UNIVERSITY OF KABIANGA

COM 102

COMPUTER SKILLS

2018/2019

LECTUIRE NOTES

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 COURSE OUTLINE

Lecture One: Overview of Computer Systems

 What is a computer?
 Humans as information Processors
 Features of computer systems
 Data representation
 Advantages and disadvantages of computer systems

Lecture Two: Evolution and Types of Computers

 History of Computers
 Generations of computers
 Trends in computer technology
 Classifications and types of computers
 Generations of Programming languages

Lecture Three: Computer Hardware

 Input Units and Input technology trends
 Output Units and Output technologies
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Secondary/External storage

Lecture Four: Computer Software

 System Software
 Utility programs
 Trends in application Software
 System development programs
 User controlled computing

Lecture Five: Introduction to Windows

 The desktop
 The common user interface
 The mouse
 The Help command

Lecture Six: Computer applications: Microsoft Word

 Document editing
 Document organizing
 Document formatting
 Document production

Lecture Seven: Computer applications: Microsoft Excel

 Structures and navigation of workbooks and worksheets
 Making and editing of entries
 Formulas and functions
 Formatting Worksheets

Lecture Eight: Computer applications: Microsoft Access

 Table creation and manipulation
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  Queries
 Reports

Lecture Nine: Computer applications: Internet

 Connecting to the Internet
 Access providers
 Internet address
 World Wide Web
 Internet services

Lecture Ten: Concepts and Methods of Data Processing

 Basic concepts of data processing
 Data files and Databases
 Database Management Systems

Lecture Eleven: Data Communication and Networks

 Telecommunications system components
 Data transmission
 Computer Networks
 Distributed systems

Lecture Twelve: Information Systems Development

 Information Systems
 System Development Life Cycle
 Rapid Prototyping

Lecture Thirteen: Computer Security

 Need for Controls
 Computer Fraud or Crime
 Computer security
 Privacy Issues and social challenges of Information Technology
 Ethical responsibilities

References:
1. French C.S., Computer Science, Thomson Learning, London 2004
2. Saleem, N. A., Information Technology Simplified, N. A. Saleem Publishers,
Nairobi Kenya
3. Gordon, B. N., Management Information Systems: Conceptual Foundation,
Structure and Development, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1974
4. Grauer and Barber, M., Exploring Microsoft Office 2000 Professional, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River , New Jersey, 2001
5. O‟Brien, J. A., Management Information Systems: Managing Information
Technology in the E-Business Enterprise (Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Ltd. , New Delhi,2002)
6. Manuals of relevant software packages
7. Any other relevant materials

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The computer exercises such an important and wide spread influence on our society today
that every educated person should study the basic disciplines underlying its operation and
application. It is popular with everybody; from managers to employees, and from scientists
to nursery school children. Computer science is an ever-changing discipline and therefore,
no one person is expected to know all its applications. No experience with computers is
assumed in this course.

The objective of the course is to give students an in-depth understanding of why computers
are essential components in education ,business and society

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 LECTURE ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Definition of Terms
Computer – refers to an electronic device capable of accepting data as input and
processes it under the influence of a set of instructions referred to as
software/programs to produce information as output.

Data - refers the raw facts fed into the computer for processing. Data does not have
any meaning to the user e.g. raw students marks fed into the computers.

Information – refers to the already processed data summarized in the form that the
user wants. Information makes sense to the user e.g. computed average marks.

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A Computer as a System – combination of different components or elements of the
computer which each performs its own tasks but work together to process data into
information.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.
Definition of a Computer:
 A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs
stored in its own memory unit.
 A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as
output.
 An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a
set of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as
Information).
A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device, stores
them temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given,
and finally transfers the processed data (Information) to an Output device.
Explanations;
 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic
components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
 A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated
to the recipients through the Output devices.
 It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any
useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is
normally held within the computer as it is being processed.

Program:
 A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the
computer & is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the
computer on what to do).
 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
 A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.

Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the
user.
- Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to
produce information.

TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:
a). Digital (discrete) data:

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 Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets
or symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b). Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order
to be processed by the computer.
- Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity,
Lengths or currents, etc
- The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
Data Processing:
 It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into
information.
 Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into
information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the
required result. The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information
being produced.

Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you
want it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between Data and Information.
Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all
types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the
day-to-day activities in our society:

1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a
very short time.
They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (10-3)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (10 -6)
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 Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (10-9)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (10-12)
The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.
a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).
;

The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in
Milliseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300
multiplications per second.
b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).
Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were measured
in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per second.
c). Mid 1960s.
Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together on
a silicon chip, was developed.
The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.
d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a
Microprocessor, which could perform all the operations on the computer‟s
processor. The chip contained about 1,600 transistors.
e). Today‟s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the use
of the Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI)
technologies, which combines hundreds of thousands of components onto a single
chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.

2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an
error occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their
electronic components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the
saying Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.

3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a
“Multiply” instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will
multiply the numbers supplied.
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP

Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect
data; let say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong”
answer 97 instead of 52. However, note that, 97 is „correct‟ based on the data supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used
& the data supplied.

4. Consistency:
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 Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is
repeated.

5. Storage:
- A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small
space.
- A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this
data when required so that the user can make use of it.
- Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the
use of passwords.

6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored.
Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and
accuracy as the first one.

7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is
guided by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.

9. Imposition of a formal approang methods:

Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and
imposes rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.

Review Questions.
1. What is a Computer?
2. Why is a computer referred to as an electronic device?
3. Define the following terms as used in computer science.
a). Data.
b). Programs.
c). Data processing.
d). Information.
4. (a) Briefly explain the two forms of data.
(b) Give THREE differences between Data and Information.
5. The speed of a computer is measured in ___________.
6. What does the term GIGO stands for?
7. List and explain 4 salient features/ properties of a computer.
8. List FIVE advantages of a computerized system over a manual system.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are
used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:

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 The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like
typewriters & calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are
entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other
machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are
meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical
plants, where human life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to
operate a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes
it difficult to control the contents of the computer‟s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or
machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn‟t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own,
but can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers
could be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.

In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related
facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
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10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now
being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer
criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring
them out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in
running the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMRS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them
manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what
is out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or
items are running out of stock and need to be reordered.
- For calculating customer‟s change.
- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:
 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled
devices called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but
performs tasks that are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new
products & services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers
and therefore, enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their
competitors.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit &
withdrawal services.
 For processing of Cheques.
 For preparation of Payrolls.
 For better record keeping and processing of documents.
 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical &
mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs &
each computer is designed to do a specific job.

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5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:
 To keep & retrieve patient‟s medical records.
 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening &
monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians
to properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.
 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus
reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices.
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:
 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would
make information recovery extremely difficult.
 To produce bills & statements.
8. Education.
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching
using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided
Teaching (CAT).
 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to
help in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics
using a special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called
Simulation.
 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open
University Concept.
 To analyze academic data.
 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to
monitor the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an
actual aircraft.

9. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.

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  Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.
 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to
launch space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around
them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission
and reception of messages very fast and efficient.
 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a
computer network.

11. Transport industry.

Computers are used in:
 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar
equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.

12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).

 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep
databases on fingerprints and also analysed them.
 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which
help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other
identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

13. Defence.
 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting
and tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers,
etc.
14. Multimedia applications.
 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running
slide shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to
describe the product.

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  Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound &
digital video clips, which make games more realistic.
 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of
subjects.
15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.
Computers are used at homes:
 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as
their prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:
- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and
other library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
17. Employment.
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many
people.

Review Questions.
1. Explain exhaustively the importance of computers in the following areas:
i). Industries.
ii). Hospitals.
iii). Education
iv). Research.
v). Communication industry.
vi). Law enforcement agencies.
vii). Domestic and Entertainment.
2. Explain various ways computers have been mostly used in our country.
3. List down and explain 6 uses of computers in our society.
4. Explain the similarities and differences between human beings and computer systems.

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LECTURE TWO

EVALUATION AND TYPES OF COMPUTERS

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.
HISTORY OF COMPUTING.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks
to count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called
Abacus that could be used to calculate large figures.
An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with
wires or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.

How to represent a number using an Abacus.

Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of
5. To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the
crossbar represent zeros.
The Figure below represents the number 6908 (Six thousand nine hundred and eight).

After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern
computers was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an English
mathematician called Charles Babbage.
In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like
machine named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred.
With each breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of electronics have been
replaced by a new “generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer
technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are
classified in durations (a period of more than a year).

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1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).
The 1st generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes or
Thermionic valves to store & process information.

Vacuum tube
The tubes consumed a lot power, and generated a lot of heat during processing due to
overheating.
The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were short-
lived, and were not very reliable.
They also used Magnetic drum memories.
Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB
(2,000 bytes).
The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size,
i.e. the computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC occupied an area
of about 150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.
They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest
electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per
second.
The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World
War II. It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr.
John Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon‟s Electronic Office).

2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).

The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state electronic devices called Transistors.
The transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.

Transistor
The computers consumed less power, produced less heat, were much faster, and more reliable
than those made with vacuum tubes.
They used Magnetic core memories.
RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.
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Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their
speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions
per second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1st generation computers.
The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1 st G
computers.
They were less costly than the 1st G computers.
Examples of 2nd Generation computers:
 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe
computers.
 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.
3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).
Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors & diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.

Integrated circuit
The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).
The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.
They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.
The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to
support remote communication facilities.
Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.
The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
Examples of 3rd Generation computers:
 IBM 360, 370;
 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.

4TH Generation computers (1979 – 1989).

The 4th generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny
circuits and transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.

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 Very Large integrated circuit
The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million
instructions per second.
Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred Megabytes.
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.
Examples of 4th Generation computers:
 IBM 308 and 4300;
 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was
called Apple II.

5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).

In this generation fall today‟s computers.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super
conducting materials.
These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as Supercomputers,
which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured
in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a
number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to
the smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs
that mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such programs can
help managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert services to users instead of
relying on human professionals.

Review Questions.
1. Briefly describe the history of computers.
2. (a). What do you mean by computer generations?
(b). Describe the FIVE generations of computers in terms of technology used and give an
example of a computer developed in each generation.
(c). Compare computer memory sizes during the Five computer generation periods.
3. What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
4. (a). Technology is the basis of computer classification. Based on this, explain briefly the
difference between the first three computer generations.
(b). What is so peculiar in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop them.

Generation Technology
First generation A). Very Large Integrated Circuit
Second generation B). Thermionic valves (Vacuum tubes)
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 Third generation C). Transistors
Fourth generation D). Integrated Circuits

6. Give four characteristics of First generation computer.

7. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a). ENIAC
(b). VLSI
(c). IC
8. What is Artificial Intelligence?

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.

1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their
CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the
processing is carried out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a
single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.
Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per
second compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to
hold the instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data &
also support many and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions
required to manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly
compared to minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be
printed in a specified amount of time.
The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in
that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of
characters printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are
faster and their speeds are measured depending on the number of lines or pages
printed per minute (lpm / ppm).

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7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they
can be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
Review Questions.
1. Briefly explain five factors that can be used to determine the type of a computer.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful
computers available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a
fraction of a second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among
the processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single
central processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to
provide cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental
conditions (i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over
500 users at the same time.
Areas where supercomputers are used:
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.

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 Defence and weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a
very short time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
 CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers.
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a
large backing storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between
5–300 terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200
users at a time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
Areas where mainframe computers are used:
Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations
and companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
 IBM 4381.
 ICL 39 Series.
 CDC Cyber series.

Minicomputers.
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the
same peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a
time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that
the users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.
Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the
microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

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Minicomputers are used mainly in:
 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
 Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
 PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Microcomputers.
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices.
They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one
person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices
(usually 1 or 2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip
containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is
based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical
components into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that
of minicomputers.
Areas where microcomputers are used:
Microcomputers are commonly used in:
 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
 IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on
his/her lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.

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- Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since
a laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being
used.
- Have limited storage capacities.
- Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.
This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an
office environment.
- They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

1) Home computer.
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It
has programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family
finances.
2) Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in
the home mainly for business purposes.
- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting,
Word processing, Telecommunications, etc.
- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user
access the facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a
network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is
more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.

23
 ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other
computers, i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other
computer on the network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple
applications at the same time.

An Embedded computer.
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly.
E.g., there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras &
Video recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
 General-purpose.
 Special purpose
 Dedicated computers.
General-purpose computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.
Example;
A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the
Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games,
among others.
The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means that, to
perform a particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to perform that
particular task are loaded into the computer memory.
E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer‟s
memory & the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the
game.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers
& Laptops used in most offices & schools.

Special-purpose computer.
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task
only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do.
Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-
wired) at the time of manufacture.
For example;
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly
& very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:

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  Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.
 It is electronic.
 Has a screen.
 It has a Keypad.
 Has a Memory.

 It is programmable.

Dedicated computer.
A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some
processing task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application
environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers can
be classified according to the type of data they can process as either.
 Digital computers.
 Analogue computers, or
 Hybrid computers.
Digital computers.
This is the most commonly used type of computers.
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….
Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore,
any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.
Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the
facilities provided are generalized.
Examples:
 A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
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 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers.
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents,
pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single
task. For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
- Scientific or engineering experiments,
- Military weapons,
- Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace
temperatures and pressures.
- Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting
pen or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give
information about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single
task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
 The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.
The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot
to physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling
an actual aeroplane.
 A Bathroom scale.
It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over
calibrated scale, which shows the person‟s weight.
 Thermometer.
It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is calibrated to
give an exact temperature reading.
 Speedometer.
In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a
pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.
 A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume
delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.
 A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.
 A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
 A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
 A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid computers.

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 Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine
both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer &
analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient‟s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements
may then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an
immediate signal to the nurses‟ station if any abnormal readings are detected.

Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.

Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper – they imitate simple computer
technology.
2. Bigger in size. 2. Comparatively smaller.
3. Operate at very high speeds. 3. Slower than computers.
4. Are more accurate – they give up to 4. Less accurate – most calculators give up to
over 10 decimal places of accuracy. 8 dp of accuracy.
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations
problem. involving arithmetic/ mathematical
6. Work under the control of programs. operations
6. Calculators are non-programmable, but if
7. Support a variety of peripherals, e.g. programmable, the range is limited.
keyboard, mouse, light pen, printer, etc. 7. They only use Display units & Keyboards
8. Have large internal memory of several of limited capabilities.
KB‟s. 8. their internal memory is very small. Most
calculators only use Registers for
9. Support large Backing storage media. temporary storage during calculations.
9. Some calculators have got some sort of
10. A computer can support several people fixed Backing store, though very limited.
at the same time. 10. A calculator can serve only 1 user at a time.
11. Have got telecommunication
capabilities. 11. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
12. Require well-monitored environmental 12. Do not require well-monitored
conditions. environmental conditions.

Review Questions.
1. State three methods of classifying computers. In each case, list the different types of
computers.
2. What is a Personal computer?
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a). Supercomputer and Mainframe computer.
b). Minicomputer and a Personal computer.
c). Special-purpose (dedicated) computers and General-purpose computers.
d). Desktop computers and Laptop computers
4. Briefly describe terms “Analogue” and “Digital computers” as used in computer science.
5. Give three examples of Special-purpose computers.
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6. Name any FOUR classes of computers based on size and complexity.

LECTURE THREE

28
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
PARTS OF A COMPUTER.
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected
together in order to work as a single entity.
A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -
1. The System Unit.
2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.

System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the „brain’ of the
computer called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The components in the System unit include: -
 Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.
 Motherboard.
 Power supply unit.
 Memory storage devices.
 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
Types of System units
There are two makes of System units:
a) Tower style system unit
This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.
- Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
b) Desktop system units
Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

29
Features of the System unit.
- It houses the CPU.
- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer‟s Power switch.
The Central processing unit (CPU)
This is the brain of the computer, and carries out all the processing within the computer.

Input devices.
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.
• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer can
understand.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Joysticks, Light pen, Scanner, etc.
The Keyboard
The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through which
data is entered into the computer.
To enter data & instructions into the computer, the user should press the required keys.
The Mouse
It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

Output devices.
Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the computer.
- They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.
- They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.
Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc
The Monitor
It is a television like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or number on
the keyboard, it shows up on the monitor.
Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the computer.
Printer
Printers are used to create permanent copies of output on paper.

Memory storage devices.

These are devices used to store programs & data in computers.
• They hold data & programs until they are needed for processing.
• They also hold the results after processing.
Computer storage is divided into 2:
i). Primary (main) storage.
This is the storage found within the computer itself. It is used to hold data, programs &
instructions required immediately (or currently being used) by the Processor.
Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM).
30
ii). Secondary (Backing) storage.
It is used by the computer to store backup information that is not needed immediately by
the Processor. It is also used by the computer to supplement the computer‟s main
memory/ internal memory in case of mass storage purposes.
Secondary storage units provide permanent data storage facilities. They allow large
quantities of information to be stored permanently on some form of magnetic media
such Magnetic tapes or disks.
The programs & data are transferred to & from the secondary storage units to the Main
memory only when they are required; hence the information is said to be online to the
computer.

Examples of secondary storage devices:

• Hard disk * Floppy disks.
* Magnetic Tapes.
• Cassette tapes. * Punched cards.
* Zip disks.
• Compact disks * Digital Video Disks (DVDs).

Computer peripherals.
A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system
unit called Peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as to assist
the computer satisfy its users.
Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data interface
cables that carry data, programs & information to and from the processor. The cables are
connected to the system unit using connectors called Ports.
Examples of peripheral devices include;
- Monitor, - Keyboard,
- Mouse
- Printer. - Modem.
- Speakers.
- Plotter.

Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.
2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. What are computer peripherals?
4. (a). Name and explain the two main divisions of computer storage.
(b). Give two common examples of secondary storage devices.
5. Name two output devices.
6. (a). Explain the term System unit.
(b). Name some of the components found in the System unit.
(c). Give three features of a computer‟s System Unit.
7. Why is the screen also called a Monitor?
8. What is a Mouse in relation to computing?

31
The computer system is made up of the following components;
• Hardware
• Software
• Liveware

HARDWARE

This refers to the physical tangible components of the computer. Hardware can be
classified into;-

I Input devices
Refers to the devices used to feed data into the computer. E.g. Keyboard, mouse,
Joystick, light pen, digital cameras etc.

II Output devices.
Keyboard
Refers Mousefrom the computer
to the devices used to give feedback or information
e.g. monitor, projector, printer, speakers, et

Camera Joystick

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 i. Processing hardware
Responsible for the processing of data into information. This is normally the
CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is the ―Brain‖ of the computer. The processing
speed of a computer depends on the processor speed (clock speed) measured in
number of instructions processed per time (Hertz) e.g. 1.65 GH

The motherboard/system Flow of data/instructions

board and the CPU in the CPU

(ii) Storage Hardware – devices that provide storage of data/information in the

computer either temporary or permanently. Are divided into two:
 Primary storage – Holds data/information temporary only when the
computer is on. Data/information gets lost when the computer goes off.
E.g. Registers and RAM (Random Access Memory)
 Secondary storage- Holds data/information permanently even when the
computer is off. Examples: Hard disk, flash disks, CDs, DVD, VCDs etc

Hard Disk Drive

RAM Chip

33

RAM Chip
STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.
1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly
connected, and that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to
a constant voltage Stabilizer or an Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after
switching the main supply.
3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on
the Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.
After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting.
Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that
makes the computer ready for use.

Types of Booting.
There are 2 types of booting, namely;
a). Cold booting.
b). Warm booting.
Cold booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power
button on the system unit.

Warm booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the
Restart button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard
(Ctrl+Alt+Del).
In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box
to perform a warm boot.
When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine
whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by
executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently
stored in ROM.
POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests
when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is
operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive
controller & the Keyboard.
During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device
being tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the
process will halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user
where the problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an
abnormal number of beeps are sounded.

34
The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS).

Shutting down a computer.

After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of
shutting down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and
computer components does not occur.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently
running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.
For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:
a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the
keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears
on the screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the
button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.
5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.

Review Questions.
1. (a). What is meant by the term „booting up‟?
(b). Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
2. Write down the procedure to be followed when switching on a computer.
3. Complete the abbreviation „POST‟ in computer technology and explain briefly its
purpose.
4. List down the steps that must be followed before switching off the computer.

KEYBOARD.
The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is typed into the
computer memory.
It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard.
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT.
The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the
usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used
to represent data items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions
to the computer.

35
Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you
type data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.

SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.

Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -

(a). Function/ Command keys.

These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They
are used to issue commands into the computer.
Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application packages,
e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.
Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with
different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.

(b). Alphanumeric keys.

This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used
for typing of text.
It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and
Number keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are
Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.
At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate
words or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).

(c). Numeric Keypad keys.

It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9
marked on them in rows from the bottom upwards.
The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the
multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the
decimal point (.).
The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key
is turned on.

36
(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.
They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.
They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.
 Arrow keys:
To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press
the Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left
arrow key.
To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one line
down, press the Down arrow key.
 Page Up & Page Down:
To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the
Page Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.
 Home & End keys:
To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move
the cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.

Editing keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i). Backspace key.
It has a backward arrow () marked on it.
√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the
same line).
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the
immediate letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
iii). Insert (Ins) key.
√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype
mode. When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence
or replace a character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).

(e). Special PC operation keys.

They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
TAB key ( ).
It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a
certain text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g.,
10mm, 20mm, etc.

37
 A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.
CAPS Lock.
Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner
of the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off,
all the text typed will appear in small letters.
SHIFT key ( ).
This special key works in combination with other keys.
√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an
alphabet key to get the letter in its capital form.
√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on
top of certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.
To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a certain
key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.

ENTER key (↵).

√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a
word processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next
line or paragraph.
√ It is used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the
computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the
screen.
ESCAPE (ESC) key.
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want
to quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.
CONTROL (CTRL) key.
It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to
give the command for saving the text/object.

Commonly confusing keys.

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are
working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is
wrong.
The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.
Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”),
and between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.
The slash (“/”) is used as:
- A division symbol when writing a formula.
- A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.
- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (“\”) is used:

38
 - In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.
- In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.
The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.
Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and
is printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical
key top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual
words, but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS
because of the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The
Underscore takes the places of the blank space.
Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.
Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“).
Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.
Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in
Mathematics, foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home
subdirectory.
The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).
Slash (/) - used for division,
Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Practical Keyboard skills.
When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:
1). Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground, maintaining an alert posture.
2). Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3). Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.
Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other
keys. The home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with
the thumb on the Spacebar, while those of the right hand are the apostrophe („),
semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the Spacebar.
4). Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers, and
that you press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g., to press Q,
use the small finger on the left hand, while to press J, use the index finger on the right
hand.

Descriptive Questions.
1. Define a Keyboard.
2. (a) Give the TWO types of Keyboards found in the current market.
(b) State and briefly explain the functions of five categories of keys found on a standard
keyboard.
39
3. State the use of each the following section or combination of keys on the keyboard:
a). Function keys.
b). Numeric keypad.
c). Arrow keys.
d). Control key.
4. Name 3 main sections of the Keyboard that are used in typing.
5. What is the difference between Function keys and Special PC operation keys?
6. State the functions of the following keys on the keyboard.
i). Caps Lock.
ii). Spacebar.
iii). Shift Key.
iv). Enter Key.
v). Backspace.
vi). Delete.
vii). Escape.
viii). Num Lock.
7. Give two uses of the SHIFT key.

MOUSE.
A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -
1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor
to move on the screen as required.
3). The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.
4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.

Using the Mouse.

40
To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table.
When you move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer moves across
the computer screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the
mouse.
To select an option/ item on the screen;
 Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
 Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.
When using the mouse, observe the following rules:
a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost
fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the right
button.

Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.

Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the
item you want to select.
To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left
button (Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly
accomplish common tasks.
Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an
object/item on the screen.
Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without
moving the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right-clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the
right mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection.
This list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is
because; the commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.
Shortcut menu:
 A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.
 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to
another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
1. Point to the item you want to drag.
2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still
holding down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to „drop‟ the item in its new location.

Review Questions.
1. What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?
2. State THREE advantages of using a Mouse instead of a keyboard.
3. Explain the meaning of the following terms associated with the use of a mouse:

41
 (a). Mouse pointer.
(b). Clicking.
(c). Double-clicking.
(d). Right-clicking.
(e). Drag and drop.
4. Distinguish between:
(a). Click and right-click.
(b). Double-clicking and dragging.
5. What is a Shortcut menu?

LECTURE FOUR
THE SOFTWARE
Software (programs) refers a set of instructions that directs a computer what to do.
The two main types of computer software are:
a) System software
b) Application software
a). System software – type of software that enables the computer to manage its
resource. It is further divided into;
Firmware - system software fixed into hardware components e.g. BIOS.
Network - type of computer software that enables computers to communicate
over a network
Utility– used to manage computer files, diagnose and repair computer
problems e.g. antivirus, compilers, diagnostic tools etc
Operating systems – provides the interface between the user, the hardware
and the application software
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b). Application software – type of software that solve specific problems or
perform specific tasks. It is divided into;
Off – the – shelf application software – programs developed by software
engineers and made available in the market for sale. Normally sold in bundles
called program suites e.g. the Microsoft Office programs suite.
In – house –developed packages –also referred to as tailor –made –
application software. Designed or tailored to solve problems specific to an
organisation.

Liveware (Orgware/people)
Refers the computer professionals e.g. network administrators, programmers and
computer end-users

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OR
Software refers to the various programs & data used in a computer system that enable it
perform a no. of specific functions.
Software instructs the computer on what to do and how to do it.
All programs (software) are written using programming languages.
Programmers usually write programs in Source Language (a language that is like broken
English). The Source language is then converted into Machine language; the language that
the computer can understand.
Machine language is usually in form of bits (series of 0‟s & 1‟s).

SOFTWARE FLEXIBILITY.
The Software used on a given computer is said to be flexible, i.e. it is relatively easy to
change.
For example, in a home computer used for playing games, instead of buying a new machine
each time a new game is needed, you only need to „load‟ a new program into the machine.
Again, it is relatively easy to change between games at will.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE.

Computer software can be broadly classified/ divided into 2 categories: -
(1). System Software (programs).
(2). Application software (programs).
Note. Programming languages can also be considered part of software, because they form
the basis of grammar on which the program‟s development is based.
The following figure illustrates the computer software family tree.

Exercise (a).
1. (i). What is computer software?
(ii). What are the characteristics of software?
2. What is meant by “Software flexibility”?
3. What is used to write programs?
4. (a). What name is given to the language in which programs are written?
(b). Give the name of the language that is understood by the computer.
44
Exercise (b).
1. (a). Define software.
(b). Draw a software family tree.
2. State the THREE types of software.
SYSTEMS SOFTWARE.
This is a set of programs, which is developed & installed in a computer system for the
purpose of developing other programs, and to enhance the functional capabilities of the
computer system.
System programs control the operation of the various hardware parts & make them available
to the user. They also enable users make efficient use of the computing facilities in order to
solve their problems.
System programs manage the computer resources such as Printers, Memory, disks, etc,
automate its operations & make easier the writing, testing and debugging of users‟ programs.
They also control the various application programs that we use to achieve a particular kind of
work.
Notes.
 System software are developed & installed by the manufacturer of the computer hardware.
This is because to write them, a programmer needs in-depth knowledge of the hardware
details of the specific computer.
 Some of the system software are supposed to put initial „life‟ into the computer hardware
and are therefore, held permanently in the ROM.
Program routines that are permanently maintained in the computer‟s memory are called
Resident software/ routines.
 System programs dictate how the programs relate to the hardware, and are therefore said
to be Hardware-oriented.
System programs consist of Operating Systems, Language translators (Assemblers,
Compilers), System utilities, and Device drivers.
System software is further sub-classified as:
(a). Operating system.
(b). System utilities.
EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM PROGRAMS.
(a). FIRMWARE (or Microprogram).
It refers to a series of special program instructions.
The Microprogram is held in the Control Unit (CU), and is used to interpret the external
Instruction set of a computer.
The Instruction set is the list of instructions available to the programmer that can be
used to give direct orders to the computer.
Firmware is fixed into the ROM, and cannot be changed.
Firmware is usually a combination of hardware and software. It deals with very low-
level machine operations, such as moving data, making comparison, etc, and thus acts as
an essential substitute for additional hardware.
(b). OPERATING SYSTEMS.
An Operating System is a set of programs designed to ensure the smooth running of the
computer system.

45
 They are developed to manage all parts of the basic computer hardware & provide a
more hospitable interface to users and their programs.
It controls the way the way the software uses the hardware. This control ensures that the
computer system operates in a systematic, reliable & efficient manner as intended by the
user.
OS are supplied by the computer manufacturer. They are designed to reduce the amount
of time that the computer is idle, and also the amount of programming required to use a
computer.

(c). UTILITY SOFTWARE (Service programs).

Modern OS does a lot more than manage the hardware efficiently. It normally provides
the user with facilities that make the job of developing programs or doing something
useful on the computer much easier.
A Utility program is a program, which performs a generally useful task.
Utility programs are used by end-users to perform many of the routine functions &
operations such as, sorting, merging, program debugging, manage computer files,
diagnose and repair computer problems that occur, etc. They are normally supplied the
manufacturers to enable the computer to run more smoothly & efficiently.
Most OS have many of the Utility programs needed to assist with the upkeep of the
computer. For example, DOS 6.x includes utilities for managing memory, protecting a
system of viruses, backing up files, restoring accidentally deleted files, etc.
Some of the common Utility programs are those concerned with: -
 Searching.
They help to search for a file from one or more specified records. For example, in a
Sales record, the Search facility assists in finding the salesperson with the highest
sales.
 Moving data from one medium to another.
For example, from tape to disk & vice versa, or from a floppy disk to hard disk.
 Spell-checking of words.
After a document is typed, the words in the document are checked against those in a
„custom dictionary‟ in secondary storage. If any word used is not found in the
dictionary, a warning is given indicating a possible spelling error.
 Formatting programs.
Before a floppy disk can be used, it must be „initialized‟ or formatted. This means
that, the system must put certain information on the disk, which helps with the
storing and retrieving user‟s programs & data at a later time.
Therefore, a computer system that uses disks would have a utility program for
initializing or formatting these disks.
 Debugging (removing program errors).
The programming process usually includes debugging (removing errors from) a
program. Statements of the program are studied to determine the cause of an error.
Again, useful information can be obtained by studying the contents of memory at the
time the program failed.
Examples of the common Service programs.

46
(i). Text Editors.
(ii). Language Translators.
(iii). Diagnostic Tools/ Programs.
(iv). Sort utility.
(v). Merge utility.
(vi). Copy utility.
(vii). Core/ Dump utility.
(viii). Linker.
(ix). Loader.
(x). Library Program.
(xi). Database management system (DBMS) – a utility program that manages data
contents.

Text Editor.
This is a utility program that enables/ allows users to create files in which they can store
any textual information they desire using the computer.
Once the files are created, the Text editor provides facilities which allow the user modify
(make changes to) the files; such as adding, deleting, or changing information in the file.
Data can be copied from one file to another. When a file is no longer needed, it can be
deleted from the system.
The operations of the Text editor are controlled by an interactive OS that provides a
„dialogue‟ between the user and the Operating system.
The Text editors are used to create, e.g. program statements through the Keyboard
connected to the computer. Editing can then be carried out using the Edit keys on the
Keyboard or by using a sequence of commands.
There are 3 major classes of Text editors:
(i). Character text editors – deals with 1 character at a time.
(ii). Line text editors – deals with a whole line at a time.
(iii). Page text editors - deals with a whole screen full of text at a time.
Note. The Text Editor is probably the most often used utility program of an OS.
Sort utility.
The Sort utility is used to arrange the records within a file according to some
predetermined sequence. The arrangement can either be in Ascending or Descending
order of the alphabets or numerals.
For example, a user may wish to sort data into some desired sequence, such as; sort a
student file into ascending order by name or into descending order by average grade or
sort a mailing list by postal code, etc.
Merge utility.
Merging is the process by which the records in two or more sorted files are brought
together into one larger file in such a way that, the resulting file is also sorted.
The Merge utility is used to influence the combining of the contents of 2 or more input
files to produce one output file.
Copy utility.

47
It is usually advisable to maintain duplicate copies of the operational files so that in case
something goes wrong with the original files, then their contents can be recreated from
the duplicate/ backup copy or copies.
The duplication process, i.e. copying the contents of one file to another is done through
the influence of the Copy utility. The copying can be from one media to a different
media or from one media to another media of the same make, e.g. from diskette to hard
disk or from a diskette to another diskette.
Dump utility.
The term Dumping is used to describe the copying of the contents of the main memory.
The Dump utility is therefore, used to transfer (copy) the contents of the computer‟s
internal memory into a storage media, e.g. the disk or through the Printer (to get a Hard
copy output). The result of dumping is that the main memory „image‟ is reflected by the
stored or the printed contents.
Language Translator.
Programs written in high-level languages have to be translated into binary code (Machine
language), before the computer can run these programs.
A Translator is a utility program written & supplied by the computer manufacturers, used
to convert the Source Codes (the program statements written in any of the computer
programming languages) to Object Codes (their computer language equivalents).
Each language needs its own translator. Most OS provide users with Compilers or
Interpreters for the common high-level languages. In addition, an Assembler is usually
available for those wishing to write programs in the Assembly language of the particular
machine.
Note. These translators are not part of the OS, but they are designed to be used under the
operating system & are accessible to it.
Linker.
Computer programs are usually developed in Modules or Subroutines (i.e. program
segments meant to carry out the specific relevant tasks).
During the program translation into their machine code, these modules are translated
separately into their object code equivalents.
The Linker is a utility software that accepts the separately translated program modules as
its input and logically combines them into one logical module, known as the Load
Module that has got all the required bits & pieces for the translated program to be obeyed
by the computer hardware.
Loader.
The Loader is a utility program that transfers the load module (i.e. the linker output) into
the computer memory, ready for it to be executed by the computer hardware.
The transfer process is from the backing store, e.g. magnetic disk into the computer‟s
main memory. This is because some systems generate object codes for the program, but
instead of being obeyed straight away, they store them into the media.
Diagnostic Tools (Programs).
Diagnostic tools/programs usually come with the translators and are used to detect &
correct system faults –both hardware and software.
They provide facilities which help users to debug (remove errors from) their programs
more easily.
48
 E.g., Dr.Watson is a diagnostic tool from Microsoft that takes a snapshot/ photograph of
your system whenever a system fault occurs. It intercepts software faults, identifies the
software that faulted, and offers a detailed description of the cause & how to repair the
fault.
Other diagnostic tools for detecting hardware faults are, Norton Utilities, PC Tools,
QAPlus, etc.
(d). PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
A computer usually „works‟ by executing a series of instructions called the Program. A
Computer Program is simply a sequence of numeric codes („0‟s & „1‟s). Each of these
codes can be converted directly by the hardware into simple instructions.
The set of instructions that the computer can recognize is referred to as the Instruction
Set.
A Computer program can be written in a variety of programming languages.
A Programming language is a language used in writing a computer program. The
languages must be understood by the computer for it to execute.
The languages are broadly classified into 5 categories: -
(i). Machine (computer) language.
(ii). Low-level programming language (also referred to as Assembly language).
(iii). High-level programming languages.
(iv). 4th Generation languages (4GL’s).
(v). 5th Generation languages (5 GL’s).

1. Machine language (1ST Generation Computer language).

This is the language that is readily understood by the computer.
Machine language uses machine codes (binary digits) that consist of 0‟s & 1‟s.
2. Low-level languages/ Assembly language (2ND Generation languages).
Assembly language is very close to the vocabulary of the machine language.
It uses many English-like acronyms (Mnemonic codes or labels). Words like
ADD, SUM could be used in programs, and a program called an Assembler
translates these words into Machine language.
It was developed (in early 1950‟s) to speed up programming.
The Assembly language instructions are Symbolic representations of the machine
code (computer language) instructions.
Comments can be incorporated into the program statements to make them easier to
be understood by the human programmers.
RD
3. High-level languages (3 Generation languages).
These are languages developed to solve the problems encountered in low-level
programming languages.
The grammar of High-level languages is very close to the human being‟s natural
languages vocabulary, hence easy for the human beings to understand and use.
They allow a problem solution to be specified in a human & problem- oriented
manner.
The programs are able to run in any family of computers provided the relevant
translator is installed.

49
 Programs written in high-level languages are shorter than their low-level
equivalents, since one statement translates into several machine code instructions.
Examples.
* COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language).
* FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation).
* BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
* PASCAL.
* C.
* C++ (Object C).
* LISP (LISt Processing).
* LOGO.
* COROL.
* RPG (Report Program Generator).
* SNOBOL (String Oriented Symbolic Language).

Exercise I.
1. (a). Define System software.
(b). Name and explain the main categories of system software.
(c). Name THREE programs which can be classified as „System programs‟
2. Write short notes on the following:
(a). Text editor.
(b). Linker.
(c). Loader.
3. (a). What is a Programming language?
(b). Identify the various types of programming languages.

Exercise II.
1. Describe a Firmware.
2. What is an Operating System?
3. (a). What is meant by „Machine language‟?
(b). What is the difference between machine and Assembly language?
4. (a). Most computer programming is carried out using High-level or Third generation
languages. What is a High-level language?
(b). Name THREE popular High-level programming languages.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE.
Application programs are written to solve specific problems (or to handle the needs) of the
end-user in particular areas.
They interface between the user & system programs to allow the user to perform specific
tasks.
Application software helps to solve the problems of the computer user, and are therefore said
to be user-oriented.
They are designed specifically to carry out particular tasks. For example, they can be used to
type & create professional documents such as letters, solve mathematical equations, draw
pictures, etc.
Notes.

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 Application programs can be written by the user, programmers employed by the user, or
by a Software house (a company specializing in writing software).
 Application programs can be written with very little knowledge of the hardware details
of a specific computer, and can run on several different computers with little or no
modification.
Application software falls into 2 main categories/groups: -
(i). General-purpose packages (Application packages).
(ii). Special-purpose applications (User programs).
General-purpose packages (Application packages).
They are usually pre-written programs made for non-specialists, in the home or business, and
may be used for a wide variety of purposes.
They are off-shelf programs that are developed & supplied by manufacturers, Bureaux &
software houses at a price.
They provide a general set of facilities that are used in dealing with similar types of tasks,
which arise in a wide variety of different application problems.
The range, quality and variety of the packages are continuously changing.
Examples of Application packages are: -
* Word processors * Spreadsheets.
* Databases * Graphic packages, etc.
Package - a set of fully described & related programs stored together to perform a specific
task. They are developed to solve particular problems in one or more organizations with little
or no alterations.
Advantages of Application packages as compared to other forms of applications.
(i). Packages save a lot time & programming effort, because the company buys the
software when it is ready-made.
(ii). Are relatively cheap to the user. These programs are usually sold in large numbers.
Again, the cost of developing the programs is effectively shared between the purchases.
(iii). They are appropriate for a large variety of applications.
(iv). Most packages are menu-driven, i.e., the user is provided with a set of options
displayed on the screen; hence, they are easy to learn & use, making them suitable for
people with little or no computing knowledge.
(v). Packages are extensively/thoroughly tested & debugged (has all errors corrected), i.e. if
it is a popular package, it is usually tried & approved by a large no. of people. The
testing is done by a pool of professional programmers and analysts.
(vi). Are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
(vii). Relatively quick results are obtained.
(viii). The packages are generally portable. In addition, there is usually a maintenance
agreement between the supplier & the buyer.
(ix). Application packages can be rented, especially by users who might require to use them
only periodically, hence cutting on costs, e.g. maintenance.
Disadvantages (drawbacks) of Application packages.
(i). The package is produced to meet general needs (a wide variety of user‟s needs) &
therefore, may not be ideal for a particular customer/ company.
(ii). The purchaser has no direct control over the package, because he/she is not involved in
developing it.
(iii). Packages cannot be modified.
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 The user may not be free to correct any routines/ functions of the package, because
there is always a maintenance guarantee & the application of the developer‟s copyright
acts.
(iv). A package may include extra facilities, which are not required by an individual user or
company.
(v). Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the task at hand.
(vi). In the case of Spreadsheet or Database, the user must still develop the application,
which requires a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the package, which are
usually quite extensive.
(vii). The user must still provide documentation for the particular application that he/she has
created.
(viii). It is quite easy to forget the commands to use the package, especially if it is not used
frequently.
Special-purpose applications (User-developed/ in-house programs).
They are written to meet the specific needs of an organization.
They are usually customized (modified/ tailored) programs written by the user or a Software
house under contract, to perform a specific job.
They are developed by users to solve only the specific processing tasks in one organization,
and may not suit the needs of other organizations, hence the name In-house or Tailor-made
programs.
They are designed for a particular identifiable group of users such as Estate agents, farmers,
Hoteliers, etc.
They are usually aimed at providing all the facilities required for particular class of
application problem such as Payroll / Stock control.
Since the programs are occupation- specific; they sell fewer & tend to be more expensive.
Advantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). The user gets a well tried & tested program, which he/she is able to use with
confidence.
(ii). The user is able to quickly implement the results obtained from the use of the package.
Disadvantages of Special-purpose applications.
(i). Purchaser has direct control over the package, as he is involved in its production.
(ii). Are very expensive.

Factors to consider when buying an Application package.

The following are some of the factors that a buyer who is intending to acquire an Application
package should consider: -
1). Cost of the package in relation to the expected benefits against the cost of developing in-
house programs.
2). Compatibility: - (fitting) of the package with/within the existing computer resources,
e.g., hardware, software, etc.
3). Whether there is maintenance support from the suppliers.
4). Whether there is accompanying documentation (the descriptions), which helps in using,
maintaining & installing the package.
5). The portability of the package, i.e. whether the package can be used on different families
of computers.

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6). A good package is that which is easy to learn & use. This helps to determine the
duration of training that might be involved & the subsequent cost of training.
7). Before buying a particular package, its current users should be interviewed to find out
whether the package is successful and famous in the market.
Exercise.
1. (a). What do you mean by Application software?
(b). Describe the main forms of Application software.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION PACKAGES.

WORD PROCESSORS.
A Word processor is a computer system with a special piece of software used for the
production of documents.
Word processors can be used to prepare & produce letters, documents, books, articles,
mailing lists and any material that involves text.
Common examples of Word processors: -
* Microsoft Word. * WordPerfect.
* Lotus Word Pro. * WordStar.
* Wang writer.
Depending on the task & the type of output required, either Text Editors or Word processors
can be used.
TEXT EDITORS.
A Text editor is the simplest Word processor. Text editors are mainly used to write small
notes, memos and programs.
A Text editor is used to type text without any special formatting; however, the document can
be saved, retrieved and modified at will.

The 2 types of Text Editors.

(i). Line Editors - allow users to work with one line of text at a time.
An example of a line editor is the DOS COPY CON.
(ii). Screen Editors. These are full screen editors that allow users to work with large files of
up to 64 KB in size.
They use Special keys that can be used to Cut, Copy, Paste & Delete blocks of text.
They also have a Search & Replace facility, which can be used to easily search for a
specific text and replace it with something else.

SPREADSHHETS.
Spreadsheets are application packages used for manipulation of figures. A spreadsheet
application lets the user enter numerical data.
A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be
made. The figures or text are inserted into the Cells. A cell is referred to by the column
letter and row number (e.g., A1 refers to the first cell).
The package is suited for Accounts oriented work since it has in-built formulas that enable
users to perform complex calculations.
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 Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means for financial planning.
- Using Spreadsheets, Sales & purchases can be recorded, Invoices produced and
statements compiled.
- The management can keep track of the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods dispatched.
 Researchers can compile and analyse their results.
 Teachers can compile their students‟ marks and produce results.
 Clerks and secretaries can easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as
required.
Examples of Spreadsheet packages in the market today: -
* Microsoft Excel. * Lotus 1-2-3.
* Quattro Pro.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

A Database is a tool that is used to store large volumes of data in a compact & well-organized
manner.
A Database application can be used to store, track and manage files/ records containing
related information.
They generally allow users to create database files, enter data, organize that data in various
ways, and create reports.
You can create a database for customer‟s records, financial records, library records, personal
records, etc. The database will help you sort through your records & compile lists based on
any criteria you like to establish.
Examples of Database management system programs;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro.
* Dbase. * Paradox.

GRAPHICS PROGRAMS.
Graphics applications are used to create artwork that can be printed or incorporated into other
applications such as, Desktop publishing packages and Word processing programs.
They can be used to create simple line drawings, charts or presentations.
There are different kinds of Graphics programs, all designed to help the user create drawings
and illustrations that can be used for different purposes.
Some of the basic categories of Graphics programs include: -
(a). Clip Art Programs that come with pre-drawn artwork that you can simply copy into
any document.
(b). Draw & Paint programs that have tools you need to create your own artwork.
(c). Computer Aided Design (CAD) Programs, which are sophisticated versions of draw
and paint packages that you use to create detailed images, such as schematics and
Blueprints. CAD programs often include 3-D imaging.

(d). Presentation Graphics software.

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 Presentation Graphics software is mainly used to create & design outputs (usually
Slides) for presentations. They can be used, for instance, by an advertising agency for
creating advertisements for Television. These could be sales presentations, management
reports and product demonstrations.
Features of a Presentation program.
√ You can create slides, which can be used in a slide show.
√ You can incorporate ClipArt pictures in a slide (ClipArt is a collection of ready-
made graphics you can add to your presentation).
√ Presentation Graphics software allows the user to draw charts, graphs & other
pictorial data using in-built objects such as, rectangles, ellipses, lines, etc. The user
can also add text, and scanned images/ photographs. All the objects can be
transformed by sizing, rotating & flipping.
The pictures can be decorated using different colours & shadings, making the
presentation look great.
To create a Slide show, all the pages/ slides required should be created first. The user
can then arrange them in the desired sequence to form a complete presentation (or Slide
show). Special effects can be added to each slide as it is activated & deactivated during
the presentation.
Examples of Presentation Graphics packages: -
* Microsoft PowerPoint. * Corel Draw.
* Adobe Photoshop. * Harvard Graphics.
* Lotus Freelance Graphics. * Adobe Illustrator.

DESKTOP PUBLISHERS (DTP).

Desktop publishing is used to create documents that look like typeset professional
publications.
Usually, Desktop publishing programs combine data from other applications such as, text
from Word processors and artwork from a Graphics package.
DTP is used to handle documents involving printed text, diagrams and images.
DTP programs can be used to create Newsletters, Reports, Books, & any other documents
that may require page layout.
Common features of a Desktop publishing package.
√ Page formatting features that are used to set Margins, Headers, Footers, Columns, and
other page design features.
√ Templates that save a page layout for use in other documents.
√ Text editing features that enable the user to make changes to text, set fonts & styles, move
and position text on a page.
√ Built-in fonts that give the user printed materials a unique and original appearance.
Examples of Desktop publishing packages: -
* Adobe PageMaker. * FrameMaker.
* Microsoft Publisher.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD).

CAD is mainly used in Engineering design & Architectural drawings. It is used by engineers,
scientists, architects to speed up their design process.

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CAD is widely used in Computer simulation.
SIMULATION
Computer simulation involves trying to predict what will happen in a real-life situation
from a model of that situation.
For example, a CAD program may be used by;
(i). An Architect to „try out‟ various designs of a building.
(ii). CAD is widely used in the design of electronic circuits, ships, roads & cars.
(iii). When designing a bridge, an Engineer would like to know the effects of various loading
conditions on the bridge without actually having to build the bridge.
(iv). An Aeronautical engineer to determine how a different tail design will affect the
performance of an aircraft.
The Aircraft designer would like to know the effect on lift, say, of changing the shape
of the wings or the tail without having to build an aircraft with these changes.
A computer is a useful tool in providing answers to these questions.
(v). It is used in computers in the manufacture of industrial products, in what is referred to as
Computer Aided Manufacturer (CAM).
(vi). CAD programs are also used to simulate the timing of traffic lights or a nuclear attack
for testing national defenses.
CAD makes it easy to make drawings & modify them at will, allowing the designer to focus
more on the actual design, the specifications and functionality of the final product.
Note. The results obtained depend heavily on the models used. The more accurate the model,
the
more reliable the results will be.
Examples of CAD packages: -
* AutoCAD. * ArchCAD.
* Architectural Desktop. * Planix Home Designer 3D Deluxe.
* SoftPlan. * Draffics.
*3dsMacs.

MULTIMEDIA PROGRAMS.
Multimedia refers to a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation and video.
Multimedia is essential in many software applications. For example, Word processing and
Desktop Publishing documents can be enhanced with graphics, photos and charts. Sound and
animation can be added to make presentations exciting.
Multimedia subjects include; children‟s learning, History, Geography, hobbies, sports and
games.
Multimedia software comes on a Compact Disk (CD-ROM), because they require a large
storage space.
The minimum requirements for Multimedia software as set by the Multimedia Personal
Computer (MPC) Marketing Council include: -
 CD-ROM Drive.
 Hard disk drive with sufficient storage capacity.
 A 486, or Pentium processor.
 At least 4, 8, or 16 MB of RAM memory.
 A 256 colour or a better Video Adapter.

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 A Sound card with Speakers or headphones. A Microphone (is optional) if you want to
record your own sounds.
Examples of Multimedia packages: -
* Animation Master 99. * 3D Studio Max.
* Extreme 3D. * Morpher.

COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE.
Communication software is used to exchange information, messages and ideas with people
around the world who have PCs equipped with Modems & communications software.
To use a communications package, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.
The basic purpose of a communication program is to control the way the computer transmits
& receives data.
Examples of communications packages: -
* WinFax Pro. * Zoc.
* ProComm Plus. * HyperAccess.

INTERNET SOFTWARE.
E-Mail (Electronic mail).
E-mail is a quick, convenient, efficient & cheap way of communicating with both individuals
and groups.
E-mail is much faster than regular mail. With e-mail, the message can reach the recipient in
hrs, minutes or even seconds.
E-mail is also convenient since you can send your messages when it is convenient for you
and your recipients respond at their convenient times.
Examples of e-mail packages: -
* Microsoft Exchange. * Outlook Express.
* Netscape Mail/Messenger.
Note. All e-mail software must have the capability of writing messages, sending & receiving
e-mail.

Browsers.
Browsers are software that enable the user to surf (log in / use) the World Wide Web (www).
The WWW provides users on computer networks with a consistent means to access a variety
of media in a simplified fashion.
The most commonly used browsers are: -
* Internet Explorer. * Netscape.
* Cello Internet browser. * NCSA Habanero.

MONEY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE.

Money management programs are designed specifically for working with money.
They have features that help people balance their Cheque books, manage a budget, keep track
of bills & payments, and control monies being spent.
Money management software falls into 2 categories: -
(a). Personal Finance programs.
They help people set up personal budgets, plan retirements & pay bills electronically.

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 Examples; * Quicken.
* Microsoft Money.
(b). Accounting programs.
Used by businesses to help them manage their financial affairs. They help to organize
the accounting & spending plans of small businesses.
These programs keep track of expenditures, payrolls, inventory and operating income.
The programs usually include a budget system, cheque register, report system and
savings planner.
Examples; * Point-of- sale. * DAC Easy.
* Acc Pac. * Peachtree Accounting.
* Systematics. * Pegasus.

PERSONAL ORGANISERS.
Personal Organizers act as electronic Secretaries or Assistants. They are used to store
addresses & phone numbers, schedule meetings and appointments.
Examples of Personal Organisers are: -
* Organiser. * Goldmine.
* Ecco Pro. * Day-Timer Organiser.
* Day Runner Planner. * Sidekick Deluxe.
* Sharkware Pro. * Outlook.
Payroll programs - used to generate the payroll of many businesses.
Stock-control Programs - used by businesses to manage their stock efficiently.
Educational Programs - used in schools for teaching various subjects.
Administration Programs - used by organizations for maintaining records of employees,
customers, clients, students, creditors, members, etc.
Library Control Programs - used by libraries for maintaining records of books &
borrowers
in order to provide faster & more efficient service.

SOFTWARE SUITES.
A Software Suite is a group of different compatible applications sold by one software
company.
The programs are each individual applications, but they usually work in a similar manner,
and have some common features, such as menu commands, buttons, or keystrokes.
Although each of the programs in a suite can be purchased separately, they cost less when
purchased as a bundle.
Typically, a suite includes a Word processor, a Spreadsheet, a Database, Presentation
graphics applications, Personal Information Managers, and E-mail applications.
The applications are integrated with one another, making it easy to use them together and to
transfer data from one into the others.
Examples of Software Suites are: -
* Microsoft Office. * LotusSmart Suite.
* WordPerfect Suite. * Microsoft Works.
* ClarisWorks.

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Exercise (a).
1. (a). Briefly discuss the two broad categories of software.
(b). Giving examples, name 3 different types of computer programs found on a typical
computer systems.
2. Give 4 examples of System software and Applications software.
3. Why do people prefer special–purpose applications (developed applications) to general-
purpose applications (bought off-the-shelf)?
4. Give THREE factors to consider when choosing an Application package.

Exercise (b).
1. (a). What is a program?
(b). Outline the difference between the two classes of programs.
2. Outline the range and functions of Application programs.
3. Name FIVE programs which can be classified as „Application programs‟.
4. What are Text Editors and where are they most commonly used?
5. (a). What are Spreadsheets?
(b). Name THREE commonly used spreadsheet packages.
6. (a). What are Database management system software?
(b). Give 3 examples of database software.
7. (a). List four categories of Graphics packages.
(b). State some of the essential features of a Graphics package.
(c). Give THREE examples of the most commonly used Presentation Graphics package.
8. What is Desktop Publishing? How does it differ from Word processing?
9. State one computer software used in industrial systems. Give examples.
10. (a). What is Multimedia?
(b). State any four devices of a computer that can be classified under Multimedia
devices.
(c). List four applications of multimedia programs.
(d). What are the minimum hardware requirements to run multimedia applications?
11. What are communication software used for?
12. (a). What are the advantages of e-mail?
(b). What is a browser and what is it used for?
13. What are Software Suites? Give the advantages of using suites?
Exercise (c).
1. Briefly distinguish between System Software and Application Software.
2. (a). What are Application packages?
(b). Identify FIVE types of Application software that may be installed in a
microcomputer.
Briefly explain what each type of software you have listed does, and give two
examples where necessary.
(c). List THREE advantages and disadvantages of general-purpose application software
as
compared to the other forms of applications.
3. Name FOUR major application packages. Outline four features of each.
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of Integrated packages/Software Suites over
Standard packages.

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SOFTWARE AS A PRODUCT
Software is normally purchased directly or indirectly from either a computer manufacturer or
a „Software house‟.
A Software house is a company that specializes in producing software and related services.
When software is purchased for use on a particular computer, the purchaser obtains a copy of
the program plus a no. of other items of documentation.
Software may therefore refer to the various programs used in a computer system together
with their associated documentation.
The purchaser of software usually pays for some or all of the following: -
(a). LICENCE.
The purchaser pays a Licence Fee, which gives him/her the right to use the software on
a particular computer or a specified no. of computers on a particular site.
Alternatively, a Site Licence may be paid, which entitles the purchaser to use the
software on any computer at a particular space. Sometimes, the licence may specify the
no. of users that may use the software at any one time, and in case of a Single-user
licence, the users‟ name must be registered.
Note. Using software in breach of licence agreements is a serious offence for which the
user may be sued for damages or subjected to criminal prosecution.
(b). INSTALLATION GUIDE.
The guide provides information about what hardware is needed to enable the programs
to run satisfactorily.
It tries to describe the procedures to be followed in order to set up the software, so that it
can be used satisfactorily & efficiently on a particular kind of computer.
(c). INSTALLATION OF THE SOFTWARE.
If the purchaser is not an expert in setting up the software, he pays an additional fee to
have the software installed.
(d). MAINTENANCE UPDATES.
Sometimes, faults called Bugs may light up sometime after the software has been
delivered and put to use.
A good supplier will make every effort to correct bugs as and/or when they are
discovered & will provide a new corrected version of the program containing the
necessary “Bug fixes”.
The correction of bugs (i.e. maintenance) is often combined with enhancements to the
software to make it better in some way. Enhancements normally involve increased
“functionality”, i.e. making it work faster.
Licensed purchasers may get some of these changes provided free of charge, perhaps
during the 1st year of use. Subsequently, the purchaser may be required to pay an
annual fee for maintenance and updates.
(e). USER GUIDES.
A User Guide is usually a manual provided for the end-user to enable him/her to learn
how to use the software. Such guides usually use suitable examples to take the user
through the stages of carrying out various tasks with the software.
(f). A REFERENCE MANUAL.

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 A reference manual is normally intended to be used by a user who already knows how
to use the software, but who needs to be reminded about a particular point or who wants
to obtain more detailed information about a particular reference.
Reference manuals normally have topics organized in alphabetical order.
(g). A QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE.
This may be a single sheet or card, which the user may keep for help with common tasks
carried out with the software.
(h). TRAINING.
The software supplier may provide training courses on how to use the software.
Sometimes, some initial training is provided free as part of initial purchase.
(i). MEMBERSHIP OF A USER GROUP.
A User group is a club for individuals or organizations who use a particular hardware
or software product. The club is often run and partly sponsored by the supplier.
Members of user groups receive Newsletters, which enable them to find out more about
the product & how to use it.

Question.
List 8 things that the purchaser of software might require as part of the purchase.

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 COMPUTER VIRUSES.
A Computer virus is a program (or a piece of software), which attaches itself to another
program or a system.
It is designed specifically to copy itself to other programs & cause some undesirable effect on
the programs (or damage them) without the knowledge of the user. E.g., it may attach itself
to the FORMAT command, and be run every time you format a diskette.
A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks: -
(i). To replicate (duplicate/ copy) itself from one computer system to another.
(ii). To locate itself within a computer system making it possible for it to amend/ destroy
programs & data files, by interfering with the normal processes of the Operating
system.
The program is written by people who are cruel, unethical and malicious.

RISKS POSED BY VIRUSES.

The risks posed by viruses and the primary impacts of a virus attack can be broadly classified
into 2 categories: -
Destructive viruses.
Type of Destruction Symptoms
Massive Destruction The virus attacks the format of disks, or Delete all files on the
disk making any damage on programs or data on that disk
unrecoverable.
Partial Destruction The virus erases & modifies a specific portion of a disk affecting
any files stored in that location.
Selective Destruction The virus erases & modifies specific files or file groups.
Random Havoc It randomly changes data on a disk or in memory during normal
program execution. They also change keystroke values, or data
from other I/O devices.
Network Saturation The virus systematically uses up computer memory or space thus
impeding (slowing down/ obstructing) performance or causing
the system to crash.
Non-destructive viruses.
These viruses do not cause any destruction, but are usually annoying.
What Non-destructive viruses do?
1. They might lock the Keyboard.
2. Change keystroke values (e.g. changing the effect of the SHIFT key).
3. Display an obnoxious (loathsome/ horrible/ intolerable) message on the screen.
4. Change the display colours.
5. Delete characters displayed on a visual display.

SOURCES OF VIRUSES (Virus transmission - ways in which a virus can spread).

The most common sources of virus transmission are: -
(a). Contact with contaminated systems.
Any diskette used on a contaminated system could become contaminated. If the same
diskette is used on another system, then the virus will spread.
(b). Pirated Software.

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 The use of rented disks containing Pirated computer software introduces the risk that the
software may be contaminated by a virus code or might have been amended to perform
some other destructive function, which may affect your system.

(c). Infected Proprietary Software.

There are cases of virus programs being introduced and contaminating software under
development in laboratories and then being installed onto diskettes containing the
finished software product.
(d). Fake Games.
Some virus programs pose as game software. Since many people like playing games on
computers, then virus can spread very fast. It can take a very short period for a game
program to spread across many countries.
(e). Freeware and Shareware.
Freeware & Shareware programs are commonly available from Bulletin Board Systems
(BBS). Using a Modem & a Telephone to dial into a public bulletin board system &
download programs onto your system may cause transmission.
Generally, a registration fee is requested to be sent directly to the author.
Such programs should be treated with care. They should first be used in a controlled
environment until it is clear that the program actually does what it is supposed to do and
does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.
(f). Updates of Software distributed using Networks.
Distribution of software through networks is an obvious target for virus programmers as
they provide a built-in method for widespread & anonymous (unidentified, unknown,
secret) propagation.

Symptoms of a Virus.
The presence of a virus can be indicated if one or more of the following symptoms appear on
your computer.
(i). Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical (surprising) messages appearing on the screen.
(ii). Programs taking longer than usual to load.
(iii). Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
(iv). Unusual Error messages occurring more frequently.
(v). Less memory available than usual, e.g. Base memory may read less than 640K.
(vi). Access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
(vii). Programs or files disappearing mysteriously.
(viii). Executable files or data files changing size for no obvious reason.
(ix). Changes of disk volume IDs.
(x). Frequent Read/Write errors.
(xi). Computer hags (gets stuck) anytime when executing or running a program.
Any evidence of these or similar events should be of an immediate concern. The PC should
be isolated at once and investigated.

HOW VIRUSES WORK.

A virus infects a machine for which it was written, i.e. a virus that was written for a
Macintosh computer cannot infect an IBM PC or a Clone.
A virus infects files containing programs; they do not infect files containing data.
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A virus-infected program attaches itself to the bottom of a normal useful program. When the
normal program is run, the portion containing the virus is the first to be run, thus infecting
other uninfected programs.
The most common type of virus is the Boot Sector Virus, which is common to most
diskettes, e.g. disk A: The virus hides in the Boot sector of the diskette (the area of the disk,
which is automatically loaded when the computer starts up). The virus resides in RAM from
where it can infect the boot sector of your hard disk & every floppy disk you use.

Prevention against Viruses (Ways to avoid viruses).

The following steps should be followed to prevent virus infection: -
(i). Never accept software from anyone.
(ii). Never download software from a bulletin board or from Internet.
(iii). If possible, avoid using one diskette on several machines.
(iv). Scan all boot diskettes using an up-to-date Anti-virus program and Write-protect them.
(v). Practice protection rules with your computer.
Note. If you receive an alien diskette or download a program from bulletin board onto your
hard
disk, scan it with an Anti-virus; the best being the scan from McAfee Associates.
If you suspect that your computer has been infected, reboot your computer from a clean,
write-protected floppy disk.
How to prepare a clean floppy disk for rebooting.
1. Format a clean floppy disk & put a copy of the MS-DOS Operating system onto the disk.
FORMAT A:/S
2. Copy your virus scan program onto the floppy disk, i.e. this creates a Rescue Disk.
3. Set the Write-Protect on the diskette. The hardware physically prevents the program from
changing anything on the floppy disk.
4. Put the diskette in a safe place.
Detection & Removal of Viruses.
Use Anti-virus software to detect infected files and remove known viruses.
Some of the commonly used Anti-virus programs are: - Dr. Solomon’s Toolkit, Norton
Antivirus, McAfee Associates & Pc Cillin.
Note. For an anti-virus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature.
The following steps should be taken if a virus attack is suspected: -
 Identify & isolate PCs & disks, which could be affected.
 Seek the advice of a specialist who would help you to;
(a). Identify the virus code on affected disks.
(b). Remove the virus code from all affected disks, including backups.
(c). Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is
minimized.
 Determine how the virus was introduced to the system.
 If any infected diskettes could have left the site (e.g. to clients, subsidiaries, branches or
customers), the management should determine how best to inform them that they could be
having infected disks on their site, and take steps to retrieve them.
 The management should also consider whether the matter could affect the public image of
the organization & take appropriate steps to protect the organization from the effects of
any bad publicity.

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Some commonly used terms.
Trojans: - They are programs, which deliberately set out to destroy your data. Their trigger
(activator / starter) could be time (time bombs) or certain logical condition (logic bombs).
Trojans do not multiply like viruses, but are equally harmful.
Variants: - Are programs very similar to virus codes and go by the same virus family name
but give slightly different effects.
Example; a virus called ZELENTSOV causes .COM files to increase by 1,168 bytes, while
its two variants; ZELENTSOV1 & ZELENTSOV2 increase them by 128 and 1514 bytes
respectively.
Worm: - A program that „borrows‟ (or sneaks) into a computer‟s memory. It is designed to
search for idle computer memory, and then rewrite itself successfully through the computer‟s
memory until the system crashes.
McAfee Antivirus program.
This program helps in the prevention, detection and removal of viruses.
Prevention.
BOOTSCAN is a program that detects your machine against all viruses known to the current
version of the MacAfee Antivirus program.
To activate the program, type BOOTSCAN at the subdirectory where the MacAfee program
is installed. For example,
C:\McAfee>BOOTSCAN {Enter}. This loads the boot scan program into your memory for
as long as the computer is on.
Since this would be a daily procedure, it is better to include the following statement at the
beginning of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
C:\MacAfee\Bootscan
To make sure that Bootscan is executed before any other program including Command.com,
the bootscan device driver must be loaded in the system.
This is achieved by including the following line in the CONFIG.SYS file.
Device=C:\McAfee\Bootscan.Sys
C:\MacAfee\Bootscan.Com
Removal.
CLEAN is a program used for cleaning up infected diskettes. The program can be run from
both the Command Line and McAfee menu.
To start the McAfee menu, go to the subdirectory that contains the MacAfee program, then
type Bootscan at the prompt.
i.e. C:\MacAfee>BOOTSCAN/All/Clean ↵
Scanning a suspected diskette.
- Insert the diskette into drive A:
- Start the McAfee Bootscan program, then choose the drive to be scanned.
i.e. C:\McAfee>Bootscan/All/Clean A: ↵
This checks all the executable programs and gives a full report of the viruses found and their
family names.
When Bootscan finds a virus, it warns you, removes the virus from the infected file and then
continues checking for other viruses. After finishing, it gives you a report on the viruses
removed. To be safe, scan the disk again.
65
Do the same for all the other diskettes you have.
Scanning the Hard disk.
If you suspect the hard disk is infected, the Antivirus program installed on it will not work.
Thus any diskettes used in the machine will be infected.
To remove the virus infection;
- Boot the machine from a clean, write-protected system disk.
- Load McAfee from a clean diskette that contains the program. Sometimes, the same
program
disk can be used as a Boot Disk.
- Select the Hard disk (drive C:) using the SPACEBAR.
- Follow the same procedure as described above to scan and clean the hard disk.
Since a disk could be infected by several viruses, it is important to scan the disk again after
the first successful virus removal.
Try to establish how many diskettes could have been used on the same system during the
time of infection and clean them all.

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 LECTURE FIVE
INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS

OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system refers to the computer software that provides the Inter face
between the hardware, the user and the application software.

The functions of the operating system are;

a) Job scheduling – includes preparing, scheduling and monitoring jobs for
continuous processing by the computer.
b) Resource control – includes controlling the use of computer resources by other
system software and application programs being executed.
c) Input/output handling – it controls the allocation of i/o devices and resolves
Conflicts that may occur if more than one application program or users request
the same device at the same time.
d) Memory management –it determines how much memory is allocated to user
programs.
e) Error handling – it deals with errors which are produced during program
execution and keep the computer running when errors do occur.

Example of operating system:

Ms DOS, PC DOS, UNIX, Linux, XP, Windows etc.

Booting a Computer

Booting refers to the process on starting up a computer. There are two ways of
booting up a computer;
a) Cold booting – done using the power button on the computer‘s system unit.
Normally done when the computer is initially off.
b) Warm booting – this is done when the computer hangs (it temporarily stops
to receive instructions). It is done by use of the reset/restart button on system
unit or by a combination of the following keys from the keyboard; CTRL +
ALT +DEL.

Starting up the Computer (Cold Booting)

 Check all the power connections from the mains through the back up to the
system unit to ascertain proper connections
 Switch on power from the mains and then the back up
 Switch on power from the monitor and then the system unit
 Wait as the computer performs POST (Power on Self Test) and as it loads the
Operating System.

Shut Down Procedure

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 When one is through with working with the computer, it is advisable to safely
turn off the computer by following the shut down procedure. This is important in
order to prevent the computer from crashing or losing unsaved document.
 Click on the start button from task bar
 Click on shut down or turn off computer from the pull up menu
 Click on shut down or turn off from the dialog box that appears
 Wait as the computer goes off or prompts you to safely turn it off. This depends
On the type of the computer‘s processor.

Keyboard Layout

A standard QWERTY keyboard has a about 102 keys grouped into six categories;
a) Numeric keys –used for keying numbers and some symbols
b) Function keys – labelled as F1 to F12. They perform different tasks
depending on the application e.g. F1 is used to get help in Ms – Word.
c) Alphabetic keys – labelled in letters of alphabet. Used for typing letters and
Words.
d) Special keys – perform special task just as the function keys. Normally work
in combination with other keys. e.g. CTRL + ENTER for inserting a new page
in Ms- Word.
e) Movement keys – also known as arrow keys. Used for navigating within
documents.
f) Numeric key pad – bundle of numeric keys used for quickly keying in
numbers.

Typing Tutors
 Typing Tutor – computer program that enables one to learn typing skills.
Example are Mavis Typing tutor, Kirans Typing tutor, Keyboard master etc

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The Windows Operating System
This is operating system software developed and marketed by Microsoft Inc. It a
Graphic User Interface (GUI) OS and has the WIMP (Window Icon Menu and
Pointing device) features that make it more user friendly. The are different version of
Ms – windows e.g. Window 95, 98, 2000, NT, ME, 2003, XP, Vista and 7

Terms used in windows OS

 Desktop – work area on the computer‘s screen. It is analogous to the
ordinary
Table top where one can place different objects.
 Window – area on the desktop covered by an opened program.

DESKTOP FEATURES

Window Elements
a) Title bar – shows the name of window opened

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 b) Menu bar – shows various menu options which provide list of different
command.
c) Address bar – shows the path of the location of the opened window
d) Window control toolbars – provide command buttons for changing the
display of the window e.g. maximized to cover the whole screen.
e) Works area – space where one can place different objects like files or folders
f) Status bar – shows the activity going on in the current program e.g. saving
progress
g) Task bar - shows the programs currently running in the computer.
h) Start button – clicked t start any program in the computer.
i) Navigation toolbar – contains commands that one can use to move between
windows e.g. either back, forward etc

FILES, FOLDERS AND MANAGEMENT

a) File – any collection of related information that is given a name and stored on a
disk so that it can be retrieved when needed. Can be a data file, system file or
application program file
b) Folder – a ‗container‘ or storage location that contains files and other folders.
c) Drive – refers to secondary storage locations in the computer normally labelled
by letters of alphabet e.g. C: / for hard disk, A: / for floppy disk etc. store
information organised in files and folders.

CREATING FILES AND FOLDERS

Creating a file or folder on the desktop
a) Right click an empty location on the desktop
b) Point at New from the pop - up menu
c) To create a file, select the name of the program to create the file by e.g.
Microsoft Word. To create a folder, click on folder from the side kick menu
d) Type the name of the file or the folder
e) Press enter

Creating a file or folder in another folder window

a) Click on the file menu
b) Point at New from the pop - up menu
c) To create a file, select the name of the program to create the file by e.g.
Microsoft Word. To create a folder, click on folder from the side kick menu
d) Type the name of the file or the folder
e) Press enter
NB: A folder in another folder is called a subfolder.

DELETING FILES AND FOLDERS

Folders stored in drive c:/are temporary send to the recycle bin when deleted and
can be later deleted permanently or restored to their original locations. Those stored
in removable media like floppy disks and flash disks are not sent to the recycle bin
and may not be recovered.

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Steps
a) Select the file/folder to delete
b) Click on the file menu
c) Click on delete and confirm deletion

OR
Select the file/folder, press delete key form keyboard the confirm deletion

RENAMING FILES AND FOLDERS

File and folder names can be changed

Steps
a) Select the file/folder to rename
b) Click on the file menu
c) Click on rename from the pull down menu
d) Type the new name and then press enter from the keyboard

OR
Right click the file or the folder to rename
Click on rename from the pop up menu
Type the name then press enter key from the keyboard

COPYING FILES AND FOLDERS

Duplicating the file or the folder in the same storage location or another.
Steps
a) Select the file/folder to copy
b) Click on the edit menu
c) Click on copy from the pull down menu
d) Open the new location to copy the folder to
e) Click on edit menu again
f) Click on paste from the pull down menu

MOVING FILES AND FOLDERS

Relocating the file or the folder to same storage location or another location.

Steps
a) Select the file/folder to move
b) Click on the edit menu
c) Click on cut from the pull down menu
d) Open the new location to move the folder to
e) Click on edit menu again
f) Click on paste from the pull down menu

DRIVE/FILE/FOLDER PROPERTIES
Relocating the file or the folder to same storage location or another location.

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Steps
a) Select the drive/file/folder to view its properties
b) Click on the file menu
c) Click on properties from the pull down menu. The properties dialog box
appears.
d) Properties window appears. Using the properties you be able to ascertain the
size and attributes of the drive/file/folder etc.

File Security and Protection

There are different methods used to ensure that files and folders are free from
unauthorized access. This may include:
a) Assigning passwords to open and write files
b) Assigning log-in user names and password for the computers containing the
files
c) Applying the read-only attributes to ensure that new data can not be
accidentally written in the file
d) Write protecting storage media like the floppy disks
e) Applying hide attributes to ensure that the files are not visible to the
unauthorised access
f) Encrypting data/information in the file

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 LECTURE SIX

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO MS WORD (MICROSOFT WORD)

Definition of Terms:
Word processing:
This refers to an advanced form of typing that makes use of computers to generate
and format documents by manipulating text and graphics in such a manners as to
make the final document free of errors and attractive.

Word processor:
An application software that enables the user to create, save, edit, format and print
text-rich documents.

Examples of common word processors are:

a) Microsoft Word
b) Corel WordPerfect
c) Lotus Word Pro
d) Word Star
e) AppleWorks for Macintosh.
f) Open Office Write

Advantages of Electronic Word Processor programs

 Easier to use due to automated features such as Word-wrap, autocorrect and auto
complete.
 They have superior editing tools such as spelling checker, the Thesaurus etc.
hence making editing easier.
 Can store documents for future retrieval
 They have superior formatting features that make a document more appealing to
the reader.
 The user can produce multiple copies more easily
 Copy and move (cut) operation make it easier to manipulate a document.

Microsoft word is one of the products in the Microsoft office programs suit. There
several versions of Microsoft word determined by every release of the Microsoft
office programs suite e.g. Ms Word 97, 2000, XP, 2003, 2007.
NB: A program suite is a bundle of different programs packaged and sold as one unit.
Starting Ms Word
– Double click the Microsoft word shortcut icon from the desktop
Or
– Click on start button from the task bar on the desktop
– Point at All Programs from the pull up menu
– Point at Microsoft office from the sidekick menu, the click on Microsoft
Word 2003 from the sidekick menu.
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Ms-Word Screen Features
Features of a word processor window
a) Title bar - Title bar indicates the name of the application program in use, the
currently opened file, and has the minimize, restore and close buttons.

b) Menu bar - The menu bar provides the user with group of commands in drop
down list used to create and manipulate a document.

c) Toolbars - Toolbars consists of button of commands that provide shortcut to

the same commands available in the menu bar.

d) Document window/Work Area - This is the work area where you create your
document. It resembles an ordinary piece of paper.

e) Status bar - The status bar is the communication point between the user and
the application program. For example in Microsoft Word, when saving a
document the status bar may indicate “Word is saving ……”.

f) Vertical and Horizontal scroll bars/Arrows - Used to view the hidden parts
of the document. E.g. one can view text hidden at the top of the page by
scrolling down and view hidden at the bottom by scrolling down the
document using the scroll bars or the arrows.
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 g) View buttons - Used to switch between different document views e.g. normal
view.
h) Cursor/Insertion pointer – Shows where the next character will appear as you
type.

Creating a new document

• A word processor provides the user with a blank screen in which he/she can
enter text or pictureal objects such as a pictures and drawings.
• As you type, the cursor flows automatically to the next line then it reaches the
right end of the page. This is referred to as word wrap.
• At the end of the page, Word automatically inserts a new page and scrolls up
the screen.
Saving a Document
1) To save a word processor document follow the procedure below;
2) From the File menu, click the Save As command to save the document the
first time or with a new name (Save command is used when you want to save
changes in the document)
3) In the Save As dialog box that appears, select the location (drive/folder) from
the ―Save in‖ list box

4. Type in the name of the file in the File name box

5. Click the save button or press the Enter key

C losing a Document and Exiting the Application

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 1) Click on file menu
2) Click on Close to close the opened document and leave the application
window opened or click on Exit to close document and the application
window at the same time.
NB: One can also shortcut commands from the standard toolbar and the menu bar.

Retrieving/Opening an existing document

1) Click on file menu
2) Click on Open from the pull down menu. The open dialog box appears.
3) In the look in box, select the location where the document is saved click on the
document if seen or browse to locate the document then click on it
4) Click on open command button on the dialog box. The document is opened.

Document Views

Microsoft word provides different views for viewing the document that include;
a) Normal
b) Web layout
c) Print layout
d) Outline
To change from one view to another, follow the steps below;
1) Click on view menu
2) Click on the type of view that you want to display
QS: What are the differences between the different view of the Microsoft word document?

Editing a document
Editing refers to the making of necessary changes or modification to an existing
document. Some editing operations include:
a) Delete
To delete a character, a word or a block of text:
1. Highlight the text to delete

76
 2. Press the Delete or the backspace key.

NB: Delete key erases characters to the right of the cursor while the backspace deletes
characters to the left of the cursor. Use the type over mode to replace characters to
the right of text or insert mode to insert a character(s) by pushing the rest of the
characters to the right.

b) Redo and Undo

Undo is used to reverse changes made in a document while redo reverses the
undo changes

Steps:
1) Click on Edit menu
2) Click either on undo or redo from the pull down menu
Or
Click on the undo or redo shortcut commands from standard tool bar
Or
To undo press CTRL + Z
To redo press CTRL + Y

c) Moving text
Involves relocating text

Steps:
1) Select the text to move then click on edit menu
2) Click on cut from the pull down menu
3) Click on the location to move the text to then click on edit menu again
4) Click on paste from the pull down menu
One can also use the shortcut commands from the standard toolbar or
combination of keyboard shortcut commands;

d) Copying Text
Involves duplicating text

Steps:
1) Select the text to copy then click on edit menu
2) Click on copy from the pull down menu
3) Click on the location to copy the text to then click on edit menu again
4) Click on paste from the pull down menu
One can also use the shortcut commands from the standard toolbar or
combination of keyboard shortcut commands;
e) Find and replace

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 This is a feature used to locate for a word or a phrase and replace it with another.
To find and replace a word or phrase:

1. From Edit menu, click Find or Replace

The find and replace dialog box
2) In the ―Find What‖ box, type the word or phrase to find.
3) Click the Replace tab and in the ―Replace With‖ type the word or phrase to
replace the found word or phrase.

f) Endnotes and footnotes

Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment
on, or provide references for text in a document. You might use footnotes for
detailed comments and endnotes for citation of sources.

Steps:
1) Click on insert menu
2) Point at reference from pull down menu
3) Click on footnotes
4) The footnotes and endnotes dialog box appears
5) Select footnotes or endnotes options under location
6) Specify the number format
7) Click on insert

Proof – Reading a Document

Proofreading refers to the checking whether a document has typopictureal or

grammar errors. Ms-Word used for proof-reading a document are: Spelling
and Grammar checker, Thesaurus, auto complete and autocorrect.

a) Spelling and grammar checker

Spelling and grammar checker lets you automatically locate for misspelled
words and grammatical problems.
To spell check a document:
1. From Tools menu click Spelling and Grammar or press F7
2. In the displayed dialog box, misspelled words are shown in red while
grammatically incorrect phrases are in green. 3.
3. From the suggestion list, select the correct spelling or grammar.

78
4. Click on change to correct the word or click on change (All) button to correct
all instances of the misspelled word. To ignore the error once, click on ignore
or click the ignore all to ignore every instance of such a word.
Ms- Word prompts you when the spelling and grammar checking is complete. The
Spelling and Grammar dialog box is shown below;

b). Thesaurus
Thesaurus lets the user to automatically find words or phrases with similar
meaning (synonym) or opposite meaning (antonym) to the selected.

To use thesaurus:
1) Highlight the text
2) Click on tools menu
3) Point at language then
4) Click on thesaurus from the sidekick menu. Thesaurus dialog box appears
5) Select a synonym or an antonym then click on replace

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c). Autocorrect and Autotext:
Autocorrect and AutoText make are used to automatically correct a commonly
misspelled word and insert a predefined text when creating a document.

To create an autocorrect or auto text:

a) Click on the insert menu
b) Point to autotext, then click autotext from the side
c) Click the Auto text or Autocorrect tab and type the autocorrect or Autotext
d) Click OK to apply and close the dialog box.
e). Auto complete

This is a feature that displays a complete word when the user types the first few
characters of the word. This enables the user to type faster by simply accepting
the suggested word if he/she intends to type it by pressing enter.

Formatting a document
Formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of a document. You format text,
paragraphs, page or the entire document.

a) Text formatting
You format text by applying different font types, style, size, colour and other
attributes.
A. Fonts
To format text font:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Font
3. In the font dialog box, select the font type, style, size and colour and
any other attribute. See in the next slide;
4. Click OK.

The font dialog box

NB: A faster way of applying font is by using the formatting toolbar shown below
80
b). Change Case
The cases applied to text are; lowercase, UPPERCASE, Sentence case, Title Case and
tOGGLE cASE. To change case:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Change Case
3. From change case dialog box, select the case option you want to apply.
4. Click OK.
NB: The use of case in this sentence is deliberate.

c). Superscript and Subscript

A superscript appears just above the rest of the characters as in cm2 while a
subscript appears just below other characters as in H2O.
a) To make text superscript or subscript:
b) Highlight the character(s)
c) From the Format menu, click font
d) From the font dialog box check superscript or subscript
e) Click Ok to close the font dialog box

Paragraph Formatting
A paragraph is a separate block of text dealing with a single theme and starting on a new line
or indent. Some of the formatting features you can apply onto a paragraph include:
a) Alignment
Alignment is the arrangement of text relative to the left margin, centre of page or the
right margin. The five major alignment options available are the left, center, right
and justified and force justified. To align text:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Paragraph.
3. In the paragraph dialog box, select the alignment option from the
alignment list box then click the OK.

NB: You can apply alignment by simply clicking any of the five alignment buttons on the
formatting toolbar

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Paragraph dialog box

b). Line spacing

You can set the space between lines, paragraphs or blocks text. To space lines:
1) Highlight the lines of text
2) From the Format menu, click Paragraph
3) In the paragraph dialog box, select the line spacing option from the line
spacing list box.
4) Click the OK button.

c). Setting tabs and indents

Tabs refer to definite stops when the tab key is pressed while indenting is
moving a line or a block of text away from the margin using the tab key.

To set tabs:
1. From the Format menu, click Tabs
2. In the Tab dialog box, set the tab stop positions, alignment and leading then
click the on set.
3 Repeat the same steps for all other tab stops then lastly click ok.

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 To set indents
a) Select the paragraph that you want to indent
b) Click on the format menu
c) Click on paragraph from the pull down menu. The paragraph dialog box
appears
d) Select the indent option to use e.g. left, right or special indent such as first line
indent or hanging indent.

d). Drop cap

A drop cap is a large character in a paragraph that occupies more than one line
down. To create a dropped cap:
1) Highlight the paragraph you want to begin with drop cap
2) Click on format menu
3) Click Drop Cap. Drop cap dialog box appears
4) 3. Click Dropped or In Margin.
5) 4. Specify the number of lines and other options
6) Click OK.

e). Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbers are used to create ordered lists. To add bullets or numbers
to a list:
a) Highlight the text
b) Click on the format menu
c) Click on bullets and numbering from the pull down menu
d) From dialog box displayed, click Bullets or Numbered tab.
e) Click the bullet or numbering thumbnail you want to apply.
f) Click Ok.

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Page Formatting

a) Inserting columns
Columns subdivide a page into several vertical sections. To set columns:
a) Highlight the text or click at the point from where to set the columns
b) Click on format menu
c) Click columns from the pull down menu. The columns dialog box appears
d) In the columns dialog box enter the number of columns, set the column
width, a line between if need be and any other option to apply
e) Specify where to apply the columns e.g. the whole document, this section,
selected text or this point forward
f) Click OK.

b). Page and column breaks

Page, section and column breaks are used to force the cursor to move from a new
page, section or column even before the end of the current. To insert a break:
1. Position the insertion pointer where you want to break
2. Click on the insert menu
3. Click on Break from the pull down menu
4. In the break dialog box, set the break type. page break, column break etc
5. Click OK.

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c). Page setup
Page set up options let you define the paper size, margins and operations. To set
up a page:
1. Click on File menu
2. Click Page Setup from the pull down menu
3. In the page setup dialog box, click either of the following:
– Margins tab to set up page margins
– Paper tab to specify the paper type and orientation
– Layout tab to specify the page content layout relative to the margins
4. Click OK to apply the settings.

The page setup dialog box:

d). Page numbers

Page numbers are used to organize a large document for ease of reference. To insert
page numbers:
a) Click Insert menu
b) Click on page numbers the insert page numbers dialog box appears
c) In the position box, specify whether to place the page numbers at the top of
page (header) or at the bottom of the page (footer).
d) In the Alignment box, specify whether to align page numbers to the left,
center or right of page.
e) If you don‘t want a number on the first page, clear the ―Show number on first
page‖ check box
f) Click OK.

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e). Headers and footers
Headers are lines of text that appears at the top margin of every page or selected
pages while footers appears at the bottom margin. To insert a header or footer:
a) Click on the View menu
b) Click Header and Footer from the pull down menu
c) To create a header, enter text or pictureal object in the header area.
d) Click on switch between header and footer command button from the header
and footer toolbar to create footer.
e) Click inside the footer area and enter the text or pictureal object.
f) Click Close on the header and footer toolbar.

Inserting Picture/Objects/Graphics
You can insert a picture object such as a picture, a clip art or drawing on to your
document. To insert an object:
a) On the Insert menu point to Picture.
b) Click one of the following options
– Clip Art
– From File
– From Scanner or Camera
– Organization chart, Autoshape, WordArt or Chart etc
c) Depending on the option selected, insert or import the object
d) To insert a picture from the clip art gallery, follow the steps below;

To insert a picture from the clip art gallery, follow the steps below;
a) Click on Insert menu
b) Point at picture from the pull down menu
c) Click on clip art from the sidekick menu
d) The insert clip art task pane appears on the right
e) In the search box type the category of picture to insert e.g. animals, people,
nature etc
f) Click on search. A list of pictures/pictures appear
g) Double click the picture to insert. The picture is inserted.

Manipulating a Picture.

a) Text wrapping
This determines how text flows around the picture;

Steps:
1) Select the picture to wrap
2) Click on text wrapping icon from the picture tool bar
3) Choose the text wrap option from the drop down list.

b) Resizing
This involves reducing or increasing the size of the picture

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 Steps:
1) Select the picture to resize
2) Point at an handle on frame that appears round the picture. The mouse
pointer changes to a double side arrow.
3) Hold down the left mouse button and drag outwards to increase the size or
inwards to reduce the size.
NB: The handles at the corners enables one to resize the picture proportionally.

c) Deleting
This erases the picture inserted

Steps:
1) Select the picture to wrap
2) Press the delete key or back space key from the keyboard once.
d). Moving
This involves relocating the picture

Steps:
1) Select the picture to resize
2) Point at on frame that appears round the picture. The mouse pointer changes
to a four sided arrows (cross)
3) Hold down the left mouse button and drag the picture to the new location

e). Cropping
This involves removing the unwanted parts of the picture

Steps:
1) Select the picture to crop
2) Click on the crop tool from the picture toolbar
3) Point at an handle on the picture frame and drag inwards to crop or outwards
to recover the cropped parts

A symbol is a special character that is not included on the keyboard such as Ø, Ù To

insert a symbol:
1) Move the text cursor to the position where the new symbol will be inserted.
2) On the insert menu, click Symbol. In the dialog box select the appropriate
symbol
3) Click the Insert button then Close.

MAIL MERGE

A feature that enables one to create a standard document e.g. form letters to be
received by many recipients. One can use the Mail Merge Wizard to create form
letters, mailing labels, envelopes, directories, and mass e-mail and fax distributions.
This is done in four basic steps:
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a) Open or create a main document
Main document: In a mail-merge operation in Word, the document that contains
the text and graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document,
for example, the return address or salutation in a form letter.

b) Open or create a data source

Data source: A file that contains the information to be merged into a document.
For example, the list of names and addresses you want to use in a mail merge.

c) Add or customize merge fields

Merge Field: A placeholder that you insert in the main document. For example,
insert the merge field «City» to have Word insert a city name, such as ―Nairobi,"
that's stored in the City data field in the main document.

d) Merge data from the data source into the main document to create a new,
merged document.

Password protecting a document

To protect a document from unauthorized access or modification, use password.
Since password is case sensitive, avoid mixed case, preferably use lower case. To
create a password:
a) On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Security tab.
b) Type in a password in the Password to open box or the Password to modify
Box.
c) Set other security options
d) Click OK.

Printing a document
Word processing is not complete without producing a hardcopy. To print a
document:
a) First preview it by clicking Print preview on the File menu.
b) To print, On the File menu click Print
c) Select the printer, range, number of copies and other options from the dialog
box.
d) Click OK.

Troubleshooting Printing Problems

Some of the printing problems you may encounter are:
a) Lack of two-way communication due to poor installation of the printer software
(drivers), if the printer is off or not connected.
b) Paper jams due to use of poor quality of paper or paper folds.
c) Poor quality print due to poor quality ink or toner used.

Ms-Word Tables
A table is made up of rows and columns of cells that you can fill with text and
graphics.
88
Tables are often used to organize and present information. Columns are the vertical
divisions while rows a are the horizontal divisions of the table. Intersections between
columns and rows form cells which are the units for holding data.

Creating a table
a) Click where you want to create a table.
b) On the Table menu, point to Insert, and then click Table.
c) Under Table size, select the number of columns and rows.
d) Under AutoFit behavior, choose options to adjust table size.
e) To use a built-in table format, click AutoFormat.
f) Click ok

Add a cell, row, or column to a table

 Select the same number of cells, rows, or columns as the number of rows or
columns you want to insert. .
 Click on the Table menu
 Point to Insert
 Click an option from the sidekick menu e.g. rows above etc

NB
 You can also use the Draw Table tool to draw the row or column where you want.
 To quickly add a row at the end of a table, click the last cell of the last row, and then
press the TAB key.
 To add a column to the right of the last column in a table, click in the last column. On the
Table menu, point to Insert, and then click Columns to the Right.

Resizing cells, rows, columns and the table

A. To change column width

Rest the pointer on the column boundary you want to move until it becomes a plus
with two sided arrows and then drag the boundary until the column is the width
you want.
NB:
a) To change a column width to a specific measurement, click a cell in the column. On
the Table menu, click Table Properties, and then click the Column tab. Select the
options you want.
b) To make the columns in a table automatically fit the contents, click a table, point to
AutoFit on the Table menu, and then click AutoFit to Contents.
c) To display column width measurements, click a cell and then hold down ALT as you
drag the markers on the ruler.

B. To change row height

Rest the pointer on the row boundary you want to move until it becomes a vertical
two sided arrow and then drag the boundary.
NB:
a) To change a row height to a specific measurement, click a cell in the row. On the Table
menu, click Table Properties, and then click the Row tab. Select the options you want.
89
 b) To display row height measurements, click a cell, hold down ALT as you drag the
markers on the vertical ruler.

C. To resize an entire table

a) In Print Layout view, rest the pointer on the table until the table resize handle
appears on the lower-right corner of the table.
b) Rest the pointer on the table resize handle until a double-headed arrow
appears.
c) Drag the table boundary until the table is the size you want.

Merging and Splitting cells

1) Merge cells into one cell in a table

You can combine two or more cells in the same row or column into a single cell.
For example, you can merge several cells horizontally to create a table heading
that spans several columns.
Steps:
a) Select the cells you want to merge.
b) On the Table menu, click Merge Cells.

2) Split a cell into multiple cells in a table

a) Click in a cell, or select multiple cells that you want to split.
b) On the Table menu, click Split Cells.
c) Select the number of columns or rows you want to split the selected cells
into.

Performing Calculations in Ms-word Table

Totalling numbers in a row or column

Steps:
a) Click the cell in which you want the sum to appear.
b) On the Table menu
c) click Formula from the full down menu
d) If the cell you selected is at the bottom of a column of numbers, Microsoft Word
proposes the formula =SUM (ABOVE). Click OK if this is correct. If the cell you
selected is at the right end of a row of numbers, Word proposes the formula
=SUM (LEFT). Click OK if this is correct.

NB: To quickly total a row or column of numbers, click the cell where you want the sum, and
then click AutoSum on the Tables and Borders toolbar.

Perform other calculations in a table

a) Click the cell in which you want the result to appear.
b) On the Table menu, click Formula.

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NB: If Microsoft Word proposes a formula that you do not want to use, delete it from the
Formula box. Do not delete the equal sign. If you deleted the equal sign, reinsert it.

c) In the Paste function box, click a function. For instance, to add numbers, click
SUM. To reference the contents of a table cell, type the cell references in the
parentheses in the formula. For instance, to add the numbers in cells A1 and B4,
the formula would read =SUM(a1,b4)
d) In the Number format box, enter a format for the numbers. For example, to
display the numbers as a decimal percentage, click 0.00%.
NB: Word inserts the result of the calculation as a field in the cell you selected.

91
 LECTURE SEVEN

MICROSOFT EXCEL
Definition
A table of values arranged in rows and columns. Each value can have a predefined
relationship to the other values. If you change one value, therefore, you may need to
change other values as well.

Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are

computer programs that let you create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically.
In a spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cell. You can define what type of
data is in each cell and how different cells depend on one another. The relationships
between cells are called formulas, and the names of the cells are called labels.

Once you have defined the cells and the formulas for linking them together, you can
enter your data. You can then modify selected values to see how all the other values
change accordingly. This enables you to study various what-if scenarios.

Minimize
button
Menu
control
Maximize
Reference button
area Formating
Menu Bar Formular Toolbar
Bar
Close
buttons

Column
Headings
Close
buttons
Vertical
scroll bar
Active cells

Row labels Vertical

Scroll bar

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How to create a new worksheet.

Steps.
 Decide on items to be included in the in the spreadsheet
 Decide on the layout of the worksheet. (which items to appear in which
volume)
 Click on the new spreadsheet button or icon OR select ‗New‘ from the File
menu to get a Blank worksheet.
 If you select New from the File menu, select the workbook icon then click the
OK button in the resulting dialog box. Once you create a new work book you
will have a blank worksheet in which you can start entering data.

Elements in a new work sheet

 Menu bar
 Formatting tool bar
 Standard toolbar
 Reference area
 Title Bar
 Active cell
 Formular bar
 Sheet names
 Work area
 Status bar
 Row headings
 Column headings
 Drawing toolbar
 Min/ max buttons

Entering data in a work sheet.

Steps.
 Point the mouse pointer at the cell intersection of a row and a column.
 Click the left mouse button
 The cell pointer moves to the cell in which you want to enter data
 Type in the data using the keyboard
 Press the ENTER key.

Editing Data in a Worksheet

Steps
 Double- click on the cell that contains the data
 Use the left or right arrow key to move the cursor (vertical blinking line to the
position of the correction

93
  If you had left out a character just type it in. The character will be inserted on
the immediate right of the cursor
 If you had typed a wrong character, you can delete it by positioning the
cursor on the left of the character and pressing the delete key on the
keyboard.

Opening a saved work sheet.

There are various reasons of opening a saved work sheet. One reason may be to
update it if the data contains / represents information that changes periodically. i.e.
Foreign exchange rates or crude oil prices.

Steps.
 Select pen from the file menu OR click on the open button.
 In the open dialog box shown above, select the driver or folder where the
worksheet was saved from the look in drop down list.. A drop down list is
displayed when you click the downward arrow at the right end of the box
 The contents of the selected folder are displayed as shown in the figure
below\
 Either type the file name (the name of the file in which the worksheet was
saved) in the file name box or select one from the list by clicking on its icon.
 Click on the open button.

NB: double clicking on the file icon would also result in opening the file.

94
TOTALLING FIGURES IN A RANGE

A range is any group of cells in a worksheet. For example, worksheet shown in Figure
below. The cells that contain the sales figures for the week (cells B2 TO F65) can be
taken as a range.

A range is any group of cells in a worksheet. For example, worksheet shown above, the
cells that contain the sales figures for the week (cells B2 to F6) can be taken as a range.
To get the sum of all figures within the range. For example in the above worksheet you
may want totals for the days of the week and totals for each item throughout the week.

Steps
1. Click on the first cell(top-left) in the range that you want to sum, for instance B2 in
the example shown above
2. Hold the shift kept down and click on the last cell (bottom-right) in the range that
F6 in the example. (The range should include the empty cells that will contain the
totals)
Note: selected cells are ‗highlighted in black
NB You can also select a range by clicking in the first cell of the range and holding
down the left mouse button, the dragging to the last cell in the range.
3. Click on the AutoSum button

4. Excel automatically computers the totals in the range and inserts them in the
empty cells in the range, that is row 6(column B to G) and column G (rows 2 to 5)
in the above example)

95
 Saving a Worksheet
1. If done periodically, say every ten minutes, it helps prevent data loss in case of
power failure
2. In order to use the worksheet at a later time, from a few hours to years later.

Steps
1. Click the Save button or click on the File menu and then choose the Save option
2. Specify a file name for the worksheet in the resulting dialog box
3. Select the drive and folder where you want the worksheet to be saved
4. Click on the Save button

Note: Steps 2-4 above are required only when you are saving a new worksheet for the first time.
After that, every time you save the worksheet, steps 2-4 are automatically done by Excel

Rules for Naming a file

For a file name to be valid, it must satisfy several conditions. The conditions are that:
1. It can be a maximum of 255 characters (letters, numbers and a limited set of
special symbols in length.
2. A special character may be a letter of the alphabet, a numeric digit, or some of
the special characters like -, & or $ (hyphen, underscore, ampersand or dollar
respectively).
3. A colon or backlash is not allowed in the file name

Print a workbook to a file

1. On the File menu, click Print.
2. In the Printer box, click the printer on which you want to print the file.
3. Select the Print to file check box, and then click OK.
4. Under Output File Name in the Print to file dialog box, type a name for the file
you want to print.
Note If you print a workbook to a file so that you can later print the file on a different type of
printer than the one used to create the document, the page breaks and font spacing may
change.

Closing a Worksheet

Steps
1. Click on the File menu
2. Select the Close option
3. In case you forgot to save your worksheet, excel asks you if you want to save your
document to which you have the option of answering Yes or No

96
Exiting Excel

Steps
1. Choose Exit from the File menu or
2. Click the close button of the excel window, simultaneously
OR
=Press ALT + F4 x The close button

Merge or split cells or data

Spread the content of one cell over many cells

Text spread and centered over multiple cells Warning Microsoft Excel places only the
upper-leftmost data in the selected range into the resulting merged cell. If there is data
in other cells, the data is deleted.
1. Copy the data you want into the upper-leftmost cell within the range.
2. Select the cells you want to merge.
3. To merge cells in a row or column and center the cell contents, click Merge and
Center on the Formatting toolbar.
4. NB You can change the text alignment in the merged cell by clicking Align Left, Center, or
Align Right on the Formatting toolbar. To make other changes to the text alignment,
including the vertical alignment, use the options on the Alignment tab (Cells command,
Format menu).
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Split merged cells
1. Select the merged cell.
2. When cells have been combined, Merge and Center on the Formatting toolbar is
selected.
3. Click Merge and Center on the Formatting toolbar.

Divide text across cells

1. Select the range of cells that contains the text values. The range can be any
number of rows tall, but no more than one column wide.
Note There must be one or more blank columns to the right of the selected column or the
data to the right of the selected column will be overwritten.
2. On the Data menu, click Text to Columns.
3. Follow the instructions in the Convert Text to Columns Wizard to specify how
you want to divide the text into columns.

Combine text from multiple cells into one cell, using a formula
This simultaneously merges the cells centres the heading in the new, wider cells for
example, the title in the portion of the sheet in figure 8 was centered

Rotating text in a cell

Cell contents can be rotated by as much as 900 up or down
1. Select the cells in which you want to rotate
2. On the Format menu, click cells, and then click the alignment tab
3. In the orientation box, click an angle (degree) like 45, 60 or 90 degrees, or drag the
indicator to the angle you want.

98
Indenting text within cells:
You can click the indent buttons to indent the contents of a cell
1. Select the cells that contain text you want to indent
2. Click increase indent button
3. To decrease or remove indentation, click decrease indent button

PERFORMING CALCULATIONS

About data tables

Data tables are part of a suite of commands sometimes called what-if analysis tools. A
data table is a range of cells that shows how changing certain values in your formulas
affects the results of the formulas. Data tables provide a shortcut for calculating
multiple versions in one operation and a way to view and compare the results of all of
the different variations together on your worksheet.

One-variable data tables

For example, use a one-variable data table if you want to see how different interest rates
affect a monthly mortgage payment. In the following example, cell D2 contains the
payment formula, =PMT (B3/12, B4,-B5), which refers to the input cell B3.

Two-variable data tables

A two-variable data table can show how different interest rates and loan terms will
affect the mortgage payment. In the following example, cell C2 contains the payment
formula, =PMT (B3/12, B4,-B5), which uses two input cells, B3 and B4.

Data table calculations

Data tables recalculate whenever a worksheet is recalculated, even if they have not
changed. To speed up calculation of a worksheet that contains a data table, you can
change the Calculation options to automatically recalculate the worksheet but not data
tables.

About calculation in workbooks

Calculation is the process of computing formulas and then displaying the results as
values in the cells that contain the formulas.

When Microsoft Excel calculates, and how to control it

When are existing formulas recalculated?

Excel recalculates those cells that are dependent on other cells that contain changed
values. This type of calculation helps to avoid unnecessary calculations. Excel also
calculates workbooks each time they are opened.

99
Background calculation
As calculation proceeds, you can choose commands or perform actions such as entering
numbers or formulas. Excel temporarily interrupts calculation to carry out the other
commands or actions and then resumes calculation. The calculation process may take
more time if the workbook contains a large number of formulas, or if the worksheets
contain data tables or functions that automatically recalculate every time the workbook
is recalculated. Also, the calculation process may take more time if the worksheets
contain links to other worksheets or workbooks. You can control when calculation
occurs by changing the calculation process to manual calculation.

Precision of calculation
15 digit precision Excel stores and calculates with 15 significant digits of precision.
Excel calculates stored, not displayed, values The displayed, and printed, value
depends on how you choose to format and display the stored value. For example, a cell
that displays a date as "6/22/2008" also contains a serial number that is the stored value
for the date in the cell. You can change the display of the date to another format (for
example, to"22-Jun-2008"), but changing the display of a value on a worksheet does not
change the stored value.

Change the precision of calculations.

When a formula performs calculations, Excel usually uses the values stored in cells
referenced by the formula. For example, if two cells each contain the value 10.005 and
the cells are formatted to display values in currency format, the value $10.01 is
displayed in each cell. If you add the two cells together, the result is $20.01 because
Excel adds the stored values 10.005 and 10.005, not the displayed values. You can
change the precision of calculations so that Excel uses the displayed value instead of the
stored value when it recalculates formulas.

Change the number of times Excel calculates, or iterates, a formula.

Excel cannot automatically calculate a formula that refers to the cell— either directly or
indirectly— that contains the formula. This is called a circular reference. If a formula
refers back to one of its own cells, you must determine how many times the formula
should recalculate.

Note You can use Solver when you need to find the optimum value for a particular cell by
adjusting the values of several cells or when you want to apply specific limitations to one or more
of the values in the calculation.

Calculating workbooks that were created in an earlier version of Excel

To be sure that older workbooks are calculated correctly, Excel behaves differently
when you first open an old workbook than when you open a workbook created in the
current version. When you open a workbook created in the current version, Excel
recalculates only the formulas that depend on cells that have changed. When you use
open a workbook that was created in a earlier version of Excel, all the formulas in the
workbook— those that depend on cells that have changed and those that do not— are
recalculated. This ensures that the workbook is fully optimized for the current Excel
version. Because complete recalculation can take longer than partial recalculation,
100
opening a workbook that was not previously saved in the current Excel version can take
longer than usual. After you save the workbook in the current version, it will open
faster.

Perform a statistical analysis

1. On the Tools menu, click Data Analysis. If Data Analysis is not available, load the
Analysis ToolPak.

How?
1. On the Tools menu, click Add-Ins.
2. In the Add-Ins available list, select the Analysis ToolPak box, and then click OK.
3. If necessary, follow the instructions in the setup program.
4. In the Data Analysis dialog box, click the name of the analysis tool you want to use,
then click OK.
5. In the dialog box for the tool you selected, set the analysis options you want. You
can use the Help button on the dialog box to get more information about the
options.

MULTIPLICATION
5. Suppose you want to calculate the cost of peaches using the values shown in the
figure

2. The cost of oranges depends on the quantity and the price and is calculated by
the formula Quantity Price to give us the cost. (The asterisk (*) is used as the
multiplication sign.)
3. The cell reference for quantity and price are B2 and C2 respectively, hence we
write B2*C2.
4. In cell D2 we type the formula =B2*C2

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5. Press the Enter key. Excel immediately calculates and shows the result in the cell,
while the formula is displayed on the formula bar

Formula bar

ADDITION
When performing addition, you first insert the ‗=‘ in the formula bar as in all calculation
the insert the cell references. If you want to add together the cost of pineapples and that
of coconuts you will write =D2+D3. For additions you can also use the AutoSum button
at described.

DIVISION
In case in our example above you want to get the percentage cost of avocados to the
total purchase, you would have to divide the cost of avocados with that of the total.
Assuming that you insert the total cost in cell D5, the calculation would be like this: =
D4/D5

SUBTRACTION
Subtraction is done using the formula =D5-D4

RELATIVE REFERENCING
1. A relative reference describes the location of a cell in terms of its distance, in
rows and columns, from another cell
Relative references are like giving directions, such as ‗two streets after that tall
white building‘

2. When you enter a formula like B2*C2 in cell D2 of your worksheet, the formula
in cell D2 multiplies the value in cell B2 and the value in cell C2.

102
3. Because B2 and C2 are relative references, the formula in D2 is actually
multiplying the cell two steps to the left of D2 times the cell one step to the left of
D2.If you copy that formula to D3, the formula will subtract cell two steps to the
left of D3 minus the cell one step to the left of D3. References that change
automatically when you copy them are called relative reference. When you
copy a formula containing references, the references are adjusted to reflect the
new location of the formula

USING AUTOFILL TO ENTER ASERIES

You can enter a series of data, either numbers or text, into several cells by using Auto
fill. This can save time involved in typing common series like days of the week, months
of the year, and numbers that follow a pattern or series like 2,4,6,8,10,12 etc. To enter a
set series, such as months of the year, or days of the week, you can type the first item in
the series without typing anything else. For example, if you want to enter the days of
the week into a row, you simply type ―Monday‖ in the first cell and then use AutoFill to
fill in the rest.

14 15

20

Adjusting column width

Occasionally, your data will not fit within the standard column width. This happens
especially when you are working with long labels, or large font sizes or with data that
has been formatted as currency. When a cell entry exceeds the width of the cell and
overflows into the next column preventing you from you seeing the other contents, this
is known as ‗overflow‘

Steps
1. Position the mouse pointer at the right border between column headers so that
the pointer changes to a two-headed arrow.
2. Double click. This will adjust the column width to fit the widest data in the
column. This is known as the ―Best Fit‖
3. You can also change the column width to any size you want by dragging the
column header border to the desired width.

D E

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Using shortcut menus in Excel
A shortcut menu appears when you click on the right mouse button while pointing to
any of several areas on screen. You can display shortcut menus from cells, columns,
rows, or even buttons, charts, or toolbars. Ms-Excel has several shortcut menus that you
can use when you click with your right mouse button over different areas of the screen.
You see one menu when you click on a cell, another when you click over the toolbars
and another when you click over the title bar of your window. These shortcut menus
enable one to access commands quickly.

Steps
1. Position you mouse pointer on the appropriate position on the screen
2. Click the right mouse button. A shortcut menu appears, listing the commands
that you can be able to perform for the selected cell
3. Click another cell outside of the shortcut menu. The shortcut menu closes

Creating several identical sheets in the same workbook file:

1. If you want to create a number of similar worksheets to contain monthly budget
for a whole year, for instance, the labels and formulas will be the same, except
that the values in some will differ.
2. To save time and effort, you can create as many similar worksheets as you want
without repeating the same typing and formatting

Steps.
1. Hold down the Shift key and select the number of worksheets you want to
create. Do this by clicking on the first sheet‘s tab and then the last sheet‘s tab.
For example, to create three similar worksheets, click on the sheet 1 tab, then
click on the sheet4 tab while holding down the Shift key. The tabs of the selected
sheets will be white in color, as shown below.

104
2. Insert the information that is similar across the worksheets, such as labels and
formulas, in the appropriate cells. These will be inserted in all the selected sheets
3. You can also format the worksheet. All such formats will apply to all the
selected sheets. In the example below, three similar worksheets are being created
for the departments in eh company. Notice that the various items of budget,
being similar across all departments, need to be keyed in only once. Likewise,
formulas are also inserted once since they are the same in all the sheets
4 Once you have selected several sheets Excel identifies them as being grouped
and at the title bar where the name of the file is indicated, the word ‗Group‘
appears

CHARTS
Charts are important in Excel as they give a graphical representation of data. The
following are some kinds of charts and their uses

Use the following steps

1. Select the range containing the information you want to be presented in chart
form
2. Click on the ChartWizard button and the dialog box appears
In the dialog box you can select the type of chart from the list on the left and
the sub type on the right. A brief description appears below the sub-types. This
helps you decide whether the type suits the data you have selected. You may
also view a sample of the chart that will be produced. Click on NEXT to
proceed to step 2, and the dialog box appears on next page

105
 This gives you a chance to select your range again if necessary. A sample of the
chart is shown using the data selected. You can also change the way in which
the data should be graphed either in Rows or Columns. Click on the Next button
if you are sure about the range and the type of chart you have selected.

3. In this step there are several chart options as indicated by the various categories
at the top of the box. The main element is that of title. However, all formatting
features for the chart can be done in this step by choosing the appropriate
section. For example, you can add Gridlines. When you are finished with the
various options click on Next to proceed to the last of the four steps.

Advantages of spreadsheets
 Can answer what if questions
 Ease of updating data
 Speed in calculating
 Keep track of timed writings
 Uses charts to describe data
 Uses rows and columns to format data
 Manage and predict financial information
 Data are easier to manage and calculate
 Future prediction easier to make
 Repeated calculations are made quickly.

106
 LECTURE 8

DATABASES IN MICROSOFT ACCESS

Definition
What is a database?
A database is any conceivable medium for the storage of data and information. For
purposes of our learning, we assume a database to be any shared collection of electronic
data designed to meet the information needs of an organization. The earliest databases
were nothing more than electronic filing cabinets that stored data. However,
commercial databases emphasize on the storage of relationships and behaviors between
data elements too.

Record – a collection of data about an entity. Represented as a row in datasheet

Field – An element of a table that contains a specific item of info. e.g. Last Name

Examples:
Fox Pro, Dbase, Fox Base, Oracle, Database III, IV and Microsoft Access.

STARTING ACCESS

• Point start button

• Click and select all programs.
• Select Microsoft Access on
• Microsoft office 2003 Menu

107
MS access - Is an Example of a database management system, a product of Microsoft
Co-operation) Microsoft Access is one of the components of Microsoft Office Suite. It is
one of the simplest and powerful database management software to learn and use. It is
classified as an object relational DBMS.

Starting Access
• When you start the Ms Access program you need to choose the basis of the new
database and save first. Database can be created from:
– Blank Database (Scratch)
– Existing File
– Template

Saving a new Database

• After Choosing the basis of the database, provide a proper name, location and
click Create

When Access is first opened the window below is displayed on the screen. Use the
task pane to create a new Blank Database or open an existing one or simply click File -
New.
This will display the File New Database dialog box.

Office
assistant

Task
pane

Standard toolbar

File New Database dialog

 Select a folder or drive where the database will be created.
 Provide a unique name for the database.
 Click the Create button and the new database will be created to display the
following database with the objects Tables, Forms, Queries e.t.c.

108
Layout

Database window

The database just

created or opened

Database Objects
• Table – A collection of records
• Query – Objects used to select records from a database.
• Form – A database object used to add information in a table
109
 • Report –Used to print information from a number of records.
• Macro – Series of steps recorded to do a given function
• Module – programs designed to perform a specific/ series of task.

CREATING TABLE

A table is a collection of data records arranged in tabular form. In relational databases,

a single table will often store data about a particular data entity e.g. A table for the
entity. Student will store student records. Using a separate table for each entity means
that you store that data only once. This results in a more efficient database and fewer
data-entries errors. Codd called each table a Relation and each occurrence of an entity
in the table a Tuple (record). Tables organize data into columns (called fields) and
rows (called records).

For example, each field in a Students table contains the same type of information for
every student, such as the student name. Each record in that table contains all the
information about one product, such as the student name, student Number, Course
and so on.

Creating a table
 To create a blank (empty) table for entering your own data, you can:
 Use the Table Wizard. This helps you to choose from a variety of predefined
tables.
 Create a table in Design view, where you can add fields, define how each field
appears or handles data, and create a primary key.
 Enter data directly into a blank datasheet. When you save the new datasheet,
Microsoft Access will analyze your data and automatically assign the appropriate
data type and format for each field.

Setting field properties

If your table contains data, make a backup copy of the table before you change data
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types or field sizes to avoid loss of data and or information. For example, if a field size
is 50 characters long and you change it to 30 then any data that was originally held in
the field with length longer than 30 will be truncated off.

QUERIES
A Database object that is used to select data from one or more tables so they can be
viewed, analyzed and sorted on a common datasheet. They can be used for:
 Online search and retrieval of specific records.
 Creating forms and printing reports.

TYPES OF QUERIES
Action Queries – Designed to change data in tables.
They are further divided into four namely
– Update query
– Delete query
– Append query
– Make table query
Select Queries – Designed to get data from tables.
They are further divided into four namely
– Select query – Extract data from tables based on specified values.
– Find duplicate query – Display records with duplicate values for one or
more of the specified fields.
– Find un-matched query – Display records from one table that do not have
corresponding values in a second table.

CREATING QUERIES

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 • Click the New Button on the Database window

Select the type of query.

Select the table to use & fields to include in the query

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Name the query and click finish

The result of the query is a datasheet as shown below

FORMS IN MS ACCESS
Definition
A form is an alternative way of Adding new records into tables, editing records and
displaying of records. Forms can be created using:
– Wizard.
– Design (From Scratch).

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Creating a Form
On the database window click the Form tab.

CREATING A FORM – WIZARD

Click ―Create Form by using wizard.‖

1- Select the table/query to use

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2. Select the fields to be included.

Picks the highlighted field

Picks all the fields

Removes the highlighted field

Removes all the field

2. Select the layout to be included

3. Select the Style to apply

4. Give the form a Name then click Finish

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The resulting form looks like this

REPORTS
Detailed or definite information used for communicating to people in organized ways
and provide a way to print data from tables/ queries in a database.

CREATING REPORTS
Click Reports tab

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Double Click “Create report by wizard”

Select table / query and fields to add

Select fields for grouping levels.

Grouping
Preview

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Select fields to sort by and the sort order.

Select the layout and page orientation

Select the layout Style.

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Set the report name and click finish.

Advantages of Databases
• Control of data redundancy.
• Data consistency.
• Multipurpose use of data.
• Sharing of data.
• Enforcement of standards.
• Increased productivity.
• Balance conflicting user requirements.
• Increased concurrency and control.
• Improved maintenance.
• Improved data accessibility and responsiveness.

Disadvantages
 Complexity.
 Cost of DBMS
 Additional hardware costs.
 Cost of conversion

Database applications
These are the application software that enable the user to interact with the database.
The relational model upholds the principal of data independence. This means that data
relationships are not hard linked with pointers. Hence, it is possible to update the
applications without the need to change the underlying data structures in the
database.

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 LECTURE 9
WHAT IS INTERNET.
The term Internet is an acronym that stands for International Network. It is defined as a
world-wide computer network linking countless thousands of computer networks,
through a mixture of private and public data and telephone lines. Internet is just like a
wide highway in a cyber space (space of electronic movement of data) that moves data
and information. Therefore, the terms Cyber Space and Information Super Highway are
frequently used to refer to Internet.

Administration of Internet - Who owns Internet?

It is good to note that no single person is in charge of Internet. Each
company/organization manages its own network/s but there are agreed
rules/protocols for connecting the networks e.g. all networks should use TCP/IP
protocols. The technical management of internet protocol is carried out by an Internet
Society and the International Standards for Organization (ISO). Internet has no political
borders or boundaries on the exchange of data and information.

The Internet

Everyone
and Everything
Participating on the

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Internet Services
Some of the most common uses of Internet are:
 World Wide Web (WWW) – This is a vast virtual space of the internet where
information pages called web pages are installed. A collection of web pages stored
as a file in a special type of a computer called web server is called a Website. Every
website is accessed using Uniform Resource Locator (URL) e.g. Kenyatta University
http://www.ku.ac.ke
 Communication - You can exchange information with your family and friends
anywhere in the world through e-mails, chat rooms and newsgroups.
 E-commerce – Today you can access cyber shops for online purchasing, window-
shopping and pay for the services through electronic funds transfer (EFT), cheque
and credit cards.
 Research - Researchers and scholars use Internet to access digital (virtual) libraries
for the latest information and archives.
 Entertainment - You can watch Web TVs, online videos and play games, in Internet
you will almost get anything you need to keep you entertained.
 E-learning – Academic materials for all levels of education are readily available on
the Internet.
 Telnet – Logging into remote computer & work on it as your local computer.
 FTP – Transferring files to a remote computer or from remote comp. to a local comp.

Internet Connectivity
To access and use Internet you must get connected.

Requirements:
 A computer, a PDA or WAP enabled mobile phones) – It is worthwhile to note
that with the dynamic growth of telephone and wireless technologies, it is now
possible to use cellular phones and Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) to access
information on Internet just as you would use a computer.
 Transmission media – This is a physical (telephone line) or wireless (radio e.g.
GPRS – General Package Radio Service) pathway used to the medium for
transferring data/information from one computer to another.
 Internet Service Provider - These are licensed commercial or non-commercial
organizations that provide access to internet. Examples are Access Kenya, Swift
Kenya, Nairobi net, Africa online, Wananchi, zain, Safaricom etc.

MODEM (Modular-Demodulator) - Transforms digital data signals from a computer

into analog data signals (a form that can travel over the transmission media) and vise
versa.
NB: Modern communication devices may not require the use of MODEMS.

Software – The main categories of internet software are:

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Browser Software – This lets you access the Internet resources examples are Internet
explorer, Netscape Navigator, Opera, Monzila FireFox, Mosaic etc. Email Software
enables you to receive, compose and send emails e.g. Outlook express, Eudora Light,
Pegasus Mail, Yahoo mail etc.

Search Engines – These are search agent programs that enable one to quickly search
and access internet resources. They provide a catalogue of all information available over
the internet for quick access. They all provide a search form where one types key words
of the information he/she wants to access. Examples are: Yahoo, Google, Inforseek, Alta
Vista, Lycos etc.

Educational Portals
A portal site aims to network all members of a target group e.g. the portal site
http://www.EastAfricaTeachers.net aims at sharing best practices in the area of ICT &
Education. This activity was co-funded by UNESCO to help teachers in East Africa to
collaborate.

The objectives an Educational portal are:

1. To create a virtual network for all teachers
2. To promote the use of internet by teachers in a described sub-region;
3. To share information on educational projects and resulting active learning strategies
in the institutions;
4. To serve as a ―meeting place‖ for discussions among members;
5. To serve as a platform for the offering of on-line and/or distant learning courses
6. To create a convenient virtual space where educational institutions can market their
programmes.

Virtual Community Networks

A virtual community is a gathering place for people and businesses that only exist on
the Web. It has no physical existence. These virtual communities help businesses and
their Customers and suppliers plan, collaborate, transact and interact in ways that
benefits all of them. E.g. online chat rooms

Blogs (Internet blogs)

A blog (abbreviated from weblog) is often described as an online journal but might be
better described as "web sites that are easily created and updated by those with even a
minimum of technology know-how" (Richardson, 2004). At the simplest level most
blogs are like an online diary.

They allow the author(s) to write material direct into a form on the web and arrange
entries by date. Depending upon the system used the entries may be archived by
category, searchable, linked to entries in other blogs and have comments linked to
them. Blogs can be used to build and maintain complex sets of interacting web sites.

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Like many good technologies they allow initial entry at a simple level with
opportunities to extend to more sophisticated uses as necessary.

Online Encyclopedia
Examples are wikipedia, webopedia etc
A wiki (from the Hawaiian for "quick") is web site that can be edited directly on the
web. Probably the best known is the Wikipedia, a substantial and growing encyclopedia
which is being built collaboratively. If you think that an entry in the Wikipedia could be
improved, then you only need to click the edit link and make the necessary changes.

Emerging e-Tools
 Smart Board/An interactive board
 Mobile Phone

Educational technology is not transformative on its own. It requires teachers who can use
technology to improve student learning. The professional development of teacher educators in
the area of ICT integration is essential. Unless teacher educators model effective use of
technology in their own classes, it will not be possible to prepare a new generation of teachers
who effectively use the new tools for learning.

INTERNET CONNECTION TYPES

There are two principal ways of connecting to the Internet, that is; Direct and Dial – up
connection:

1. Direct
In this, the user has a fixed or dedicated link (physical line/wireless) to the ISP. Direct
connections provide continuous, ―always on‖ access to the Internet. A direct connection
can be obtained in many ways e.g. Local Area Network (LAN) – A LAN can be
connected to the Internet through a special hardware component called a router which
is connected to another router at the ISP by a high-speed line.

Advantages:
 High speed connection
 You do not need a modem but a router
 It is convenient as one does not have to keep on dialing up.

Disadvantage:
 It is expensive to maintain the connection
 Only economical for large corporation/organizations.

2. Dial-up
In this you connect your computer by use of a modem and/or phone line/wireless only
when you want to use Internet. The user gains Internet access when he/she contact the
ISP and the ISP transfers him/her to Internet. When he/she finishes, they disconnect
from the ISP. The speed with which you can access the Internet is determined primarily
by the speed of your modem. To gain faster dial-up connections, you can install an

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Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) line which is a digital line provided by the
local phone company.

Advantages:
 Initial connection fee is less as compared to direct connection
 Cost can be controlled by reducing connection time
 Connection done only when there is a need

Disadvantages:
 May be disappointing in case of resource contention/traffic jam during dial up
process as one has to keep on dialing up.

ACCESSING THE INTERNET

Accessing Internet the is done through browsing the net/web. Browsing/surfing refers
to the process of accessing Internet resources from the WWW websites.This can be done
basically in three ways:
 Typing a website URL address in the address bar on a browser window.
 Clicking on an hyperlink in an opened webpage to connect to another web page.
 Using a search engine agent program to quickly search for any information on
the web/net.

Loading IE Browser Window

Steps:
o Double click the Internet Explorer shortcut icon from the desktop
OR:
o Click on start menu from the desktop
o Point at programs from the pull up menu
o Click on Internet Explorer from the sidekick menu

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 The Internet Explorer browser window is displayed.

1 2 3 4

IE Browser Window
Features

6 6
7 7

1. Title Bar - Shows the title of the visited website.

2. Menu Bar - Provides menu options for manipulating the browser window and the
web page contents.
3. Navigation Bar - Provides commands for navigating the website.
4. Address Bar - Where the URL address of a website is typed.
5. Hyperlinks - When clicked, an hyperlink causes another web page to open.
6. Status Bar - Shows the opening progress of a web page.
7. Task Bar - Shows other programs running in your computer.

Loading a Website Using the URL Address

Steps:
 Click in Address bar. Type the URL address of the website to visit e.g. For the
Ministry of Education website type the following URL address in the address bar:
www.education.go.ke
 Press Enter key from the keyboard or click on the ‘Go’ command from the Navigation
Bar. 125
 Wait as the home page is loaded. Look for the connection progress from the status
bar.
 Using Hyperlinks While Browsing/Surfing

From the home page of a loaded website, one can access more information through hyperlink
that connects to the web page containing the required information.

Steps:
 Point at an hyperlink - Mouse pointer changes to a hand/palm
 Click and wait as the web page is displayed. In the status bar, see the loading progress

Using Search Engines to Search for Information from the Web/Net

 Searching for information from the web may be tedious, frustrating and time wasting if
one does not know the techniques for quick search.
Steps:
 Type URL address of the Search Engine in the address bar. Press enter key from the
keyboard or click on ‘Go’ from the navigation toolbar e.g. www.google.co.ke for google
search engine.
 Type the keyword on the search form text box on the homepage and then click on
search/find. See win 1 on left.
 Click the hyperlink that closely describes information you want from the list displayed.
See win 2 on left.

Search Tips
By default the search engine tries to locate pages which have exact matches for all of the
words entered in your search form. If that fails, it then tries to locate pages which
contain any words in your search query. If that happens a short message is displayed at
the top of the search results indicating this has been done. In addition, there are several
ways to modify the default search behavior.

Phrase Search
The search engine supports three types of phrase search.
 To match an exact phrase, use quotes around the phrase
Example: "free search engine―
 To match a near (within a couple of words) phrase, use square brackets [around
the words]
Example: [free search engine]

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  To match a far (within several words) phrase, use braces { around the words }
Example: {free search engine}

Downloading/Saving/Printing Website Documents

Downloading refers to the process of transferring information from a remote computer
to a local storage in your computer. This helps you to save the information for future
retrieval. To download and save a web content, follow the steps below:
 Right click the hyperlink to the file
 Click on ‗Save Target AS‘ command from the shortcut menu that appears
 Save as dialog box is displayed. Specify the folder/drive where to save the
contents and type a unique file name in the name box.
 Click on ‗Save‘ command button. The download progress dialog box appears &
prompts you when through with the contents are fully downloaded.
 The download process may take some time depending some factors like; the
internet download speed (band width) at that time, size of the document
downloaded, your computer‘s specifications, internet ‗traffic jam‘ etc.
 Downloaded web contents will require some application programs to have
been installed in your computer e.g. PDF files will require programs like Acrobat
Reader to be installed in your computer for you to read their contents.
 To print web contents, open the file/web page and then send it for printing.
Your computer must be connected to a working printer. To print, click on file
menu – print – choose printer – specify the number of copies to print – then
click on print command button.

ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)

Electronic Mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters and documents
on the Internet.

Advantages over the Traditional Paper Mail/„Snail Mail‟

 It is fast
 It is cheap
 It is convenient
 Easy to send one mail to many recipients by use of carbon copies
 Mail can be saved for future retrieval
 Easy to reply mails
 Mails can easily be forwarded to another recipient
 Document created using other application can easily be attached to the mail etc.
 Reliable if all email etiquette and netiquette is observed.

Disadvantages
 Security of message may not be guaranteed – due to tapping while on transit.
 Not yet accessible to every body due to the connectivity limitations
 Requires some ICT literacy to use and enjoy
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 It is boring to read ‗junk mails‘

E-mail Address
For one to send and receive an email, he/she must have an email address. Email
address directs the computers on the Internet on where to deliver the
email message. A typical email address has this format: Username@host-
computer.domain e.g. [email protected] i.e. the email parts are:
- charliewily – This is the user name that identifies the owner of the email address.
- @ - Separates the username from the rest of the address parts
- gmail – The name of the host computer on the Internet in to which the
- email account is hosted.
- The period (.) – read as dot. Separates different parts of the email address.
- com – The domain. Identifies the type of Institution that owns the host compute

Commonly Used Domains

.com – commercial organizations
.co–company/commercial organization
.org – NGOs
.go – government
.edu – educational institution
.ac – academic/educational institution

Country Domains are:

.ke – Kenya. .tz – Tanzania
.za – South Africa.
.uk – United Kingdom .ug - fUganda

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 LOG ON/SIGN IN
Load the e-mail program that you are using e.g. for yahoo mail account holders, type
‗www.mail.yahoo.com‘ in address bar of your browser to load the mail program.
• In the username text box, type your user name .e.g. charliewily
• In the password text box, type the password. The password appears encrypted
for security.
• Click on Sign in command button and wait as your mails window is opened

Composing and sending Email

Steps:
• Load email application program/Email Editor
• Log in/Sign in if required by typing your user name and password.
• Click on compose command button – mail editor window appears as shown on
the left.
• Type email address of the recipient in the TO: text box.
• To sent Carbon Copies (Cc) & Blind Carbon Copies (Bcc) type the addresses in the
Cc: & Bcc: textboxes respectively. Separate two or more addresses by commas.
Bcc recipients don’t see the identity of other recipients.
• Type the subject/title of your message in the Subject: text box.
• Type the message and format it as you want in the message text area.
• Click on send command button to send mail.
• The computer confirms on sending the mail.

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File Attachment

Steps:
• Load email application program/Email Editor
• Log in or sign in as expected to access your account by supplying your username and
password.
• Compose your mail as usual.
• Click on Attach Files command button.
• From the dialog box that appears, browse to specify the file/s to attach from your
Deleting
computer. and Spamming mails
• Click on Open
a) From command
the inbox button
window, from
select the
the ‘Choose
mail file’ or
to delete dialog
spambox after choosing the
file to attach.
b) Click on the delete or spam command button to delete or spam the mail
• The attachment progress bar appears. Wait as the file/s is/are attached to you mail.
• An attachment bar is inserted in the mail window with the name of the attached file.
• Click on send command to send the mail.

Receiving /forwarding /replying email.

Steps:
• Load email application program/Email Editor
• Log/sign in if required to access your email account by supplying your username
and password.
• Click on ‘check mail’ command button
• Click on Inbox to view the mails received as shown on the left.
• To read a mail, click on its subject/title from the list of received mails. To read an
attachment, click on the attachment icon & follow the instructions that follow.
• To reply the mail, simply click on Reply tab/command and type the reply message
then click on send command to send it.
• To forward the mail, click on ‘Forward’ tab, type the address of the person whom you
want to forward the mail to, click on send.

Saving an E-mail
a) With the mail window opened, click on file menu
b) Click on save as from the pull down menu
c) Select the location to save the mail and type the file name
d) Click on save

NB: For deleting, confirm the deletion

Printing Mails
a) Open the mail that you want to print
b) Click on the file menu
c) Click on print from the pull down menu
d) Specify the printer and the number of copies
e) Click on print.

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Sign Out/Log Off
• Once you have read your mail, it is advisable to sign out or log off to ensure that
unauthorized users do not read the mail.
• To sign out or log off, click on the sign out or log off command button.

Benefits of Internet in Education

The advent of Internet led to an explosion in the amount of online digital content
Educational institutions have constantly generated content and placed it online within
their premises, with some offered to the outside world. Individual online content has
also increased with time as a result of subscriptions to credit cards, magazines other
forms that are filled and submitted online.

E-learning
This has led to development of ‗Universities without walls‘ and people can acquire
degrees from foreign universities without traveling to where they are.

Research
Researchers/students/teachers/lecturers can acquire any information they want in
their areas of study through the Internet.

Communication
Educational managers can communicate with students/staff and their seniors in head
offices e.g. Ministry of Education headquarters without having to travel there.

Exchange of knowledge/information
Educational portals enable students to blog and share a lot of knowledge in their areas
of study.

E-commerce
Educational managers can do online shopping for educational materials and carry out
transactions online.
 Allows a student to take a more active role;
 Allows a teacher to express the content of a course in more than one format;
 Enhances different learning styles
 Broadens the array of resources brought to a classroom and the student's
workstation;
 Increases opportunities for interactions between teachers & students and students
among each other;
 Increases the productivity of those who support the learning environment

Generally, all services provided by Internet are equally important in educational institutions to
students, teachers/lecturers, administrators/managers and other stakeholders.

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 LECTURE TEN

DATABASES.
What is a Database?
 It is a collection of information related to a particular subject or purpose.
 A collection of related data or information grouped together under one logical structure.
 A logical collection of related files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity.
Examples of databases.
You can create a database for;
- Customers‟ details. - Library records.
- Personal records. - Flight schedules.
- Employees‟ records. - A music collection.
- An Address book (or Telephone directory), where each person has the Name, Address, City &
Telephone no.

DATABASE CONCEPTS.
Definition & Background.
A Database is a common data pool, maintained to support the various activities taking place
within an organization.
The manipulation of database contents to yield information is by the user programs.
The database is an organized set of data items that reduces duplications of the stored files.

INTEGRATED FILE SYSTEMS.(TRADITIONAL FILING METHOD)

These refer to the traditional methods of storing files, i.e., the use of paper files. E.g., Manual &
Flat files.
- In Integrated file systems, several inter-independent files are maintained for the different
users‟ requirements.
- The Integrated file systems have the problems of data duplication.
- In order to carry out any file processing task(s), all the related files have to be processed.
- Some information resulting from several files may not be available, giving the overall state of
affairs of the system.

DATABASE MAINTENANCE.
A Database cannot be created fully at once. Its creation and maintenance is a gradual and
continuous procedure. The creation & the maintenance of databases is under the influence of a
set of user programs known as the Database Management Systems (DBMS).
Through the DBMS, users communicate their requirements to the database using Data
Description Languages (DDL’s) & Data Manipulation Languages (DML’s).
In fact, the DBMS provide an interface between the user‟s programs and the contents of the
database.
During the creation & subsequent maintenance of the database, the DDL‟s & DML‟s are used to:

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(i). Add new files to the database.
(ii). Incorporate fields onto the existing records in the database.
(iii).Delete the obsolete (outdated) records.
(iv). Carry out adjustments on (or amend) the existing records.
(v). Expand the database capacity, for it to cater for the growth in the volume for enhanced
application requirements.
(vi). Link up all the data items in the database logically.

Data Dictionary.
All definitions of elements in the system are described in detail in a Data dictionary.
The elements of the system that are defined are: Dataflow, Processes, and Data stores.
If a database administrator wants to know the definition of a data item name or the content of a
particular dataflow, the information should be available in the dictionary.
Notes.
 Databases are used for several purposes, e.g., in Accounting – used for maintenance of the
customer files within the base.
 Database systems are installed & coordinated by a Database Administrator, who has the
overall authority to establish and control data definitions and standards.
 Database storage requires a large Direct Access storage (e.g., the disk) maintained on-line.
 The database contents should be backed up, after every update or maintenance run, to
supplement the database contents in case of loss. The backup media to be used is chosen by
the organization.
Data Bank.
A Data Bank can be defined as a collection of data, usually for several users, and available to
several organizations.
A Data Bank is therefore, a collection of databases.
Notes.
 The Database is organizational, while a Data Bank is multi-organizational in use.
 The Database & the Data Bank have similar construction and purpose. The only difference is
that, the term Data Bank is used to describe a larger capacity base, whose contents are mostly
of historical references (i.e., the Data Bank forms the basis for data or information that is
usually generated periodically). On the other hand, the contents of the Database are used
frequently to generate information that influences the decisions of the concerned organization.
TYPES OF DATABASE MODELS.
(1). Relational database model.
A Relational database is a set of data where all the items are related.
The data elements in a Relational database are stored or organized in tables. A Table
consists of rows & columns. Each column represents a Field, while a row represents a
Record. The records are grouped under fields.
~ A Relational database is flexible and easy to understand.

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 ~ A Relational database system, has the ability to quickly find & bring information stored in
separate tables together using queries, forms, & reports. This means that, a data element in
any one table can be related to any piece of data in another table as long as both tables share
common data elements.
Examples of Relational database systems;
(i). Microsoft Access.
(ii). FileMaker Pro.
(iii). Approach.
(2). Hierarchical database model.
It is a data structure where the data is organized like a family tree or an organization chart.
In a Hierarchical database, the records are stored in multiple levels. Units further down the
system are subordinate to the ones above.
In other words, the database has branches made up of parent and child records. Each parent
record can have multiple child records, but each child can have only one parent.
Components of Data hierarchy.
Databases (logical collection of related files).

Files (collection of related records).

Records (collection of related fields).

Fields (Facts, attributes – a set of related characters).

Characters (Alphabets, numbers & special characters or symbols).

(3). Network database model.
A Network database model represents many-to-many relationships between data. It allows a
data element or record to be related to more than one other data element or record. For
example, an employee can be associated with more than one department.

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

 These are programs used to store & manage files or records containing related information.
 A collection of programs required to store & retrieve data from a database.
 A DBMS is a tool that allows one to create, maintain, update and store the data within a
database.
A DBMS is a complex software, which creates, expands & maintains the database, and it also
provides the interface between the user and the data in the database.
A DBMS enables the user to create lists of information in a computer, analyse them, add new
information, delete old information, and so on. It allows users to efficiently store information in
an orderly manner for quick retrieval.
A DBMS can also be used as a programming tool to write custom-made programs.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATABASE SOFTWARE.

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Database software is generally classified into 2:
1. PC-based database software (or Personal Information Managers – PIMs).
2. Corporate-based database software.
PC-based database software.
The PC-based database programs are usually designed for individual users or small businesses.
They provide many general features for organizing & analyzing data. For example, they allow
users to create database files, enter data, organize that data in various ways, and also create
reports.
They do not have strict security features, complicated backup & recovery procedures.
Examples of PC-based systems;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro.
* Dbase III Plus * Paradox.
Corporate database software.
They are designed for big corporations that handle large amounts of data.
Issues such as security, data integrity (reliability), backup and recovery are taken seriously to
prevent loss of information.
Examples of Corporate-based systems;
* Oracle. * Informix * Ingress.
* Progress. * Sybase. * SQL Server.

Common features of a database packages.

(i). Have facilities for Creating databases.
(ii). Have facilities for Updating records or databases.
Using a DBMS, you can define relationships between records & files maintained in a
database. In this case, a transaction in one file of the database can also cause a series of
updates in parts of other tables. Thus, the data is input only once to the database and is
made available to the many files composing it.
(iii). Have facilities for generating Reports.
(iv). Have a Find or Search facility that enables the user to scan through the records in the
database so as to find information he/she needs.
(v). Allow Sorting that enables the user to organize & arrange the records within the database.
(vi). Contain Query & Filter facilities that specify the information you want the database to
search or sort.
(vii). Have a data Validating facility.

FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

The DBMS is a set of software, which have several functions in relation to the database as listed
below:
1. Creates or constructs the database contents through the Data Manipulation Languages.
2. Interfaces (links) the user to the database contents through Data Manipulation Languages.
3. Ensures the growth of the database contents through addition of new fields & records onto
the database.

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4. Maintains the contents of the database. This involves adding new records or files into the
database, modifying the already existing records & deleting of the outdated records.
5. It helps the user to sort through the records & compile lists based on any criteria he/she
would like to establish.
6. Manages the storage space for the data within the database & keeps track of all the data in the
database.
7. It provides flexible processing methods for the contents of the database.
8. Protects the contents of the database against all sorts of damage or misuse, e.g. illegal access.
9. Monitors the usage of the database contents to determine the rarely used data and those that
are frequently used, so that they can be made readily available, whenever need arises.
10. It maintains a dictionary of the data within the database & manages the data descriptions in
the dictionary.
Note. Database Management System (DBMS) is used for database;
√ Creation.
√ Manipulation.
√ Control, and
√ Report generation.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A DBMS.

1. Database systems can be used to store data, retrieve and generate reports.
2. It is easy to maintain the data stored within a database.
3. A DBMS is able to handle large amounts of data.
4. Data is stored in an organized format, i.e. under different fieldnames.
5. With modern equipment, data can easily be recorded.
6. Data is quickly & easily accessed or retrieved, as it is properly organized.
7. It helps in linking many database tables and sourcing of data from these tables.
8. It is quite easy to update the data stored within a database.
A database is a collection of files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity. These
tables serve as an index for defining relationships between records and files maintained in the
database. This makes updating of the data in the related tables very easy.
9. Use of a database tool reduces duplication of the stored files, and the reprocessing of the
same data items. In addition, several independent files are maintained for the different user
requirements.
10. It is used to query & display records satisfying a given condition.
11. It is easy to analyse information stored in a database & to prepare summary reports & charts.
12. It cost saving. This results from the sharing of records, reduced processing times, reduced
use of software and hardware, more efficient use of data processing personnel, and an overall
improvement in the flow of data.
13. Use of Integrated systems is greatly facilitated.
An Integrated system – A total system approach that unifies all the aspects of the
organization. Facilities are shared across the complete organization.
14. A lot of programming time is saved because the DBMS can be used to construct & process
files as well as retrieve data.
15. Information supplied to managers is more valuable, because it is based on a widespread
collection of data (instead of files, which contain only the data needed for one application).

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16. The database also maintains an extensive Inventory Control file. This file gives an account
of all the parts & equipment throughout the maintenance system. It also defines the status of
each part and its location.
17. It enables timely & accurate reporting of data to all the maintenance centres. The same data
is available and distributed to everyone.
18. The database maintains files related to any work assigned to outside service centres.
Many parts are repaired by the vendors from whom they are purchased. A database is used
to maintain data on the parts that have been shipped to vendors and those that are outstanding
from the inventory. Data relating to the guarantees and warranties of individual vendors are
also stored in the database.
DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASES.
1. A Database system requires a big size, very high cost & a lot of time to implement.
2. A Database requires the use of a large-scale computer system.
3. The time involved. A project of this type requires a minimum of 1 – 2 years.
4. A large full-time staff is also required to design, program, & support the implementation of a
database.
5. The cost of the database project is a limiting factor for many organizations.
Database-oriented computer systems are not luxuries, and are undertaken when proven
economically reasonable.
Exercise (a).
1. (a). What is a database?
(b). What are Database management system software?
2. Name and explain the THREE types of database models. (6 marks).
3. Explain THREE major concerns in a database system. (6 marks).
4. How are database software generally classified? Give examples of range of products in
each type of classification.
5. State 5 features of an electronic database management system.
6. Explain the importance of using a Database management system for storage of files in an
organization.
Exercise (b).
1. Write short notes on:
(i). Database.
(ii). Database maintenance.
(iii). Data bank.
2. State the components of a data hierarchy.
3. (a). List the TWO classes of database software.
(b). Give FOUR widely used Database management systems today.
4. Identify FIVE functions of a Database management system.
5. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a database.
Exercise (c).
1. Define the following terms:
(i). Database. (4 marks)
(ii). Database Management System (DBMS). (4 marks).

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 (iii). Relational database.
(iv). Hierarchical database.
(v). Network database.
2. List and briefly describe THREE advantages of using the electronic database approach in
data storage as compared to the file-based approach.
3. List and briefly describe TWO features found in a typical Database Management System.
4. Identify and describe three major shortcomings of the conventional file structures that are
being addressed by the database approach. (6 marks).
5. Describe the functions of the following tools found in a database management system
(DBMS).
(a). Data Definition Language (DDL) (2 marks).
(b). Data Manipulation Languages (DML) (2 marks).
(c). Data Dictionary (DD) (3 marks).

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 LECTURE ELEVEN
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

Introduction to Communication and networking

Some years ago, information was sent via messengers, using drums, smoke, screaming,
ringing bells etc. Today more efficient methods of communication have come up such
as through electronic and print media, using landline and cellular phones, Internet etc.
These efficient methods of communication have been enhanced by networking
computers in different areas of the world.

Computer Network
A computer network refers to a set of computers connected to one another using a
modem and other communication links for the purpose of sharing resources which
include hardware, software, data and information. The network operating
system/network software contains instructions that enable the hardware to work as a
network. Computer networks can be classified into different categories. E.g. according
to geographical coverage, ownership etc.

Computer networks can be classified according to geographical coverage.

1. Local Area Network (LAN) - Defined as a communication network that provides

interconnection of a variety of data communication devices within a small area e.g.
same office, on the same floor or in the same building. LANs are typically owned by
small organizations, companies or school. Thus LANs are telecommunications networks
that requires its own dedicated channels and also covers a limited distance.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

This covers a slightly a large area e.g. an entire city.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

This is a network that covers a very large area e.g. a several countries, a whole
country, a continent or several continents. It involves interconnection of LANS and
MANS to cover a wide range of distance. An example of WAN is the Internet.

Network Topologies
Computer networks can also be classified according to the physical arrangement of the
actual nodes or computer equipment on the network. The term topology refers to the
physical arrangement of the various network devices. Three basic network topologies
include the following.
Star Topology

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Bus Topology
Ring Topology

A star network consists of a central host computer connected directly to a number of other
computers or terminals. All communications must travel through the host. A bus network links a
number of computers by a single circuit; all signals are broadcast in both directions to the whole
network, and software identifies which component is to receive a message.

Bus networks fail less often and are often used for LANs. A ring network links all computers by
a closed loop and passes data in one direction from one machine to another.

Figure 4-1 A star network topology. In a star network configuration, a central host computer acts as a traffic
controller for all other components of the network. All communication between the smaller computers, terminals,
and printers must first pass through the central computer.

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Figure 4-1 A bus network topology. This topology allows for all messages to be broadcast to the entire network
through a single circuit. There is no central host, and messages can travel in both directions along the cable.

Figure 4-3 A ring network topology. In a ring network configuration, messages are transmitted from computer to
computer, flowing in a single direction through a closed loop. Each computer operates independently so that if one
fails, communication through the network is not interrupted.

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 LECTURE TWELVE

COMPUTER SYSTEM

SYSTEMS.
The term System can be defined as a collection of independent entities that collectively work
together to achieve a desired goal.
All things can be viewed as being made up of small independent components (subsystems) that
come together to form a bigger more complex system.
For example;
(1). A School can be seen as a system with students, teachers, Accounts department, and the
Administration as subsystems. The school system itself is a subsystem of the ministry of
education.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS.
What is a Computer system?
 The term Computer system refers to the complete set of devices required to use & operate
the computer.
 Computer system is the complete set of devices that make a computer work as one unit.
 A collection of entities that work together to process and manage information using
computers.
A computer system consists of the computer itself & supporting devices for input, output,
processing & storage of data such as disks, Monitors, Printers, etc

MICROCOMPUTER.
This is a computer whose Central Processing unit (CPU)/ Processor has been implemented with a
Microprocessor.
- It is a Desktop computer.
- It‟s made of very small, tiny gadgets (micro-chips), which have been developed as a result of
miniaturization of technology.
A microcomputer uses one or more boards to implement all the functions of a complete system.
In small businesses, the microcomputer configuration typically includes;
(i). A Keyboard and/or Mouse for input.
(ii). A Winchester disk, usually 3½” disk unit, for reading & writing onto the 3½” diskettes.
(iii). A slow Printer, usually a Character printer.
Uses of a Microcomputer.

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1). Used in a modern office for:
 Word processing - for production & printing of all types of business documents.
 Accounting purposes & financial modeling.
 Record keeping & analysis.
 Desktop publishing.
2). Used for all types of communication (both external and internal) & bulletins.
3). Entertainment and all other types of voice output.
4). Used for project management & statistical analysis.
5). For information management, i.e., for storage of files & folders.
6). For Electronic learning.
7). Animation and simulation.

Microprocessor.
This is a small computer processor (usually excluding Main memory) manufactured on a single
chip.
The Microprocessor is the brain (powerhouse) of the Personal Computer (PC). It is an electronic
circuit that handles Input/Output signals from the peripheral devices of a computer.
It is a Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) component that performs all the calculations and
processing of a computer system.
Chip -The small rectangular piece of Silicon on which most ICs are implemented.
Microprocessor System.
Refers to the electronic boards required to implement a functional computer. Generally, they do
not include the Chassis, Power supply unit or peripheral devices.

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER

SYSTEM.
A Computer system consists (or is made up) of 4 basic elements that are interrelated and work in
unison. The four elements are:
(1). Hardware.
(2). Software.
(3). Liveware (Computer user).

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HARDWARE.
Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make up a computer
system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.
Hardware include all mechanical & electronic elements found in the computer, e.g., the System
Unit, Transistors, Diodes, bus systems such as electronic paths (channels), the Input devices
(e.g., Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g., Monitor) & the Storage devices.
Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer, view the output on
screen, print out our work, store and process the work.
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided into 4 major
categories:-
1). Input devices.
Input devices are used to communicate with a computer. They enable the computer user to
enter data, information & programs into the computer. They also let the user issue
commands to the computer.
An Input device converts the input information into machine-sensible/ readable form.

Examples.
* Keyboard. * Mouse.
* Key-to-disk. * Key-to-Tape.
* Scanner. * Light pen.
* Trackball * Video digitizers.
* Graphics pads (Tablets). * Joystick / Game paddles.
* Speech Recognition devices. * Digital & Web cameras.
* Voice input devices, e.g. Microphones.
* Document readers, such as, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark Reader
(OMR) & Optical Character Reader (OCR).
*Point Of Sale terminals, such as, Bar code readers, Kimball Tag readers, Card readers, &
Badge readers.
2). Central Processing unit – CPU (Processor).
The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU & the Control unit.

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 The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory. It interprets
& processes all the instructions from the Input devices.
The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains all the major
components of a computer system.
3). Output devices.
Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the computer. They
display the results of all the information that has been processed.
They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a form that can be
understood by people.
Examples.
* Screen (Monitor/ Visual Display unit – VDU). * Printers
* Audio Response units. * Graph Plotters.
* Sound output devices, e.g. Speakers. * Microforms.
4). Storage devices.
These are devices used to store data & programs in computers. They include; Hard disks,
Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes, Optical disks (CD-ROMs), and Random
Access Memory (RAM).
Note. All these storage devices differ in the way (technology) they store data & the
capacities of data they can hold.

Characteristics of Computer Hardware.

1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.
2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.

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SOFTWARE.
 These are the programs & data used in a computer system that enable it perform a no. of
specific functions.
 Software is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity
that happens inside the computer during data processing operations.
Software also includes the associated documentation (descriptions of the programs).
When used in a computer, Software instructs the computer to carry out specific processing tasks,
e.g. produce the year end Balance sheet.
Characteristics of Computer Software.
1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.
2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the
computer programming languages, e.g. BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
3. It is not possible to see a program in memory as it exists in magnetic spots, however, you can
see & touch a listing of the program on the computer screen.
4. Software enable computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software is meant
to put „life‟ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy to
change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.

LIVEWARE
Liveware is a term used to refer to the computer end-user. They are the people who coordinate
the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer system to perform useful tasks.
They include; Data entry operators, Computer Operators, Programmers, System Analysts, Data
Processing Managers, Database Administrators, Computer Librarians, and the other staff directly
or indirectly involved in the running of the system operations.
Apart from the hardware and software elements, the user is also seen as an integral part of the
computer system as shown in the figure below;

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LIVEWARE (Peopleware).
These are the people who coordinate the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer
system to perform useful tasks.
Note that, a computer, left to itself, can do nothing.
Peopleware refers to all the people who are either working within the computer industry or are
connected with it.
It includes all the people engaged in the manufacture (development) of computers or its
components, maintenance and operations of computers. Such people may be working either in
the software area or the hardware area or in both areas.
CLASSES OF END-USERS.
End-users are classified according to the kinds of software they use.
(a). Application end-user.
This is an end-user who puts the computer to some specific practical purpose by using an
Application program.
Note. Application end-users are not usually technically knowledgeable about the
computer, but may be trained to use a particular Application program.
(b). Computer specialist end-user.
This is an end-user whose work is to set-up, control & monitor the computer, and also
produce or develop new software.
Note. Computer specialist end-users usually have technical knowledge about the
computer, and therefore can control its operations.
Examples: Programmers, Computer operators, System managers, etc.
The following are some categories of Personnel normally employed in a computer department:
1. Data entry operators.
Are the people responsible for entering data (on disks or cards), to be processed by the
computer.
2. Computer operators.
Are the people responsible for the day-to-day operation of the computer system.
3. Computer Programmers.
These are the people who write computer programs; which make the computer useful.
Duties.
(i). Choosing of a Programming language to be used.
(ii). Choosing of System software to be used.
(iii). Testing of programs & giving the procedures to be used.
(iv). Ensuring that Application programs are properly maintained.
4. System Analysts.
They design, and sometimes implement, the software systems required by the users.

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 They usually work in close collaboration with the Programmers.
Duties.
(i). Analyses the programs following the procedures given by the Programmer.
(ii). They code and test all the programs used in the department level.

5. Data Processing Manager.

Is the person responsible for the overall management of the computer system.
Duties.
(i). Responsible for all the services carried out in the department.
(ii). Ensures that all the departments are efficient for the well-being of the company.
(iii). He is the administrator.
Note. Hardware, Software & Liveware (people) are all important to the smooth operation of a
computer system. A weakness in any the three will result in a weakness of the entire
system.
This means that, the best written program may be useless if the hardware cannot handle
it, and the fastest computer may be under-utilized if the software is not sophisticated
enough. Lastly, the best machines with the best programs may be unproductive if the
facilities are mismanaged or if careless data entry operators keep on entering incorrect
data.

Exercise.
1. (a). Differentiate between an Application end-user and a Computer specialist.
(b). Briefly describe FIVE categories of workers which are normally found in commercial
computer installation.

Exercise I.
1. (a). What is a computer system?
(b). State and briefly explain the THREE major elements of a computer system.
2. Differentiate between a Computer and a Computer system.
3. Explain briefly the meaning of the following computing terminologies:
(a). Microcomputer.
(b). Microcomputer system.
(c). Microprocessor system.
(d). Chip.
(e). Hardware.
(f). Software.
4. (a). Distinguish between „Hardware‟ and „Software‟ as used in a computer system.
(b). Other than output devices, name three other categories of computer hardware.
Exercise II.
1. (a). What is meant by a computer system?

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 (b). Identify and briefly describe each of the elements of a computer system.

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS OF A MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM.

A microcomputer consists of 4 electronic parts:
1). Input devices.
2). Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called the Processor.
3). Output devices.
4). Memory storage devices, which consist of Main memories & Secondary memories.

Control Unit (CU)

- Interprets stored instructions;
- Issues commands to all elements of
Input device the computer Output device
Bus Bus
Input data & Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU) Gives out information
instructions Performs arithmetic & logic operations (result of data processing)

Main memory (Primary storage)

- Holds data, instructions & results of
processing

Bus
Secondary (Backing) storage
To supplement Main storage

Fig. 1.2: A computer model

 Data & instructions to be processed are supplied to the computer memory by the user with
the help of Input devices.
 The CPU performs the desired operations on the data and the results of calculations/
processing are communicated to the user through the Output devices.
 The data and/or instructions not being used immediately by the computer are held
permanently in the Backing storage, for retrieval any time it is required by the user.

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 LECTURE THIRTEEN

COMPUTER SECURITY

DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL

Introduction
Data & Information must be protected against unauthorized access, disclosure, modification or
damage. This is because; it is a scarce & valuable resource for any business organization or
government. It is mostly used in transactions, it can be shared, and has high value attached to it.
Data & Information security:
Data security is the protection of data & information from accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorized persons.
Data & Information privacy:
Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual & must not be accessed by or
disclosed to any other person, without direct permission from the owner.
Confidential data or information – this is data or information held by a government or
organization about people. This data/information may be seen by authorized persons without the
knowledge of the owner. However, it should not be used for commercial gain or any other
unofficial purpose without the owner being informed.

Review Questions
1. Differentiate between private and confidential data.
2. Why is information called a resource?
3. (a) Explain the term „Information security‟.
(b) Recently, data and information security has become very important. Explain.

SECURITY THREATS TO DATA & INFORMATION

1). COMPUTER VIRUSES
 A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the files
are opened for use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of the user.
 A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other programs or
interfere with the proper functioning of the computer system.

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A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:
(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.
(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program & data
files, by interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Types of computer viruses.
1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate themselves
when the e-mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other undesirable
activities in the background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.

Types of destructions/damages caused by a virus attack

 Delete or modify data, information & files on storage devices (disks) or memory during
normal program execution, e.g., may attack the format of a disk making any program or
data on it impossible to recover.
 Systematically destroy all the data in the computer memory.
 Might lock the keyboard.
 Can change keystroke values or data from other I/O devices, e.g., change the effect of
SHIFT key.
 Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
 Uses up computer memory/space, hence slowing down its performance or causing the
system to crash.
 Changes colour of the display.
 Cause boot failure.
Sources of viruses.
a) Contact with contaminated systems:
If a diskette is used on a virus infected computer, it could become contaminated. If the
same diskette is used on another computer, then the virus will spread.
b) Use of pirated software:
Pirated software may be contaminated by a virus code or it may have been amended to
perform some destructive functions which may affect your computer.
c) Infected proprietary software:
A virus could be introduced when the software is being developed in laboratories, and
then copied onto diskettes containing the finished software product.

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d) Fake games:
Some virus programs behave like games software. Since many people like playing
games on computers, the virus can spread very fast.
e) Freeware and Shareware:
Both freeware & shareware programs are commonly available in Bulletin board
systems.
Such programs should first be used in controlled environment until it is clear that the
program does not contain either a virus or a destructive code.
f) Updates of software distributed via networks:
Viruses programs can be spread through software distributed via networks.

Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.

The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:
 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash a
harmless message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Slow booting.
 Gradual filing of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
 Frequent read/write errors.
 Disk access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
 Computer hags anytime when running a program.
 Less memory available than usual, e.g., Base memory may read less than 640KB.
 Size of executable files changing for no obvious reason.

Control measures against viruses.

i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer room.
If they have to be used, they must be scanned for viruses.
iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.
iv). Write-protect disks after using them.
v). Disable floppy disk drives, if there is no need to use disks in the course of normal
operation.
vi). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
vii). Do not boot your computer from disks which you are not sure are free from viruses.
viii). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software houses.

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 ix). Programs downloaded from Bulletin Boards & those obtained from computer clubs
should be carefully evaluated & examined for any destructive code.

2). UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS

Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access it
without permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit fraud,
steal the information & destroy or corrupt the data.
Unauthorized access may take the following forms:
a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly
use eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.
b). Surveillance (monitoring):
This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or
people.
The information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for spreading
propaganda or sabotage.
c). Industrial espionage:
Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information
that can be used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain.
The main aim of espionage is to get ideas on how to counter by developing similar
approach or sabotage.
d). An employee who is not supposed to see some sensitive data gets it, either by mistake or
design.
e). Strangers who may stray into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
f). Forced entry into the computer room through weak access points.
g). Network access in case the computers are networked & connected to the external world.

Control measures against unauthorized access.

i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control access to
data.
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills & burglar
alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.

3). COMPUTER ERRORS & ACCIDENTAL ACCESS

Errors and accidental access to data & information may be as a result of:
 Mistakes made by people, e.g., one may print sensitive reports & unsuspectingly give them
to unauthorized persons.

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  People experimenting with features they are not familiar with. E.g., a person may
innocently download a file without knowing that it is self-installing or it may be dangerous
to the system.

Control measures against computer errors & accidents.

i). Restrict file access to the end-users and technical staff in the organization, i.e., deny
access of certain files & computers to certain groups of end-users.
This is because; accidental access mistakes occur if the end-users have too much
privilege that allows them to access or change sensitive files on the computer.
ii). Set up a comprehensive error-recovery strategy in the organization.

4). THEFT
The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information is
so valuable such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay somebody
a fortune so as to steal the information for them to use.

Control measures against theft of information, hardware, & software.

i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.
ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic grills
and strong padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.

Review Questions
1. Explain any three threats to data and information.
2. Give two control measures one would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and
information.
3. Explain the meaning of „industrial espionage‟.
4. (a) Define a computer virus.
(b) Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
(c) List three types of risks that computer viruses pose.
(d) List and explain five sources of computer viruses.
(e) Outline four symptoms of computer viruses.
(f) Explain the measures one would take to protect computers from virus attacks
5. How can one control the threat of user‟s errors to data and information?

COMPUTER CRIMES
 A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data.
 The use of computer hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g., stealing, forgery,
defrauding, etc.

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 Committing of illegal acts using a computer or against a computer system.

Types of computer crimes.

The following are the major types of computer crimes:
1. Trespass.
2. Hacking.
3. Tapping.
4. Cracking.
5. Piracy.
6. Fraud (Theft of money)
7. Sabotage.
8. Alteration of data.
9. Theft of computer time / Theft of service.
10. Theft of data, information or programs.
11. Damage of software.
Trespass.
 Trespass refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware,
software & backed up data is kept.
 It can also refer to the act of accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer
over a network.
Trespass is not allowed and should be discouraged.
Hacking.
Hacking is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being
transmitted along a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes & passwords to
gain unauthorized entry to the system data and information files in a computer.
Reasons for hacking.
 To copy or corrupt the information.
 As a hobby to test their expertise. Some people like the challenge & they feel great after
successful hacking.
 Some do it for computer & software producing companies that want to secure their systems by
reducing weaknesses discovered after professional hacking.
Hacking is done by skilled programmers referred to as Hackers. Hacker is a person who gains
unauthorised access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief, or personal gain.
Such people are able to break through passwords or find weak access points in software. They
are involved in propagating computer viruses.
Tapping.
Tapping involves listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being
transmitted.
Tapping may take place through the following ways:

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a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her
information from the computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept messages
being sent & received by the unsuspecting computer.
Cracking.
Cracking is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes
of a software in order to get access to data & information.
These weak access points can only be sealed using sealed using special corrective programs
called Patches, which are prepared by the manufacturing company.
A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software makes it
better.
NB: Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or user names of the
authorized staff.
Piracy.
Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making illegal
copies of copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for re-sale.
Ways of reducing piracy:
i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information against
piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.
Fraud.
Fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of
gaining money or information.
Fraud may take the following forms:
a). Input manipulation:
Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy (ghost)
employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.
b). Production & use of fake documents:
E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax department that could credit his
account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was
discovered.
Fraudsters can either be employees in the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people.
Reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
 For economic gain (i.e., to gain money or information).
 To gain respect (self-worth)
Security measures to prevent fraud:

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i) Careful recruitment of staff.
ii) Set up a clear & firm management policy on crimes & frauds.
iii) Restrict access to computer room or terminal.
iv) Use transaction & fill logs to monitor access to sensitive areas of the system.
v) Monitor & investigate error logs and reports on regular basis.
vi) Carry out risk analysis to examine the exposure of the organization to possible fraud.

Sabotage.
Sabotage is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees
or other people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an
organization.
Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those sent by competitors to cause
harm to the organization.
The following are some acts of saboteurs which can result in great damage to the computer
centres:
 Using Magnets to mix up (mess up) codes on tapes.
 Planting of bombs.
 Cutting of communication lines.
Alteration.
Alteration is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim
of gaining or misinforming the authorized users.
Alteration is usually done by those people who wish to hide the truth. It makes the data
irrelevant and unreliable.
Alteration may take place through the following ways:
a). Program alteration:
This is done by people with excellent programming skills. They do this out of malice or
they may liaise with others for selfish gains.
b). Alteration of data in a database:
This is normally done by authorized database users, e.g., one can adjust prices on Invoices,
increase prices on selling products, etc, and then pocket the surplus amounts.
Security measures to prevent alteration:
i) Do not give data editing capabilities to anybody without vetting.
ii) The person altering the data may be forced to sign in order for the system to accept altering
the information.
Theft of computer time.
Employees may use the computers of an organization to do their own work, e.g., they may
produce publications for selling using the computers of the company.
Theft of data (i.e., commercial espionage).

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Employees steal sensitive information or copy packages and sell them to outsiders or competitors
for profit.
This may lead to a leakage of important information, e.g., information on marketing strategies
used by the organization, research information, or medical reports.

Review Questions
1. (a) Define the term „Computer crime‟.
(b) State and explain various types of computer crimes.
2. Differentiate between Hacking and Cracking with reference to computer crimes.
3. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
4. Give two reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
5. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information.
6. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
7. Explain the meaning of Tapping while dealing with computer crimes.

DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES

The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal security
loopholes.
Audit trails
This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find out) all
the weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak access points for
criminals.
An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -
1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of services
even when something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?

Data encryption
Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or copied to
unauthorized destinations.
To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that only the sender & the receiver can be able to
understand by reconstructing the original message from the mix. This is called Data
encryption.

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The flow diagram below shows how a message can be encrypted and decrypted to enhance
security.

Black Cyphertext Black

panther kcalB panther
rehtn Black
ap panth
Plain text er Plain text
Encryption key Decryption key
The message to be encrypted is called the Plain text document. After encryption using a
particular order (or, algorithm) called encryption key, it is sent as Cyphertext on the network.
After the recipient receives the message, he/she decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one
used during encryption called decryption key to get the original plain text document.
This means that, without the decryption key, it is not possible to reconstruct the original
message.

Log files
These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and
resources of the information system.
Each user is usually assigned a username & password or account. The information system
administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the
system. This information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system
security policies.

Firewalls
A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged between
different networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.
A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote users) who
do not have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot access sites outside
the network restricted by firewalls.
LAWS GOVERNING PROTECTION OF INFORMATION
Laws have been developed that govern the handling of data & information in order to ensure that
there is „right of privacy‟ for all people.
The following rules must be observed in order to keep within the law when working with data
and information.
1. Data & information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.
2. Data & information should not be kept longer than necessary.
3. Data & information should be accurate and up-to-date.
4. Data & information should be collected, used & kept for specified lawful purposes (i.e., it
should not be used for unlawful gain).
5. The owner of the data has a right to know what data is held by the person or organization
having it.
6. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner‟s permission.

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7. Do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for a purpose.

Review Questions
1. What do the following control measures against computer crimes involve?
(i) Audit trail.
(ii) Data encryption.
(iii) Log files.
(iv) Firewalls.
2. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working with data and
information.

COMPUTER SECURITY
What is Computer security?
 Safeguarding the computer & the related equipments from the risk of damage or fraud.
 Protection of data & information against accidental or deliberate threats which might cause
unauthorised modification, disclosure, or destruction.
A computer system can only be claimed to be secure if precautions are taken to safeguard it
against damage or threats such as accidents, errors & omissions.
The security measures to be undertaken by the organization should be able to protect:
i) Computer hardware against damage.
ii) Data, information & programs against accidental alteration or deletion.
iii) Data & information against hazards.
iv) The computer against unauthorised use.
v) Data, information & programs against piracy or unauthorised copying.
vi) Data & programs used by the computer system against illegal or unauthorised modification.
vii) Storage media, e.g., diskettes, tapes, etc against accidental destruction.
viii) Policies of the organization.
ix) Buildings.
x) Accidental interruption of power supply or communication lines.
xi) Disclosure of confidential data or information.
xii) Ensure that both hardware & software have longer life span.

Environmental threats to computers & Information systems.

1). Fire.
Fire destroys data, information, software & hardware.
Security measures against fire:
 Use fire-proof cabinets & lockable metal boxes for floppy disks.
 Use of backups.
 Install fire fighting equipments, e.g., fire extinguishers.
 Have some detectors.
 Training of fire-fighting officers.

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  Observe safety procedures, e.g., avoid smoking in the computer rooms.
 Have well placed exit signs.
 Contingency plans.
2). Water, floods & moisture.
This causes rusting of the metallic components of the computer.
Security measures against water, floods & moisture:
 Set up computer rooms on higher grounds to avoid floods & humidity.
 Avoid installing computer components in the basement.
 There should be adequate drainage system.
 Use water-proof ceilings & floors.
3). Lightening, electricity & electrical storms.
This causes power failure that can cause damage to data, which has not been transferred to
permanent storage devices.

Security measures:
 Install facilities to control power fluctuations, e.g., use of Uninterrupted power source
(UPS)
 Use power stabilizers.
 Have standby power generators/sources.
 Have lightening arresters in the building.
4). Excessive Heat or Temperature.
Excessive heat or temperature from the computer itself or from the surrounding environment
can destroy computer storage media or devices.
Security measures:
 There should be efficient ventilation system.
 Use a cooling system in the computer rooms, e.g., cooling fans & air conditioners.
5). Computer virus attack.
A virus is a rogue software program that spreads rampantly through computer systems,
destroying data or causing the system to break down.
Security measures against computer virus:
 Make backup copies of software, and store the copies off-site.
 Restrict access to programs & data on a „need-to-use‟ basis.
 Check all programs regularly for change of size, as this could be a sign of virus infiltration.
 Be careful with „Shareware‟ and „Freeware‟ programs, as they are the major entry points
for viruses.
 Make sure all purchased software is in its original sealed-disk containers.

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6). Smoke and Dust.
Dust and Smoke particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during Read/write
operation.
Security measures:
 Have dust mats or carpets to prevent entry of dust.
 Fit the computer room with special Curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 Cover the devices with Dust covers when cleaning the room.
 Remove shoes before entering the room to prevent dust.
7). Terrorist attack.
This includes activities such as:
 Political terrorists,
 Criminal type of activities,
 Individuals with grudges, or
 People intending to cause general destruction.
Security measures:
 Hiring of security guards to control physical access to the building housing the computer
room.
 Activities that can cause terrorism should be avoided, e.g., exploitation of workers.
 Have double door & monitoring devices.
 Use of policies.
 System auditing / use of log files.
 Use of passwords.
 Punitive measures.
 Encryption of data.
 Use of firewalls.
 Consult & co-operate with the Police and Fire authorities on potential risks.
8). People.
People threats include:
 Carelessness.
 Clumsiness.
 Accidental deletion of data, information or programs.
 Vandalism, i.e., theft or destruction of data, information or programs & hardware.
 Piracy of copyrighted data & software.
Security measures against Carelessness & Clumsiness:
 Better selection of personnel.
 Have a good office layout.
 Improve employee training and education.
 Limit access to data and computers.
 Regular backups.
 Use of Undelete & Unformat utilities.

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 Security measures against Vandalism:
 Should have a sensitive attitude to office behaviour.
 Tighten security measures, e.g., install alarm systems, burglar-proof doors/windows, &
roofs).
 Limit access to sensitive company information.
 Use Keyboard lock on terminals used by authorised users.
 Use of disk locks.
 Punitive measures.
9). Earthquakes.

Review Questions
1. (a) What is Computer security?
(b) Mention various threats to computer security.
2. Discuss the environmental problems affecting the operation of computers.

CAUSES OF DATA LOSS IN COMPUTERS

1. Power failure:
Momentary interruptions or fluctuations of electrical power may cause:
 Crashing of computers.
 Loss of data or information that had not been saved before the power disruption.
 Damage to computer‟s secondary storage media. This may result to loss of data &
Application software stored on the media.
The main cause of power disruptions are:
 Amplitude fluctuations,
 Power line noise,
 Low voltage sages,
 High voltage surges,
 Voltage outages,
 Voltage spikes,
 Waveform distortions,
 Power frequency variations.
Precautions against data loss due to Power failure:
a) Regular saving of documents.
Frequent saving of documents ensures that minimum data is lost in case of any power
failure.
Some application packages have an AutoSave feature, which should be activated to
automatically save work after a specified time interval.
b) Use of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).

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 To eliminate any power quality defects or fluctuation, use power correction equipment
such as a Stabilizer or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). These equipments ensure a
steady flow of input power to the computer system.

2. Computer viruses:
A computer virus destroys all the data files & programs in the computer memory by
interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.
Precautions against computer viruses:
a) Anti-virus software.
Use Antivirus software to detect & remove known viruses from infected files.
Some of the commonly used Antivirus software are: Dr. Solomon‟s Toolkit, Norton
Antivirus, AVG Antivirus, PC-Cillin, etc
NB: The best way to prevent virus is to have a memory-resident antivirus software,
which will detect the virus before it can affect the system. This can be achieved by
installing a GUARD program in the RAM every time the computer boots up. Once in
the RAM, the antivirus software will automatically check diskettes inserted in the drives
& warn the user immediately if a disk is found to have a virus.
 For an antivirus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature. Since virus
writers keep writing new viruses with new signatures all the time, it is recommended
that you update your antivirus product regularly so as to include the latest virus
signatures in the industry.
 The Antivirus software installed in your computer should be enabled/activated at all
times.
 You should also perform virus scans of your disks on a regular basis.
 Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is
minimized.

Review Questions
1. Describe two ways of preventing data loss due to power outage.
2. (a) What is a Computer virus?
(b) What are Anti-viruses? Explain how they detect and remove viruses.

3. Accidental erasure:
Commands such as DELETE & FORMAT can be dangerous to the computer if used
wrongly.
Both commands wipe out the information stored on the specified secondary storage media,
e.g., formatting the Hard disk (drive C:) will destroy all the software on that system.
Precautions against Accidental erasure:
a) Use of Undelete utilities.
Use the Undelete facilities in case you accidentally delete your files.
There are two Undelete facilities depending on the operating system you are using.

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  MS-DOS 6.0 Undelete facility:
To undelete at the DOS prompt, change to the drive & directory whose files were
deleted, then type, e.g.,
C:\>UNDELETE <directory that contain the deleted file>
A list of all deleted files will be displayed with the first letter missing. Type in the
first letter and the file will be recovered.
 Norton utilities & PC Tools:
Norton utilities & PC Tools also have an undelete facility, which is similar to the
DOS Undelete facility.
 Windows Recycle Bin:
The Recycle Bin temporarily stores all deleted files & can be used to recover your
files.
1. Double-click the Recycle Bin on the desktop.
2. Click on the files you want to undelete.
3. Click on File, choose Restore.
The Recycle Bin will restore all selected files to their original folders and disks.
NB: If you delete a file accidentally, don‟t copy any files or install any applications to
the disk that contains the deleted file. If you write anything to the disk, you might
destroy parts of the deleted file, making it unrecoverable.
b) Use of Unformat utilities.
MS-DOS 6.0 has an Unformat facility which can be used to recover information stored
on disks that have been accidentally formatted.
c) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up periodically either on diskettes, tapes or CDs so that in case
of any accidental loss, the backed up copy can be used to recover the data.
For small files, use the Copy command to make a copy of the data on a diskette. For
larger amounts of data, use the Backup command to copy the data to several diskettes or
to a tape drive.

Review Questions
1. Name two commands that can erase the information from a disk.
2. Define „Data backup‟ and state its importance.

4. Crashing of hard disks:

When a hard disk crashes, the data or information on the disk cannot be accessed. The effect
is the same as formatting the hard disk.
Crashing of a hard disk can occur due to the following reasons:
i) Mishandling of the computer system, e.g.,
 Moving the system unit while the computer is on.
 Accumulation of dust.
ii) Computer virus attack.

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 iii) Physical damage to the System unit caused by dropping or banging when being moved.
Precautions against crashing of Hard disks:
a) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up regularly. In addition, all application programs & operating
system software should also be kept safely so that in case of a complete system crash,
everything can be re-installed/restored.
b) Use of Recovery tools.
System tools such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus, etc can be used to revive a
disk that has crashed.
Review Questions
1. List two possible causes of a hard disk crash.

5. Unauthorised access:
Unauthorised access refers to access to data & information without permission.
Computer criminals can do the following harms:
 Steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of
their computer accounts illegally.
 Steal or destroy data & information from companies, bringing their operations to a
standstill.
 Spread destruction from one computer to another using virus programs. This can cripple
the entire system of computer networks.
 Spread computer worm programs. Worm programs are less harmful in the beginning, but
render the computer almost useless in the long-run.
Precautions against Unauthorised access:
a) Restrict physical access.
Physical access to computer systems should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorised
person gets access to the system.
Some of the ways of restricting physical access include:
 Locking of doors.
 Use of personal identification cards.
 Use of fingerprint identification.
 Use of special voice-recorders. They analyse the voice of a trespasser & checks
against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
b) Password protection.
Install a password to restrict access to the computer system.
A Password is a secret code that can be used to prevent unauthorised access of data in a
computer.
Passwords can be put in at various levels:
 At the point of switching on the computer – to restrict access to the computer.

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  On folders/directories – to restrict access to entire folders/directories.
 On files – to restrict access to individual files within a directory.
 On database systems – to restrict access to individual data elements.
When a valid password is entered, the user gets access to the computer system. Usually,
the user is allowed three (3) attempts to get the password correct. If an invalid password
is entered, access is denied after the 3 attempts.
Some computer security systems may generate an alarm if someone tries to use a fake
password.
NB: You should never use passwords that can easily be linked to you, e.g., your name,
birth date, or names of people close to you.

Review Questions
1. State and discuss four causes of data loss in a computer system.
2. (a) Discuss two methods used to restrict unauthorised access to computer systems.
(b) What is a Password? Give its main importance.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING HARDWARE

1. Hardware configurations/specifications
 CPU-central processing unit
 RAM –random access memory
 HD- Hard Disk
 FDD – Floppy Disk Drive
 Printer:
 UPS - Uninterruptible power supply unit
 Mouse:
 Monitors:
 Keyboard
 Anti glare:- Is a special type of screen that absorbs radiation.
 Scanner-translates hard copy to soft copy.

2. Reliability:
This is determined by the rate of breakdown of the hardware it may be assessed
from those who are currently using type of hardware.

3. Simplicity
The architecture of the computer should be simple since simple systems are
probably best for small organization.

4. Ease of Communication

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 The system i.e. both h/w & s/w should be able to communicate well with the users.
The s/w should be user friendly and the h/w should be the right size and with good
interface facilities.

5. Flexibility
H/w should be able to meet new user requirements as they emerge e.g. It should be
powerful enough to be flexible.

6. Security
It should be able to keep out hackers and other unauthorized users. Its easier to keep
out hackers and other unauthorized user with more powerful system although
security can be a major problem for any computer system.

7. Cost
The h/w should be cost effective i.e. it should be cheap but offer best requirements.

8. Change over
Whichever is the choice of the hardware it should help with a smooth change-over
from old to the new system.

9. Net working
The hardware should have networking capability especially if its purchased by a
company own it. This caters for a future organizational expandability requirements.

10. Software:
The hardware should be capable of running any software that has been chosen.

SOFTWARE COMPONENTS

Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer

programs, procedures and documentation that perform some specific tasks on
computer system.

Factors influencing choice of software

User requirements:
The selected software or package should fit user requirement as closely as possible

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Processing time
These involves the responses time e.g. if the response time slow the user might
consider s/w or package as unsuccessful.

Documentation
The software should be accompanied by manual, which is east to understand, by non-
technical person. The manual should not contain technical jargon.

User friendliness:-
The package should be easier to use with clear on screen prompts, menu driven and
extensive on screen help facility.

Controls:
The software should have in-built controls which may include password options,
validation checks, audit trail or trace facilities etc.

Up-to datedness:
The software should be up to date e.g. should have changes or corrections in line with
business procedures

Modification:
One should consider whether the software can freely be changed by the user without
violating copyright.

Its success in the market:

One should consider how many users are using the s/w particularly OS and how long
it has to be in the market.

Compatibility of the software:

I.e. how the s/w integrates with other s/w particularly OS and the user programs

Portability:
One should consider how the s/w runs on the user computer and whether there will be
need for the user to upgrade his hardware.

Cost:
The use company should consider its financial position to establish whether it can
afford the software required for efficient operations rather than the least cost packages
s/w available.

OTHER ISSUES IN SOFTWARE PROCUREMENT

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Software contracts
Includes the costs, purpose and capacity of the s/w. It describes what it cannot do the
following are covered in s/w contracts:
 Warrant terms.
 Support available.
 Arrangement for upgrades.
 Maintenance arrangement.
 Delivery period/time for especially written s/w
 Performance criteria.
 Ownership

Software licensing covers the following:

 Number of users that can install and use the s/w legally.
 Whether the s/w can be copied without infringing copyrights.
 Whether it can be altered without the developer's consent.
 Circumstances under which the licensing can be terminated.
 Limitation of liability e.g. if the user commits fraud using the software.
 Obligation to correct errors or bugs if they exist in the s/w

Further reading

Access 2003 tutor by Microsoft corporations

Gan Siowck Lee (2000). IT and education in Malaysia: Problems issues and
challenges. Kuala Lumpur: Longman

Http// www.microsoft.com/ applications

Microsoft office (2003 – Microsoft excel 2003 by Microsoft corporations

Microsoft office (2003) - Microsoft access 2003 by Microsoft corporations.

Williams D.M. (2000), Integrating technology into teaching and learning. Singapore
Prentice hall

-END-

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