.2.4. Parental self-efficacy
of 473 who responded to our questionnaire, 470 said that mothers Mother's parental self-efficacy was assessed by the Pearlin Self-
were the primary caregivers of their families (The exceptions were Efficacy Scale (Mainieri, 2006). This scale assesses how parents perceive
two grandparents and one father). Therefore, the primary focus of their control over aspects of their lives. This study used the four items
this study is mothers. scale from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics—Child Development
84 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89

Supplement (CDS-II) conducted by The Institute for Social Research study sample. Mother's employment status was measured with two cat-
(2010). These items were answered on a 5-point response scale that egories: “employed” and “homemaker.” Part-time employment is not
ranged from 4 to 20. Parents with a higher score indicated higher feeling typical in Korea, and the Panel data did not include the types of employ-
of efficacy. The internal consistency reliability was .83. As reported in ment in the questionnaire.
the CDS-II, the principle component analysis yielded one component
with this study sample. 3.3. Analysis

3.2.5. The Korean-Ages & Stages Questionnaire This study is an exploratory, descriptive study of mothers' character-
The Korean-Ages & Stages Questionnaire (K-ASQ; Heo, Squires, istics, children's characteristics, and social contextual factors that poten-
Lee, & Lee, 2006) was used to assess child development. The K-ASQ tially explain parenting style. The study used hierarchical ordinary least
is a Korean version of the ASQ developed by Squires, Bricker, and squares (OLS) regression analysis. This study includes two control vari-
Potter (1997), and this instrument evaluated validity and reliability ables (child age and child gender) because a child's level of development
(Ga & Kwon, 2011; Kim & Kim, 2010). The K-ASQ is designed to mea- could differ according to age and gender. This study hypothesized that
sure communication, gross/fine motor skills, problem solving and per- children's factors affect parenting styles through mothers' parenting
sonal–social development in young children (with six items per stress and followed Baron and Kenny's (1986) steps to test mediating
domain). The interviewers ask primary caregivers whether the child effects.
can perform the described behavior and provide three alternative an-
swers, which are scored as follows: “yes (10)”; “sometimes (5)”; 4. Results
and “not yet (0)”. These answers were totaled for each area (with a
total range of 0–60). Cronbach's alphas were .58 for communication 4.1. Demographics
development, .82 for gross motor development, .62 for fine motor devel-
opment, .65 for problem solving development, and .66 for personal– The mothers in this study were between 21 and 46 years old
social development. (M = 32.12, SD = 3.72). The majority of mothers were married
(n = 468, 99.6%), and 120 mothers (25.5%) were employed. Mothers'
3.2.6. Children's temperaments employment data indicates that 15 mothers were on maternity leave,
Child temperament was measured by the Emotionality–Activity– 89 continued to work for the same company after childbirth, and 16
Sociability-Temperament Survey (EAS; Buss & Plomin, 1984) which has found new jobs after childbirth. 94.7% of the families (n = 445) were
been widely applied across diverse ethnic groups (Boer & Westenberg, above the near-poverty level, earning 120% of the minimum cost of liv-
1994; Mathiesen & Tambs, 1999). This questionnaire was completed by ing in Korea in 2009. A total of 69% of the mothers (n = 324) graduated
primary caregivers. The EAS has three domains: emotionality, activity, from high school. The children (286 males: 60.85% and 184 females:
and sociability. The Korean version of the EAS was also validated with 39.15%) were between 12 and 18 months old (M = 13.91, SD = 1.10).
the three factor solution. The Panel Study collected the data across the
three domains on only the emotionality and activity domains because 4.2. Preliminary analysis
questions from the sociability domain were not appropriate for young
children under the age of two. The emotionality domain measures Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations of the above
children's distress with a scale of five items that ranges from 1 to 5. predictors.
Higher scores indicate greater negative emotionality. The activity Univariate statistics were conducted prior to multivariate analysis
domain assesses children's tempo and vigor with a scale of five items to determine whether all of the variables met the assumptions for OLS
that ranges from one to five. Higher scores indicate higher levels of ac- regression. The variables were normally distributed without any signif-
tivity in children. Cronbach's alphas were .80 and .60 for emotionality icant outlier. Bivariate correlations of all variables were conducted to
and activity, respectively. examine the associations between parenting style and independent var-
iables and to assess multicollinearity among independent variables.
3.2.7. Social support First, mothers' age was the only demographic factor that was weakly as-
Social support was assessed with a tool developed by Lee and Oak sociated with parenting style (r = .14, p b .001). Second, an examination
(2001). This self-administered instrument assesses perceived parental of the bivariate correlation analysis among children's characteristics
social support, including emotional/material and social/information showed that children's emotional temperaments (r = −.26, p b .001)
supports. This instrument consists of 12 items with a five-point Likert and personal–social development (r = .12, p b .05) were significantly
scale (ranging from Never to Always) with a possible total score from correlated with parenting style. Third, parenting style was moderately
12 to 60. Higher scores indicate a higher level of social support, and correlated with mothers' characteristics, specifically parenting stress
Cronbach's alpha was. 93.
Table 1
3.2.8. Cooperation from husbands with childcare Characteristics of predictors (n = 470).
Paternal cooperation was measured by a modified instrument based
Scale M SD Min Max
on two questionnaires developed by Kang (1998) and Hong (1995).
Child characteristics Communication development 43.19 12.87 5.0 60
This instrument has four items including feeding, bathing, and playing
Gross motor development 53.91 12.36 0.0 60
and a potential score range of 4 to 20. Higher scores represent higher Fine motor development 41.82 13.42 0.0 60
levels of paternal cooperation and Cronbach's alpha was .80. Problem solving development 43.20 14.20 0.0 60
Personal–social development 46.39 13.78 0.0 60
3.2.9. Demographic information Temperament (emotionality) 13.57 3.16 5.0 25
Temperament (activity) 19.31 2.96 8.0 25
Demographic information included the following variables: mother's
age, marital status, education, student/employment status, and family Social context Paternal cooperation with 14.44 3.52 5.0 20
income. First, age and household monthly income were measured using characteristics child care
Social support 45.76 7.93 21.0 60
continuous variables. Second, mother's marital status was dummy-
coded according to two categories: “married” and “unmarried.” Third, Mothers' characteristics Parenting stress 27.70 6.62 11.0 50
mother's education was divided into two groups using high school diplo- Mothers' depression 11.65 4.35 6.0 28
Parental self-efficacy 9.29 2.86 4.0 19
ma as the cut-off point. Finally, there were no student mothers in this
 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89 85

(r = −.53, p b .001) and mothers' depression (r = −.35, p b .001). Fi- children's temperament variables (temperaments—emotionality and
nally, social context characteristics, including social support (r = .33, temperament—activity: hereafter children's temperaments) and parent-
p b .001) and cooperation from husbands with childcare (r = .15, ing style. Outcomes show that children's temperaments are no longer sta-
p b .001), were significantly correlated with parenting style. There tistically significant, while the parental stress mediator significantly
were no multicollinearity problems with these independent variables. influences parenting styles. These results meet the criteria for the media-
tion effect introduced by Baron and Kenny (1986).
4.3. Predictors of parenting style This study follows the mediation effect testing steps suggested
by Baron and Kenny (1986). In step 1, children's temperaments
Hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to test the relative (temperaments—emotionality and temperament—activity) are set
influence of three types of factors on parenting style: child characteris- up as independent variables, and parenting stress is set up as a depen-
tics, social context and mothers' characteristics. Cohen and Cohen dent variable. Fig. 1 shows that children's temperaments influence pa-
(1983) suggest that conservative sequencing methods to enter variables rental stress and explains 14% of the variance of parental stress.
include adding focal variables after all variables are added to the equa- However, only temperament—emotionality influences parenting stress
tion. Parenting characteristics are hypothesized to be mediators, and (B1 = .78, p b .001), while child temperament—activity does not sig-
this study added mothers' characteristics to the last model. Table 2 nificantly influence parenting stress (B2 = −.15). In step 2, children's
shows the results when the set of variables was hierarchically entered temperaments are independent variables, and parenting style is a de-
into a multiple regression analysis. The final model explained 37.5% of pendent variable in the regression model equation. This model explains
the variance in mothers' parenting style in families of children who 8% of parenting styles. In step 3, both children's temperaments and
have or are at risk of developmental delay. This proportion of variance parental stress were independent variables. This model explains 29%
was statistically significant (F = 14.12, p b .001). The largest increase of variability in parenting style. In step 3, only 1% of variance was ex-
in explained variance occurred when mothers' characteristics were plained by children's temperaments, while 8% of parenting style was
entered into the model (incremental R2 = .14, p b .001). explained by children's temperaments in step 2. This model reduced
The relative importance of variables in predictions of mothers' par- the direct association between children's temperaments and parenting
enting style was reported by standardized regression coefficients (β). style when parenting stress was in the model, supporting the hypothe-
A total of 18 predictors were entered in this model, and 4 variables sig- sis that parenting stress was at least one of the mediators. For example,
nificantly explained parenting style: mothers' age (β = .13), mothers' the inclusion of only children's temperaments in the equation to explain
employment status (β = −.14), social support (β = .17), and parent- parenting style produced a B of −.25 for emotional temperament. How-
ing stress (β = − .43). That is, stay-at-home mothers, older mothers, ever, controlling for parenting stress decreased the values of B to
mothers with lower levels of parenting stress, and mothers with ade- B = −.09. This decrease is interpreted to be parenting stress mediating
quate social support would be more likely to display a positive parent- the influence of child emotional temperament on parenting style. As pre-
ing style. Parenting stress is a strong predictor for parenting style. dicted, parenting stress mediated the relationship between children's
temperaments and parenting style (Sobel test: z = −4.03, p b .001).
4.4. Mediation effects
5. Discussion
The results of hierarchical multiple regressions indicate that mothers'
individual characteristics play a role in mediating children's characteris- The purpose of this study was an exploration of the factors that predict
tics and parenting styles. Parenting stress, mothers' depression, and pa- mothers' parenting style in families of children at risk for developmental
rental self-efficacy in the model generated less association between two delays in South Korea. This study found that mothers' age, mothers'

Table 2
Summary of hierarchical regression analysis for predicting parenting style (n = 470).

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Variables B SE β B SE β B SE β B SE β B SE β B SE β

Children's age −.10 .12 −.04 −.08 .12 −.03 −.16 .13 −.06 −.08 −.13 −.03 −.05 .12 −.02 −.01 .11 −.00
Children's gender −.28 .28 −.05 −.18 .28 −.03 −.12 .28 −.02 −.14 .27 −.02 −.28 .26 −.05 −.20 .23 −.03
Mothers' age .10 .04 .13⁎⁎ .12 .04 .15⁎⁎ .11 .04 .14⁎⁎ .12 .04 .16⁎⁎⁎ .10 .03 .13⁎⁎
Education .73 .30 .12⁎ .68 .30 .11⁎ .73 .29 .12⁎ .40 .28 .07 .30 .25 .05
Employment −.62 .31 −.10⁎ −.67 .30 −.10⁎ −.80 .30 −.12⁎⁎ −.83 .29 −.13⁎⁎ −.93 .26 −.14⁎⁎⁎
Monthly household income .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .06 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .04
Children's communication .00 .01 .01 .00 .01 .01 .01 .01 .04 .01. .10 .03
Children's gross motor .02 .01 .07 .01 .01 .04 .01 .01 .06 .01 .01 .06
Children's fine motor −.01 .01 −.06 −.01 .01 −.05 −.01 .01 −.06 −.02 .01 −.07
Children's problems solving −.01 .01 −.04 −.01 .01 −.02 −.01 .01 −.05 −.00 .01 −.01
Children's personal/social development .03 .01 .13⁎ .02 .01 .08 .01 .01 .06 .01 .01 .07
Temperament—emotionality −.22 .04 −.24⁎⁎⁎ −.18 .04 −.20⁎⁎⁎ −.07 .04 −.07
Temperament—activity .12 .05 .13⁎⁎ .09 .04 .10⁎ .07 .04 .07
Paternal cooperation with child care .09 .04 .11⁎ .05 .03 .06
Social support .10 .02 .27⁎⁎⁎ .06 .02 .17⁎⁎⁎
Parenting stress −.18 .02 −.43⁎⁎⁎
Depression −.05 .03 −.08
Parental self-efficacy .80 .05 −00
R2 = .004 R2 = .048 R2 = .070 R2 = .134 R2 = .224 R2 = .375
(F = .90, (F = 3.68, (F = 2.90, (F = 5.10, (F = 8.18, (F = 14.12,
p = .41) p b .001) p b .001) p b .001) p b .001) p b .001)
ΔR2 = .004 ΔR2 = .043⁎⁎ ΔR2 = .021 ΔR2 = .064⁎⁎⁎ ΔR2 = .089⁎⁎⁎ ΔR2 = .142⁎⁎⁎
⁎ p b .05.
⁎⁎ p b .01.
⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.
86 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89

Step 1 2
Child R =.14 Parenting Stress
Temperament B1 = .78 *** (Mediator)
(SE: .09)
B2=-.15
(SE: .10)

Step 2

2
Child R =.08
Temperament Parenting style
B1 =-.25***
(SE : .04)
B2=.12**
(SE : .04)

Step 3
2
R =.14 Parenting Stress 2
R =.28
B1 = .78 *** (Mediator) B3 =-.23 ***
(SE: .09) (SE: .02)
B2=-.15
(SE: .10)

2
Child R =.01
Temperament B1 =-.09* Parenting style
(SE : .04)
B 2=. 09*
(SE : .04)

Fig. 1. Mediation effects. B1 = Regression coefficient of child temperament—emotionality. Β2 = Regression coefficient of child temperament—activity. Β3 = Regression coefficient of
parenting stress.

employment, social support and parenting stress were significant predic- The finding of the present study may reflect parents' need for sup-
tors for parenting style among Korean mothers. Mothers who are older, port when their children have developmental risk. Oh (2002) reported
not employed, receive more support, and experience lower levels of stress that mothers of children with developmental delay have strong needs
show a more positive parenting style. for informational support with parenting children who are different
Noteworthy findings from the first research question include the from normally developing children. In addition, Koreans are more likely
failure to find evidence that Korean children's development (including to be reluctant to admit their children's difficulties when their children
children's communication development, gross/fine motor skills devel- have or are at risk of developmental delay. Developmental delay is
opment, and problem solving skills) explain parenting style. Children's considered to be a stigmatizing hereditary disorder that can influence
developmental issues are commonly considered to interfere with the marriage prospects for other relatives (Kim et al., 2011). This environ-
mother's ability and motivation to effectively parent their children. ment might increase maternal isolation, yet more emotional/material
However, this study found that children's development did not influ- and social/information support is needed to address the challenges
ence parenting style, at least when children are under 2 years of age. faced by these mothers and their children.
One possible explanation for this unexpected finding is the parental The results of research question three, which considered parents'
belief that their children's developmental difficulties may diminish characteristics, did not support previous literature that reported the as-
over time; their children are only two years old, and there are many sociation between parental depression and parenting style. There may
opportunities to accelerate their developmental rates. Some parents have been insufficient variability in parental depression because fewer
do not even recognize their children's developmental status because than 5% of the mothers in this study were above the clinical levels of
subtle developmental difficulties in young children may not evoke pa- depression in the Kessler 6. The prevalence rates of depression among
rental concern and anxiety. These reasons may explain why children's mothers of young children are between 8% and 12% (Lovejoy et al.,
developmental difficulties do not change parenting style. In addition, 2000), while the prevalence rates of parental depression among parents
the failure to find a significant influence of children's development on of children with disabilities are between 6% and 49%, depending on
parenting style might be caused by measurement issues such as a low study measures (Bailey, Golden, Roberts, & Ford, 2007). This large vari-
reliability. ance of depression rates for parents of children with disabilities might
The results from research question two showed that social support be caused by measurement. Previous research using the Center for
contributes to parenting style. Many studies emphasized social support Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) and
arguing that the primary role of social support is reduction of parenting The Beck Depdression Index (BDI; Beck, Steer, & Brown,1996) reported
stress in a family of children with disabilities (Gong, 2011; Guralnick, high rates of depression among mothers of children with disabilities as
Hammond, Neville, & Connor, 2008; Kim, 2011). Kim and Kim (2009) well as reported significant association between parental depression
found that maternal stress mediated the relationship between social and parenting style. However, few parenting studies used the Kessler
support and mother's sensitivity, which is one parenting style found in 6 measure that is employed in the current study. Considering that al-
the sample of Korean mothers of diagnosed children (3–7 years old). most 25% of female adults have symptoms of depression with the CES-
However, in the present study, a direct relationship was found between D in Korea (Park & Lee, 2011), this study could not include enough de-
social support and parenting style even after taking into account parent- pressed parents with the Kessler 6 measure. That is, the low prevalence
ing stress. As the final model in Table 2 indicates, when social support of depression in this study could be attributed to the Kessler 6 measure.
and parenting stress coexist in the same model, both variables signifi- In addition, parental self-efficacy was not associated with parenting
cantly influence parenting style. Social support is still significant when style. One possible explanation of this result is that parental self-
parenting stress is controlled. efficacy does not directly influence parenting style; instead, parental
 S. Nam, J. Chun / Children and Youth Services Review 36 (2014) 81–89 87

self-efficacy may link environmental variables and parenting style Welfare Support Act for Children with Disabilities, which was modeled
through buffering or stimulating the environmental variables for after the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of the United States,
parenting style (Jones & Prinz, 2005). Part C (IDEA). The IDEA, Part C is a federal legislation that specified that
This study found that parenting stress mediated the relationships all infants and toddlers up to 3 years old with developmental delays and
between children's emotional temperaments and mothers' parenting their families are eligible for early intervention services (Ramey &
style. When mothers cannot handle their children's difficult emotional Ramey, 1998). Sensitive to the needs of both children and parents,
temperaments, mothers of normally developing children and mothers these services aim to help children progress in their early development
of children with developmental delay both experience too much stress and learning and to help parent build their capacity to care for their chil-
to have a positive parenting style. However, mothers of children who dren with developmental disabilities (Bruder & Dunst, 2005). Accord-
have or are at risk of developmental delay may be more stressed, ingly, professionals in South Korea also need to provide parental
because mothers believe that they should differently address their intervention services to help parents reduce stress and receive appro-
children's emotionality. priate support as well as direct services for their children.
Children's level of development could impact their temperaments; The results of this study should be interpreted in the context of the
children who cannot convey their desires express a negative emotional study limitations. Because the children are young, the gap in develop-
temperament that creates parental feelings of stress and failure ment between children at risk of developmental delay and normally
(Mahoney & MacDonald, 2007). Thus, if parents understand the possi- developing children may not be large enough to influence parenting
ble reasons for children's difficult emotional temperaments and possess style. Therefore, follow-up research with older children is necessary.
skills to handle these difficulties, they might experience decreased Second, this study applied self-administered questionnaires to measure
stress and employ a more positive parenting style. parenting style and child development. However, parenting style would
The study findings have a number of practical implications. First, be more accurately measured with standardized parent–child interac-
early intervention programs for young children who have or are at tion observation. These observations would provide information on par-
risk of developmental delay should provide services to both children enting style strengths and areas needing improvement. An additional
and parents. However, most early intervention programs in Korea limitation related to the child development measurement is the
place emphasis on providing services to children to promote child subdomain of K-ASQ, which showed a low reliability. However, young
development. Even though there are a few programs which provide children with developmental delay or at-risk status are more likely to
services for parents, those programs only focus on brief parenting edu- display inconsistent skills that complicate the parent's attempt to
cation. Considering that young children under three years of age are judge their children's ability. Therefore, it would be more beneficial
outside the school systems and spend most of their time with their pri- for professionals to conduct the child developmental test. Finally, this
mary caregivers, these primary caregivers need to be included in inter- study only includes mothers, but fathers' parenting style is critical for
ventions or services. In addition, services to help parents recognize and children who have or are at risk of developmental delay. It would be
admit their children's developmental issues are essential for parents more informative if both parents were included in an exploration of
who believe their young children's difficulties are temporal and will interactions among the entire family.
diminish over time. It is because timely appropriate interventions are The study results are substantial despite these limitations. The study
critical for promoting child development. Considering that a positive place an important focus on the parenting style of parents with young
parenting style is one of the major contributors for child development, children who either have or are at risk of having developmental delays
it is essential for parent to recognize their children's difficulties and in South Korea. Notably, the literature suggests that parenting style
adjust their parenting style. tends to be stable over time (Dallaire & Weinraub, 2005). Therefore, it
Second, this study found that difficult child temperaments influence is critical for parents to establish a positive parenting style when chil-
parenting style mediated by parenting stress. Although parenting style dren are young before their relationships become dysfunctional, and
is the result of interactions between mothers and their children, parents this study suggests ways to encourage a more positive parenting style.
are the more impactful agents in the establishment of positive relation-
ship with their children (Kochanska & Aksan, 2004). Therefore, parents
need information on their children's temperaments and require encour- Acknowledgments
agement to intentionally display a positive parenting style even in
stressful situations. For example, child temperament could be impacted This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
by level of development. Children that cannot express their desires Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2010-330-
display negative temperaments that generate parental feelings of stress B00206).
and failure. Professionals need to generate primary caregiver awareness
of the possible reasons for difficult child temperament and reduce
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