CRUXv45n7 1
CRUXv45n7 1
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Crux Mathematicorum est une publication de résolution de problèmes de niveau secondaire et de premier
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Editorial Board
Crux Mathematicorum
Founding Editors / Rédacteurs-fondateurs: Léopold Sauvé & Frederick G.B. Maskell
Former Editors / Anciens Rédacteurs: G.W. Sands, R.E. Woodrow, Bruce L.R. Shawyer,
Shawn Godin
Crux Mathematicorum
with Mathematical Mayhem
Former Editors / Anciens Rédacteurs: Bruce L.R. Shawyer, James E. Totten, Václav Linek,
Shawn Godin
378/ Editorial
EDITORIAL
Have you heard of the pancake problem? You have a stack of all different size
pancakes that you want to order from largest on the bottom to smallest on top.
You are allowed to insert a spatula at any point in the stack and use it to flip all
pancakes above it.
Let’s try a small case of 3 pancakes. How many flips are required to order the
following stacks?
More generally, what is the maximum number of flips required for n pancakes?
This problem was first proposed by Jacob E. Goodman, under the pseudonym
Harry Dweighter, in 1975 when it appeared as Elementary Problem E2569 in
American Mathematical Monthly. Here is what we know so far. In 1979, Bill
Gates and Christos Papadimitriou gave an upper bound of 5n+5 3 (yes, that Bill
Gates!). In 2008, the bound was improved to 18 11 n. In 2011, this problem was
proved to be NP-hard. Not so elementary after all.
It gets even more interesting in biology context. This “flipping” operation can be
applied to create reversals in the gene sequence, which allows us to study genome
rearrangements in evolution. For example, cabbage is only 3 flips away from
turnip! Maybe one day we will find out what came first.
Kseniya Garaschuk
MATHEMATTIC
No. 7
The problems featured in this section are intended for students at the secondary school
level.
MA31. Given that the areas of an equilateral triangle with side length t and
a square with side length s are equal, determine the value of st .
MA32. Jack and Madeline are playing a dice game. Jack rolls a 6-sided
die (numbered 1 to 6) and Madeline rolls an 8-sided die (numbered 1 to 8). The
person who rolls the higher number wins the game. If Jack and Madeline roll the
same number, the game is replayed. If a tie occurs a second time, then Jack is
declared the winner. Which person has the better chance of winning? What are
the odds in favour of this person winning the game?
MA34. Try to replace each ∗ with a different digit from 1 to 9 so that the
multiplication is correct. (Each digit from 1 to 9 must be used once.)
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
× ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Determine whether a solution is possible. If so, determine whether the solution is
unique.
MA35. A polygon has angles that are all equal. If the sides of this polygon
are not all equal, show that the polygon must have an even number of sides.
.................................................................
Les problémes proposés dans cette section sont appropriés aux étudiants de l’école sec-
ondaire.
Pour faciliter l’examen des solutions, nous demandons aux lecteurs de les faire parvenir
au plus tard le 30 octobre 2019.
MA31. Étant donné que la surface d’un triangle équilatéral de côté t et celle
d’un carré de côté s sont égales, déterminer la valeur de st .
MA32. Jacques et Madeleine jouent aux dés un peu spéciaux. Jacques utilise
un dé ordinaire à 6 côtés (numérotés 1 à 6) tandis que Madeleine se sert d’un
dé spécial à 8 côtés (numérotés de 1 à 8). La personne obtenant le plus gros
chiffre gagne. Si Jacques et Madeleine roulent le même chiffre, on répète le jeu
une seconde fois, sans déclarer de gagneur au premier tour ; si un ex aequo a lieu
de nouveau, quel que soit le chiffre, Jacques est déclaré gagneur; autrement, le
plus gros chiffre gagne. Laquelle personne a la meilleure chance de gagner à long
terme ? Cette personne gagnante a quelle probabilité de gagner à long terme ?
MA35. Les angles d’un polygone sont égaux. Si les côtés du polygone ne sont
pas tous de même longueur, démontrer que le polygone doit avoir un nombre pair
de côtés.
MATHEMATTIC
SOLUTIONS
Statements of the problems in this section originally appear in 2019: 45(2), p. 56–57.
MA7. Sixteen counters, which are black on one side and white on the other,
are arranged in a 4 by 4 square. Initially all the counters are facing black side up.
In one ‘move’, you must choose a 2 by 2 square within the square and turn all
four counters over once. Describe a sequence of ‘moves’ of minimum length that
finishes with the visible colours of the counters of the 4 by 4 square alternating
(as shown in the diagram).
Label the 1 × 1 squares left to right, bottom to top so that 1 refers to the bottom
left square and 13 refers to the upper left square. First notice that the order in
which the 2 × 2 squares are turned is inconsequential. The 1 × 1 squares in the
bottom left and upper right begin as black, and must become white, hence the
bottom left and upper right 2 × 2 squares must both by turned. This will be the
first and second move. The squares 2,5,12, and 15 belong to exactly one 2 × 2
square, excluding the two squares turned in our first two moves. Since squares
2,5,12, and 15 are white after the second move, and must become black, we are
forced to flip the middle bottom, middle right, middle left, and middle top 2 × 2
squares. After these next four moves, the checkerboard pattern is formed. It
follows that 6 is the minimum number of moves.
MA8. I have two types of square tile. One type has a side length of 1 cm and
the other has a side length of 2 cm. What is the smallest square that can be made
with equal numbers of each type of tile?
Originally problem B5 from 2018 UK Junior Mathematical Olympiad.
We received 2 solutions. We present a solution based on the submission by Doddy
Kastanya.
Suppose we have N squares of each type tiling a square of side length S (in cm2 ).
Then
S 2 = N · 1 + N · 4 = 5N.
The smallest S that satisfies this equation is 5, which implies N = 5. However
there is no possible arrangement of the tiles satisfying this, as can be seen from
the figure below. Any 2 × 2 tile placed in the square covers exactly one of the four
grey squares. Thus we cannot fit five 2 × 2 tiles into the 5 × 5 square.
The next possible S satisfying the equation is 10, implying N = 20. A possible
tiling is shown below.
Therefore the smallest square that can be made with equal numbers of each type
of tiles has a side length of 10cm.
MA9. The letters a, b, c, d, e and f represent single digits and each letter rep-
resents a different digit. They satisfy the following equations:
a + b = d, b + c = e, d + e = f.
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
α, αr, αr2 , . . .
We show by proof by induction that each term αrn of our geometric sequence is a
term of our arithmetic sequence. We are given that a = α and a + d = αr. Hence,
the base cases of n = 0, 1 are satisfied. Let n = k. Assume αrk is a term of our
arithmetic sequence, i.e. αrk = a + md for some m ∈ N. We consider the case of
n = k + 1 as follows
αrk+1 = αrk r
= (a + md)r
= ar + rmd.
αrk+1 = a + d + rmd
= a + (rm + 1)d.
PROBLEM SOLVING
VIGNETTES
No.7
Shawn Godin
Careful Counting
This month we will look at problem B4 from the 2018 Canadian Open Mathematics
Challenge administered by the CMS. You can check out past contests on the CMS
webpage at cms.math.ca/Competitions/COMC.
Determine the number of 5-tuples of integers (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) so that
(a) xi ≥ i for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5;
5
X
(b) xi = 25.
i=1
Solution 1: We will look to see if we can find any patterns by considering possible
solutions in an orderly manner. Suppose that we fix x1 = 1, x2 = 2, and x3 = 3.
If we want the five numbers to add to 25, then x4 + x5 = 25 − (1 + 2 + 3) = 19.
Recall that we also need x4 ≥ 4 and x5 ≥ 5. Putting this together, we get the
following 11 5-tuples:
Next we will examine what happens when we allow x3 to take on different values.
We will keep x1 = 1 and x2 = 2 and let x3 = 4. Using the same idea as in the
first case we get 10 new 5-tuples:
11
X
11 + 10 + 9 + · · · + 1 = i = 66.
i=1
11 X
X i
(11 + 10 + 9 + · · · + 1) + (10 + 9 + 8 + · · · + 1) + · · · + (2 + 1) + 1 = j
i=1 j=1
5-tuples. Thus for the total problem, we will need to let x1 vary. Letting x1 = 2
and thinking through the process we get
10 X
X i
(10 + 9 + 8 + · · · + 1) + (9 + 8 + 7 + · · · + 1) + · · · + (2 + 1) + 1 = j
i=1 j=1
[(11 + 10 + 9 + · · · + 1) + · · · + (2 + 1) + 1]+
11 X
X j
i X
[(10 + 9 + 8 + · · · + 1) + · · · + (2 + 1) + 1]+ · · · + [1] = k. (1)
i=1 j=1 k=1
Enjoy practicing your induction by proving that the formula holds for all n.
Going back to (1), using (2), (3), and (4) we get
11 X j
i X 11 X
i
X X j(j + 1)
k=
i=1 j=1 k=1 i=1 j=1
2
11 i
1 XX 2
= (j + j)
2 i=1 j=1
11 Å
1 X i(i + 1)(2i + 1) i(i + 1)
ã
= +
2 i=1 6 2
11
1X 3
= (i + 3i2 + 2i)
6 i=1
1 112 · 122 11 · 12 · 23 11 · 12
Å ã
= +3· +2·
6 4 6 2
= 1001.
Therefore there are 1001 5-tuples that satisfy the conditions in the problem. 2
Solution 2: We will look at the problem from another point of view. Suppose
we wanted, for case of simplicity, to find all 3-tuples of non-negative integers
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) such that x1 + x2 + x3 = 5. This is a simplification of our problem
by considering only 3 numbers, having a smaller sum and letting them all be any
non-negative integer. For this problem we could list out all the possibilities or
count them by carefully looking at cases.
Case 1: Two of the numbers are the same (there is no way they can all be the
same). There are three ways that this can happen: (0, 0, 5), (1, 1, 3), and (2, 2, 1).
For each of these cases there are 3! 2! = 3 ways to arrange the numbers giving 3·3 = 9
3-tuples: (0, 0, 5), (0, 5, 0), (5, 0, 0), (1, 1, 3) (1, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (2, 2, 1), (2, 1, 2), and
(1, 2, 2).
Case 2: None of the numbers are the same. There are only two ways that this
can happen: (0, 1, 4) and (0, 2, 3). For each of these cases there are 3! = 6 ways
to arrange the numbers giving 2 · 6 = 12 more 3-tuples: (0, 1, 4), (0, 4, 1), (1, 0, 4),
(1, 4, 0), (4, 0, 1), (4, 1, 0), (0, 2, 3), (0, 3, 2), (2, 0, 3), (2, 3, 0), (3, 0, 2), and (3, 2, 0).
Therefore there are 9 + 12 = 21 3-tuples in total. We can use this method on our
problem, but there will be many more cases to look at. You may (or may not!)
want to see if you can identify all cases and get the correct total of 1001.
Still looking at the simplified problem, suppose we represent any particular 3-tuple
with a collection of stars and bars (the name usually associated with this method).
We will use five stars, since the total is 5 and two bars to separate them into three
groups. Thus the 3-tuple (2, 1, 2) would be represented by ∗ ∗ | ∗ | ∗ ∗. All stars to
the left of the first bar represent x1 , the stars between the bars represent x2 and
the stars to the right of the second bar represents x3 . Similarly ∗|| ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ would
represent (1, 0, 4) and ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗|| would represent (5, 0, 0).
Every 3-tuple can be represented by a unique permutation of 5 stars and 2 bars.
Similarly, every permutation of 5 stars and 2 bars represents a unique 3-tuple.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between the 3-tuples and the permutations
of 5 stars and 2 bars. Since the total number of permutations of 5 stars and 2 bars
7!
is 5!2! = 21, we solved our simplified problem in a much more efficient manner.
If we return to the original problem, all permutations of 25 stars and 4 bars would
give all possible 5-tuples of non-negative integers that sum to 25. This is not quite
what we are after, but if we let xi = i + yi , for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5 then (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 )
is a 5-tuple of non-negative integers that add to 25 − (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 10
and there is a one-to-one correspondence between the 5-tuples (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 )
and the 5-tuples that we are after. That is, for example, since (3, 1, 4, 2, 0) is a
collection of yi s, then (3 + 1, 1 + 2, 4 + 3, 2 + 4, 0 + 5) = (4, 3, 7, 6, 5) is an allowed
solution to the original problem. The number of possible 5-tuples (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 )
is the same as the number of permutations of 10 stars and 4 bars or
14!
= 1001.
10!4!
2
The stars and bars method yields a solution much quicker. We can summarize it
as follows: the number of distinct n-tuples of non-negative integers whose sum is
s is
(s + n − 1)!
.
s!(n − 1)!
This can be generalized to the following statement: the number of distinct n-tuples
of integers, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) whose sum is s, where xi ≤ mi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n is
(s + (n − 1) − ni=1 mi )!
P
.
(s − ni=1 mi )!(n − 1)!
P
TEACHING PROBLEMS
No.4
John McLoughlin
Handshakes with a Twist
Assuming that makes sense be aware of how you would obtain the result. There
are at least three viable avenues including the idea of adding additional people
to simpler cases, as outlined above. You may recognize that each person in the
group must shake 4 hands suggesting that there may be 5 × 4 = 20 handshakes
required. Of course, this is not 10, and so something must be awry. Yes, each
handshake involves two people and so the number of handshakes in total would
equal 20 divided by 2, or 10. Do you see that in general for n people there would
ben(n − 1)/2 handshakes required? Mathematically this is equivalent to n C2 or
n
2 or “n choose 2”, namely, the number of ways of selecting 2 people from a group
of n people.
Mr. and Mrs. Smith were at a party with three other married couples.
Since some of the guests were not acquainted with one another, various
handshakes took place. No one shook hands with his or her spouse, and
of course, no one shook their own hand! After all of the introductions
had been made, Mrs. Smith asked the other seven people how many
hands each shook. Surprisingly, they all gave different answers. How
many hands did Mr. Smith shake?
Take some time and consider a diagram and/or a logical approach that makes it
plausible to address the problem. It is not anticipated that you will necessarily
solve the problem, as few of my students do in fact without some further guidance.
In any case, play with the problem so that you may understand it better.
Here I will share two approaches, the first being a classroom approach and the
second being the written approach.
This approach requires 8 volunteers who are arranged into 4 couples, one of which
is designated as Mr. and Mrs. Smith. Any names for the others are not a concern.
It is easiest to place them in pairs square dancing, as if they are the four directions
(N , S, E, W ) on a compass.
Consider the important fact that Mrs. Smith received seven different answers to
the number of hands shaken by the others in the group. In fact, there are only
seven possible answers as the absence of a handshake with one’s spouse limited
the number of handshakes to a maximum of 6. That is, there must be people who
accounted for each of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 handshakes. That is essential to getting
started. Make sure that makes sense to you. The eighth person, Mrs. Smith, is
not included on that list.
Here I ask one of the volunteers other than Mr. Smith to be the person shaking 6
hands. This person steps forward and proceeds to shake all possible hands (as in
all people other than the spouse), thus, giving us a person with 6 handshakes. Do
you see now that the spouse of this individual is the only person who could shake
0 hands? Hence, both members of that couple have completed their handshakes.
We proceed to identify another person other than Mr. Smith to be the person
who will shake 5 hands. Observe that this person will have already counted 1
handshake and now can shake hands with Mr. and Mrs. Smith as well as with
another couple. The spouse of the person shaking 5 hands will become the only
person who can shake only 1 hand. Hence, these people have finished with shaking
hands.
Finally, there is a volunteer who shakes more hands and becomes the person with
4 handshakes while having a spouse with only 2 handshakes. This leaves Mr. and
Mrs. Smith each having shaken 3 hands. We are done with the handshakes and
can definitively answer the question. How many hands did Mr. Smith shake? The
answer is 3.
Now consider the person who shook 5 hands. Assume this person is C. Then C
must shake hands with each of E, F , G, and H. This shows that everyone (other
than B and D) shook at least two hands. Therefore, it follows that D must have
been the person who shook exactly 1 hand, as illustrated.
Now consider the person who shook 4 hands. Assume this person is E. Since E
has already shaken two hands, E must shake hands with both G and H. Drawing
edges from E to G and E to H we see that F must be the person who shook 2
hands. Further, both G and H have shaken at least three hands. The resulting
diagram is shown:
Note that G and H are married and so they do not shake hands. Thus, both G and
H shook three hands. We have now indicated all the handshakes that took place
at this party. However, we need to identify Mr. and Mrs. Smith. If Mrs. Smith
is any of A to F , two of the individuals would have replied to her question that
they shook exactly three hands. That is a contradiction because all seven replies
were different. Therefore, Mrs. Smith must be either G or H. Thus, Mrs. Smith
shook three hands. Likewise, Mr. Smith as her spouse shook exactly 3 hands.
handshakes took place. No one shook hands with their spouse, and of course, no
one shook their own hand! After all the introductions had been made, Mrs. Smith
asked the other people how many hands they shook. Surprisingly, they all gave a
different answer. How many hands did Mr. Smith shake?
3. Everyone at a meeting shook hands with one another. Shortly after the meeting
commenced, the chronically late character known as Tar D. arrived. Tar only
managed to shake hands with some of the people present. In total, there were 59
handshakes. How many hands did Tar D. shake?
4. At a party attended by n people, various handshakes took place. Just for fun,
each person shouted out the number of hands they shook. Explain why there must
have been at least two people who shouted out the same number.
Reference
Hoshino, R. & Grant McLoughlin, J. (2005). Combinatorial Explorations. Ottawa:
Canadian Mathematical Society.
OLYMPIAD CORNER
No. 375
The problems in this section have appeared in a regional or national Olympiad.
OC442. Let H = {1, 2, . . . , n}. Are there two disjoint subsets A and B such
that A∪B = H and such that the sum of the elements in A is equal to the product
of the elements in B if (a) n = 2016? (b) n = 2017?
OC443. In a triangle ABC, the foot of the altitude drawn from A is T and
the angle bisector of ∠B intersects side AC at D. If ∠BDA = 45◦ , find ∠DT C.
OC444. We have n2 empty boxes, each with a square bottom. The height
and the width of each box are natural numbers in the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. Each box
differs from any other box in at least one of these two dimensions. We are allowed
to insert a box into another if each dimension of the first box is smaller than the
corresponding dimension of the second box and at least one of the dimensions is
at least units less that the corresponding larger box dimension. In this way, we
can create a sequence of boxes inserted into each other in the same orientation
(i.e. the first box is inside the second, the second box is inside the third, etc.). We
store each sequence of boxes on a shelf with each shelf holding one set of nested
boxes. Determine the smallest number of shelves needed to store all the n2 boxes.
OC445. There are 100 diamonds in a pile, of which 50 are genuine and 50
are fake. We invited a distinguished expert, who can recognize which diamonds
are genuine. Each time we show him three diamonds, he chooses two of them
and (truthfully) tells whether they are both genuine, one genuine or none genuine.
Establish if we can guarantee to spot all the genuine diamonds no matter how the
expert chooses the judged pair.
.................................................................
Les problèmes présentés dans cette section ont déjà été présentés dans le cadre d’une
olympiade mathématique régionale ou nationale.
Pour faciliter l’examen des solutions, nous demandons aux lecteurs de les faire parvenir
au plus tard le 30 octobre 2019.
La rédaction remercie Valérie Lapointe, Carignan, QC, d’avoir traduit les problèmes.
OC445. Il y a 100 diamants dans une pile dans laquelle 50 sont véritables
et 50 sont faux. On invite un expert qui peut reconnaı̂tre quels diamants sont
véritables. À chaque fois qu’on lui montre trois diamants, il en choisit deux et dit
(honnêtement) s’ils sont soit tous les deux véritables, si un seul l’est ou si aucun
ne l’est. Déterminez si on peut garantir de trouver tous les diamants véritables
peu importe la façon dont l’expert choisit la paire jugée.
OLYMPIAD CORNER
SOLUTIONS
Statements of the problems in this section originally appear in 2019: 45(1), p. 17–18;
45(2): 69–71.
OC411. Show that for all integers k > 1 there is a positive integer m less than
k 2 such that 2m − m is divisible by k.
Originally 2017 Hungary Math Olympiad, 3rd Problem, 3rd Category, Final Round.
We received no submissions for this problem.
OC412. Find all the functions f : R → R such that for all real numbers x, y
We interchange y and t to get f (ty) = f (y)t + y 2 f (t). Since f (ty) = f (yt), we find
that for any t ∈ R and y ∈ R
for some real constant c. In fact, we can check that any function of this form is a
solution of the original relation. We established that the set of all functions that
satisfy the original relation are f (x) = c(x2 − x), with c being a real constant.
OC414. Find all prime numbers p and all positive integers a and m such that
a ≤ 5p2 and (p − 1)! + a = pm .
Originally 2017 Bulgaria Math Olympiad, 4th Problem, Grade 9-12, Final Round.
We received only one incomplete submission, which we do not present here.
OC416. Given an acute nonisosceles triangle ABC with altitudes CD, AE,
BF . Points E 0 and F 0 are symmetrical to E and F with respect to points A and
−−→
B, respectively. Take a point C1 on the ray CD such that DC1 = 3CD. Prove
that ∠E 0 C1 F 0 = ∠ACB.
Originally 2017 Bulgaria Math Olympiad, 6th Problem, Grade 9-12, Final Round.
We received 3 submissions and we present 2 of them.
Solution 1, by Oliver Geupel.
We drop the constraint that triangle ABC is acute and nonisosceles, and prove
the result for an arbitrary triangle ABC. Moreover, we prove the stronger result
that the triangles ABC and E 0 F 0 C1 are similar.
We work in the complex plane. We use lower-case letters to denote the complex-
number representations of geometrical points denoted by corresponding upper-case
letters. For example a is the complex number assigned to point A. We assume
without loss of generality that the points A, B, and C are on the unit circle.
First we recall the result that the foot of the perpendicular from an arbitrary point
P to the chord XY of the unit circle is the point specified by the complex number
1
(p + x + y − xy p̄).
2
Hence,
1 1 1
Å ã Å ã
ab bc ca
d= a+b+c− , e= a+b+c− , f= a+b+c− .
2 c 2 a 2 b
1 1
Å ã
bc ca
e0 = a + (a − e) = 3a − b − c + , f 0 = b + (b − f ) = 3b − c − a + .
2 a 2 b
Also,
2ab
c1 = d + 3(d − c) = 2a + 2b − c − .
c
We use Conway triangle notations: S stands for twice the area of 4ABC, SA =
S cot ∠BAC, SB = S cot ∠ABC, and SC = S cot ∠ACB.
We use barycentric coordinates with reference to the triangle ABC:
C1 E 0 : (SA SB + 3S 2 )x + 2(SB
2
+ 3S 2 )y + 4(a2 SA + S 2 )z = 0,
C1 F 0 : 2(SA
2
+ 3S 2 )x + (SA SB + 3S 2 )y + 4(b2 SB + S 2 )z = 0,
and the intersection points of these lines with the line AB are
E 00 = C1 E 0 ∩ AB = 2(SB
2
+ 3S 2 ) : −(SA SB + 3S 2 ) : 0 ,
F 00 = C1 F 0 ∩ AB = SA SB + 3S 2 : −2(SA
2
+ 3S 2 ) : 0 .
We calculate
∠E 0 C1 F 0 = ∠F 00 C1 D + ∠E 00 C1 D
F 00 D E 00 D E 00 F 00 · C1 D
= arctan + arctan = arctan ,
C1 D C1 D C1 D2 − E 00 D · F 00 D
where
3 (a2 SA + S 2 )(2b2 + SC ) + (b2 SB + S 2 )(2a2 + SC )
00 00
E F = ,
c(2a2 + SC )(2b2 + SC )
3S 3(a2 SA + S 2 ) 3(b2 SB + S 2 )
C1 D = , E 00 D = , F 00 D =
c c(2a2 + SC ) c(2b2 + SC )
Therefore,
OC419. Prove that there exist infinitely many positive integers m such that
there exist m consecutive perfect squares with sum m3 . Determine one solution
with m > 1.
Originally 2017 Germany Math Olympiad, 6th Problem, Final Round.
We received 6 correct submissions. We present a solution that follows the sub-
missions of the Problem Solving Group of Missouri State University and David
Manes. At the end, we include a list of examples by Dominique Mouchet.
We start by computing the difference between m3 and the sum of m arbitrary
consecutive perfect squares:
a+m−1 a+m−1 a−1
!
X X X
3 2 3 2 2
m − i =m − i − i
i=a i=1 i=1
(a + m − 1)(a + m)(2a + 2m − 1) (a − 1)a(2a − 1)
Å ã
= m3 − −
6 6
m 4m2 − 6am + 3m − 6a2 + 6a − 1
= .
6
Therefore, for any pair of positive integers (a, m) that satisfy
Note that vn is always an even integer and un is odd for each integer n ≥ 0.
The general solution (xn , mn ) for 3x2 − 11m2 = 1 in terms of the solution of the
resolvent is given by
n mn an Sum
0 1 1 12 = 13
OC420. General Tilly and the Duke of Wallenstein play “Divide and rule!”
(Divide et impera!). To this end, they arrange N tin soldiers in M companies and
command them by turns. Both of them must give a command and execute it in
their turn.
Only two commands are possible: The command “Divide!” chooses one company
and divides it into two companies, where the commander is free to choose their
size, the only condition being that both companies must contain at least one tin
soldier. On the other hand, the command “Rule!” removes exactly one tin soldier
from each company.
The game is lost if in your turn you can’t give a command without losing a com-
pany. Wallenstein starts to command.
(a) Can he force Tilly to lose if they start with 7 companies of 7 tin soldiers each?
(b) Who loses if they start with M ≥ 1 companies consisting of n1 ≥ 1, n2 ≥ 1,
. . . , nM ≥ 1 (n1 + n2 + · · · + nM = N ) tin soldiers?
Originally 2017 Germany Math Olympiad, 3rd Problem, Final Round.
We received 1 submission. We present the solution by Jeremy Mirmina.
We discuss the winning strategy of the game based on the parities (odd/even)
of the number of tin soldiers N , the number of companies M , and the difference
I = N − M.
First, notice the following. When Move 1 (”Divide!”) is played N remains the
same, M decreases by one, and I decreases by one and switches parity. When Move
2 (”Rule!”) is played N decreases by M , M remains the same, and I decreases by
M.
In the next table we summarise the changes in the parities of I, N , and M after
Move 1 or Move 2 are played. We assume that the game did not end, and that
Move 1 and Move 2 can be played.
Move 1 Move 2
I N M new I new N new M new I new N new M
odd odd even even odd odd odd odd even
odd even odd even even even even odd odd
even even even odd even odd even even even
even odd odd odd odd even odd even odd
Second, notice that if there is at least one company with exactly one soldier the
two players can only use Move 1 and for exactly I times. This is because Move 1
will be applied ni − 1 times to split a company with ni soldiers into ni companies,
each with only one soldier.
Third, notice that the game ends when all companies have exactly one soldier.
Case 1. Assume I is odd, i.e. either N is even and M is odd or M is even and
N is odd. Then the first player (Wallenstein) has a winning strategy.
Because N 6= M , he can choose a company with more than one soldier. He plays
Move 1, and splits this company into one soldier and the rest. At this point, none
of the two players can use Move 2, as it will make them lose. Move 1 is played
exactly I = N − M times until I = 0 and the game ends. The player who starts
with I odd will continue to play with I odd and his opponent will play with I
even. Eventually his opponent will receive the configuration with I = 0 and will
lose. For this reason a player who moves with an even I, never wants to change it
into odd on his opponent’s turn.
Case 2. Assume I is even, and both N and M are odd. Then the second player
(Tilly) has a winning strategy.
Based on the table above, the first player starts with an even I and regardless of
his move he changes the parity of I to odd on his opponent’s turn. Hence, the
second player has always a winning strategy (see Case 1).
This answers part (a) of the problem, since N = 7 × 7 = 49 is an odd number
of soldiers and M = 7 is an odd number of companies. Wallenstein cannot force
Tilly to loose, and Tilly, the second player, has a winning strategy.
FOCUS ON...
No. 37
Michel Bataille
Geometry with Complex Numbers (II)
Introduction
In this second part, we continue to present various interventions of the complex
numbers in geometry problems. We begin with regular polygons, an obvious do-
main of application. Then, we will consider similarities, either direct or opposite,
as they can be simply represented using complex numbers, and we conclude with
a look at areas.
We may suppose thatÄ for kä= 1, 2, . . . , 2n + 1, Ak is the point with complex affix
2πi
wk−1 where w = exp 2n+1 . Let p be the affix of P . We readily obtain
and
Now, from the equations of the lines A2 An+2 and A3 An+3 , we deduce that pwn +
pw = 1 + wn+1 and pwn−1 + pw2 = 1 + wn+1 . It follows that
1
pw2 − p = (pwn−1 + pw2 ) − (pwn + pw) = 1 + wn+1 − (w2n + wn )
w
and by addition,
n−1 Ç å n−1
!
X wk + wk+1 X
k 1 − wn
−m = w − nm = − nm = −nm
2 1−w
k=0 k=0
δk 1 (mδk + mδk ) 1
mk = (Re(mδk )) = · = (m − mw2k+1 ).
δk δk 2 δk 2
Since n−1
X 1 − (wn )2
w2k+1 = w · = 0,
1 − w2
k=0
n−1 n
we obtain mk = · m, that is,
P
k=0 2
n−1
X −−−→ n −−→
Ck Bk = OM .
2
k=0
(The established result will be used later, in the paragraph devoted to areas.)
As remarked in the featured geometric solution, what matters is the fact that the
triangles ABC and AED are oppositely similar. Therefore, taking the point A
as the origin, there exists a complex number ω such that e = ωb and d = ωc.
Let U, V, W be the midpoints of CD, BE, AF , respectively. Their affixes are u =
1 1 1
2 (c + ωc), v = 2 (b + ωb), and w = 2 · f.
and
ωz(c − b) − ωz(c − b) = |ω|2 (bc − bc).
This said, U, V, W are collinear if and only if
(u − w)(v − w) = (u − w)(v − w)
or
(c + ωc − f )(b + ωb − f ) = (c + ωc − f )(b + ωb − f ).
Expanding and arranging, this condition can be written as
This certainly holds since both sides are 0 (the left-hand side because F is on BC
and the right one because F is on DE). The conclusion follows.
We will see these results at work in two examples. First, we again consider the
projections Bk of a point M on the sides of a regular n-gon A0 A1 . . . An−1 (with
A0 = An ) and we suppose that the point Bk lies on the segment Ak Ak+1 for
k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 (see the second problem of the second paragraph). We will
show that S1 = S2 where
n−1
X n−1
X
S1 = [M Ak Bk ] and S2 = [M Ak+1 Bk ].
k=0 k=0
We use the notations used earlier and denote by bk and ck the affixes of Bk
and Ck . Observing that ∆M Ak Bk and ∆M Ak+1 Bk have opposite orientations,
proving that S1 − S2 = 0 amounts to proving that
n−1
X
Im[(m − bk )(wk − bk ) + (m − bk )(wk+1 − bk )] = 0.
k=0
Now, we have
n−1
n P −−−→
n−1
n −−→
But we have (m − bk ) = · m (from M Bk = proved earlier) so that
P
2 2 MO
k=0 k=0
n−1
X
−2 · Im(m (m − bk )) = −nIm(mm) = 0
k=0
and consequently S1 − S2 = 0.
Our second example is adapted from a problem set in the Mathematical Gazette
in 2017:
Assuming that ABCD is clockwise oriented and with obvious notations, we have
b−m = i(a−m), hence (1−i)m = b−ia. Similarly, (1−i)n = c−ib, (1−i)p = d−ic
and (1 − i)q = a − id. It follows that q − n = −i(p − m) so that N Q = P M and
N Q ⊥ P M . Furthermore,
Exercises
1. Let C be a point distinct from the vertices of a triangle OAB. Suppose
that ∆OCD and ∆CAE are directly similar to ∆OAB. Prove that CDBE is
a parallelogram.
2. Use complex numbers to solve problem 3898: On the extension of the side AB
of the regular pentagon ABCDE, let the points F and G be placed in the order
F, A, B, G so that AG = BF = AC. Compare the area of triangle F GD to the
area of pentagon ABCDE.
PROBLEMS
Click here to submit problems proposals as well as solutions, comments
and generalizations to any problem in this section.
Find the exact area of the shaded region, if the length of each side of hexagon A
is 2.
.................................................................
Pour faciliter l’examen des solutions, nous demandons aux lecteurs de les faire parvenir
au plus tard le 30 octobre 2019.
La rédaction souhaite remercier Rolland Gaudet, professeur titulaire à la retraite à
l’Université de Saint-Boniface, d’avoir traduit les problèmes.
SOLUTIONS
No problem is ever permanently closed. The editor is always pleased to consider for
publication new solutions or new insights on past problems.
Statements of the problems in this section originally appear in 2019: 45(1), p. 33–37;
45(2), p. 85–89.
and using the fact that DF ||EG we conclude that ∠AHE = ∠ECG. As before,
since AE ⊥ EC and HE ⊥ EG, we get that ∠AEH = ∠CEG. Using the fact
that AE = EC, we get that 4AEH and 4CEG are congruent, so AH = CG.
Therefore, F B = CG, as desired.
Suppose AH bisects ∠BAC. Express tan ∠BAH as the sum of a rational number
and the square root of a rational number.
We received 15 submissions, all correct. We present the solution by Jirapat Kaewkam,
enhanced by the editor.
Let CX be perpendicular to the horizontal line l extended from AH with X being
on l. Connect CX (see figure). Since ∠ABC = ∠AXC = 90◦ , we see that A,
B, X, C are concyclic so ∠XCH = ∠BAX = ∠XAC. Hence ∆XCH ∼ ∆XAC
from which it follows that
AX CX
= or (AX)(HX) = (CX)2 = 1,
CX HX
so (HX + 3)(HX) = 1. Solving
(HX)2 + 3(HX) − 1 = 0,
we then obtain
√ …
HX −3 + 13 3 13
tan(∠BAH) = tan(∠XCH) = = HX = =− + .
CX 2 2 4
We show that Ç å
1 n+1
Sn = 1 − m+n .
m−1 m
Using the well-known identity
n Ç å Ç å
X j n+1
=
k k+1
j=k
j j−1
Taking the relation k k =j k−1 into account yields
n j Ç å
X X 1 j−1
Sn = j (−1)k−1 . (1)
j=1
m+k k−1
k=1
1
which readily follows from the decomposition of (m+1)(m+2)···(m+j) into partial
fractions. Back to (1), this leads to
n n
X j! X 1
Sn = = m! . (2)
j=1
(m + 1)(m + 2) · · · (m + j) j=1
(j + 1)(j + 2) · · · (j + m)
But we have
1
(j + 1)(j + 2) · · · (j + m)
1 1 1
Å ã
= − .
m − 1 (j + 1)(j + 2) · · · (j + m − 1) (j + 2)(j + 3) · · · (j + m)
It follows that
n Ç å
m−2 n+1
X n+1
x ((1 − x) − 1 + (n + 1)x) = (−1)k−1 xm+k−1 .
k+1
k=1
(x2 + xy + y 2 )2 = z 2 + 40.
Letting
n = x2 + xy + y 2 ,
we note that n > 0 and
(n + z)(n − z) = 40.
Since z > 0, this implies
But
(n + z) + (n − z) = 2n
must be even, so 2n = 22 or 2n = 14, and hence (n, z) = (11, 9) or (n, z) = (7, 3).
If n = x(x + y) + y 2 = 11 with x > 0 and x + y > 0, then y ∈ {0, ±1, ±2, ±3}. But
none of these values for y will yield an integer value for x.
If n = x(x + y) + y 2 = 7 with x > 0 and x + y > 0, then y ∈ {0, ±1, ±2}. Four
of these five values for y yield a positive integer value for x. Thus there are four
solutions for (x, y, z) to the original equation:
(1, 2, 3), (2, 1, 3), (3, −1, 3), (3, −2, 3).
E = CK ∩ AB = (m, 1 − m, 0), F = BK ∩ AC = (1 − n, 0, n)
BK : nx − (1 − n)z = 0, CK : (1 − m)x − my = 0,
and, finally,
K (m(1 − n) : (1 − m)(1 − n) : mn) .
The midpoints of BE and of CF are then
M = (m : 2 − m : 0), N = (1 − n : 0 : 1 + n).
MAF = (2 − n : 0 : n),
Because
2−n 0 n
m(mn − 2n + 2) (1 − m)(mn − 2n + 2) mn = 0,
m(mn − n2 − n + 2) (2 − m)(mn − 2n + 2) mn(1 + n)
Editor’s comments. Note that there is no need to restrict K to the interior of the
triangle: it could any point in the plane except B or C. In other words, we can
allow m and n to be any real numbers except m 6= 0 and n 6= 1, and the result
continues to hold.
It is interesting to compare our problem with an extended version of Hjelmslev’s
theorem:
When all the points P on one line are related by a similarity to all the
points P 0 on a second line, then the points X dividing the segments
P P 0 in a fixed ratio P X : XP 0 are distinct and collinear or else they
all coincide.
See, for example, F. G.-M., Exercices de géométrie, 4th ed., Theorem 1146d, page
473. Does any reader see an easy direct proof that there exists a similarity that
takes the points A, E, M to the points F, K, P ?
B C
A
A
A
Q
A A D
@ A
@ A 1
@A
@A
P
Since
1 t3 − 3ts2
= cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ = ,
s 2s3
then (3t + 2)s2 = t3 . Setting s2 = 1 + (u2 /4) yields that
32
27u2 = 36t2 − 24t − 92 − .
3t + 2
Since 3t+2 divides 32, either t = 2 or t = 10. The first option leads to (t, u) = (2, 0)
which is inadmissible, and the second to (t, u) = (10, 11).
Since the points E, M , and N all lie on a common circle centered at B, we have
that ]M EN = 21 ]M BN , so
Hence,
Thus, ]QM N = ]QP N , which implies that the points M , N P , and Q all lie on
a common circle, say, C with center O.
Let O0 be the midpoint of the segment N Q. Let point Q0 be the antipode of Q
on C. The segment O0 O joins the midpoints of two sides of the right triangle
−−→ −−→
N QQ0 . Hence 2O0 O = N Q0 . On the other hand, the lines M Q0 and H1 N are
both perpendicular to M Q, and the lines Q0 N and M H1 are both perpendicular
to N Q. Hence, the quadrilateral H1 M Q0 N is a parallelogram, from which we
−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
deduce N Q0 = H1 M . It follows that H1 M = 2O0 O. Analogously, H2 P = 2O0 O.
We conclude that
−−−→ −−→
H1 M = H2 P .
4408. Proposed by Leonard Giugiuc, Dan Stefan Marinescu and Daniel Sitaru.
Let α ∈ (0, 1] ∪ [2, ∞) be a real number and let a, b and c be non-negative real
numbers with a + b + c = 1. Prove that
so
aα + bα + cα + 1 ≥ (a + b)α + (b + c)α + (c + a)α
follows.
while
a2 + bc b(a + d)
ï ò ï ò
0 0
A2 = 2 =
c(a + d) bc + d 0 0
Further,
ï òï ò ï 2 ò
2 p q p q (p + qr)x q(p + s)x
xB = x =
r s r s r(p + s)x (s2 + qr)x
Hence,
and
has roots
a(p − s) + (br + cq)
x=± .
ps − qr
The roots are integer if and only if the quotient on the right hand side is an integer,
in particular, when A, B ∈ M2 (Z) and A2 = O2 , det B = ±1, but in general the
roots are non-integers.
bound, or based estimates on a series expansion. There was one incorrect solution.
We present two solutions following different approaches.
Therefore
π
Z π/4 √ Z π/4 √ Z π/4 √
+ sin 2x dx = (1 + cos 2x) dx < 2 cos xdx = 2.
4 0 0 0
Hence
π
Z π/4 √ Z π/4 √ h π iπ/4 √
+ sin 2x dx = (1 + sin 2x) dx = 2 − cos x + = 2,
4 0 0 4 0
Then, say, y = −s, and z = −t, with s and t positive. But then max{x, y, z} = x,
and x1 − 1s − 1t = 0 leads to
st
x= .
s+t
(st)n
Å n
tn
ã
s
− n+1 + n+1 · xn ≥ Cn · xn−1
xn+1 t s
ãn−1
(s + t)n+1 s2n+1 + t2n+1
Å
st
− ≥ Cn ·
st (st) · (s + t)n s+t
(t + 1)2n t2n+1 + 1
n
− n ≥ Cn
t t · (t + 1)
Since w + 1/w ≥ 2 for all w > 0, the left-hand sum attains its least value for t = 1.
Therefore, the best constant Cn has the value
(1 + 1)2n 12n+1 + 1
Cn = − = 22n − 1,
1n 1n · (1 + 1)
Thus, ∆AIP is isosceles and P T bisects its vertex angle, so that P T ⊥ AI and
AT = T I = AI/2. Moreover, in ∆AEF the bisector AT of the angle at A is
perpendicular to the base, whence ET = T F = EF/2. Thus
AI sin(A/2) r
EF = 2ET = 2AT tan(A/2) = = ,
cos(A/2) cos(A/2)
k−q
Å ã
y=k+ x.
b−p
kp(b − p) kq(b − p)
Å ã
, .
qb − pk qb − pk
r1 + r2 + r3 + ra + rb + rc = a + b + c.
We received 9 submissions, all correct, and present the solution by Kee-Wai Lau.
We start with standard formulas for the inradius and an exradius of a triangle
ABC in terms of its circumradius R:
and
ra = R(1 + cos B + cos C − cos A). (2)
By (2) and the corresponding expressions for rb and rc we obtain
Note that the angles of ∆BCH are π2 −C, π2 −B, and B +C, while its circumradius
is
BC a
= = R.
2 sin(B + C) 2 sin A
We get formula (4) by replacing A by B + C, B by π2 − C, and C by π2 − B in (1).
This, together with the corresponding expressions for r2 and r3 , gives us
r1 + r2 + r3 = R(2 sin A + 2 sin B + 2 sin C − cos A − cos B − cos C − 3). (5)
Adding together (3) and (5), we obtain
r1 + r2 + r3 + ra + rb + rc = 2R(sin A + sin B + sin C) = a + b + c,
as desired.
4417. Proposed by Dan Stefan Marinescu, Daniel Sitaru and Leonard Giugiuc.
Let a, b and c be positive real numbers such that abc ≥ 1. Further, let x, y and z
be real numbers such that xy + yz + zz ≥ 3. Prove that
(y 2 + z 2 )a + (z 2 + x2 )b + (x2 + y 2 )c ≥ 6.
that is
ab + ac + bc + c2 > 1.
By the AM-GM inequality, we get even more:
ab + ac + bc + c2 > ab + ac + bc ≥ 3(abacbc)1/3 = 3(abc)2/3 ≥ 3.
or equivalently,
Since
5 2 1 2 5 2 1
Å ã
a b + a2 c + b c + bc2 = (b + c) ·
a + bc ,
6 6 6 6
the left-hand expression in (1) can be written as
5 2 1 5 2 1 5 2 1
Å ã Å ã Å ã
(b + c) · a + bc + (c + a) · b + ca + (a + b) · c + ab .
6 6 6 6 6 6
But the AM-GM inequality yields
Å
5 2 1
ã √ 5/6
(b + c) · a + bc ≥ 2 bc · a2 · (bc)1/6
6 6
= 2a5/3 (bc)2/3
= 2a(abc)2/3 ≥ 2a,
and two similar inequalities for the other two summands. This completes
the proof.
Remark: It is a bit disturbing to have a, b, c limited by the constraint abc ≥ 1.
We shall remove it as follows. Let a, b, and c be arbitrary positive real numbers.
Then the three numbers
a b c
a1 = 1/3
, b1 = 1/3
, c1 =
(abc) (abc) (abc)1/3
satisfy the condition
a1 b1 c1 = 1 ≥ 1,
whence by what we have already shown,
for all positive real numbers a, b, and c and all real numbers x, y, and z. Fur-
thermore, the various applications of the AM-GM inequality show that equality
occurs if and only if a = b = c and x = y = z.
where θ is half the sum of two opposite angles. This is dominated by the area of
a cyclic quadrilateral with the same sides, namely
»
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
1»
= (b + c + d − a)(c + d + a − b)(d + a + b − c)(a + b + c − d)
4
1 »
= [(a + b)2 − (c − d)2 ][(c + d)2 − (a − b)2 ]
4
1»
= [(a + c)2 − (b − d)2 ][(b + d)2 − (a − c)2 ].
4
The statement of the problem remains true for noncyclic quadrilaterals.
= 64xyzw ≥ 64S 2 .
64S 2 = 4(16S 2 )
≤ 4(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)(d + a)
ò1/4
(a + b)5 (b + c)5 (c + d)5 (d + a)5
ï
=4 · · ·
c+d d+a a+b b+c
(a + b)5 (b + c)5 (c + d)5 (d + a)5
≤ + + + .
c+d d+a a+b b+c
(a + b)5 (c + d)2
+ ≥ 2[(a + b)2 (c + d)2 ]
c+d a+b
≥ 2[(a + b)2 − (c − d)2 ][(c + d)2 − (a − b)2 ]
≥ 32S 2 .
A similar inequality holds for the other two terms of the left side and the result
follows.
x5 y5 z5 t5
Å ã
+ + + (m + n + p + q)(1 + 1 + 1 + 1)3 ≥ (x + y + z + t)5 ,
m n p q
applied to
(x, y, z, t; m, n, p, q) = (a + b, b + c, c + d, d + a; c + d, d + a, a + b, b + c),
22q+2 a + b + c + d p+q
ï ò
=
(a + b + c + d)2q 2
= 2q−p+2 (a + b + c + d)p−q .
On the other hand, from the AM-GM inequality [as in Solution 4],
(a + b + c + d)2
S≤
4
whereupon
(a + b + c + d)p−q
ï ò
2p−q+2 S (p−q)/2 ≤ 2p−q+2
22(p−q)
= 2q−p+2 (a + b + c + d)p−q .
Use a, b and c to denote the lengths of the sides of the triangle. Let M and N be
the midpoints of AB and AC, respectively, and P be the intersection of line M N
with line AD. Note that M N ||BC and M N = a2 ; also, P must be the midpoint
of AD.
Since BT is the bisector of ∠CBA, so ∠CBT = ∠T BA, and M N ||BC gives us
∠M T B = ∠T BC. So 4M T B is isosceles, giving us M T = M B = c/2, and hence
N T = M N − M T = a−c 2 .
a+c
Since N P joins the midpoints of AC and AD, using CD = a+c we get N P = 2 .
Thus
NT · NP = NA · NC ⇐⇒ (a − c)(a + c) = b2 ,
which holds by the Pythagorean Theorem. We deduce that the quadrilateral
P CT A is cyclic, thus ∠T CA = ∠T P A.
Finally, since N P ||CD we have ∠T P A = ∠CDA, allowing us to conclude ∠T CA =
∠CDA.
If n is odd, let n = 2k + 1. We consider ω(A0 ) and its opposite disks ω(Ak ) and
ω(Ak+1 ). Suppose w.l.o.g. that A0 is north of O and the vertices of the polygon
are ordered counterclockwise. Then the boundary circles of ω(A0 ) and ω(Ak )
intersect in O (the southernmost point of ω(A0 ) and a point P northwest of O.