A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

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 A'
CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
FOR PRE-UNIVERSIIT, INTERMEDIATE, PRE-MEDICAL. HIGHER

SECONDARY, AND SENIOR CAMBRIDGE STUDENTS

A. C. DUTTA, M.SC.
FORMERLY HEAD OF THE DEP~TS OF BOTANY AND BIOLOGY
COTTO~OLLEGE, GAUHATI

~~-~~-~--

.,. ANGRAU
cc Central library
N Rajendranagar

TWELFTH EDITl ~ 1111111111111111111111111111111111:

I\PAU CiNTItAL U . . . . V

1~281
to· I :2_.~

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1965
 Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C. 4
GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON
aOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI LAHORE DACCA
CAl'l! TOWN SALISBURY NAIROBI IBADAM ACCRA
KUALA LUMPUR HONG KONG

A. C. Dutta

First edition 1929

Second edition 1933
Third edition 1939
Fourth edition 194.2
Fifth edition 1944
Sixth edition 1945
Seventh edition 1948
Eighth edition 1952
Ninth edition 1953
Tenth edition 1956,./
Eleventh edition 1959
Seventh impression 1963
Twelfth edition 1965

© Oxford University Press 1965

PRINTED IN INDIA BY P. B. ROY AT THE PRABARTAK PRINTING & HALFTONI1

PRIVATE LTD., 52/3 BOWBAZAR ST., CALCUTl'A-12 AND PUBLISJIED
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Preface to the Twelfth Edition

Although a large pnntmg of the eleventh edition of A

Class-book of Botany was taken in hand in 1959 the publishers
had to issue seven consecutive impressions during this short
period to meet the ,ever-increasing demand for the book. In
the meantime with the gradual expansion of higher secondary
schools and pre-university classes in most of the States the
author felt the necessity for remodelling the current edition
of the book on the basis of the new syllabuses drawn up for
the Pre-University, Pre-Medical, Intermediate and Higher
Secondary examinations so that the student,s preparing for
these examinations would be benefited all the more by using
this book.
With this end in view several topics have been rewritten
in a simpler style, necessary additions, alterations and omis-
sions made, and the text as a whole simplified and condensed.
Unnecessa.ry details and complications have been avoided and
simple language used throughout so that the students may
find the book easily. comprehensible. The text has been
profusely illustrated with clear sketches and photographs,
and the students are well advised to refer to them frequently
for easy understanding of the topics dealt with. A new part
on Economic Botany (Part IX) has been added, and a set of .
selected questions covering the whole range of the text
appended (A'ppendix I). The life-histories of some eminent
scientists 'with illus'ttations (figs. 478-81) is also a new feature.
The glossary of names of plants in eleven State languages
(Appendix II) in addition to their English and Botanical
equivalents is expected to be useful to a wider circle of
students. The illustrations are the author's original drawings
and photographs with the exception of fig. 274 which has
been redrawn from Fundamentals of Cytology by L. W.
Sharp with the kind permission of McGraw Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc. The author believes that the book, as it stands
now with its manifold improvements, will meet all the needs
of students and prove particularly useful to them.
Valuable suggestions have been received from Principal
R. L. Nirula of Sree Nilkantheshwar College, Khandwa, Prof
 R. K. Sarker of Bangabasi College, Calcutta, Prof S. Ghose of
St. Xavier's College, Calcutta, Prof P. C. Das of Cotton College~,
Gauhati, Prof Hukamchand of Government College, Dharm-
sala, Prof B. K. Gawel of Government College, Mandi, Prof
R. Suryanarayanam of Government Brennen College, Telli-
chery, Prof V. G. Bilolikar of College of Arts and Science,
Hanamkonda, and many others. The author takes this oppor-
tunity to express his sincere thanks and gratitude to all of
them. Further, the addition of Kannada names of plants to
the glossary (Appendix II) goes to the credit of Prof M. S. S.
Rao of Basaveshvar College, Bagalkot, and the author acknow-
ledges with pleasure and gratitude the ungrudging help ren-
dered by Prof Rao in this direction.
, ,
" '
Satribari Road
Gauhati, Assam A. C. D.'
January, 1965
Preface to the First Edition

This book, though intended primarily for the use of Inter-

mediate and Medical students of Calcutta University and of
the Dacca Board, covers somewhat wider grounds, and students
of other universities, following the same or a slightly higher
standard in the curricula, will find the book useful and instruc~
tive. Although the generally accepted methods of treatment
have b~en followed, attention may be drawn to certain special
features:
I. The text has been illustrated with numerous simple
figures and explanatory diagrams drawn by the author himself
in most 'Cases directly from objects which are typical and
easily available. The figures and diagrams have been drawn
with a view to a correct and easy appreciation of them.
2. An attempt has been made to familiarize the students
with th.e meanings of Latin and Greek prefixes and suffixes,
and to trace the technical and scientific terms to their
respective Latin and Greek roots. This will enable the
students to master the subject of terminology more easily.
3. In many cases more than one example have been
given to illustrate a particular form or feature. A, large
number of English and vernacular names have been intro-
duced to suit the convenience of students. Latin names have
been followed by vernacular or English equivalents, or often
(by both.
'-
The author takes this opportunity of thinking Dr D.
Thomson, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D., I.E.S., Principal, Cotton
College, Gauhati, for the encouragement received from him
in the course of the preparation of this book. For some of
the drawings the author expresses his thanks to his pupils.
Madhab Chandra Das and Gaur Mohan Das.

Cotton College '

GauhatiJ Assam A. C. D
June 1929
Contents
cHAPTER ~
INTRODUCTION xi
PART I. MORPHOLOGY
1. DIVERSITY OF PLANT LIFE 1
2. PARTS OF A 'FLOWERING' PLANT 10
3. THE SEED 12
4. THE ROOT ...•
~ -"' 26
36
5. THE STEM
6. THE LEAF 49
7. DEFENSIVE MECHANISMS IN PLANTS 71
8. THE INFLORESCENCE 74
9. THE FLOWER 80
10. POLLINATION 104
11. FERTILIZATION III
12. THE SEED 113
13. THE FRUIT 115
14. DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS 121
PART II. HISTOLOGY
1. THE CELL 128
2. THE TISSUE 155
3. THE TISSUE SYSTEM 167
4. ANATOMY OF STEMS 175
5. ANATOMY OF ROOTS 185
6. ANATOMY OF LEAVES 189
7. SECONDARY GROWTH IN THiCKNESS 191
PART III. PHYSIOLOGY
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 200
2. SOILS' 201
A. Physiology of Nutrition
3. CHEMICAL COl\1POSITlON OF - THE PLANT 205
4. ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERAL SALTS 213
5. CONDUCTION OF \V ATER AND MINERAL SALTS 217
6. MANUFACTURE OF FOOD 226
7. SPECIAL MODES OF NUTRITION 234
8. TRANSLOCATION AND STORAGE OF FOOD 238
9. DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION OF FOOD 24Q
10. RESPIRATION 242
11. METABOLISM 247
B. Physiology of Growth and Movements
12. GROWTH 248
13. MOVEMENTS 253
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
C. Physiology of Reproduction
14. REPRODUCTION 259·
PART IV. ECOLOGY
1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 2Bfi
2. ECOLOGICAL GROUPS 2BB·

PART V. CRYPTOGAMS
1. DIVISIONS AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION 273
2. ALGAE 27!'i
3. BACTERIA (SCHIZOMYCETES) 286;
4. FUNGI... ... 291
5. BRYOPHYTA 303
B. PTERIDOPHYTA 313:
PART VI. GYMNOSPERMS
1. CYCADACEAE 319'
PART VII. ANGIOSPERMS
1. PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION 323
2. SELECTED F AMILJES OF DICOTYLEDONS 328:
3. SELECTED FAMILIES OF MONOCOTYLEDONS 351
PART VIII. EVOLUTION AND GENETICS
1. ORGANIC EVOLUTION 357
2. GENETICS ..•.. ' 3oo
PART IX. ECONOMIC BOTANY
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION 371
2. Ecoxo:l.lIC PLANTS 37~

ApPENDIX I: QUESTIONS 387

ApPENDIX II: GLOSSARY OF NAMES OF PLANTS; 393:
INDEX 4~
 INTRODUCTION
I. Biology: botany and zoology. The science that deals with
the study of living objects goes by the general name of
biology (bios; life; logos, discourse or science). Since both
animals and plants are living, biology includes a study of
both. Biology is, therefore, divided into two branches:
botany (botane, plant) which treats of plants and zoology
(zoon, animal) which treats of animals.
2. Scope of BiOlogy. The subject of biology deals wirh the
study of plants and animals from many points of view. This
science investigates the internal and external structures of
plants and animals, their functions in regard to nutrition,
growth, movements and reproduction, their adaptations to the
varying conditions of the environment, their distribution in
space and time, their life-history, relationship and classifica-
tion, the laws involved in their evolution from lower and
simpler forms to higher and more complex ones, the laws of
heredity, the varied uses that plants and animals may be put
to, and lastly, the different methods that can be adapted to
improve them for better uses by mankind.

3. Origin and Continuity of Life. We do not know what life

really is. It is something mysterious, and its origin is equally
so. It is, however, assumed that many millions of years ago
life first came into existence in water as a droplet of proto-
plasm (proto~, first; plasma, form) from inorganic or non-living
materials as a result or certain chemical and physical changes
in them under certain special circumstances. Protoplasm is,
therefore, the first-formed living-substance, and once it came
into existence its continuity has been maintained through
successive generations with gradual changes of forms from
simpler to more complex types of plants and animals extend-
ing over many millions of years, or, in other words, life is one
continuous flow through many channels from the earliest
and simplest forms to the present-day complex and diversified
forms of plants and animals. Although forms of life have
changed, protoplasm has remained constant in both plants
and animals. Protoplasm is not formed afresh in nature, nor
can it be created in the laboratory.
..... lL l\ CLdl!5o:s-nOUK OF BolANt

4· Importance of Green Plants. Green plants purify the at-

mosphere by absorbing carbon dioxide gas from it and releas·
ing from their bodies (by the breaking-down of water) an .. ,
almost equal volume of pure oxygen to it; and they prepare
food such as starch, the chief constituent of rice, wheat, potato,
etc., from carbon dioxide obtained from the air, and water
and inorganic salts obtained from the soil. Both these func-
tions are the monopoly of green plants, and are performed by
certain minute green bodies or plastids (see fig. I, called
chloroplasts (chloros, green) of the leaf during the daytime,
sunlight being the source of energy. Animals being devoid of
them have no such power. It is evident, therefore, that ani-
mals including human beings are deeply indebted to plants
for these basic needs, viz., oxygen for respiration and food
for nutrition.
S. The Cell. Cells are the structural units of which the body
of the plant or animal is composed. When the cell was first
discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 in a thin slice of bottle
<;ork, it was regarded as a mere microscopic chamber bounded-
by a distinct wall-the cell-wall. Much later, however, about
the YC:1r 1838-9, Schleiden-a German botanist-and Schwann
-a German zoologist-discovered for the first time that a
living substance, i.e. protoplasm, filled up the cell. A tiny
spherical body, i.e. the nucleus, was also found lying em-
bedded in the protoplasm. With rapid improvement of the
PLASMA MEMBRANE

FIG. 1. A plant cell and an animal cell.

microscope, attention was focused on these two bodies, and
their functions soon came to be known. It was soon recog-
nized that the protoplasm and the nucleus were the most
important parts of the cell, and the cell-wall a mere by-pro-
duct of the protoplasm and a structure of secondary impor-
 INTRODUCTION xiii
tance. On the above basis the cell is defined as a unit or in-
dependent mass of protoplasm with a nucleus in it, enveloped
by a distinct cell-wall in the case of a plant but only a thin
membrane in the case of an animal. The whole body of the
plant or the animal is made of such cells. Cells, when young,
are commonly spherical or oval in shape but as they grow
they assume different shapes and perform different functions.
6. Tissue. In pursuance of a particular function cells similar
in shape and size and having the same origin combine into a
bigger unit or group called the tissue. In the simplest orga-
nisms all the functions are performed by a single cell. But
in complex forms of plants and animals with differentiated
organs there is always a division of labour, i.e. distribution of
functions, one group of cells performing one function and
another group another function. Each such group of cells is
a tissue. There are different kinds of tissues in higher plants
and higher. animals performing different and distinct func-
tions. Tissues again combine and give rise to tissue systems.
7. Protoplasm. Protoplasm is the first-formed living sub-
stance and is a very delicate and complicated one. It is the
only substance that is endowed with life and is the same in
both animals and plants. All vital functions such as nutrition,
growth, respiration, reproduction, etc., are performed by it.
As the protoplasm dies the cell ceases to perform any of
these functions. It is thus fitly described as the physical basis
of life. "-
Physical Nature Of Protoplasm. Protoplasm is a trans-
parent, foamy or granular, slimy, semi-fluid substance, some-
what like the white of an egg. It is never homogeneous but
contains granules of varying shapes and sizes, and it looks
finely granular under the microscope. Although often semi-
fluid it may be fluid or viscous. It occurs completely filling
up the cavity of the young cell but in a mature cell one or
more cavities, called vacuoles, appear in it, filled with water
(see fig. I). In its active state protoplasm remains saturated
with water, containing 75-90% of it. With decreasing water
content its vital activity diminishes and gradually comes to
a standstill, as in dry seeds. Protoplasm coagulates on heating,
and when killed it loses its transparency.
Protoplasm responds to the action of external stimuli such
 xiv A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

as the prick of a needle or pin, an electric shock, application

of particular chemicals, sudden variation of temperature or of
light, etc. On stimulation the protoplasm contracts but ex-
pands again when the stimulating agent is removed. This
response to stimuli is an inherent power of protoplasm. Proto-
plasm is semi-permeable in nature, i.e. it allows only certain
substances and not all to enter its body. This property is,
however, lost when the protoplasm is killed. Under normal
conditions the protoplasm of a living cell is in a state of
motion which can be seen under a microscope.
Chemical Nature of Protoplasm. Chemically protoplasm is
a highly complex mixture of a variety of chemical substances
of which proteins are the chief. Proteins are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and sometimes also
sulphur and phosphorus. The exact chemical composition of
the living protoplasm cannot be determined because any at-
tempt to analyse it kills it outright with some unknown
changes in it. Besides, it undergoes continual changes and
its composition is not, therefore, constant. Further, it is not
possible to get the protoplasm in a pure state free from foreign
bodies. Analysis of the dead protoplasm reveals a long list
of elements present in it. Of these oxygen (0), carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N) are most abundant. Other
elements present in smaller quantities are: chlorine (Cl), sul-
phur (S), phosphorus (P), silicon (Si), calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe) and sodium (Na); still others
are present in mere traces. Active protoplasm cont.ains a
high percentage of water-usually varying from 75 to 90% .
. Leaving out this water, the solid matter of the protoplasm
contains the following: Proteins-40 - 60%; fats-I2 - 14% ;
carbohydrates-I 2 - 14%; and inorganic salts-s -7%'
8. Characteristics of Living Obj~t!l. Life is something
mysterious and we are not in a position to define it. All living
objects have, however, certain characteristics by which they
can be distinguished from the non-living. These are as
follows:
(I) Life-cycle. All living objects follow a definite life-
cycle of birth, growth, reproduction, old age and neath. The
animal or the plant is born, and gradually, it grows into its
characteristic form and size. In due course it reproduces to
maintain the continuity of the species and also to multiply
in number. Ultimately the organism attains old age and dies.
 INTRODUCTION xv
(z) Protoplasm. Life cannot exist without protoplasm. It
is the actual living substance in both plants and animals, and
it is, as Huxley defined it, the physical basis of life. It per-
forms all the vital functions; it shows various kinds of move-
ment and is sensitive to all kinds of stimuli such as light,
temperature, chemical substances, electric shock, etc. Proto-
plasm is a very delicate and complicated substance.
(3) Cellular Structure. The whole body of the plant or the
animal is' composed of cells. A cell is a unit mass of proto-
plasm with a nucleus in it, surrounded by a distinct cell-wall
in the case of a plant and only a thin delicate membrane in
the case of an animal (see fig. I). The cellular structure, as
-described above, is the characteristic feature of every living
organism.
(4) Respiration. Respiration is a sign of life. All living
beings-plants and animals-respire continuously day and
night, and for this process they take in oxygen gas from the
atmo,sphere and give out an almost equal volume of carbon
dioxide gas. By this process the energy stored up in the food
and other materials is released and made use of by the proto-
plasm for its manifold activities.
(5) Reproduction. Living beings-animals and plants-
possess the power of reproduction, i.e. of giving rise to new
young ones like themselves. Non-living objects have no such
power. They may mechanically break down into a number
of irregular parts; but living objects reproduce according to
certain principles.
(6) Metabolism...... Metabolism is a phenomenon of life.
It includes both constructive and destructive changes that are
constantly going on in the living body. Constructive changes
lead to the formation of food substances and the construction
of protoplasm, while destructive changes result in their break-
ing down, ending in the formation of a variety of chemical
substances.
(7) Nutrition. A living organism requires to be supplied
with food. Food furnishes the necessary materials for nutri-
tion and growth, and is a source of energy. Food materials
nourishing the plant body or the animal body are much the
same in both.
(8) Growth. All living objects .,grow. Some non-living bodies
may also grow, as d,.,_oes a crystal. But there is difference in the
mode of growth between the two. The growth of the non-
 xvi A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
living objects is external, i.e. new particles are deposited on
the external surface of their body from outside and as a result
they grow; while in living objects, the growth is internal, i.e.
it proceeds from within, new particles being secreted by the
protoplasm in the interior of their body. Further, in living
bodies the growth is the result of a series of complicated pro-
cesses, both constructive and destructive.
(9) Movement. Movements are commonly regarded as a
sign of life. Movements in most plants are, however, res-
tricted, as they are fixed to the ground: while most animals
move freely. Moving plants and fixed animals are not, how-
ever, uncommon among the lower organisms. Movements in
plants and animals may be spontaneous or induced.
(a) Spontaneous movement is the movement of an organ-
ism or of an organ of a plant or an animal of its Own accord,.
i.e. without any external influence. This kind of movement is
regarded as a characteristic sign of life. Spontaneous move-
ment is evident in animals with the development of organs of
locomotion; while in plants it is exhibited by many unicellular
and filamentous algae. Among the 'flowering' plants the best
example of spontaneous movement is exhibited by Indian
telegraph plant (B. BAN-CHANDAL; H. BAN-CHAL--see fig. 351).
Besides, the movements of protoplasm (see figs. 250-1) are
distinctly visible under the microscope.
(b) Induced movement or irritability, on the other hand.
is the movement of living organisms or of their organs in
response to external stimuli. Protoplasm is sensitive to a
variety of external stimuli, and when a particular stimulus is.
applied the reaction is usually in the form of a movement.
Thus when an animal burns itself it immediately moves away
from the source of heat. A pin prick or electric shock produces.
a similar effect. Seedlings grown in a closed box with an open
window on one side (see fig. 352) grow and bend towards the
window, i.e. towards the source of light. Leaflets of sensitive
plant (B. LAJJABATI-LATA; H. LAJWANTI-See fig. 357) and s,ensi-
tive wood-sorrel (B. BAN-NARANGA-See fig. 356) close up when
touched. The tentacles of sundew (see fig. 339), a carnivorous
plant, bend over the insect from ·all sides and entrap it, when
it falls on the leaf. Leaves of many plants show 'sleep move-
ment', closing up in the evening and opening again in the
morning. No such effect is produced in the caSe of non-living
 INTRODUCTION xvii
objects like a log of wood or a bar of metal. Irritability
is, however, more pronounced in animals than in plants.
9. D)ffercnces between the Living and the Non-living.
It is <~'ery difficult to trace the absolute differences between the
living and the non-living. Certain points may, however, be
cited by way of general differences between the two.

Living Non-living

Protoplasm. All living objects (1) Non-living objects are conspi-

contain protoplasm which is the ~uous by its absence and, there·
physical basis of life and performs fmG, no vital activity is possible
all the vital functions. in them.
(2) Life-cycle. All living objects (2) Non-living objects have no life-
follow a definite life-cycle com- cycle. They may exist in their
prIsmg birth, growth, reproduc- original state, may disintegrate or
tion, old age and death. may change chemically or other-
WIse.
(3) Cellular structure. A living (3) A non-living body is not cellu-
body is composed of regnlar cells lar nor is it organized (except
and is well organized in form and crystals), It is only made of a mass
size, both externally and internally. of particles of one or more kinds.
(4) Respiration. This is a com- (4) Non-living objects do not res-
plex vital process, resulting in pire. But burning of coal or fire-
breakdown of food with the release wood at a high temperature only
of CO 2 and considerable energy at releases CO 2 and some Energy. The-
all times and at all temperatures. chemical mechanism, however, is
altogether different.
(5) Metabolism. Metabolic changes (5) No such changes are found in
(constructi ve and destructive) are non-living objects. Chemical change,
a characteristic sign of life. if any, in them is uncertain and
irregular.
(6) Nutrition. Nutrition th~gh (6) Non living objects require no
food is a regular feature in all food. Natural wear and tear cannot
living organisms. be made good by a supply of food.
(7) Reproduction. All living ob- (7) Non-living objects cannot re-
jects reproduce periodically by one produce their own kind. They may,
or more methods for continuation however, break down mechanically
of the species. into some irregular pieces.
(8) Growth. Growth in living ob- (8) Growth, if any, in non-living
jects is iuternal, i.e. it proceeds objects is external, i.e. it proceeds
- from within the cell as a result of on the external surface only; no
metabolic changes. metabolic change is involved in this
process.
(9) Movement. Spontaneous move- (9) Such a movement is never ex-
ment.. is a characteristic sign of life hibited by non-living objects. The
-eitter movement of protoplasm latter, however, can be made to
or of an entire organism or of move by some external forces,
Bome of the organs. natural or mechanical.
 xviii A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANy

ro. Distinctions between Plants and Animals. . Higher plants

and higher animals are readily distinguished from one another
hy their possession of distinctive organs in both cases for the
discharge of definite functions; but it is very difficult to make
a distinction between unicellular plants and animals. The
distinguishing features in general are, however, as follows;
(I) The Cell-wall and Cellulose. While both plants and
animals are cellular in composition, a plant cell is surrounded
by.a distinct cell-wall made of cellulose or any modification
Qf it. Pure cellulose is not, however, found in fungi. The cell-
wall and cellulose are always absent in an animal cell. The
latter is surrounded by a thin cytoplasmic membrane called
the plasma membrane.
(2) Chlorophyll. Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter
I()f leaves and tender shoots, is highly characteristic of plants
with the exception of fungi and total parasites. Chlorophyll
is contained in special protoplasmic bodies, called plastids
(see fig. 1)., which often occur in large numbers in a cell.
Chlorophyll and plastids are conspicuous by their absence in
animal cells. Some animals may, however, turn green in colour
by feeding upon green parts of plants.
(3) Utilization of Carbon Dioxide. Plants possess the power
of utilizing the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. It is only
the green cells that have got this power. Thus during the
daytime the green cells of the leaf absorb carbon dioxide from
the surrounding air, manufacture sugar, starch, etc., and give
out an almost equal volume of oxygen (by the breakdown. of
water in the process). Animals do not possess this power of
utilizing carbon dioxide or of manufacturing food.
(4) Food. Green plants absorb raw food materials from out-
side-water and inorganic salts from the soil and carbon dio-
xide from the air-and prepare organic food substances out of
them, primarily in the leaf, with the help of chlorophyll in
the presence of sunlight. Animals being devoid of chlorophyll
have no power of manufacturing their own food. They have
solely to depend directly or indirectly on plants for this
primary need. It is also to be noted that plants take in food in
solution only, whereas animals can ingest solid food particles.
(5) Growth. The regions of growth are localized in plants,
lying primarily at the extremities-root-apex and stem-apex-
and also in the interior, i.e. growth is both apical and inter-
calary; while in animals growth is not localized to any definite
 INTRODUCTION xix
region, i.e. all parts grow simultaneously. Moreover, in plants
growth proceeds until death; while in animals growth ceases
long before death. •
(6) Movements. Plants grow fixed to the ground or at-
tached to some support, and as such they cannot bodily move
from one place to another, except some lower types of plants;
while animals move freely in search of food and shelter, and
also when attacked; some animals, of course, grow attached
to some object, and thus cannot freely move.
(7) Vacuole and Centrosome. The vacuole is a common
feature of a mature plant cell and is often so much enlarged
as to occupy the major portion of it (see fig. I). In the animal
cell the vacuole is somewhat rare and, if present, is small in
size. The centrosome, a protoplasmic body, lying close to the
nucleus, is a regular feature of the animal cell and is asso-
ciated with the division of the nucleus. It is very rare in the·
plant cell, occurring occasionally only in some lower plants.
11. Binomial Nomenclature. In classifying plants and animals Linnaeus, a.
Swedish 'naturalist, first introduced a system of designating each and every
species of plant or animal with a binomial consisting of two parts-the
first refers to the genus and the second to tha species. A species is defined
as a group of individuals-plants or animals-resembiing one ar;other in
almost all respects, differing only in minor details. A genus is a group of
closely allied species. This system of naming a plant or animal with two-
parts (genus and species) is called binomial nomenclature. Since tho popular
name of a species varies from cOUJltry to country this system of naming
plants and animals has been universaily accepted as the correct scientific
system. Thus mango is designated as Jfan(Jijel·a indica, pca as Pisum sativum,
onion as Allium cepa, garlic as ,Allium sativulIl, etc.
, '-
12. Chief Groups of Plants. There arc two main divisions
of the plant kingdom, viz., crn>togams and phanerogams.
Cryptogams are lower plants which never bear flowers or seeds,
while phanerogams are higher plants which always bear
flowers and seeds. So cryptogams are'regarded as 'flowerless'
or 'seedless' plants, and phanerogams as 'flowering' or 'seed-
bearing' plants.
A. Cryptogams. The main groups of cryptogams from the
lower types to the higher are the following:
(I) Thallophyta. Thallophtya are lower cryptogams in which
the plant body is not differentiated into the root" stem 'and
leaf. Such an undifferentiated plant body is called a thallus
and the thallus-bearing plants are called Thallophyta. The
following are the chief groups of Thallophyta: (a) Algae (sing..
•
xx A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

alga) are commonly green Thallophyta containing chlorophyll

although this colour may be masked by other colouring
matters. They mostly grow in water and are of various forms

FIG. II. Forms of A~gae. A, Protococcus-unicellular and green;

B, Oldamydo1/wllas-umce!lular, green, ciliate and motile; 0, Spirogyra
-filamentous and green; and lJ, Oscillatol'ia-filamentous and
blue-green.

(fig. II). (b) Bacteria (sing. bacterium) are the smallest known
organisms, not visible to the naked eye. They are unicellular,
non-green, usually spherical or rod-like (fig. IlIA). They occur
almost everywhere, and are parasites (see p. 7) or sapro-

FIG. III. Forms of Bacteria and Fungi A, bactel'ia-four common

types; B, yeast-a unicellular fungus (mostly budding); 0, m01l1d-
a 'filamentous fungus; D, mushroom-a fleshy fungus; and E, 11
parasitic fungus on a leaf.

phytes (see p. 9). (c) Fungi (sing. fungus) are non-green thalla-
phyta containing no chlorophyll. They grow mostly on land
 INTRODUCTION xxi
·either as parasites (see p. 7) or as saprophytes (see p. 9). Like
.algae they may be of various forms. Common examples of
fungi are mould, mushroom, toadstool, puff-ball, etc. (fig.
III B-E).
(2) Bryophyta are a group of higher cryptograms in which
the plant body may be thalloid (primitive forms) or leafy
.(advanced forms). They develop some root-like structures,
called rhizoids, but no true roots, and the conducting ti'ssue
is very simple and primitive. They grow on old damp walls,
'on moist ground and on bark of trees forming a sort of beauti-

..~
FIG. IV. Forms of Bryophy;;p and Pteridophyta. A, lliccia and
B, Marcltantia-two thalloid bryophytes; C, moss-a leafy bryophyte;
. '"" V, fcrn-a pteridophyte.

ful, green carpet and are more_complicated and mode advanced

than the Thallophyta. There are two groups of Bryophyta:
(a) liverworts or thalloid Bryophyta; e.g. Riccia (fig. IV A) and
Marchantia (fig. IV B) and (b) mosses or leafy Bryophyta, e.g.
true mosses (fig. IV C).
(3) Pteridophyta are the highest group of cryptogams in
which the plant body is differentiated into an underground
horizontal stem (rhizome) or an erect stem, well-developed green
leaves and true roots. The plant body is more complicated
with development of conducting and mechanical tissues.
Pteridophyta are more advanced than Bryophyta. They bear
spores on their leaves by which they reproduce and multiply
Ferns (see fig. IV D) and relatives are the common groups.
xxii A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

B. Phanerogams or Spermatophytes. These are 'flowering>

or 'seed-bearing' plants. They are the most advanced types of
plants with the reproductive shoot modified into a flower
(simple or complex), and are divided into two main groups.:
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
(I) Gymnosperms (gymnos, naked; sperma, seed) are naked-
seeded plants, i.e. those in which the seeds are not enclosed
in the fruit. They may be. regarded as lower 'flowering'
plants in which the flowers are unisexual (either male or
female), simple in construction and primitive in nature. There
are two main groups of gymnosperms: (a) cycads and (b)
conifers.
(2) Angiosperms (angeion, case) are closed-seeded plants i.e.
those in which the seeds are enclosed in the fruit. They may
be regarded as higher 'flowering' plants in which the flowers
are more complicated in construction and more advanced.
Angiosperms are the highest forms of plants. There are two
big groups of angiosperms: (a) dicotyledons are the bigger
group of angiosperms in which the embryo of the seed bears
two cotyledons, and the flower commonly bears five petals
or a multiple of this number; other characteristics are
tap root in the root system and reticulate (net-like) venation
in the leaves; (b) monocotyledons are the smaller group of
angiosperms in which the embryo of the seed bears only one
cotyledon, and the flower commonly bears three petals or a
multiple of this number; other characteristics are fibrous roots
in the root ·system and parallel venation in the leaves. [For
further details see chapter I in part VII.]
Altogether about 342,400 species of plants are on record:
algae-2o,ooo; fungi-90'ooo; mosses and relatives-22,700;
ferns and relatives-Io,ooo; gymnosperms-700; and angio-
sperms- I 99,000 (dicotyledons-I 59,000 and monocotyledons
-40,000).
I3. Branches of Botany. Botany, like every other science,
may be studied from two aspects-the pure and the applied
or economic. Pure botany deals with the study of plants as a
part of nature, and applied botany as it is applied to the well-
being of mankind. The following are the main branches:
(I) Morpbology (morphe, form; logos, discourse or science).
This deals with the study of forms and features of different
plant organs such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds and
 INTRODUCTION XXlll

fruits. It also includes a study of the development of the

embryo.
(::) Histology (histos, a cobweb). The study of detailed struc-
ture of tissues making up the different organs of plants, as
revealed by the microscope, is called histology. The study of
gross internal structure of plant organs by the technique of
section-cutting is called anatamy (ana, asunder; temnem, to
cut). Cytology (kytos, cell) dealing with the cell-f:tructure with
special reference to the behaviour of the nucleus is a newly
established branch of histology.
(3) Physiology (Physis, nature of life). This deals with the
various functions that the plants perform. Functions may be
vital or mechanical; vital functions are performed by the
living matter, i.e. the protoplasm, and the mechanical functions
by certain dead tissues without the intervention of the proto-
plasm; as, for example, bark an,d cork protect the plant body,
and certain hard tissues strengthen it. It is to be noted that
structure and function are correlated, i.e. a p_articular structure
develops in response to a particular function. •
(4) 'Ecology (oikas, house). This deals with the relation-
ship that exists between individual plants or plant communities
and the surrounding c,onditions in which they live.
(5) Taxonomy or Systematic Botany (taxis, arrangement).
This deals with the description and identification of plants,
and their classification into various natural groups according
to the resemblances and differences in their morphological
characteristics.
(6) Organic Evolution. This deals with the sequence of
descent of more cGUllplex, more recent and more advanced
types of plants and animals from the simpler, earlier and more
primitive types through successive stages in different periods of
the earth. .
(7) Genetics. This deals with the facts and laws of inherit-
ance (variation and heredity) of characters from one generation
to another.
0
(8) Economic Botany. This deals with the various uses of
plants and their products, and includes methods for their
improvement for better utilization by mankind.
 PART I MORPHOLOGY

CHAPTER I Diversity of Plant Life

There are not only immense numbers of plants but they also
show diversities in various directions-habitat, habit, forms and
types, duration of life, mode of nutrition, etc. Many of them
have also developed special (modified) organs for the discharge
of special functions. Diversity is a special feature of the bio-
logical kingdom.
Habitat. The habitat is the natural home of a plant. Each
habitat has its own factors, viz. a particular type of climate
(rainfall, heat, wind, and light) and a particular type of soil (soil-
water, its physical and chemical nature), and it has its own
charactfristic flora. Thus certain plants grow in the fresh water
of ponds, lakes and rivers, forming what is called the aquatic
flora, e.g. water lily, lotus, bladderwort, duckweed, water lettuce,
Vallisneria, Hydrilla, etc.' Close to a pool of water a group of
moisture-loving plants are seen to grow, e.g. many grasses,
aroids, mosses and ferns. In the saline water of salt lakes and
seas an altogether different type of vegetation is seen. Life,
however, is harder on land with varying climatic conditions and
with different types of soils. In very dry regions or deserts cacti
and similar, plants form the dominant flora. In dry fields in
winter certain weeds :rli'ake their appearance, while in the same
fields during the rains another ~et of weeds appears. In places
with heavy rainfall evergreen forests grow up, while in places
with moderate or low rainfall deciduous forests are seen. Then
again at high altitudes certain other types of plants are found,
e.g. oak, birch, pine, deodar, fir, etc. Still higher up, as in the
Himalayas, certain types of stunted shrubs and small herbs
only grow. It is thus evident that particular habitats suit parti-
cular types of plants.
Habits of Plants. The nature of the stem, the height of the plant,
its duration and mode of life determine the habit of a plant. In
habit plants show considerable diversities. Commonly the fol-
lowing terms are used to indicate the general habits of plants.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(I) Herbs are small plants with a soft stem. They may vary from
a few millimetres to a metre or so in height, e.g. duckweed,
mustard, radish, sunflower, ginger, Canna, etc. (2) Shrubs are
medium-sized plants with a hard and woody stem, often much-
branched and bushy, e.g. China rose, garden croton, night jas-
mine, Duranta, etc. (3) Trees are tall plants with a clear, hard
and woody stem, e.g. mango, jack, Casuarina (B. & H. JHAU)
etc. \Vhile most shrubs and trees are profusely branched, most
palms, although very tall and erect, sometimes 46m. in height,
are unbranched. Some trees take a conical or pyramidal shape,
e.g. Casuarina; others become dome-shaped, e.g. banyan.
Timber trees generally attain a considerable height. Thus SAL
{Shorea) and teak (Tectona) attain a height of 30m., while trees
like CARJAN (wood-oil tree) may be as tall as 46m. Gigantic
trees like Eucalyptus, redwood and mammoth tree may be as
high as 9om. or even more. Some of the climbers like rattan
cane may be Iso-180m. or even longer. Some trees are very
thick, e.g. the baobab tree attains a girth of about 9ID., the
mammoth tree 11m., and dragon plant sometimes 14m. On the
other hand plants with a soft stem cannot stand erect. Some
of them (the creepers) only creep on the ground, e.g. wood-
sorrel; some (the climbers) climb neighbouring objects by
means of special devices (see p. 3). Others (the twiners) bodily
twine round some support, e.g. country bean, railway creeper,
Rangoon creeper, Clitoria (B. APARAJITA), etc .. St,ill others (the
Iianes; see p. 6) climb large trees and reach their tops.
Forms and Types of Plants. There is a considerable diversity of plants rang-
ing from the simplest to the most complicated and gigantic ones. Some plants
are tall, or very tall, some medium-sized, some small and some so small that
they are invisible to the naked eye. Among those known to us bacte;ia are
the smallest; they are unicellular and only imperfectly seen even under a
powerful microscope (see fig. IIIA). Among algae (which include pond-scum
and sea-weeds) there are gradations of forms; some are unicellular, e.g. Proto-
COCCU8 (see fig. IIA), while the majority are multicellular (many-celled);
the latter may be filamentous, e.g. Spirogyra and Oscillatoria (see fig. nC-D)
or massive, e.g. many sea-weeds. Similarly fungi may be unicellular, e.g.
yeast (see fig. IIIB) or multicellular; the latter may be filamentous, e.g.
mould or Mucor (see fig. IIIC), or massive e.g. mushroom or Agaricus (see
fig. HID). Some plants are thalloid lying flat on the ground, e.g. Rirria and
Marcl!antia (see fig. IVA-B) Mosses are short erect pbnts, with small green
leaves but no true roots (see fig. IVC). Ferns have already become complex
in structure with well-developed leaves, a stem and true roots (see fig. IVD).
Flowering plants, however, show the highest degree of complexity in struc-
ture and forms varying from a few millimetres to a hundred metres or so.
The . latter are reaJly gigantic trees, as stated above.
 DIVERSITY OF PLANT LIFE 3
Duration of Life. The life of an individual plant is always'
limited in duration. Herbs have a short span of life. Those
herbs that live for a few months or at most a year are said to
be (1) annuals, e.g. rice, wheat, maize, mustard, potato, pea,
etc. They grow and produce flowers and fruits within this
period and then die off. Some herbs may live for two years;
such plants are said to be (2) biennials. They attain their full
vegetative growth in the first year and produce flowers and
fruits only in the second year after which they" die off,
e.g. cabbage, beet, carrot, turnip, etc. (in a tropical c1imate
these vegetables, however, behave like annuals). Some herbs
continue to grow from year to year with a new lease of a~tive
life for a few months only; the aerial parts of such plants die
down every year after flowering or in winter, and a fresh life
begins after a few showers of rain when the underground stem
puts forth new leaves. Such plants are said to be (3) perennials.
e.g. Canna, ginger, KACHU (taro), o»ion. tuberose. etc. Shrubs
generally live for a few years. Trees. however. have the greatest
longevity. . SAL (Shorea), teak,. and some palms, live for
100- ISO years; Eucalyptus for 300 years; redwood and the
mammoth tree of America for 1,000- 1,500 years; some coni-
fers (pine-like trees) have a life-span of 2,500 years; some of
the dragon plants (Dracaena) are remarkable for their longe-
vity and their age in some cases has been estimated to be 6,000
years.
Climbers. Climbers have developed special organs of attach-
ment by which they ~ling to neighbouring objects for the sup-
port of their body and for aid in climbing. Climbers may be
of the following kinds.
(1) Rootlet Climbers. These are plants which climb by
means of small adventitious roots given off from their inner
side or from their nodes as they come in contact with a support-
ing plant or any suitable object. Such roots either form small
adhesive discs or claws which act as holdfasts or they secrete a
sticky juice which dries up, fixing the climbers to their support.
Examples may be seen in betel (see fig. 56A), long pepper, ivy,
Indian ivy (fig. I), Pathos, etc.
(2) Hook Climbers. The flower-stalk of Artabotrys (B. & H.
KANTALI-CHAMPA) produces a curved hook (fig. 4), which helps
the plant to climb. Often prickles and thorns are curved and
~ked in certain plants. Thus in cane (fig. 5) a long slendeI
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANy

axis be_set with numerous sharp and curved hooks is produced

from the leaf-sheath
in addition to numer-
ous prickles on It.
Climbing rose (fig. 6)
IS provided with
numerous curved
prickles for the pur-
pose of climbing (and
also for self-defence).
Glory of the garden
(fig. 2) and Uncaria
(fig. 3), both large
climbing shrubs, pro-
duce curved hooks
(thorns) which are
used as organs of
support for facility
of climbing.
(3) Tendril Climbers.
These are plants
which produce slen-
FIG. l. Indian ivy-a rootlet climber; A, upper der. leafless, spiral-
side; E, lower side.
ly-coiled structures,

FIG. 2 FIG. 3 FIG. 4

Hook and Thorn Climbers. FIG. 2. Glory of the garden; T, thorn.
FIG. 3. U 7l caria; T, hooked thorn. FIG. 4. ATtabotT!Js; ll, hook.

known as tendrils, and climb objects with the help of them;

tendrils twine themselves round some support, and help the
 DIVERSITY OF PLANT LIFE 5
plants to support their weight and climb easily. Tendrils may

FIG . .5 FIG. 6
Prickle Climbers. FIG. 5. Cane. FIG. 6. Rose.

be modifications of the stem, as in passion-flower (fig. 7), vine,

FIG. 7 EG.8 rIC. 9

Tendril Climbers. FIG. 7. Passion·flower. FIG. 8. Pea.
FIG. 9. Wild pea (L·athyrus). 1', tendril.

etc., or of leaves, as in pea (fig. 8), wild pea (fig. 9), etc., or of
stipules, as in Smilax (see fig. 88).

-
6 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

. (4) Leaf Climbers. In some plants part of the leaf is sensitive

to contact with a foreign body. It acts like a tendril and helps
the plant to climb. Thus the slender petiole of Clematis (fig. 10)
twines like a tendril round a support and helps the plant to

FIG. 10 FIG. 11 FIe. 12

Leaf Climbers. FIC. 10. Clematis. FlG. 11. Glory lily (Gloj·iosa).
FIG. 12. Pitcher plant (Nepenthes; see also FIGS. 120-1).

climb. In glory lily (fig. II) the prolonged leaf-apex coils round
a support like a tendril. Th~ long stiff stalk of the pitcher of
pitcher plant (fig. 12) also acts as a tendril supporting the
pitcher.
Lianes. These are very thick and woody, perennial climbers, commonly met
with in forests. They twine themselves round tall trees in search of sun-
light, and ultimately reach their top. There they get plenty of sunlight and
produce a can0p'y of foliage. Common examples are lliptage (B. MADHABI-
LATA; H. MADHU-LATA), camel's foot climber (Blluhinia vahlii ; B. LATA-
KANCHAN ; H. CHAMBULI-see fig. 240), cowage (Mucuna; B. ALKUSHI'; H.
KAWANCH) and some species of fig (Ficus).

Special Types of Plants. Depending on the mode of nutrition

plants may be divided into the following special types. All
green plants prepare their own organic food, particularly carbo-
hydrates, mostly in their leaves, from the raw or inorganic
materials absorbed from the soil and the air, and nourish them-
selves with their own foon; such plants are said to be
autopbytes or autotrophic plants (autos, self; phyton, plant;
trophe, food) or self-nourishing. Non-green plants on the other
hand cannot prepare their own carbohydrate food and thus
they draw it (together with other kinds of food) from different
sources, i.e. their modes of nutrition are different; such plants
 DIVERSITY OF PLANT LIFE :7
are said to be heterophytes or heterotrophic plants (heteros,
different) and they are either parasites or saprophytes. There
are other types of plants whose mode of nutrition is somewhat
peculiar. All such types of plants are as follows.
(I) Parasites. Plants that grow up-on other living plants (or
on animals) and absorb necessary food materials, wholly or
partially, from them are called parasites. Among the 'flower-
ing' plants there are different degrees of parasitism. Some are
total parasites and others are partial parasites. Total parasites
are never green in colour as they absorb all their food from
the host plant, e.g. dodder (B. SWARNALATA; H. AKASHBEL-fig.

"FIG. 13 FIG. 14
'-
FIG. 13. Dodder (Cu8cuta)-a total stem parasite. FIG. 14. A section
through dodder (and the host plant) showing the sucking root (haustorium).

13). Partial parasites on the other hand are green in colour

and manufacture their food, partially at least; so they do not
entirely depend on the host plant, e.g. mistletoe (B. BANDA; H.
BHANGRA-fig. 17). It is further to be noted that parasites may
be attached to the stem and branches or to the root of the
host plant. Accordingly they are said to be stem-parasites, e.g.
dodder and mistletoe, or root-parasites, e.g. broomrape (B.
BANIA-BAU; H. SARSON-BANDA-fig. 15) and Balanophora (fig. 16).
To absorb food from the host plant a parasite produces certain
special roots, called sucking roots or haustoria (fig. 14) which
8 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

penetrate into the food-containing tissue of the host plant.

secrete necessary digestive agents and finally absorb the soluble

Paraait. '

FIG. 15 FIG. 16
FIG. 15. Broomrape (Orubanche)-a total root-parasite. FlO. 16. Balanoplwra-
a tQtal Toot-parasite.

"-
food products. The following are some of the com.mon exam-
ples of different types of parasites:
(1) Stem-parasites: (a) total-dodder; (b) partial-mistletoe, Cassytha and
LorantlLus.
(2) Root-parasites: (a) totaI-broomrape and BalanopAora; (b) partiul-
sandal-wood tre€. Broomrape is
parasitic on roots of mustartl,
potato, tobacco, bl'injal, etc.,
and Bcdanoplwra on roots of
forest trees.
It may be of interest to
note that llafflesia (fig. 18), a
total root')Jarasite found in
Sumatra. and Java, bears ths
biggest flower in the world.
Each flower measures O·S-lm.
in diameter and weights over
8 kg. Sapria, similarly a tot;ll-
FIG. 17.. Mistl()toe-a partial stem-parasite.
parasite found in the hills of
Assam, bears the biggest flower in India. Each flower sometimes measures
up to O·3m. in diameter.
 DIVERSITY OF PLANT LIFE 9
(2) Saprophytes (sapros, rotten; phyta, plants). These are plants
that grow in soils rich in decaying organic substances of
vegetable or animal
origin, and derive
their nutriment from
them. They are non-
green in colour.
Among the 'flower-
ing' plan ts Indian
pipe (Monotropa;
fig. 19) and some FIG. 18. Raffle8ia-a total root-parasite.
orchids afford good
examples of saprophytes. Monotropa grows in the Khasi hills
at an altitude of 1,800-2,500 metres.
(3) Epiphytes (epi) upon; phyta) plants).
These are plants that grow on the stem
and branches of other plants (see fig. 57),
but do not suck them, i.e. do not absorb
food from them, as do the parasites. They
are green in colour. Many orchids, e.g.
Vanda (B. & H. RASNA-see fig. 57) are
,epiphytes. They absorb moisture from the
air and also trickling rain-water by their
hanging roots, and absorb food from the
humus that collects at the base of such
plants by their absorbing roots. The hang-
ing root has a covering of a special tissue,
usually 4 or 5 layers in thickness, called
'Velamen, which acts like a sponge. Several
1lIJ,0sses ang. ferns are also epiphytic.
(4) Symbionts (syn) together; bios) life).
FIG. 19. Indian pipe
When two organisms live together, as if
(Monot1'Opa)-a they are parts of the same plant, and are
saprophyte.
of mutual help to each other, they are
called SJymbionts, and the relationship between the two is ex-
pressed as symbiosis. Lichens are typical examples. These are
associations of algae and fungi, and commonly occur as thin
round greenish patches on tree-trunks and old walls. The alga
in a lichen being green prepares food and shares it with the
fungus, while the latter absorbs water and mineral salts from

f'
 10 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

the surrounding medium, and also affords protection to the

algae.
(5) Carnivorous Plants (see part III chapter 8). Carnivorous.
plants are those that capture insects and small animals and feedl
upon them, absorbing o~ly the nitrogenous compounds from
their bodies. Such plants are green in· colour and prepare their
own carbonaceous food, while they partially depend on insectS'
and other animals for nitrogenous food, e.g. sundew, Venus~
fly-trap, Aldrovanda, pitcher plant and bladderwort.

CHAPTER 2 Parts of a {Flowering' Plant .'

In response to division of labour (i.e. distribution of work) the

plant body is primarily differentiated into the underground
root system and the aerial shoot system. The former consists.
of the main root and the lateral roots, while the latter is differ-
entiated into distinct organs such as the stem, branches, leaves:
and flowers (fig. 20). Of these the roots, stem, branches and
leaves are called vegetative parts, and the flowers called repro-
ductive parts. These organs have their respective functions and:
thus contribute to the life, existence and well-being of the
plant as a whole, and to the continuation of the race.
Vegetative Parts. The root system normally lies underground
and consists of the main root and the lateral roots. Each such
root is tipped by a cap, called the root-cap, which protects the
tender growing apex; a little higher up the root bears a cluster
of very fine and delicate hairs, called the root-hairs. The r130t
system as a whole has two primary functions: fixation and
absorption. The main root and the lateral roots firmly fix the
plant to the ground; while the root-hairs absorb water and
raw food materials (mineral salts) from the .soil. The shoot
system (vegetative) on the other hand is normally aerial and
consists of the main stem, its branches, and leaves. The main
stem and its branches have two chief functions: support and
conduction. These organs give support to the leaves and the
flowers and spread them out on all sides, and they conduct
water and food through the plant body. These organs, but not
the roots, are provided with nodes and internodes. The leaf
appears at the node and is provided with a stalk, called the
 PARTS OF A 'FLOWERING' PLANT II

petiole, and a flat green expanded portion, the leaf-blade (or

-lamina), which is interspersed with numerous veins of which

~--;
, 'PETAl.

"'--SEPAL

STIGMA

..;,--OVARY

I
GYNOECIUM \

i
FRUIT

FRUlT
ROOT-
HAIRS SEED

FIG. 20. Parts of a 'flowering' plant (mustard plant).

the median strong one is called the mid-rib. The green leaf-
blade manufactures food, and is regarded as a very important
vegetative organ. A bud appears in the axil of a leaf, and as it
grows and elongates it gives rise to a branch. There is also a
bud at the apex of the stem or the branch, and it is responsible
for elongation of that organ by its continued growth.
Reproductive Parts. The Hower is a highly specialized repro-
ductive shoot. Each typical flower consists of four distinct
12 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

types of members arranged in four separate whorls or

,circles, one above the other, on the top of a long or short stalk.
The first or the lowest one, often green in colour, is called the
calyx, and each member of it a sepal. The second whorl, often
brightly coloured, is called the corolla, and each member of
it a petal. The corolla attracts insects from a distance by its
bright colour. The third whorl of the flower is the male whorl,
called the androecium (andros, male), and each member of it a
stamen. The fourth or the uppermost whorl of the flower is
the female whorl, called the gynoecium (gyne, female), and
each member of it a carpel. The gynoecium may be made of
one or more carpels, frequently two, united or free. In mustard
flower (fig. 20) there are two carpels united together. Each
stamen bears on its top a case, called the anther, which con-
tains a mass of fine powdery or dust-like grains-the pollen
grains. The gynoecium has a chamber at its base, called the
ovary, which encloses some minute but complex egg-like bodies
-the ovules, each with an egg-cell or ovum in it (see fig. 193).
The top of the gynoecium is called the stigma.
Fruit, Seed, and Embryo. Some time after the pollen grains are
carried over to the stigma, commonly by insects or wind, (see
pollination, Chapter 10), the following important changes arc
noted: the ovary develops into the fruit. the ovule into the
seed, and the egg-cell into the embryo. Later as the seed germi-
nates, the embryo grows into a seedling.

'CHAPTER 3 The Seed

Seeds soaked in water for a few hours or overnight should be
studied by proper dissections under a simple microscope.
PARTS OF A GRAM SEED (fig. 21)
I. Seed-coat. The seed is covered by a brownish coat known
as the seed-coat. It is made up of two layers or integuments,
the outer one being called the testa and the inner one the
tegmen. The testa is brownish in colour and is comparatively
thick; while the tegmen is whitish, thin and membranous;
it is fused with the testa. The seed-coat affords necessary protec-
tion to the embryo which lies within. On one side of the seed,
 THE SEED 13
lying above its projected end, a small oval depression may be
seen; this is known as the hilum. The hilum represents the

.FIG. 21. Gram seed. A, entire seed; fl, embryo (after removal of the seed·
coat); C, embryo with the cotyledons unfolded; and D, axis of embryo.
·8, seed-coat; R', raphe; H, hilum; .If, micropyle; G, cotyledons;
R, radicle; and P, plumule.

point of attachment of the seed to its stalk. Just below the

hilum a very minute slit may be seen; this minute slit or open-
ing is known as the micropyle (mikros, small; pyle, a gate).
When the soaked seed is gently pressed, water and minute air-
bubble~ are. seen to escape through it. Above the hilum the
stalk is continuous with the seed-coat forming a sort of ridge;
this ridge which is fused with the testa is called the raphe.
Through the raphe food is supplied to the embryo.
(2) Embryo. The yellowish body, as seen after removing the
seed-coat, is the embryo or the baby plant. As the seed germi-
nates it gives rise to a seedling which gradually develops into
the gram. plant. The embryo consists of two white fleshy
bodies, known as (a) the cotyledons or seed-leaves, and (b) a
short axis to which ~e cotyledons are attached. The part of
the axis lying towards the pointed end of the seed is called
(i) the radicle (a little root), while_the other end lying in between
the two cotyledons is known as (ii) the plumule (plumula, a
:small feather). The plumule is surrounded at the apex by a
number of minute leaves, and as such it looks more or less like
.a small feather. As the seed germinates the radicle gives rise
to the root and the plumule to the shoot. Cotyledons store up
food material.

I -em b ryo-I-axis
-~eed-coat with testa, hilum, micropyle, raphe and tegmen.
Gram Seed- with radicle and plumule.
-cotyledons-2, fleshy, laden with food.

PARTS OF A PEA SEED (fig. 22)

>1;. Seed-coats. The seed is somewhat roundish in shape, and is
covered by two distinct seed-coats. Of the two coats the outer
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

whitish one is called the testa; it comes off easily when the
seed is soaked in water. The testa encloses another coat which

A B c D
FIG. 22. Pea seed. A, entire seed; B, seed-coat with hilum and micropyle;
G, embryo (after removal of the seed-coat); D, embryo with the cotyledons
unfolded_ S,. seed-coat-testa (it encloses a thin membranous tegmen); M,
micropyle; H, hilum; E, radicle; G, cotyledons; P, plumule.

is loose, thin, hyaline and membranous; this inner coat is

called the tegmen. The seed-coats give necessary protection to
the embryo which lies within, On one side of the testa a
narrow, elongated scar representing the point ·of attachment of ,
the seed to its stalk is distinctly visible; this is the bilnm.
Close to the hilum situated at one end of it there is a minute
hole; this is the micropyle. On germination of the seed the
raaicle comes out through it. Continuous with the hilum there
is a sort of ridge in the testa; this is the rapbe.
2. Embryo. The whitish fleshy body, as seen after removing the
seed-coats, is the embryo. It consists of (a) two fleshy cotyledons
or seed-leaves and (b) a short axis to which the cotyledons
remain attached. The portion of the axis lying outside the coty-
ledons, bent inwards and directed towards the micropyle, is
(i) the radicle, the other portion of the axis lying in be~ween
the two cotyledons is (ii) the plumule. The plumule is crowned
by some minute young leaves. The radicle gives rise to the root,
the plumule to the shoot, and the cotyledons store up food
material.
-seed-coats with testa, hilum, micropyle, raphe and tegmen.
Pea Seed-
I-em bryo-'-cotyledons-2,
I-axis with radicle and plumule.
fleshy, laden with food.

PARTS OF A COUNTRY BEAN SEED (fig. 23)

I.Seed-coat. The country bean seed (Dolichos lablab ; B. SHIM;
H. SEM) is more or less oval, and is covered by a blackish or
reddish, hard seed-coat. The seed-coat consists of two layers
fused together, the outer one being known a~ the testa and tie
inner one the tegmen. At one edge of the seed-coat there is a
 THE SEED 15
whitish, elongated ridge; this ridge is called the raphe. At. t~e
basal portion of the raphe there is a distinct broad scar ;. thIS IS

FIG. 23. Country bean seed. M, micropyle; S, seed-coat; H, hilum;

It, radicle; C, cotyledons; P, plumule.

the hilum. At the other end of the raphe away from the hilum
there is a minute but distinct hole; this is the micropyle. If
the soaked seed be gently pres'sed, water and minute air-
bubbles are seen to ooze out through it.
2. Embryo. On peeling off the seed-coat a distil1ct, white,
fleshy body is seen occupying the whole space within the seed-
coat ; t~is is the embryo. It consists of (a) two fleshy cotyledons
and (b) an axis to which the cotyledons remain attached. The
portion of the axis lying externally with its apex directed
towards the micropyle is' (i) the radicle, and the other portion
of the axis lying in between the two cotyledons and composed
of minute, young leaves is (ii) the plumule.
PARTS OF A CASTOR SEED (fig. 24)
l. Seed-coats. The hard and blackish shell is the outer seed-
<;:oat or testa. At one end of the seed-coat there is a white bodY,
an outgrowth formed"' at the micropyle. called the caruncle.
Nearly hidden by the caruncle a_small scar may be seen on the
seed-coat, representing the point of attachment of the seed to
its stalk; this is the hilum. On removing the testa a thin and
membranous inner seed-coat or tegmen may distinctly be seen
surrounding the endosperm. Running down from the hilum
a ridge may be seen on the outer seed-coat or testa; this ridge
has been formed by the fusion of the stalk with the testa, and
is known as the raphe.
2. Endosperm (endo, inner or within; sperm, seed). Remove
the seed-coats and note, lying inside them. a white, fleshy mass;
this is the endosperm. It is the food storage tissue of the seed.
particularly rich in oil. It encloses the embryo .

...
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

3. Embryo. This lies embedded in the endosperm. Split open the

endosperm and observe that the embryo consists of (a) two thin,

FIG. 24. Castor seed. A, an entire seed; E, endosperm Eurrounded by teg-

men; C, the same split, open lengthwise; D, embryo separated from the
endosperm; E, cotyledous separated. Ca, caruncle; H, hilum; S, testa; .
Sf, tegmen; E, radicle; E, endosperm; C, cotyledons; P, plumule.

flat and papery cotyledons or seed-leaves, more or less distinctly: .,

marked by veins, and (b) a very short axis; the axis consists
of (i) a radicle which is a little protuberance towards' the
caruncle, and (ii) an undifferentiated plumule which is the
blunt inner end of the axis lying in between the two cotyledons.
The minute leaves of the plumule become apparent only when
the seed begins to germinate. The radicle always gives rise
to the root and the plumule to the shoot. Cotyledons lie em-
bedded in the endosperm, and their function is to transport the
food material from the endosperm to the radicle and the plu-
mule, and later, on the germination of the seed, they turn green
and leafy (see fig. 28).
-seed.coats with testa, hilum, caruncle, raphe and tegmen.
Castor Seed-
I-endosperm laden with food.
-axis with radicle and plumule.
-embr YO-!_cotyledons_2, thin, leaf·like.
 THE SEED

PARTS· OF A RICE GRAIN (fig· 25)

Rice grain is a small, one-seeded fruit. Each grain remains
enclosed in a brownish husk which consists of two parts, one
partially enveloping the other; the outer and larger one is
called the flowering glume, while the inner and smaller one is
called the palea. At the base of the grain are two minute white
scales called empty glumes. The rice grain and the husk are
together known as the paddy grain.
I. Seed-coat. On removing the husk a brownish membranous
layer is seen adherent to the grain. This layer is made up of
the seed-coat and the wall of the fruit fused together.
2. Endosperm. This forms the main bulk of the grain and
is its food storage tissue, being laden with reserve food material,
particularly 8tarch. In a longitudinal section of the grain it is
seen to be distinctly separated from the embryo by a definite
layer known as the epithelium.
3. Embryo . .This is very small and lies in a groove at one end
of the endosperm. It consists of only (a) one shield-shaped
cotyledon which is known as the scutellum, and (b) a short axis
which has an upper portion (i) the plumule, and a lower portion

ENDOSPERM

FIG. 25.
Rice grain.
A, the grain COLEOPTlLE
enclosed in
husk; PLUMULE

B, the grain
in longitudi-
nal section
(a portion).

(ii) the radicle. The plumule is surrounded by minute leaves,

and the radicle is protected by a cap known as the root-cap.
The plumule as a whole (growing point and foliage leaves) is
surrounded and protected by a plumule-sheath, called coleop-
tile; similarly the radicle is surrounded by a root-sheath, called
2
18 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

coleorhiza. The surface layer of the scutellum lying in

contact with the endosperm is the epithelium; its function is
to digest and absorb food material stored in the endosperm.
PARTS OF A MAIZE GRAIN (fig. 26)
Like the previous one the maize grain is also a small, one-
seeded fruit. The seed is adherent to the wall of the fruit and
not separable from it. On one side of the grain a small, opaque,
whitish, deltoid area is distinctly seen. The embryo lies em-
bedded in this area. The grain cut longitudinally through this
area shows the following:
I. Seed-coat. This is only a thin layer surrounding the whole
grain. This layer is made up of the seed-coat and the wall of
the fruit fused together.
2. Endosperm. The grain is divided into two unequal portions
by a definite layer known as the epithelium. The bigger por-
tion is the endosperm, and the smaller portion is the embryo.
The endosperm is the food storage tissue of the grain, parti-
cularly rich in starch. If a little iodine solution be put on the
cut surface of the grain the whole of the endosperm becomes
black indicating the presence of starch; the embryo takes on
a yellowish tinge. Thus the two portions become clearly marked.

BASE OF STYLE

SE.EO.COAT &. FRUIT-WALL ENDOSPERM

ANEURONE LAYER EPITHELIAL .

SCUTELLUM
REMNANT OF
STYLE.
COLEOPTllE

EMBRYO

FIG. 26. Maize grain.

A, the entire grain; B, the grain in longitudinal section.

3. Embryo. This consists of (a) one shield-shaped cotyledon,

known as the scutellum. as in the rice grain, and (b) an axis.
The uppe:- portion of the axis, with minute leaves arching
over it, is (i) the plumule, and the lower portion, provided with
 THE SEED

the root-cap, (ii) the radicle. The plumule is surrounded by a

plumule-sheath or coleoptile, and the radicle is surrounded by
a root-sheath or coJeorhiza. Coleoptile and coleorhiza are pro-
tective sheaths of the plumule and the radicle respectively,
and are characteristic of the grass family and the palm family.
The surface layer of the scutellum lying in contact with the
t:ndosperm is the epithelium; its function is to digest and
absorb food material stored in the endosperm.
Note. In cereals (e.g. rice, wheat, maize, barley and oat),
millets and other plants of the grass family the cotyledon is
known as the scutellum, It 8upplies the growing embryo with
food material absorbed from the endosperm with the help of
the epithelium. .
-seed-coat with the fruit-wall fused with it.
I-endospermI-axis
Maize Grain-I
laden with food material.
with radicle & coleorhiza, and plumul0
-embryo- & coleoptile.
-cotyledon (scutellum)-l, shield-shaped.
Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Seeds. It must have been
noted from studies of the foregoing seeds that some of them,
e.g. gram, bean, pea, castor, etc., bear two cotyledons in their
embryo; while others, e.g. rice, maize, etc., bear only one coty-
ledon in their embryo. The former types of seeds are said to
be dicotyledonous, and the latter monocotyledonous. On the
basis of this and other characters the 'flowering' plants have
been divided into two big classes: dicotyledons (with two
cotyledons) and monocotyledons (with one coty~edon). Dicoty-
ledons far outnumber monocotyledons.
AlbuminouS and Exalbnminons Seeds. (I) Seeds that possess a
special food storage tissue, called the endosperm, are said to be
albuminous or endospermic, and those that possess no such
special tissue for food storage are said to be exalbuminous or
non-endospermic. Monocotyledonous seeds are mostly albumin-
ous ; while among dicotyledons both are common.
(2) In all seeds the food accumulates in the endosperm:
tissue at an early stage of seed-development. But in albuminous
seeds the endosperm continues to store food and to enlarge
rapidly. Ultimately in the mature seed it acts as the food storage
tissue. In exalbuminous seeds on the other hand the food that
accumulates in the endosperm tissue at an early stage of seed-
development is utilized by the developing embryo so that the
endosperm becomes exhausted.
20 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(3) In albuminous seeds food being stored in the endosperm

the cotyledons are small and thin, while in exalbuminous seeds
the cotyledon(s) store up food and become thick and fleshy.
The food whether stored in the endosperm or in the cotyle-
don(s) is always utilized by the embryo when germination of
the seed takes place. l
Dicotyledonous Seeds
(a) Exalbuminous, e.g., gram, pea, bean, gourd, tamarind, mustard, mango,
cotton, orange, pulses, sunflower, guava, jack, etc.
(b) Albuminous, e.g., castor, poppy, papaw, custard·apple, four o'clock
plant, etc.
Monocotyledonous Seeds ~,
(a) Exalbuminous, c.g., orchids, Alisma, arrowhead and Najas.
(b) Albuminous, e.g., cereals (rice, wheat, oat, maize and barley), millets,.
grasses (including sugarcane and bamboo), palms, lilies, aroids, etc.

GERMINATION
The embryo lies dormant in the seed, but when the latter
is supplied with moisture the embryo becomes active and tends
to grow and develop into a small seedling. The process by
which the dormant embryo wakes up and begins to grow is
known as germination. At first the seed absorbs moisture and
swells up considerably. Then the radicle elongates and comes
out often through the micropyle
and gives rise to. the root. The
radicle always grows downwards,
often forming a loop, and gives
rise to the root system; its rate
of growth is much faster than
that of the plumule. As a result
of swelling, the seed-coat bursts
and the cotyledons partially or
completely separate from each
other. The plumule comes out,
grows upwards and gives rise to
Epigeal Germination. the shoot. Commoniy the coty-
FIG. 27A. Gourd seed. ledons turn green and in most
cases, become leaf-like in appearance. In some cases, however,
they are seen to shrivel up and drop. Two kinds of germina-
tion will be noticed: epigeal and hypogeal.
I For 'food stored in the seed' see end of Chapter 8, Part III.
 THE SEED 21

[. Epigeal Germination (figs. 27-8). In some see(; .. such as bean,

gourd, tamarind, castor, cotton, etc., the cotyledons are seen
to be pushed upwards by the rapid elongation of the bypocotyl

Epigeal Germination. FIG. 27B. Country bean seed.

(hypo, below), i.e. the portion of the axis lying immediately

below the cotyledons. Germination of this kind is said to be
epigeal (epi, upon; ge, earth).

Epigeal Germination. FIG. 28. Castor seed (albuminous).

2. Hypogeal Germination (figs. 29-30). In other seeds such as
gram, pea, mango, litchi, jack, groundnut, etc., the cotyledons
22 ,'\ CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANy

are seen to re'liain in the soil or just on its surface. In SUcJ1

cases the epicotyl, i.e. the portion of the axis lying immediately
above the cotyledons, elongates and pushes the plumule up-
wards. The cotyledons do not turn green, but gradually dry
up and fall off. Germination of this kind is said to be bypogeaJ
(hypo, below; ge, earth).

Hypogeal
Germination.

FIG. 29.
Gram seed.

FIG.30.
Pea seed.

Hypogeal Germination of Monocotyledonous Seeds (figs. 3I-2).

Monocotyledonous seeds are mostly albuminous and in their
germination the cotyledon and endosperm remain buried in

Hypogeal Germination FIG 31. Paddy.

the soil; germination is, therefore, hypogeal (except in the

case of onion). In the germination of monocQtyledonous seeds
like paddy and maize (figs. 3I-2), the radicle makes its way
through the lower short, collar-like end of the sheath called
the root-sbeath or coleorbiza; while the plumule breaks
through the upper distinct, cylindrical portion of the sheath
 THE SEE D I 23
called the plumule-sheath or coleoptile. The radicle grows

Hypogeal Germination. FIG. 32. Maize grain.

downwards into the primary root, but this is soon replaced by

a cluster of fibrous roots. The plumule grows upwards. In the
germination of many palms,
e.g. date-palm and palmyra-
palm (but not coconut-palm) a
part of the cotyledon extends
into a sheath, long or short,
which encloses the axis of the
embryo a little behind the tip
and carries' it down ~o some
depth in the soil (see fig. 34).
Special Type of Germination.
Many plants growing in salt-
lakes and sea-coasts show a
special type of germination of
their seeds, known as vivipary
(fig. 33). The seed germinates
inside the fruit while still at- FIG. 33. Viviparous gel'minatioll.
tached to the parent tree and A-B, stages in germination;
0, seedling.
nourished by it. The radicle
elongates, swells in the lower part and gets stouter. Ultimately
the seedling separates from the parent plant due to its increas-
ing weight, and falling vertically becomes embedded in the
 A CLAsS-BOOK OF BOTANY

soft mud below. The radicle presses into the soil, and quickly
lateral roots are formed for proper anchorage. Examples are
seen in Rhizophora (B. KHAMO), Sonneratia (B. KEORA), Heri-
tiera (B. SUNDRI), etc:
Conditions necessary for Germination. (I) Moisture. For germina-
tion of a seed water is indispensable; the protoplasm becomes
active only when it is saturated
with water. In air-dried seeds
water content is usually 10- 1 5%'
No vital activity is possible at
A this low water content. Water
facilitates the necessary chemical t
changes in food materials, and it
also softens the seed-coat. (2)
Temperature. A suitable tem-
perature is necessary for the ger-
mination of a seed. Protoplasm
functions normally within a cer-
tain range of temperature. With-
in limits the higher the tempera-
ture the more rapid is the germi-
nation. (3) Air. Oxygen of the air
is necessary for respiration of a
germinating seed. The process
hberates energy from the stored
food and activates the protoplasm.
c The germinating seed respires
FIG. 34. Date-palm seed and its very vigorously.
germination. A, seed in section; It may be noted in this conne-
B, germinating seed in section;
C, seedling. S, seed-coat and xion that light is not an essential
inner fruit-wall; JiJ, endos- condition of germination. In fact
perm; Ern, embryo (undifferen-
tiated); C, cotyledon; Sh, seeds germinate more quickly in
,sheath of the cotyledon; CZ, the dark. For subsequent growth,
coleoptile; Cr, coleorhiza.
however, light is indispensible.
Seedlings grown continually in the dark elongate rapidly but
become very weak, develop no chlorophyll and bear only pale,
undeveloped leaves (see fig. 349).
Three Bean Exp~riment (fig. 35). That all the conditions mentioned above
are essential for g'ermination can be shown by a simple experiment, known
as the three bean experiment. Three air dry seeds are attached to a piece
of wood, ono at each end and one in the middle. This is then placed in
a beaker, and water is poured into it until the middle seed is ha.lf
 THE SEED

immersed in it. The beaker is then left in a warm place for a few days.
From time to time water is added to maintain the
original level. It is seen that the middle bean
germinates normally because it has sufficient mois-
ture, oxygen and heat. The bottom bean has
sufficient moisture and heat, but not oxygen. It
may be seen to put out the radicle only, but fur-
ther development is checked for want of oxygen.
The top bean having only sufficient oxygen and
heat, but not moisture, does not show any sign of
germination.
~ This experiment evidently shows that moisture
.and oxygen are indispensable for germination; the
~ffect of temperature is only indirectly proved. FIG. 35_ Three

It can, however, be directly proved in the follow- bean expenment.

ing way. Other conditions remaining the same, if the temperature be
(!onsiderably lowered or increased by placing the beaker with the seeds
in a freezing mixture or in a bath with cc.nstant high temperature it will
he seen that none of the beans will germinate. Thus suitable temperature
is also an essential condition for germination.

FUNG.TIONS OF COTYLEDONS
(I) In exalbuminous seeds, as in gram, pea, gourd, tamarind,
etc., the cotyledons act as food storage organs and in conse-
quence they become thick and fleshy. The food stored in them
is utilized by the embryo when the seed gerininates.
(2) In all:iuminous seeds, as in castor, poppy, four o'clock
plant, etc., the cotyledons act as. absorbing organs, and they are
thin, flat or small. When the seed germinates they absorb food
from the endosperm and supply it to the radicle and the
plumule. '-
(3) In many seeds showing epigeal germination (i.e. lifting
the cotyledons above the ground) the cotyledons may act as
food-manufacturing organs. When they are pushed above th,::
ground they generally turn green in colour being exposed to
light and then function like ordinary leaves, i.e. they manu-
facture food in the presence of sunlight.
(4) The cotyledons act as protective organs. They lie on
either side of the plumule, and at the seed stage and during
the early germination period they give it adequate protection.
(5) In monocotyledonous seeds at the time of germination
the cotyledon absorbs food from the endosperm, and at length
extends as a sort of sheath, long or short, pushing the radicle
and the plumule out of the seed. In many palms, as ia
 26 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

palmyra-palm and date-palm (but not coconut-palm) a fairly

long sheath is produced _(see fig. 34).

CHAPTER 4 The Root

The root is the descending organ of the plant, and is originally
the direct prolongation of the radicle of the embryo. It grows
downwards, fixes the seedling and later the plant as a whole
to the ground, and absorbs raw food materials (water and in-

FIG. 36 FIG. 37
, ,, .

FIG. 39
FIG. 38
FIG. 36. Tap and lateral roots in a dicotyledon. FIG. 37. Fibrous roots
in a monocotyledon. FIG. 38. Multiple r~t·cap in screwpine.
FIG. 39. Rvot·pockets in duckweed (see p. 29).

organic salts) from the soil particles. It is non-green in colo11r,

without nodes and internodes, leaves or buds, and is covered
at its tip, i.e. the growing point, by a sort of cap known as the
root-cap (fig. 4 I).
Normal Roots. All roots that develop from the radicle, eithel'
directly from it or as its branches, are called normal roots. The
direct prolongation of the radicle forms the primary root . .If it .
- persist& and· continues to grow, as in dicotyledons, giving rise
to the main root of the plant it is called the tap root (fig. 36).
The tap root normally grows vertically downwards to a shorter
or longer depth. As it grows it produces lateral branches
known as the secondary roots, and these in turn produce the
tertiary roots. All these roots together form the tap root system
of the plant. The lateral roots are produced in acropetal succes-
 THE ROOT

sion, i.e. older and longer roots away from the tip, and younger
and shorter ones towards it.
Adventitious Roots. Roots that grow from any part of the
plant body other than the
radicle are called adventitious
roo~s. ( I) In monocotyledons
where the primary root does
not persist, a cluster of slender
roots is seen to grow from the
base of the stem; such roots
are called fibrous roots (fig. 37).
(2) Adventitious roots, solitary
or in clusters, also grow from
nodes and even internodes, as
in many grasses, betel, wood-
. sorrel, sugarcane, maize, bam-
boo, etc. (3) They also often
grow frc;>m stem-cuttings (fig.
4°/, as in COleus, rose, garden
croton, etc. (4) Adventitious
roots, called foliar roots . (see
fig. 350), may also be induced to
grow from the petiole or vein
of a leaf by the application of
certain chemicals, called hor- FIG. 40. Adventitious roots
in Coleus.
mones, which are growth-
promoting substances.
. '""
Regions of the Root (fig. 41). The following regions may be
distinguished in a root from the .apex upwards. There is of
course no line of demarcation between one region and the
other. As a matter of fact one merges into the other.
I. Root-cap. Each root is covered over at the apex by a
sort of cap or thimble known as the root-cap which protects
the tender apex of the root as it makes its way through the
>oil. The root-cap, if worn out, may be renewed by the under-
lying growing tissue. It is usually absent in aquatic plants.
~. Region of Cell Division. This is the growing apex of the root
lying within and a little beyond the root-cap and extends to a
length of a few millimetres. The cells of this region undergo
repeated divisions, and hence this region is otherwise called the
28 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

meristematic region (meristos, divided). Some of the newly

formed cells contribute to the formation of the root-cap and
others to the next upper region.
3. Region of Elongation.
z This lies above the meris-
o
~ tematic region and ex-
I:r!
:J tends -to a length of a few
~ millimetres. The cells of
;:;:
~
this region undergo rapid
o elongation and enlarge-
zo
ment, and are responsible
for growth in length of
the root. .
REGION 0: 4. Region of Maturation.
ELONGATIO~
) This region lies above the
region of elongation and
extends upwards. Exter-
REGION OF
} CELL-DIVISION
nally, at its basal portion I
this region produces a
cluster of very fine and
tlelicate thread-like struc-
FIG. 41. Regions of the root.
tures known as the root-
hairs, and above the root-hair region it produces lateral roots,
both in acropetal succession. The root-hairs are essentially
meant to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Inter-
nally, the cells of this region are seen to undergo maturation
and differentiation into various kinds of primary tissues.
Higher up it gradually merges into the region of seco~dary
tissues.
Characteristics of the Root. There are certain distinctive
characteristics of the root by which it can be distinguished from
the stem. These are as follows;
(r) The root is the descending organ of the plant and the
primary root is the direct prolongation of the radicle; whereas
the stem is the ascending organ of the plant and the direct
prolongation of the plumule. Roots grow downwards and away
from light; whereas the stem grows upwards and towards light.
Roots are not normally green in colour; whereas the young
stem is normally so. •
(2) The root does not normally bear buds; while the stem
normally tears both vegetative and floral buds for vegetative
 THE ROOT
growth and reproduction. There are, however, cases where the
roots are seen to bear vegetative buds (but not floral buds) for
vegetative propagation, e.g. sweet potato, wood-apple, Tricho-
santhcs (B. PATAL; H. PARWAL), Indian redwood (B. SIS sao ;

..,.:-
oI
o
o

HG. 42 FIG. 43 FIG. 44 45

FIG.
FIG.42. Root.tip. FIG. 43. Stem·apex. FIG.44. Lateral root
(endogenous; see also FIG. 311). FIG. 45. Branch (exogenous).

H. smsHAM), and ipecac. Such plants are sometimes propagated

by root-cuttings, e.g. ipecac (a medicinal plant).
(3) Toe root ends in and is protected by a cap- or thimble-
like structure known as the root-cap (fig. 42) ; while the stem:
ends in a bud-the terminal bud (See fig. 59B). A distinct,
multiple root-cap is seen' in the aerial root of screwpine (B.
KETUCKY; H. KEORA-fig. 38).
In water plants like duckweed, water lettuce, water hyacinth, etc., a loose
sheath ~hich comes off easily is distinctly seen at the apex of each root.
This is an anomalous root-cap, called jJJe root-pocket (fig. 39).
(4) The r~bears unicellular hairs (fig. 46A-B); while the
stem or the. shoot bears mostly multicellular hairs (fig. 46c).
Root-hairs occur in a 'clmter all over the tender part of the
young root a little behind the root-cap. But as the root grows,
older root-hairs die off and newcr- ones are always formed close
behind the apex. Shoot-hairs, on the other hand, are of various
kinds and they remain scattered over the surface of the shoot.
Root-hairs ha~e very thin walls made of cellulose; while shoot-
hairs are some\\>hat thickened and cutinized, at least at the
base. Root-hairs are short-lived, usually persisting for a few
days or weeks; while shoot-hairs last for a much longer time.
Root-hairs absorb water and mineral salts from the soil, and
shoot-hairs prevent evaporation of water from the surface of the
plant body and afford protection.
(5) Lateral roots always develop from an inner layer (fig. 44) ;
so they are said to be endogenous (endo, inner; gen, producing).
30 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Branches, on the other hand, develop from a few outer layers

(fig. 45) ; so they are said to be exogenous (ex oJ outer).

A B C
FW. 46. A, rqot-hairs in mustard seedling; B, two root-hairs (magnified)-
unicellular; C, two shoot-hairs (magnified)-muliicellular.

(6) Nodes and internodes are always present in the stem,

although they may not often be quite distinct; but in the root
they are absent.

MODIFIED ROOTS
Specialized functions of varied nature are performed by the
modified roots which adapt themselves according to the parti-
cular need of the plant. For these purposes both the tap root
and the adventitious roots may undergo modifications. The
following are a few such cases.

A. MODIFIED TAP ROOT (for storage Of food)

I. Fusiform Root (fig. 47). When the root is swollen in the mid-
. dIe and gradually tapering towards the apex and the base,
being more or less spindle-shaped in appearance, it is said to
be fusiform, e.g. radish.
2. Napiform Root (fig. 48). When the root is considerably
swollen at the upper part becoming almost spherical, and
 THE ROOT 31
sharply tapering at the lower part, it is said to be napiform, e.g.
turnip and beet.

Modified Roots.
FIG. 47. Fusiform
root of
radish.
HG. 48. Napiform
root of
turnip.
FIG. 49. Conical
root of
carrot.

FIG. 47 FIG. 48 FIG. 49

3. Conical Root (fig. 49). When the root is broad at the base
and it gra~lually tapers towards the apex like a cone, it is said
(0 be conical, e.g. carrot.

4. Tuberous or Tubercular Root. When the root is thick and

fleshy but does not maintain any particular shape, it is said
to be tuberous or tubercular, as in four o'clock plant.
B. MODIFIED ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
(a) for storage of food
L Tuberous or Tubercular Root (fig. 50). This is a swollen root
without any definitMhape, as in sweet potato. Tuberous roots,

FIG. SO FIG. 51 FIG. 52

FIG. SO. Tuberous roots of sweet, potato. FIG. 51. Fasciculated roots
of Dahlia. FIG. 52. Nodulose roots of mango ginger.
32 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

whether tap or adventitious, are produced singly and not in

clusters.
2. Fasciculated Roots (fig. 51). When several tubercular roots
occur in a cluster or fascicle at the base of the stem, they are
said to be fasciculated, as in Dahlia, Ruellia and 1Jparagus.
3. Nodulose Root (fig. 52). When the slender root becomes
suddenly swollen near the
apex, it is said to be nodu-
lose, as in mango ginger
(B. AMADt\; H. AM-HALDI)
and arrowroot.
4. Monilifonn or Beaded
Root (fig. 53A). When
there ,are some swellings
in the root at frequent
intervals, it is said to be
moniliform or beaded, as
A B in Indian spinach (B. Pur ;
FIG. 53. A, moniliform roots of Mornordica; H. POI), Momordica (B.
E, annulated roots of ipecac.
KAKROL ; H. CHA'ITHAI).
wild vine (B. AMAL-LATA; H. AMALBEL) and some grasses.
5. Annulated Root (fig. 53B). When the root has a series of ring-
like swellings on its body, it is said to be annulated, as in
Ipecac. \

(b) for mechanical support

6. Prop or Stilt Roots (fig. 54-5). In plants like banyan, India
rubber plant, screwpine, Rhizophora, etc., a number of roots are
produced from the main stem and often from the branches.
These roots grow vertically or obliquely downwards and pene-
trate into the soil. Gradually they get stouter and act as pillars
supporting the main stem and the branches or the plant as a
whole. Such roots are known as prop or stilt roots. The big
banvan tree of the Indian Botanic Garden near Calcutta has
J

produced near about 900 such roots from its branches~ Its age
is estimated to be about 200 years, and the circumference of
the crown over 360 metres.
7. Climbing Roots (fig. S6A). Climbing plants like betel, long
pepper, black pepper, Pothos, etc., produce roots from their
 TIlE ROOT 33
Iiodes and often from the internodes, by means of which they
It attach themselves to their support and climb it. To ensure a
foothold such roots secrete a kind of sticky juice which quickly
dries up in the air, as seen in ivy and Indian ivy (see fig. 1).

FIG. 54 FIG. 55
FIG. 54. Prop or stilt roots of banyan. FIG. 55. The same of screwpine.

Often they form at their apex a sort of disc or claw for

firmer foothold. Such roots are also called clinging roots.

A B
FIG. 56. A, climbing roots of betel; E, respiratory roots (R)
of Jussiaea.
3
34 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(c) jar vital junctions

8. Sucking Roots or Haustoria (see figs. 13-14). Parasites develop
certain kinds of roots which penetrate into the tissue of the
host plant and suck it.
Such roots are known as
sucking roots or haustoria
(sing. haustorium). Para-
;i$.......~~ sites, particularly non-
green ones, have to live
by sucking the host plam.
i.e. by absorbing food
from it with the help of
their sucking roots. Com-
mon examples are dodder
(see fig. 13), brooqIrape (B.
BANIA-BAU; see fig. IS)'
mistletoe (B. BANDA; H.
BHANGRA; see fig. 17), etc.

9. Respiratory Roots (fig.

S6B). In fussiaea (B.
FIG. 57. Epiphytic roots of Vanda KESSRA), an aquatic plant.
(an orchid).
the floating branches deve-
lop certain kinds of adventitious roots which are soft, light.
spongy and colourless. They usually develop above the level of
water and serve to store up air. Thus they facilitate respiration.
10. Epiphytic Roots (fig. 57). There are certain plants, com-
monly orchids, which grow on branches of trees. Such plants
are known as epiphytes (epi, upon; phyta, plants). They never
suck the supporting plant as do parasites. So instead of sucking
roots they develop special kinds of aerial roots which hang
freely in the air. Each hanging root is surrounded by a spongy
tissue, called velamen. With the help of this velamen the
hanging root absorbs moisture. from- the surrounding air.
Vanda (B. RASNA), an epiphytic orchid, is a common example.
I I.Assimilatory Roots. Branches of Tinospora (B. GULANCHA:
H. GURCHA) climbing on neighbouring trees produce long.
slender, hanging' roots which develop chlorophyll and turn
green in colour. These green roots are the assimilatory roots.
They carryon carbon-assimilation, i.e. they absorb carbon
dioxide from the air and manufacture carbohydrate food. The
 THE ROOT 35
banging roots of epiphytic orchids (fig. 57) also often turn green
iJl colour. The submerged
roots of water chestnut
(fig. 58) are green III
colour and act as assimi-
latory roots.
Functions and Adaptations
of the Root. The root per-
forms manifold functions
-mechanical such as
fixation, and physiological
such as absorption. con-
ductioll and storage. These
are the normal functions
of the root. Roots also
have specialized functions
and they adapt themselves
accordingly. All these
functions ana adaptations
have been discussed in FIG. 58. Assimilatory (green) roots of
aetail in connexion with. water chestnut (T7apa) .

.the modified roots (see pp. 31-5)'

(1) Fixation. The mechanical function the root performs i~
the fixation of the plant to the soil. The main root goes deer
into the soil and the lateral roots spread out in different direc-
tionb ; so the root system as a whole firmly anchors the plant.
In monocotyledons thi~ anchorage is afforded by the fibrous
roots.
(2) Absorption. The most impc.mant physiological function
is the absorption of water and raw food material from the soil.
This is done with the help of root-hairs which develop in a
cluster at a little distance behind the root-cap. These root-hairs
adhere to the soil particles and absorb water and soluble salts
from them.
(3) Conduction. The root is concerned in the conduction of
water and mineral salts, sending them upwards into the stem
and ultimately into the leaf.
(<4-) Storage. There is a certain amount of food stored in the
root, particularly in its mature region. As the root grows this.
stored food is utilized.
 .36 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

It may be summarized that anchorage, conduction and stor-

:age are carried on normally by the older portions of the root
.system, and absorption by the root-hairs and tender portions.

CHAPTER 5 The Stem

Characteristics of the Stem. The stem is the ascending organ
of the plant, and is the direct prolongation of the plumule. It
normally bears leaves, branches and flowets, and when young,
it is green in colour. The growing apex is covered over and pro-
tected by a number of tiny leaves which arch over it (see fig.
59B). The stem often bears multicellular hairs of different kinds;
it branches exogenously; and it is provided with nodes and
internodes which may not be distinct in all cases. Leaves and
branches normally develop from the nodes. When the stem or
the branch ends in a vegetative bud it continues to grow up-
wards or sideways. If, however, it ends in a floral bud the growth
ceases.
Nodes and internodes. The place on the stem or branch where
one or more leaves arise is known as the node, and the space
between two successive nodes is called the internode. Some-
times nodes and internodes are very conspicuous, as in bamboos
I and grasses; in others they are not always clearly marked.

THE BUD
A bud (fig. 59) is a young undeveloped shoot consisting of a
-short stem and a number of tender leaves arching over
the growing apex. In the bud the. internodes have not
yet developed and the leaves remain closely crowded
together forming ;;l compact structure. The lower leaves
of the bud are older and larger than those higher. The
bud that grows in the axil of a leaf (axillary bud) or at the
apex of a stem or branch (terminal bud) is regarded as normal.
The bud that arises in any other part of the plant body is re-
garded as adventitious. Adventitious buds may be radical buds
growing on the root, as in sweet potato (see fig. 50) or foliar
buds growing on the leaf, as in sprout leaf plant (fig. 60) and
elephant ear plant (fig. 61), or cauline buds growing on any
part of the stem or branch. When a stem or branch is cut,
adventitious buds often appear all round the cut surface.
 THE STEM 37
Buds that develop into branches with leaves are called vegeta-
tive buds and those that develop into flowers are called floral
buds. ...
'-.E
Protection of tbe Bud.
The bud is protected
III vanous ways against
sun, rain, fungi and in~
sects. (I) The young
leaves of a bud overlap
one another giving pro-
tection to themselves
as well as to the grow-
ing apex. (2) It may be
covered by hairs; glan~
dular hairs are very
effective in this respect.
(3) It may be enclosed
by some ~ry scales,
called bud-scaJe~, as in
banyan, jack, etc. (4) A B
FIG. 59. A, a branch showing position
There may be a coating of buds ; B, a bud in longi-section.
of wax or cutin.
Modification of tbe Bud. Vegetative buds may be modified into
tendrils (see fig. 7), as in passion-flower and vine, or into thorns-

FIG. 60 FIG. 61
:rIG.60. Foliar buds and adventitious roots of sprout leaf plant
(Bryophyllum). FIG. 61. The same of elephant ear plant (Begonia) __
38 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

(see fig. 73), as in Duranta (B. DURANTA-KANTA; H. NIL-KA!-;'TA),

Carissa (B. KARANJA; H. KARONDA), wood-apple, etc. Sometime~
these may become modified into special reproductive bodie&,
known as bulbils (see figs. 36r-4).

FORMS OF STEMS
There is a variety of stem structures adapted to perform diverse
functions. They may be aerial or underground. Aerial stems
may be erect, rigid and strong, holding themselves in an up-
right position; while there are some too weak to support them-
selves in such a position. They either trail along the ground or
climb neighbouring plants or objects.

I. Erect or Strong Stems. The unbranched, erect, cylindrical

and stout stem, marked with scars of fallen leaves, is called
candex. as in palms. The jointed stem with solid nodes and
hollow internodes is called culm. as in bamboo. Some herbace~
ous plants, particularly monocotyledons, normally have no aerial
stern. At the time of flowering, however, the underground
stem produces through the rosette of radical leaves an erect,
unbranched, aerial shoot bearing either a single flower or a
cluster of flowers on the top; such a flowering shoot is called
scape. The scape dries up as soon as the flowering season is
over. Common examples are tuberose, onion, American aloe,
aroids, etc. The scape is leafless or almost so.
2. Weak Stems. It is evident that a weak stem cannot stand
upright. When such a stem lies flat on the ground, e.g. wood-
sorrel (see fig. 66), Indian pennywort (see fig. 359), dog grass, etc.,
it is said to be (I) prostrate. When such a stern after trailing for
some dist.ance lifts its head, e.g. Tridax (see fig. 455), it is said to
be (2) decumbent. When the stem is much branched and the
branches spread out on the ground on all sides, e.g. Boerhaavia
(B. PUNARNAVA; H. THIKRI or SANT), it is said to be (3) diffuse. A
weak stem creeping on the ground and rooting at the nodes,
e.g. sweet potato (see fig. so), is said to be (4) creeping. When
the stem bodily twines round a support without any special
organ of attachment, e.g. Clitoria (B. APARAJITA ; H. APARAJIT),
Abrus (B. KUNCH; H. RATTI), etc., it is said to be (5) twining.
Some twiners by nature move clockwise, while others anticIock-
wise. When the stem attaches itself to a nearby support by
 THE STEM 39
means of some special device, e.g. betel, cane, rose, pea, passion-
flower, gourd, etr.., it is said to be (6) climbing (see pp. 3-6).

MODIFICA TIONS OF STEMS

Stems or branches of certain plants are modified into various
shapes to perform special functions. The special functions
are: (a) perennation, i.e. surviving from year to year through
bad seasons by certain underground stems; (b) vegetative pro-
pagation by certain horizontal sub-aeYaJ: branches spreading
out in different directions; and (c) highly specialized functions
of varied nature by certain J.l!_etamorphosed aerial organs. Thus
in n~sponse to' the above· ~uhc:tions stems undergo modifications
into different and distinct forms, each to meet a special need,
as follows.
I. Underground Modifications of Stems. For the purpose of
perennation stems of certain plants develop underground and
lodge there permanently, lying in a dormant, leafless condition
for some time and then giving off aerial shoots annually under
favourable conditions. They are always thick and fleshy, having
a heavy deposit of reserv.e food material in them. Developing
underground they often look like roots but are readily distin-
guished from them by the presence of (a) nodes and internodes,
(b) scale-leaves, and (c) buds (axillary and terminal). The main
function of this group of moqified stems is, as already stated.
(a) perennation ; but they also (b) store IIp food material and
(c) propagate, i.e. multiply plants vegetatively. The various
types met with in thi'!!- group are as follows:

FIG. 62.
Rhizome
of ginger.

(I) Rhizome (fig. 62). The rhizome is a thickened, prostrate,

underground stem provided with distinct nodes and internodes,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

scaly leaves at the nodes, a bud in the axil of each such leaf, and
a terminal bud. Some slender adventitious roots are given off
from its lower side. It may be branched or unbranched. Most
of the time it remains underground in a dormant condition but
after a few showers of rain the terminal bud and some of the
axillary buds grow up into long or short leafy aerial shoots
which again die down after a few months. Common examples
are seen in Canna, ginger, turmeric, arrowroot, water lily, ferns.
etc. Its direction is normally horizontal, but sometimes it grows
in the vertical direction (rootstock), as in Alocasia (E. MAN-
KACHU ; H. MAN-KANDA).

FIG. 63. Tubers of potato.

(2) Tuber (fig. 63). This is the swollen end of a special under-
ground branch (tuber means a swelling). The underground
branch arises from the axil of a lower leaf, grows horizontally
outwards and ultimately swells up at the apex due to accumula-
tion of a large quantity of food there, and becomes almost sphe-
rical, e.g. potato. It has on its surface a number of 'eyes' or buds
which grow up into new plants. Adventitious roots are usually
absent from a tuber.
(3) Bulb (fig. 64)' This is another underground modified shoot
(really a single, often large, terminal bud) consisting, of a
shortened convex or slightly conical stem, a terminal bud and
numeyous scale-leaves (which are the swollen bases of foliage
 THE STEM .p
leaves), with a cluster of fibrous roots at the base. The scale-
leaves, often simply called scales, commonly occur surrounding

FIG. 64. Bulb of onion. A, an entire bulb with adventitious roots, and
outer dry scale-leaves with distinct veins; B, bulb cut longitudinally; and
C, bulb cut transversely.

the short stem in a concentric manner (tunicated bulb), rarely

they m;e narrow and just overlap each other (scaly bulb). Thf'
inner scales of the bulb are usually fleshy storing water and
food, while the outer ones dry giving protection. The terminal
bud grows into the aerial. shoot; some of the axillary buds also
do the same and finally form daugbter bulbs. Common examples
are onion, garlic, tuberose, most lilies, etc.

FIG. 65. A, corm of GladiolU8; E, th'l same of Amorphophallu8

(B. OL; H. KANDA).

(4) Conn (fig. 65). This is a condensed form of rhizome and

consists of a stout, solid, fleshy, underground stem growing in
the vertical direction. It is more or less rounded in shape or
often somewhat flattened ±1om top to bottom. It contains a heavy
deposit of food material and often grows to a considerable size.
It bears qne or more buds in the axils of scale-leaves, and some
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

of these buds grow up into daughter corms. Adventitious roots

normally develop from the base but sometimes also from the
sides. Corm is found in Amorphophallus (B. OL ; H. KANDA), taro
(B. KACHU ; H. KACHALU), Gladiolus, saffron, etc.
2. Sub-aerial Modifications of Stems. For the purpose of vege-
tative propagation some of the lower buds of the stem in certain
:plants grow out into long or short, slender or stout, lateral
branches which according to their origin, nature and mode of
,propagation have received different names. These are as follows:

FIG. 66. Runner of wood-sorrel (Oxalis).

(1) Runner (fig. 66). This is a slender, prostrate branch with

~ong internodes, creeping on the ground and rooting at the
nodes. The runner
arises as an axillary
bud and creeps some
distance away from
the mother plant,
then strikes roots
and grows into a
new plant. Many
such runners are
often produced by
the mother plant and
they spread out on
the ground on all
FIG. 67. Stolon of taro (Colocasia) . •
sides. Examples are
:en in wood-sorrel (fig. 66), Indian pennywort (see fig. 359),
farsilea (B. SUSHNISAK), strawberry, wild, strawberry, etc.
 THE STEM 43
(2) Stolon (fig. 67). This is a slender lateral branch which
'()riginates from an underground stem and grows horizontally
-outwards for a shorter or
longer -distance. It is often
provided with nodes and
internodes. The stolon re-
sembles a runner but it is
subterranean, while the run-
ner is sub-aerial. Examples
are seen in taro (B. KACHU;
H. KACHALU), arrowroot,
,passion-flower, some jas-
mines, sandal rose, etc.
(3) Offset (fig. 68). Like the
:runner this originates in the
,axil of a leaf as a short,
more or less thickened, hori-
zontal branch. It elongates /
to some extent only. The
apex then turns up and pro-
-duces a tuft of leaves above b'IO. 68. Offset of water lettuco
(Pistia).
-and a cluster of roots below.
The offset often breaks away from the mother plant into

FIG. 69. Sucker3 of Chrysantltemurn.

:an independent one. Common examples are water lettuce (fig.

;(8) and water hyacinth (see fig. 82). An offset is shorter and

.
",
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

stouter than a runner, and is found only in the rosette type of

plants ..
(4) Sucker (fig. 69)' Like the stolon the sucker is also a lateral
branch developing from_the underground part of the stem. But
it grows obliquely upwards and gives rise to a leafy shoot or a
new plant. It may be a slender branch, or a short stout one, as
in banana. A sucker is always much shorter than a stolon.
The sucker strikes roots at the base either before it separates
from the mother plant or soon after. Examples are seen in
Chrysanthemum, rose, mint (B. PUDINA; H. PODINA), pine-
apple, banana, dagger plant, etc.
3. Aerial Modifications: Metamorphoses. Vegetative and floral
buds which would normally develop into branches and flowers,
often undergo extreme degrees of modification (metamor-
phosis) in certain plants for definite purposes. Metamorphosed
organs are stem-tendril for climbing, thorn for protection,
phylloc1ade for food manufacture, and bulbil for vegetative
reprod uction.
(I) Stem-tendril (figs. 70-2). This is a thin, wiry, leafless, spi-
rally coiled branch, formed only in some climbers and used by

FIG. 70 FIG. 71
FIG. 70. Tendril of passion·flower (Passifiora). FIG. 71. Tendrils of
Sandwich Island clirnb€r (Antigonon). T, a tendril.

them as a climbing organ. The tendril coming in contact with

any neighbouring object coils round it and helps suclt planta.
 THE STEM 45
to climb. The stem-tendril may be a modification of an
axillary bud, as in passion-flower (fig. 70), or of a terminal bud,

FIG. 72.
Tendrils of balloon vine
{()ardiospermurn ).
'1'. a iend l'il.

as in vine, or even of a flower, as in balloon vine (fig. 72) and

Sandwich Island climber (fig. 71).
(2) Tborn' (fig. 73). The thorn is a hard, often straight and
pointed structure. It may be a modification of an axillary bud,
.as in Duranta, lemon, wood-apple, etc., or of a terminal bud, as

Thorns. FIG. 73. :1, thorns of Duranta; B, thorns of Carissa.

'1' h, thorn.

in Carissa (B. KARANJA; H. & P. KARONDA). The thorn may some-

times be branched, and may even bear leaves, flowers and fruits.
The thorn is a defensive organ meant to keep off browsing ani-
mals. Sometimes, as in glory of the garden (see fig. 2) it is also
used as a climbing organ.
(3) PbyUoclade (fig. 74). Phylloclade is a gre~n, commonly
flattened or sometimes rounded stem or branch which performs
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

the functions of leaves, the latter being either feebly developed

or modified into spines. Phylloc1ade is seen in most cacti~

A B c
Phy llocJades. nG. 74. A. prick Iv pear (Opu71tia); E, coco!obll;
0, Epiphyllu11I.

e.g. prickly pear, night-blooming cacti, Epiphyllum, etc. It is

also seen in Casuarina (B. & H. JHAU)~
Euphorbia (B. & H. 8IJ), etc. The phyllo-
clade of one internode is spoken of as the
c1adode (fig. 75), as in Asparagus (B. SATA-
MULI ; H. SATAWAR). Duckweed (Lemna ; S~e
fig. 39) is another common example of
cladode.
(4) Bulbil (see figs. 361-4). Bulbil is a
special multicellular reproductiye body, i.e.
it is essentially meant for the reproduction
of the plant. It may be the modification of
a vegetative bud or of a floral hud. In any
FIG. 75. Cladodes case it sheds from the mother plant and
of Asparagu8. grows up into a new independent one. Bul-
bils are seen in Globba, wild yam (B. GACHH-ALOO; H. ZAMIN-
KHA]\'D), American aloe, wood-sorrel, etc.
 THE STEM

Modifications or Stems
j
i I j
t:Tnderground Sub-aerial Aerial (Metamorphoses)
-rhizome, e.g. ginger. -runner, e.g. -tendril, e.g. passion-
-tuber, e.g. potato. wood-sorrel. !lower and vine.
-bulb, e.g. onion. -stolon, e.g. taro. -thorn, e.g. Durarnta.
~ol'm, e.g. Am.orpho- -offset, e.g. Pistia. -phyUoc!ade, e.g. cacti.
phallus. -sucker, e.g. Ghry- -clado1'l.e, e.g. A.sparagu8 •.
santheinum.. -bulbil, e.g. Globba and
wild yam.

BRANCHING
The mode of arrangement of the branches on the stem is known
as branching. There are two principal types of branching, viz.
lateral and dichotomons.

.r1. LATERAL BRANCHING

When the bran~hes are produced laterally, that is, from the
sides of the main stem, the branchin g is called lateral. The
lateral branching may be racemose or indefinite and cymose or
definite.
I. Racemose' Type (fig. 76). Here the growth of the main stem
is indefinite, that is, it continues to grow indefinitely by the
terminal bud and give off ·branches laterally in ~ucces-
~. -

A B
FIG. 76 FIG. 77 FIG. 78
Branching. FIG. 76. Racemose type. FIG. 77. True (biparous) cyme.
FIG. 78. Uniparous cyme; A, scorpioid; B, helicoid.

sion, i.e. the lower branches are older and longer than the upper
ones, as in Casuarina (E. & H. JHAU), mast tree (E. DEBDARU ; H.
DEVADARU or ASHOK), etc. As a result of this branching the plant
takes on a conical or pyramidal shape.
2.Cymose Type. Here the growth of the main stem is definite.
that is, the terminal bud does not continue to grow, but lower
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
<,lawn, the main stem produces one or more lateral branches
which grow more vigorously than the terminal one. The process
may be repeated. As a result of cymose branching the plant
spreads out above, and becomes more or less dome-shaped.
Cymose branching may be of the following kinds:
(I) Biparous Cyme (fig. 77). If, in the cymose branching, two
lateral axes develop at a time, it is called biparous or true cyme,
as in mistletoe (see fig. 17), four 0' clock plant, Carissa (B.
URANJA; H. KARONDA-see fig. 73B), pagoda tree (E. KAT-
-CHAMPA; H. GOLAINCHI), etc.
(2) Uniparous Cyme. If, in the cymose type, only one lateral
branch is produced at a time, the branching is said to be uni-
parous (i.e. having but one axis at a time). It has two distinct
forms: (a) .helicoid or one-sided cyme (fig. 78B), when successive
lateral branches develop on the same side, forming a sort of
helix, as in Saraca (B. ASOK ; H. SEETA ASHOK), and (b) scorpioid
'or alternate-sided cyme (fig. 78A), when successive lateral
branches develop on alternate sides, forming a zig-zag, as in
vine, wild vine, Cissus quadranguZaris (B. & H. HARHJORA), etc.
In them the apparent or false axis is a succession of lateral axes.

B. DICHOTOMOUS BRANCHING
When the terminal bud bifurcates, that is, divides into two,
producing two branches in a forked

(I
manner, the branching is termed dichoto-
. . .
mous. Dichotomous branching is cammal!
.

.
among the 'flowerless' plants, as in Riccia
.
(fig. 79), Marchantia (see fig. IVB), etc .
Among the 'flowering' plants examples
Dichotomous Branching. are seen in Hyphaene (a palm), screwpine
FIG. 79. l{iccia.
(B. KETUCKY; H. KEORA), etc.
FUNCTIONS OF THE STEM
I. Bearing Leaves and Flowers. The stem and the branches
bear leaves and flowers, often numerous, and spread them out
on all sides for proper functioning-the leaves to get the ade-
quate amount of sunlight for manufacture of food, and the
flowers to attract insects from a distance for pollination and
reproduction.
2. Conduction. The stem conducts water and dissolved mineral
salts from the root to the leaf, and prepared food material from
 THE LEAF 49
the leaf to the different parts of the plant body, particularly
to the storage organs and the growing regions.
3. Support. The main stem acts as a sort of pillar supporting
the branches which often spread out in different directions to
push forward the leaves and the flowers.
4. Storage. The stem also serves as a storehouse of food material.
This is particularly true of the underground modified stems (see
figs. 62-5) which are specially constructed for food storage, as
in ginger, potato, onion and Amorphophallus (B. OL ; H. KANDA).
Fleshy stems of cacti and spurges (Euphorbia) always store a
large quantity of water.
5. Food Manufacture. The young shoot, when green in colour,
manufactures food material in the presence of sunlight with the
help of chloroplasts contained in it.
In addition to those stated above, metamorphosed sterns carry
on specialized functions; for example, the tendril helps a plant
to climb, and the thorn protects it against grazing animals, and
so on (s~e pp. 44-6).

CHAPTER 6 The L~af

The leaf may be regarded as the flattened, lateral outgrowth of

the stem or the branch, developing from a node and having a
bud in its axil. It is normally ._... _..... _....._ LEAF'APEX
green in colour and is regarded
as the most important vegeta- .. --.--- LEAF·MARGIN
tive organ of the p1'Ult since
food material is prepared in it.
... __ LEAF-BLADE
Leaves always develop in an
VEIN
acropetal order and are exo- MID-RIB
genous in origin. VEINLET

Parts of a Leaf (fig. 80). A typi-

cal leaf consists of the following PETIOLE

parts, each with its own func- STIPULE

tion. LEAF-BASE

(I) Leaf-base is the part

FIG. 80. Parts of .a leaf.
attached to the stem. In many
plants the leaf-base expands into a sheath which partially or
wholly clasps the stem. This sheathing leaf-base is of frequent.
occurrence among monocotyledons, and is well developed in
4
 so A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

grasses; in the banana plant the so-called stem is .made up

of leaf-sheaths. In dicotyledons, on the other hand, the leaf~
base usually bears two late:-al outgrowths, known as the
stipules. In some leaves such as those of gram, pea, tamarind,
sensitive plant, rain tree, gold mohur, butterfly pea (Clitoria ;
B. APARAJITA; H. APARAJIT), etc., the leaf-base is swollen, and
then it is known as the pulvinus (fig. 81).
----ANGRAU
~ Central Library,
N Rajendranag al

~ \11111111111111;1111111111111111111

81
FIG. FIG. 82 FIG. 83

FIG. 81. Clit01'ia leaf showing pulvinas (Pl. FIG. 8:2. Wa~er hy~cinlh
leaf showing bulbous petiole. FIG. 83. Pummelo leaf showmg wmged
petiole (P).
(2) Petiole is the stalk of the leaf. A long petiole pushes out
the leaf-blade and thus helps it to secure more sunlight. When
the petiole is absent the leaf is said to be sessile; and when
present it is said to be petiolate or stalked. In many plants .the
petiole shows certa~n peculiarities. Thus in water hyacinth (fig.
82) it swells into a spongy bulb, often called pseudo-bulb, con-
taining innumerable air-chambers for facility of floating; while
in orange, pummelo or shaddock, etc., it becomes winged
(fig. 83). In Australian Acacia (see fig. 119) it is modified into a
flattened sickle-shaped lamina or blade, called phyllode. In
Clematis (see fig. 10) the petiole is tendrillar in nature.
(3) Leaf-blade or lamina is the green, expanded portion. A
strong vein, known as the mid-rib, runs centrally through the
leaf-blade from its base to the apex; this produces thinner lateral
veins which in their turn give rise to still thinner veins or vein-
lets. The lamina is the most important part of the leaf since this
is the se:,lt of food-manufacture for the entire plant.
 THE LEAF

Duration of tbe Leaf. The leaf varies in its dur~tion. It may

fall oft soon after it appears; then it is said to be (I) caducous;
if it iasts one season, usually falling off in winter, it is (2)
deciduous or annual; and if it persists for more than one
season, usually lasting a number of years, it is (3) persistent or
evergreen.
Some Descriptive Terms. (I) 'Dorsiventral Leaf. When the
leaf is fiat, with the blade placed horizontally, showing dis-
tinct upper surface and lower surface, it is said to be dorsiven-
tral (dorsum, back; venter, belly or front), a.s in most d:cotyle-
dons. A dorsiventral leaf is more strongly illuminated on the
upper surface than on the lower and, therefore, this surface
is deeper green in colour than the lower. In internal structure
also there is a good deal of difference between the two sides
(see fig. 312). (2) Isobilateral Leaf. When the leaf is directed
vert:cally upwards, as in most monocotyledons, it is said to be
isobilateral (isos, equal; bi, two; lateris, side). An isobilateral
leaf is equally illuminated on both the surfaces and, therefore,
the leaf is uniformly green and its internal structure is also
uniform from one side to the other (see fig. 313). (3) Centric
Leaf. When the leaf is mqre or less cylindrical and directed
upwards or downwards, as in pine, onion, etc., the leaf is sa~d
to be centric. A centric leaf is equally illuminated on all sides
and, therefore, it is evenly green.

STIPULES,
Stipules are the lateral a.u,pendages of the leaf borne at its base.
Th.:se are often green, but sometimes they have a withered
look. They may remain as long as the lamina persists (persis-
tent) or may fall off soon after the lamina unfolds (deciduous)
or sometimes they may shed even before the lamina unfolds
(caducous). Their function is to protect the young leaves in the
cud, and when green they manufacture food material like
lea \'es. When stipules are present the leaf is said to be stipulate,
and when absent exstipulate. Sometimes, as in Clitoria (B.
APARA]ITA ; H. APARAJIT), a small stipule is present at the base of
each leafiet. Such a small stipule is otherwise known as a stipel.
Kinds of StipuJes. According to their shape, position, colour and
size, stipules are of the following kinds:
(I) Free Lateral Stipules (fig. 80). These are two free stipules,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

usually small and green in colour, borne on the two sides of

the leaf-base, as in China rose, cotton, etc.

Fw.84 FIG. 85 FIG. 86

Kinds of ~tipules. FIG. 84. Ochre ate stipule (S) of Poly'JO'T!um.
FIG. {IS. Interpetiolar stipule (S) of /xora. FIG. 86. Adnate
stipule (S) of rose.

(2) Scaly Stipules. These are small dry scales, usually two. in
number, borne on the two sides of the leaf-base, as in Indian
telegraph plant.
(3) Adnate Stipules (fig. 86). These are the two lateral stipules
that grow along the petiole up to a certain height, adhering to
it and making it somewhat winged in appearance, as in rose,
groundnut, strawberry and lupin. '
(4) Interpetiular Stipules (fig. 85). These are the two stipules
that lie between the petioles of opposite or whorled leaves, thus
alternating with the latter. These are seen in Ixora (B. RANGAN),
Anthocephalus (B. & H. KADAM), etc. .
(5) Ochreate Stipules (fig. 84). These form a hollow tube en-
circling the stem from the node up to a certain height of tpe
internode in front of the petiole, as in Polygonum.
(6) Foliaceous Stipules (see figs. 113-14). These are two large,
green, leafy structures, as in pea and wild pea.
(7) Bud-scales. These are scaly stipules which enclose and
protect the vegetative buds, and fall off as soon as the leaves un-
fold. They are seen in banyan, jack, lVfagnolia, etc.
Modified Forms of Stipules. Stipules are sometimes modified
into spines and tendrils, and perform functions peculiar to these
two structures. (1) Spiuous Stipu)es (fig. 87). In some plants, as
 THE LEAF 53
in gum tree, Indian plum, sensitive plant, caper, etc., the; stipules
become modified into two sharp pointed structures known as
spines, one on each side of the leaf-base. Such spinous stipules

FIG. 87. Spinous

stipules of Indian
plum (Zizyphus).· FIG. 88. Tendl'illar stipules (T) of Smilax.

give protection to the leaf against the attack of herbivorous

animals. (2) Tendrillar Stipitles (fig. 88). In Smilax (E. KUMARIKA;
H. CHOBCHINI) the stipules become modified into two strong
closely-coiled tendrils, one on each side of the petiole. These
tendrillar stipules help the plant to climb neighbouring shrubs
and trees.

LEAF-BLADE '-
Apex of the leaf (fig. 89.) The apex of the leaf is said to be (A) obtuse, when
it is rounded, as in banyan; (B) acute, when it is pointed in the form of an
acute angle, but not stiff, as in China rose; (C) acuminate or caudate, when
it is drawn out into a long slender tail, as in peepul and lady's umbrella
(Holmslcioldia); (D) cuspidate, when it ends in a long rigid sharp (spiny)
point, as in date-palm, screwpin6 and pineapple; (E) retuse, when the obtuse
or truncate apex is furnished with a shallow notch, as in water lettuce
(Pistia); (F) emarginate, when the apex is provided with a deep notch, as
in Bauhinia (B. KANCHAN ; H. KANCHAR) and wood-sorrel (Oxalis) ; (G)
mucronate, when the rounded apex abruptly ends in a short point, as in
lxora (B. RANGAN; H. GOTAGANDHAL); and (II) cirrhose (cirrus, a tendril or
a curl), when it ends in a tendril, as in glory lily, or in a slender curled
thread-like appendage, as in banana.
Margin of the Leaf. The margin of the leaf may be (1) entire, i.e. even
and smooth, as in mango, jaca, banyan, etc.; (2) sinuate, i.e. undulating,
as in mast tree (B. DEBDARU; H. ASHOK) and some garden cratons; (3)
 S4 ';'~T-t~~' A CLASS-BOO~ OF BOTANY
serrate, Le. cut like the teeth of a ,!law' and, the teeth directed upwards, as
in China rose, rose, margosa (E. & H. NIM or NIMBA), etc.; (4) dentate, Le.
the teeth directed outwards at right angles to the margin of the leaf, as
in melon and water liiy; (5) crenate, i.e. ihe teeth rounded, as in sprout

FIG.89. Apex of the leaf. A, obtuse; B, acute; C, acuminate; D,

"uspidate; E, retuse; F, emarginate; G, mucronate; and H, cirrhose.

leaf plant (Bryophyllum) and Indian pennywort; and (6) spinous, Le. pro·
vided with spines, as in prickly poppy (Aryemone).
Surface of the Leaf. The leaf is said to be (1) glabrous, when the surface
of it is smooth and free from hairs or outgrowths of any kind; (2) rough,
when the surface is somewhat harsh to touch; (3) glutinous, when the surface
of it is covered with a sticky exudation, as in tobacco; (4) glaucous, when
the surface is green and shining; (5) spiny, when it is provided with spines;
and (6) hairy, when it is covered, densely or sparsely, with hairs.
Shape of the Leaf (fig. 90). (A) Acicular, when the leaf is long, narrow and

J
II I J K
ahape of the Leaf. FIG. 90. A, acicular; 11; linear; t, lanceolate; D,
elliptical or oval; E, ovate; F, oblong; G, rotund or orbicular; H, cordate;
I, reniform; J, oblique; K, spathulate; L, sagittate; M, hastate;
and N, cu~:ate.
-; (>- ,
~ r_
 TH LEAF 55
en@
cylindrical, i.e. needle-shaped, as in in DatC;:o:n, et,., (B) IMiAesl, ",hen
leaf is long, narrow and fiat, as in many grasses. tuberose, Vallisneria, etc.
(C) Lanceolate, when the shape is like that of a lance, as in bamboo, oleander,
mast tree etc. (D) Elliptical or oval, when the leaf has more or less the
shape of an ellipse, as m Oarissa, periwinkle (Vinca), guava, roseapple, etc.
(E) Ovatt, when the blade is egg-shaped, i.e. broader at the base than at
the apex, as in China rose, banyan, etc.; an inversely egg-shaped leaf is
said to be obovate, as in country almond and jack. (F) Oblong, when the
blade is wide and long, with the two margins running straight up, as in
banana. (G) Rotund or orbicular, when the blade is more or less circular in
outline, as in lotus, garden nasturtium, etc. (H) Cordate, when the blade
is heart-shaped, as in betel, Peperomia, etc.; an inversely heart-shaped leaf
is saiJ to be obcordate, as in wood-sorrel. (I) Reniform, when the leaf is
kidney-shaped, as i!J. Indian pennywort. (J) Oblique, when the two halves
of a leaf are unequal, as in Begonia; in margosa (B. & H. NIM) and Indian
cork tree (B. & H. AI{AS-NIM) and Persian lila.J (B. GHORA-NIM) the leaflets
are oblique. (K) Spathulate, when the shape is like that of a spatula, i.e.
broad and somewhat rounded at the top and narrower at the base, as in
sundew (Drosera) and Oa'en-
dula. (L) Sagittate, when
the blade is shaped like an
arrow, as,in arrowhead and
some aroids. (M) Hastate,
wh~n the two lobes of a
sagittate leaf are directed
outwards, as in water bind-
weed (B. & H. KALMI-SAK)
and Typhonium (B. GHET
KACHU). (N) Cuneate, when
th9 leaf is wedge-shaped, as
III water lettuce (Pistia).
(0) Lyrate (fig. 91), when
FIG. 91 FIG. 92
the shape is lil£e that of a
FIG. 91. Lyrate leaf of radish. FIG. 92.
lyre, i.e. with a large ter~
Pedate leaf of Vitis pedata.
minal lobe and some smaller
lateral lobes, as in radish, mustard, e~. (P) Pedate (fig. 92), when the
leaf is divided into a number of lobes which spread out like the claw of
a bird, as in Vitis pedata (B. GOALE-LATA).

VEN ATION
_Veins are rigid linear structures which arise from the petiole
and the mid-rib and traverse the leaf-lamina in different direc-
tions; they are really vascular bundles and serve to distribute
the water and dissolved mineral salts throughout the lamina
and to carry away the prepared 'food from it ; they also give the
necessary amount of strength and rigidity to the thin, flat leaf-
lamina.
The arrangement of the veins and the veinlets in the leaf-
blade is known as -venation~ There are two principal types of
~__'~37
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

venation, viz. reticulate, when the veinlets are irregularly dis-

tributed, forming a network; and parallel, when the veins run

FIG. 93 FlG. 94

Systems of Veins. FIG. 93. Heticulate venation in a· dicotyledonous leaf.

FIG. 94. Parallel venation in a monocotyledonous leaf.

parallel to each other. The former is characteristic of dicoty-

ledons and the latter of monocotyledons. There are some excep-
tions in both.
I. RETICULATE VENATION
I. Pinnate Venation. In this type of venation there is a strong
mid-rib; this gives off lateral veins which proceed towards the

FIG. 95 FIG. 96 FIG. 97

Reticulate Venation. FIG. 95. Pinnate type in peepul leaf. FIG. 96.
Palmate (divergent) type in cucumber leaf. FIG. 'in. Palmate
(convergent) type in bay leaf.

margin or apex of the leaf, like plumes in a feather (fig. 95)'

These produce still smaller veins and veinlets which pass in
 THE LEAF 57
all directions and become connected with one another, form-
ing a network, as in guava, mango, jack, etc. This is a very com-
mon type of venation.
2. Palmate Venation. In this type there is a number of more
or less tqually strong ribs which arise from the tip of the petiole
and proceed outwards or upwards. There are two forms: (I)
in one the leaf possesses a number of strong veins that arise at
the base of the leaf-blade and then diverge from one another
towards the margin of the leaf, like the fingers from the palm
(divergent type; fig. 96); these are then connected by a net-
work of smaller veins, as in papaw, gourd, cucumber, castor.
China rose, etc. ; and (2) in the other the veins, instead of diverg-
ing from one another, run in a curved manner from the base of
the blade to its apex (convergent type; fig. 97), as in cinnamon,
camphor, Indian plum (E. KUL; H. BER), bay leaf (B. TEZPATA;
~. TEZPAT), etc. -
11. PARALLEL VENATION
1. Pinnate Venation. In this type of venation the leaf has a
prominent mid-rib, and this gives off lateral veins which pro-
ceed parallel to each other towards the margin or apex of the
leaf-blade (fig. 98), as in Canna, banana, ginger, turmeric, etc.
2. Palmate Venation. Two forms are also met with here: (I)
the veins arise from the tip of the petiole and proceed (diverge)
towards the margin of the leaf-blade in a more or less parallel

FIG. 98 FIG. 99 FIG'. 100

Parallel Venation. FIG. 98. Pinnate type in Canna leaf. FIG. 99. Palma.te
(convergent) type in bamboo leaf. FlG. 100. Palmate (divergent) type
in palmyra.paim leaf.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

manner (divergent type; fig. roo), as in fan palms such as

palmyra-palm; and (2) a number of more or less equally strong
veins proceed from the base of the leaf-blade to its apex in a
somewhat parallel direction (convergent type; fig. 99), as in
water hyacinth, grasses, rice, bamboo, etc. •

-reticulate --I
(in dicotyledons)
-pinnate, as in mango.
d' .
-palmate-I- Ivergent, as III castor.
-convergent, as in bay leaf.

Fnnctions of Veins. Veins are vascular bundles which ramify

through the leaf-blade. Their main functions are conduction
of water, salts and food, and strengthening of the leaf-blade.
('1) Veins distribute water and mineral or inorganic' salts
received from the stem throughout the leaf-blade, collect the
prepared food material from the blade and send it to the stem,
and thence to the storage organs and the growing regions.
(2) Veins form the skeleton of the leaf-blade and give rigidity
to it so that it does not get torn or crumpled when a strong
wind blows.
(3) Veins help the leaf-blade to keep flat so that its whole
surface may be evenly illuminated by the sunlight.

COMPOUND LEA VES:

PINNATE AND PALMATE
Simple Leaf and Compound Leaf. A leaf is said to be simple
when it consists of a single blade which may be entire or incised
(and, therefore, lobed) to any depth, but not down to the mid-
rib or the petiole; and a leaf is said to be compound when the
incision of the leaf~blade goes down to the mid-rib (rachis) Or
to the petiole s6 that the leaf is broken up into a number of
segments, called leaflets, these being free from one another, i,e.
not connected by any lamina, and more or less distinctly jointed
(articulated) at their base. A bud (axillary bud) is present in .
the axil of a simple or a compound leaf, but it is never present
in the axil of the leaflet of a compound leaf. There are two types
of compound leaves, viz. pinnate and palmate.
C~ni~~d .Leaf and Branch. A compound leaf may be distin- •
guished from a branch by the following facts: (r) a compound
 THE LEAF S9
leaf never bears a terminal bud; whereas a branch always does
so; (2) a compound leaf, like a simple one, always bears a bud
(axillary bud) in its axil, but itself does not arise in the axil of
another leaf; whereas a branch does not bear an axillary bud,
but itself occupies the axillary position of a leaf-simple or
compound-developing directly from the said bud; (3) the

FIG.101 FIG. 102 FIG. 103 FIG. 104

FIG.101. A simple leaf. FIG. 102. A branch. FIG. 103. A pinnately com-
pound leaf with the leaflets al'ticulated to the mid-rib. FIG. 104. A pal-
mately compound leaf with the leaflets articulated to the petiole. Note the
position of the bud in each case.
leaflets of a compound leaf have no axillary buds; whereas the
leaves (simple) borne on a branch have a bud in their axil; and
(4) a branch is always provided with nodes and internodes;
while the rachis of a compound leaf is free of them.

FIG. 105 FIG. 106 ../ FIG. 107 FIG. 108

Pinnate Leaves. FIG. 105. Unipinnate (paripinnate). FIG. !O6., Unipinnate
(imparipinnate). FIG. 107. Bipinnato. FIG. 108 Tripi,!nate.
1. Pinnately Compound Leaf. A pinnately compound leaf is
defined as the one in which the mid-rib, known as the rachis,
bears laterally a number of leaflets, arranged alternately or in
60 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

an opposite manner, as in tarmarind, gram, gold mohur, rain

tree, sensitive plant, gum tree (Acacia), Cassia (B. KALKASUNDE ;
H. KASONDI), etc. It may be of the following types:
(I) Unipinnate (figs. 105-6). When the mid-rib of the pin-
nately compound leaf directly bears the leaflets, it is said to
be unjpinnate. In it the leaflets may be even in number (pari-
pinnate; fig. 105), as in Saraca (B. ASOK ; H. SEETA-ASOK), Cassia,
etc., or odd in number (imparipinnate; fig. 106), as in rose,
mal];osa (B. & H. NIM), etc.
(2) Bipinnate (fig. 107). When the compound leaf is twice
pinnate, i.e. the mid-rib produces secondary axes which bear
the leaflets, it is said to be
bipinnate, as in dwarf gold
mohur, gum tree, sensitive
plant, etc.
(3) Tripinnate (fig. 108).
When the leaf is thrice pin-
nate, i.e. the secondary axes
produce the tertiary axes
which bear the leaflets, the
Jeaf is said to be trip innate,
as in drumstick (Moringa;
FIG. 109. Decompound leaf of B. SAJINA; H. SAINJNA), and
coriander.
Oroxylon (B. SONA ; H. ARLU).

FIG. 110 FIG. 111 FIG. 112

Palmate Le~ves. FIG. 110. Multifoliate leaf of Gynandropsis. FIG. 111. The
same of sIlk cotton tree (Bombax). FIG. 112. Unifoliate compound leaf
of pummelo; P, winged petiole.
 THE LEAF 61
(4) Decompound (fig. 109). When the leaf is more than
thrice pinnate. it is said to be decompound, as in anise, carrot,
coriander, Cosmos, etc.
2. P8Imately Compound Leaf (figs. 110-2). A palmately com-
pound leaf is defined as the one in which the petiole bears
terminally, articulated to it, a number of leaflets which seem
to be radiating from a common point like fingers from the
palm, as in silk cotton tree, lupin, Gynandropsis (B. SWET~
HURHURE; H. HURHUR), etc. Leaflets are commonly 5 or more
(multifoliate or digitate) as in silk cotton tree, sometimes 3
(trifoliate) as in wood-apple and wood-sorrel, rarely I (uni-
foliate) as in pummelo or shaddock, lemon and orange, or 2
(bifoliate), or 4 (quadrifoliate) as in Marsilea (B. SHUSHNI-SAK).

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES
Leaves of many plants which have to perform specialized
functions become modified or metamorphosed into distinct
forms., These are as follow·s.
I. Leaf-tendrils (fig. 113-6). In some plants leaves are modi-
fied into slender, wiry, often closely coiled structures known
as tendrils. Tendril$ are' alway:; climbing organs and are sen-

FIG. 113 FIG. 114 FIG. 115

Leaf-tendrils. FIG. 113. Pea leaf with upper leaflets modified into
tendrils. FIG. 114. Wild pea (Lathyrus) with the entire leaves modified
into tendrils. T, tendrils; 8, stipules. FIG. 115. Glory lily (Olol'iosa)
with the leaf-apex modified into a tendril.
62 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
stUve to contact with a foreign body. Therefore, whenever
they come in contact with a neighbouring object they coil
round it and help the plant to climb. The leaf may be partially
or wholly modified. Thus in pea (fig. 113) only the upper leaf-
lets are modified into tendrils, while
in wild pea (Lathyrus; fig. 114) the
whole leaf is modified into a tendril.
In traveller's joy (Naravelia; fig.
I 16) the terminal leafiet alone is
modified into a tendril, while in
glory lily (Gloriosa; B. ULAT-CIIANDAL;
H. KALIARI-fig. I IS) the leaf-apex
only is so modified. In sarsaparilla
(Smilax; B. KUMARlKA; H. CHOB-
CHIN!) the stipules are modified into FIG. 116. Leaf of N aravelia'
with the terminal leaflet
tendrils (see fig. 88). modified into a tendril (t).
2. Leaf-spines (figs. I 17-8). Leaves of certain plants become
wholly or partially modified for defensive purpose into sharp,
pointed structures known as spines. Thus in prickly pear (B.
PHANI-MANSHA; H. NAGPHANI-see fig. 74A) the minute leaves
of the axillary bud are modified into spines. The leaf-apex in

FIG. 117 FIG. 118

L€af-spines. FIG. 117. Barberry. Primary !eaves modified into spines (8).
FIG. 118. Leaf of prickly poppy (Argemone) showing spines.

date-palm, dagger plant (see fig. 136), etc., is so modified, while

in plants like prickly poppy (B. SHEAL-KANTA ; H. PILA-DHUTURA
 THE LEAF

-fig. 118), American aloe, etc., spines develop on the margin

as well as at the apex. In barberry (fig. 117) the leaf itself be-
comes modified ir.to a spine; while the leaves of the axillary
bud are normal.
3. Scale-leaves. Typically these are thin, dry, stalkless, mem-
branous structures, usually brownish in colour or sometimes
colourless. Their function is to p:-otect the axiHary bud that
they bear in their axil. Sometimes scale-Jeaves are thick and
fleshy, as in onion; then their function is to store up water
and food. Scale-leaves are common in parasites, saprophytes,
underground stems, etc. They are also found in Casuarina
(E. & H. IHAU), Asparagus, etc.
4. Phyllode (fig. 119). In Australian Acacia the petiole or any
part of the rachis becom'es flattened or winged taking the

A ,-B C D E
FIG.119. Development of phyllode in Australian Acacia. A, pinnately com
pound leaf; B-C, petiole developing into phyllode; D, phyllode; and Fl,
petiule and rachis deveroping into phyllode.

shape of the leaf and turning green in colour. This flattened

or winged petiole or rachis is known as the phyllode. The
normal leaf which is pinnately compound in nature always
develops in the seedling stage, but it soon falls off. The phyllode
then has all the functions of the leaf. In some species young
or even adult plants are seen to bear the normal compound
leaf together with the phyllode. There are about 300 species "f
Australian Acacia, alI showing the phyllode.
5. Pitcher (figs. 120-1). In the pitcher plant (Nepenthes) the leaf
becomes modified into a pitcher. The pitcher may be as big
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

as 20-23 cm. in height, sometimes a little more. It has a strong

FIG. 120 FIG. 121

FIG. 120. Pitcher plant (l'hpenthes). FIG. 121. A pitcher.

stalk which often coils like a tendril holding the pitcher verti-

FIG. 122.
Bladderwort
(Utricularia)
with many
small bladders;
top, a bladder in .
section (magnified).

cal, and the basal portion is flattened like a leaf. The pitcher is
 THE LEAF

provided with a Jid which cove~s its mouth when the pitcher
is young. The function of the pitcher is to capture and digest
insects,
6. Bladder (fig. 122). Bladderwort (Utricularia) is a very common
carnivorous plant found floating in tanks. The leaf of this
plant is very much segmented. Some of these segments are
modified to form bladder-like structures, with a trap-door en-
trance which allows aquatic animalcules to pass in, but never
to come out.
PHYLLOTAXY
The term phyllotaxy (phylla) leaves; taxis} arrangement means
the various modes in which the leaves are arranged on the
stem or the branch. The object of this arrangement is to aVOId
shading one another so that the leaves may get the maximum
amount of sunlight to perform their normal functions, parti-
cularly manufacture of food. Three principal types of phyllo-
taxy are noticed in plants.
(I) Alterna~e or Spiral (fig. 123), when a single leaf arises at
each node, as in tobacco, China rose, mustard, sunflower, etc.
(2) Opposite (fig. 124), when two leaves arise at each node
standing opposite each other. In opposite phyllotaxy one pair
of leaves is most commonly seen to stand at a right angle to
the next upper or lower pair. Suc]:l an arrangement of leaves

FIG. 123 FIG. 124 FIG. 125 FIG. 126

Types of Phyllotaxy. FIG. 123. Alternate phyllotaxy of China rose. FIG. 124.
Opposite phyllotaxy of madar (Oalotropis). nG. 125. Whorled phyllotaxy of
oleander (Nerium). FIG. 126. Ditto of devil tree (Alstonia).

is said to be decussa-fe,' as in sacred basil (Ocimum; B. & H.

TULSI), madar (Calotropis; B. AKANDA; H. AK), guava, etc ..
5
66 A C L 'A S S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

Sometimes, howenr, a pair of leaves is seen to stand directly

over the lower pair in the same plane. Such an arrangement of
leaves is said to be superposed, as in Rangoon creeper (B.
SANDHYA-1VIALATI; H. LAL-l\IALTI) .

(3) Whorled (figs. 125-6), when there are more than two
leaves at each node and these are arranged in a circle or whorl,
as in devil tree (Alstonia; B. CHHATIM; H. CHATIUM), oleander
(Nerium; B. KARAVI ; H. & P. KANER), etc.
Alternate Phyllotaxy. The leaves in this case are seen to be
spirally arranged round the stem. Now, if an imaginary spiral
line starting from any leaf be passed round the stem through
the bases of the successive leaves, it is seen that the spiral line
finally reaches a leaf which stands vertically over the starting
leaf. The imaginary spiral line that may pass round through
the bases of successive leaves is known as the genetic spiral,
and the vertical line, i.e. the vertical row of leaves, known as
the orthostichy (orthos, straight; stich os, line) . .
(I) Phvllotaxy ~ or distichous (fig. 128). In grasses, traveller's
tree (fig. 127), ginger,
Vanda (see fig. 57), etc.,
the third leaf always
stands over the first
(start ing anynhnc) .
Thus there are only
two orthostichies, i.e.
two rows of leaves, and,
therefore, the phyllo-
taxy is distichous. From
the starting leaf to the
third leaf the genetic
spiral makes only on~
turn. Leaves are thus
placed at half the dis-
tance of a circle, and
the phyllotaxy ' is ex-
pressed by the fraction
t, the numerator indi-
FIG. 127. Trav eller's hee (ilm;ellala) cating - 1 turn of the
showing di tichous phyllotaxy.
genetic spiral and the
denominator the number of intervening leaves, i.e. 2 (leaving
out the third leaf which stands over the first).
 THE LEAF

The genetic spiral makes one complete turn in this case, sub-
tending an angle of 3600 in the centre of the circle, and it
involves two leaves; so the angular divergence, that is, the
angular distance between any two consecutive leaves, is i of
0
360 i.e. 180
0, •

(2) Phyllotaxy if or tristichous (fig. 129). In sedges (B. & H.

MUTHA) the fourth leaf stands vertically over the first one, and
the genetic spiral makes one turn to reach that leaf, and it in-

B
FIG. 128 FIG. 129
Phyllotaxy and Angular Divergence. Fig. 128. A, phyllotaxy !; E, angular
divergence 180°. Fig. 129. A, phyllotaxy i; B, angular diveI'genc~ 120°.

valves three leaves. Thus there are three orthostichies, i.e. three
rows of leaves. Leaves can be seen placed at one-third the dis-
tance of a circle. Phyllotaxy is, therefore, tristichous or t. The
angular divergence is if of 360 °, i.e. 120
0
•

(3) Phyllotaxy ~. or pentastichous (fig. 130). In China rose the

sixth leaf stands over te.,e first, and the genetic spiral completes

FIG. 130. A, phyllotaxy ~ j B, angular divergence 144 0 •

68 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

two circles to come to that particular leaf. Thus there are five
orthostichies, i.e. five rows of leaves, and two turns of the
genetic spiral involving five leaves. The latter can be seen placed
at two-fifths the distance of a circle. Phyllotaxy is, therefore,
pentastichous or i. This is the commonest type of alternate
phyllotaxy. The angular divergence in this case is i of 3600,
i.e. 144°.
(The same fraction can also be arrived at by adding separately the numera-
tors and the denominators of the two previous cases, e.g. lH.=i. The
next case will, therefore, be i$i =i, and so on. Fractions higher than
~ are not commonly met with.) ~

Leaf Mosaic. In the floors, walls

and ceilings of many temples and
decorated buildings we find setting
of stones and glass pieces of varie-
gated colours and sizes into parti-
cular designs. Each such design
is known <IS a mosaic. Similarly,
in plants we find the setting or
distribution of leaves in some defi-
nite designs. Each such design of
leaf·distribution 1',; known as leaf
mosaic. Leaves are in special
need of sunlight for manufacture
of food material, and this being
so, they tend to fit in with one
FIG. 131. Leaf mosaic of Acalyplw.
another and adjust themselves in
such a way that they may secure the maximum amount of sunlight with
the minimum amount of overlapping.

Functions of ~be Leaf. Normal functions of the green foliage

leaf are threefold: (I) manufacture of food material, (2) il1ter-
change of gases between the atmosphere and the plant body,
and (3) evaporation of excess of water through the leaf. Be-
sides, the fleshy leaf is used to store up water and food. In a
few cases the leaf produces buds on it for vegetative propaga-
tion of the plant. The leaf also gives necessary protection to
the bud in its axil. A modified leaf has a specialized function
(see pp. 61-5).
(I) Manufacture of Food. The primary function of the leaf
is to manufacture food, particularly sugar and starch, during
the daytime only, i.e. in the presence of sunlight which is the
original source of energy to the plant. The leaf manufactures
food w:ith the help of chloroplasts contained in it, out of water
and carbon dioxide obtained from the soil and the air respec-
..:1
 THE LEAF

tively. The upper side of the leaf is deeper green in colour with
more abundant chloroplasts, and also the sunlight falls directly
on the upper surface and, therefore, food manufacture normally
takes place in this region.
(2) Interchange of Gases. Through the lower surface of the
leaf a regular exchange of gases takes place between the anno-
sphere and the plant body through numerous very minute open-
ings, called stomata (see fig 297) which remain open during
daylight only. The gases concerned are oxygen and carbon
dioxide. This exchange of gases is mainly for the purpose of
respiration by all the living cells which absorb oxygen and give
out carbon dioxide, and also for the purpose of food manufac-
ture by green cells only which absorb carbon dioxide and give
out oxygen.
(3) Evaporation of Water. The excess water absorbed by the
root-hairs evaporates during the daytime through the surfaces
of the leaf, mainly through the stomata. At night the excess
water sometimes escapes in liquid form through the apices of
veins, particularly in herbaceous plants.
(4) Storage of Food. FI!=shy leaves of Indian aloe (B. GHRITA-
KUMAR!; H. GHIKAVAR), Portulaca (B. NUNIA-SAK ; H. KULFA-SAG)
and fleshy scales of onion store up water and food for their
future use. Fleshy and succulent leaves of desert plants always
store a quantity of water, mucilage and food.
(5) Vegetative Propagation. Leaves of sprout leaf plant (Bryo-
phyllum; see fig. 60),,-elephant-ear plant (Begonia; see fig. 61)
produce buds on them for vegetative propagation of such plants.
Walking ferns reproduce vegetatively by their leaf-tips. Leaves
bow down, and their tips touching the ground strike roots and
form a bud which grows into a new plant (see fig. 358).
Heterophylly. . Many plants bear different kinds of leaves on
the same individual plant. This condition is known as hetero-
phylly (heteros, different; phylla, leaves). Heterophylly is met
with in many aquatic plants, particularly in those growing in
shallow running water. Here the floating leaves and the sub-
merged leaves are of different kinds; the former are generally
broad, more or less fully expanded, and undivided or merely
lobed, while the latter are narrow, ribbon-shaped, linear or
much dissected. Heterophylly in water plants is regarded as
an adaptation to two different conditions of the environment.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Common examples are Cardenthera triflora (fig. 132)," water

crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis), arrowhead (Sagittaria ; fig. 135),

FIG. 132 FIG. 133 l'IG. 134

Heterophylly. FIG. 132. Cardenthera triflOTa. FIG. 133. Artocw'pU8
clloplaslta. FIG. 134. HemiphraY1na heterophylllllll.

Limnophila heterophylla, etc. Some land plants also exhibit

this phenomenon without any apparent reason. Common ex-
amples are Artocarpus chaplasha
(fig. 133)! Hemiphragma heterophyl-
lum (fig. 134), Ficus heterophylla,
etc. In Hemiphragma the leaves are
of two kinds-broad and needle-
shaped.
Homology and Analogy. Homology is th"
morpilOIoglcaI study of modified organs
from the standpoint of their origin, and
analogy is the study of organs from the
standpoint of their identical structure and
function; or, in other words, organs which
resemble one another in their origin, and
'1re, therefore, morphologically the same,
whatever be their structure and function,
are said to be lwmologo1l8 with one another.
and organs which resemble one another in
their structure and are adapted to the per-
f'Jrmance of identical functions, although
their origin is different, are said to be
analogous with one another. Thus all
tendrils, whatever be their position, are
FIG. 135. Arrowhead
analo~ous with one another, being struc-
showing hetcrophylly.
turally the same and having the same
function; hut tendrils of passion-flower (see fig. 70) are homologous with
axillary buds, i.e. modifications of the latter, and tendrils of pea (see fig.
 DEFENSIVE MECHANISMS IN PLANTS 71
113) are~mologous with leaflets. Similarly tendrils of passion-flower and
thorns of Duranta (see fig. 73A) are homologous structures, both having the
same origin in the axils of leaves as modifications of axillary buds. Likewise
the rhizome, the tuber, the fusiform root, the napiform reot, etc., are ana-
logous structures, being adapted to the pet:formance of identical function, Le.,
storage of food; but it must be noted that the former two (rhizome and
tuber) are homologous with the stem, being modifications of it, while the
latter two (fusiform root and napiform root) ar\.) homologous with the r$ot,
being modifications of it.

CHAPTER 7 Defensive Mechanisms in Plants

The animal kingdom as a whole is directly or indirectly para-
sitic upon the plant kingdom, and this being so, plants must
either fall a victim to various classes of animals, particularly
the herbivorous ones, which live exclusively on a vegetable
diet, or they must be provided with special organs or arms of
defence, or have other special devices to repulse or avoid the
attack of th_eir enemies. Being fixed to the ground they can-
not, of course, manoeuvre, when attacked by animals.
I. Armature. Various p~rts of the plant body may take tne
form of arms or defensive weapons for self-defence against
the attack of herbivorous animals. These are as follows.
(I) Thorns (see p. 45) are modifications of branches, and
originate from deeply-seated tissues of the plant body. They are
straight, hard and pointed, and can pierce the body of
thick-skinned animals. Plants like wood-apple, Vangueria (B.
MOYENA), leinon, po~granate, Duranta, Carissa (B. KARANJA ;
H. KARONDA) and many others are well provided with thorns
for self-defence.
(2) Spines (see p. 62) are modifications of leaves or parts of
leaves, and serve the purpose of defence. They are seen in
pineapple, date-palm, prickly poppy (see fig. 118), American
aloe, dagger plant, etc. In dagger plant (fig. I36) each leaf
ends in a very sharp and pointed spine, and is directed out-
wards. It acts like a dagger or pointed spike when any grazing
animal approaches it.
(3) Prickles (see also pp. 3-4) are also hard and pointed like
the thorns, but are usually curved and have a superficial ori-
gin; they are further irregularly distributed on the stern,
branch or leaf. Prickles are commonly found in rose (see fig.
6), cane (see fig. 5), coral tree, silk cotton tree, Prosopis (B. &
72 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

H. SHOMI), etc. Globe thistle and prickly poppy (see fig. 118)
are armed with both prickles and spines for self-defence.
(4) Brilltla are short,
stiff and · needle-like
hairs, usually growing in
clusters, and not infre-
quently barbed. Their
walls are often thickened
with a deposit of silica
or calcium carbonate.
Bristles are commly met
with in prickly pear (B.
PHAN1MANSHA; H. NAC-
PHANI-See fig. 73A) and
in many other cacti.
(s) StiD&inI Hairs. Net-
tles (B. BICHUTl; H. BAR-
BANTA) develop stinging
hairs on their leaves or
fruits or all oyer their
body. Each hair (fig. 137)
has a sharp siliceous apex
w'hich readily breaks oII
even when touched light-
ly. The sharp point pene-
trates into the body; in-
fiicts a wound into which
the acid poison of the
FIG. 136. Da.gger Illant or Adam's 1Wr is f-orced by the-sud-
needle (Yucca) .
den pressure exerted on
the sVfollen base of the hair, causing a aharp burning pain,
often attended with inflammation. There are arious kinds of
nettles, e.g. Fleurya (B. LAL-lIICHUTl)-an annual weed; Tragia
(B. BlCHU'I1; H. BARHA.ITA}-a twiner, f"eI or devil nettle (La-
portea)-a shrub, cowage (Mucuna; B. .AI.XUSHI; H. L\WA~CH)
-a large twiner, etc. In cowage the stinging hairs develop on
the fruit.
(6) 1Iain. A dense coating of hairs at pJ'CSel1ce of stiff hairs
on the body of the plant is always repulsive to animals as these
hairs stick on to their throat and cause a choking sensation,
e.g. cud-~eed (Gnaphalium). Many plants bear .......ar baD
which secrete a sticky substance. Any animal feeding upon
 DEFENSIVE MECHANISMS IN PLANTS 73
such a plant finds it difficult to brush them off from its mouth ..
Plants bearing glandular hairs are thus never attacked by
grazing animals, e.g. tobacco, Boerhaavia (B.
PUNARNAVA; H. THIKRI or SANT), Jatropha (B. &
H. BHARENDA), Plumbago (B. CHITA ; H. CHITRAK),
etc.
:2. ,Other Devices of Defence. Many plants secrete
poisonous and irritating substances; such plants f
are carefully avoided by animals which possess
the power of distinguishing between poisonous
and non-poisonous ones.
(I) Latex is the milky juice secreted by certain
plants. It always contains some waste products,
and often irritating and poisonous substances so
that it causes inflammation and even blisters
when it comes in contact with the skin. Plants
like madar, Euphorbia (B. & H. SIJ and MANASHA-
SIJ), 0~eander, periwinkle, banyan, fig, poppy,
papaw, etc.; contain latex. '
(2) Alkaloids are in many cases extremely
poisonous, and a very minute quantity is sufficient
to k III· a strong ammal.
. T h ere are various kinds FIG. 137
A stinging
of them found in plants, e.g. strychnine in nux- hair.
vomica, morphine in opium poppy, nicotine in tobacco, datu-
rine in Datura, quinine in Cinchona, etc.
(3) Irritating Snbstance. Plants like many aroids, e.g. taro
(Colocasia; B. KACHU; H. KACHAW), Amorphophallus· (B. OL;
H. KANDA); etc., pOl!\'less needle-like or otherwise sharp and
pointed crystals of calcium oxalate, i.e. raphides (see figs. 270-2).
These crystals, when such plants are fed upon, prick the tongue
and the throat and cause irritation. Therefore, such plants are
never attacked by grazing animals.
(4) Bitter Taste and Repulsive Smell. These are also· effective
mechanisms to ward off animals. Paederia foetida (B. GANDHAL ;
H. GANDHALI) emits a bad smell so that no animal likes to go
near it. Plants like sacred basil, mint, Blumea lacera (B. KUKUR-
SONGA; H. KOKRONDA), Gynandropsis, etc., also emit a strong
disagreeable odour. The fetid smell of the inflorescence of
Amorphophallus (see fig. 201) is very offensive and nauseating.
Margosa, bitter gourd, Andrographis (B. KALMEGH; H. MARA-
TITA), etc., have a bitter taste and, therefore, animals avoid
them.
 74 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(5) Waste Products. Many plants contain various waste pro-

ducts such as tannin, resin, essential oils, raphides, silica, etc.,
which keep them free from the attack of anim.als.
(6) Mimicry. Certain plants also protect themselves against
grazing animals by imitating the general appearance, colour,
shape or particular feature of another
plant or animal, which has developed
a special weapon of defence; for ins-
tance, there are certain aroids (e.g.
varieties of Caladium) which resemble
m.ulti-coloured and variously spotted
snakes. Leaves are also variously spotted
and striped in many species of bow-
string hemp (Sdnsevieria; B. MURGA;
H. MARUL) and other allied plants.
Herbivorous animals, possibly mistak-
ing them for snakes or some other
threatening creatures carefully avoid
them. In snake plant (Arisaema;
fig. 138), common in Shillong during
the rains, the spathe is greenish-purple
in colour and it expands over the spadix
FIG. 138. Snake Ot· cobra like the hood of the cobra. This act of
plant (..i1'isae'llla).
imitating the appearance, colour or
any particular feature of another plant' or animal, is called
mimicry (mimikos, imitative).
Plants have also to protect themselves against the attack of
many parasitic fungi and gnawing insects, and also against tht}
scorching rays of the sun; this they do by developing cork and
bark.

CHAPTER 8 The Inflorescence

The branch system of the floral region bearing a group of
flowers is called inflorescence. Thus depending on the mode
of branching different kinds of inflorescence have come into
existence, and these may primarily be classified into two dis-
tinct groups, viz. racemose or indefinite and cymose or definite.
I. Racemose Inflorescences. Here the main axis of inflorescence

does not end in a flower, but it continues to grow and give off
flowers laterally. The lower or outer flowers are always older
 THE INFLORESCENCE 75
and open earlier than the upper or mner ones. Some of the
common types are as follows.
I. WITH THE MAIN AXIS ELONGATED
(I) Raceme (fig. 139). The main axis in this case is elongated
and it bears laterally a numher of flowers which are all stalked,

~
~~
FIG. 139 V '
~~
.J
FIG. 140 FIG. 141
V

FIG.

Racemose Inflorescences. FIG. 139. Haceme of dwarf gold mohur. FIG. 140.
142

Spike (diagrammatic). FIG.141. Spikelet of a grass (diagrammatic); G 1'

first empty glume; G" second empty glume; PO, flowering glume (lemma);
and P, palea. FIG. 142. Female catkin of mulberry.
the lower or older flowers having longer stalks than the upper
or younger ones, as in radish,
'"' mustard, dwarf gold mohur, fever
nut (B. NATA; H. KATKARANJ), etc.
When the main axis of the
raceme is branched and the
lateral branches bear the flowers,
the inflorescence is said to be a
compound raceme or panicle (fig.
143), as in gold mohur.
The main axis of the inflorescence
together with the lateral axes, if
present, is known as the peduncle. The
stalk of the individual flower of the
inflore,scence is called the pedicel. In
FIG. 143. A panicle. some solitary flowers such as China
rose, gold mohur (see fig. 152), etc.,
the peduncle and the pedicel may be cloearly marked out due to the presence
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
of an articulation on the floral axis. \Vhen the peduncle of an inflores-
cence is short and dilated forming a sort of convex platform, as in sun-
fl(\wer (see fig. 148), or becoming hollow and pear-shaped, as in tlg (Ficus),
it is often called receptacle (see fig. 153).
(2) Spike (fig. 140). Here also the main axis is elongated and
the lower flowers are older, opening earlier than the upper
ones, as in raceme, but the flowers are sessile, tha.t is, without
any stalk. Examples are seen in tuberose, Adhatoda (B. BASAK ;
H. ADALSA), amaranth (B. NATE-SAK; H. CHULAI), chaff-flower
(Achyranthes; B. APANG; H. LATJIRA), etc.
(3) Spikelet (fig. 141). This is a
D very small spike with one or a few
l small flowers (florets). In it there
are twu small empty glumes at the
base, and just above them a flower-
v/ing glume called lemma with a flower
in its axil, and opposite to the lemma
there is a small 2-nerved bracteole,
called the palea. The flower remains
enclosed by the lemma and the palea.
::lucceeding flowers likewise occur
within the lemma and the palea.
Spikelet is characteristic of the grass
family, e.g. grasses, paddy, wheat,
sugarcane, bamboo, etc.
(4) Catkin (fig. 142). This i&
a spike with a long and pendu-
lous axis which bears uni-
sexual flowers only, e.g. mul-
berry, Acalypha densiflora,
FIG. 144. Spadix of an aroid (Typho- birch and oak. .
nium); A, female flowers; B, male (5) Spadix (fig. 144). This is
flowers; C, appendix; D, spathe.
a Iso a Spl'ke Wl'th a fl es h y aX1S
.
which is enclosed by one or more large, often brightly coloured
bracts, called spathes, as in aroids, banana and palms. The
spadix is found in monocotyledons only.
II. WITH THE MAIN AXIS SHORTENED
(6) Corymb (fig. 145). Here the main axis is comparatively
short, and the lower flowers have much longer stalks or pedi-
eels than the upper ones so that all the flowers are brought
more or less to the same level, as in candytuft and wallflower.
(7) Umbel (figs. 146-7). Here the primary axis is shortened,
and it bears at its tip a group of flowers which have pedicels
of more or less equal lengths so that the flowers are seen to
 THE INFLORESCENCE
77
spread out from a common point. In the umbel there is always
a whorl of bracts forming an involucre, and each flower deve-
lops from the axil of a bract. Commonly the umbel is branched

FIG. 145 FIG. 146 FIG. 147

FIG. 145. Corymb (diagrammatic). Umbels. FIG. 146. A compound umbel.
FIG. 147. A simple umbel.

(compound umbel) and the branches bear the flowers, as in

anise or fennel, coriander, ~umin, carrot, etc. Sometimes, how-
ever, i:'
is simple or unbranched (simple umbel), the main axis
directly bearing the flowers, as in Indian pennywort and wild
coriander. Umbel is characteristic of coriander family.
III. WITH THE MAIN AXIS FLATTENED
(8) Head or Capitulum (fig. 148). Here the main axis or recep-
tacle is suppressed, becoming almost flat, and it bears a mass
of small sessile flowers (florets) on its surface, with one or more
whorls of bracts at the base forming an involucre (see p. 84).
In the hea<J the outer flowers are older ana open earlier than
the inner ones. The'1lorets are commonly of two kinds- ray
florets (marginal strap-shaped ones) and disc florets (central
tubular ones). The head may also consist of only one kind of
florets. A head or capitulum is characteristic of sunflower
family (e.g. sunflower, marigold, safflower, Zinnia, Cosmos,
etc.). It is also found in gum tree (Acacia), sensitive plant,
Anthocephalus (B & H. KADAM), etc.
The advantage of this kind of inflorescence is that the head
as a whole becomes more showy and attractive, and one or
a few insects can pollinate most of the flowers within a short
time.
2. Cymose Inflorescences. Here the main axis ends in a flower
and similarly the lateral axis also ends in a flower. Thus the
growth of each axis is checked. In cymose inflorescences the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

terminal flower is always older and opens earlier than the

lateral ones.

nG, 148.
Head or
capitulum.
A, a head
(a few ray
florets removed
to show the
involucre;
E, head in
longitudinal
section.

In the cymose inflorescence when two lateral axes develou

at a time and more or less equally, it is called a true cyme
(fig. 149), as a jasmines, teak, pink, Ixora (B. RANGAN; H.
GOTAGANDHAL), etc. In some plants, however, it is seen that
only one lateral axis develops at a time, while the other one
remains suppressed. Thus when the lateral axes develop suc-
cessively on the same side, forming a sort of helix, as in

v
FIG. 149. FG. 150. FIG. 151
Cymose Inflorescences. FIG. ]49. Biparous cyme. FIG. 150. Scorpioid
cyme. FIG. 151. Helicoid cyme.
Begonia) rush, day lily and some plants of potato family.
the cymose inflorescence is called a helicoid cyme or one-sided
cyme (fig. 151). On the other hand when the lateral axes deve-
lop on alternate sides, evidently forming a zigzag, as in cotton, "

sundew, heliotrope (B. HATISUR; H. HATTASURA) and Freesia,

the cymose inflorescence is called a scorpioid cyme or alter-
nate-sided cyme (fig. 150).
 THE INFLORESCENCJ;; 79
3. Special Types. The following two types may be noted.
(I) Verticillaster (fig. 152). This is a special form of cymose
inflorescence. In it there is a cluster of sessile or almost sessile
flowers in the axil
of a leaf, forming
'\a false whorl at
the node. The first
axis gives rise to
two lateral bran-
ches and these
branches and the
succeeding ones FIG. 152. Vertieillaster of Coleus. A, verticillaster;
11, diagram of verticillaswr.
bear only one
branch each on alternate sides. This kind of inflorescence is
found in several members of basil family, t.g. Coleus, mint
(B. PlTDINA; H. PODINA), Leonurus (B. DRONA; H. HALKUSHA).
etc. In sacred basil (B. &
H. TULSI) the verticiIIaster is
a condensed cyme, succeed-
ing branches remaining un-
developed.
(2) Hypanthodium (fig. 153)'
When the fleshy receptacle
forms a hollow cavity with
an apical opening guarded
by scales, and the flowers
are borne on the inner wall
'- of the cavity, the inflor-
FIG. 153. Hypanthodium of fig (Ficus). escence is a hypanthodium,
a, mal\ flower; b, female flower. . F ( b
... _as m zeus e.g. auyan,
fig, peepul, etc.) Here the femafe flowers develop at the base of
the cavity and the male flowers higher up towards the apical
pore.
Inflorescences
I

I I "
Racemose Cymose SpecialI types
-raceme, e.g. radish -true, e.g. jasmines l-verticillaster,
-spike, e.g. amaranth -helicoid, e.g. j.conUTU8
-spikelet, e.g. grasses e.g. Begonia -hypanthodium,
-catkin, e.g. mulberry -seorpioid, e.g. fig
-spadix, e.g. banana e.g. heliotrope
-corymb, e.g. candyluft
-umbel. e.g. coriander
-capitulum, e.g. sunflower
 CHAPTER 9 The Flower
The Bower is a highly modified shoOt meant essentially for
the reproduction of the plant. Typically it is a collection of
four different kinds of floral members arranged in four sepa-
rate whorls or circles in a definite order. Of the four whorls

FIG. 154 FIG. 155

FIG. 154. Parts of a flower. FIG. 155. A flower in longitudinal section
showing the position of the whorls on the thalamus (Th).
the upper two are called essential or reproductive whorls, and
the lower two helping or accessory whorls. The essential whorls
take direct part in reproduction. .
Parts of a Flower (figs. 154-6). The flower is commonly borl1e
on a short or long axis. The axis itself is made up of two
regions, viz. the pedicel which is the stalk of the flower, and
the thalamus which is the swollen end of the axis with the
floral leaves inserted on it. The pedice\ may be short or long
or even absent: A typical flower consists of four whorls arranged/
in a definite order, one just above the other. The whorls ~nd
their component parts are as follows.
(I) Calyx is the first or the lowermost whorl of the flower,
and consists of a number of green leafy sepals.
(2) Corolla is the second whorl of the flower, and consists
of a number of usually brightly colouted petals.
(3) Androecium (andros, male) is the third or the male
whorl; its co;mponent parts are called stamens. Each stamen is
made of three parts-filament, anther Clnd connective. The
anther bears four chambers or pollen-sacs, each filled with a
granular mass of small (male) spores, called pollen grains. .
(4) Gynoecium (gyne, female) or pistil is the fourth or the
female whorl, and its component parts are called carpels. The
gynoecium is made of three parts-ovary, style and stignia.
 THE FLOWER

The ovary encloses

some minute egg-like
bodies known as the
ovules. Each ovule
encloses a large oval
cell known as the
embryo-sac (fig. 193).
Soine Descriptive
Terms. The flower
is .. said to be com·
plete when all the
f0li! whorls are pre-
se~ and incomplete
when any of them is
absent. When both
stamens and carpels
are present the flower ANDROECIVM
is said to pe bisexual
0" hermaphrodite, and
wLen any of them is
absent the flower is
said to be unisexual.
The unisexual flower
flaay, therefore, be
staminate or male
IWhen only stamens
are present, or( pistil.
late or female when
only carpels are pre-
sent. When both sta-
mens and carpels are
absent from a flower
it is said to be neuter.
When the calyx and
corolla do not differ
much in shape and
.~~;'~
colour, they together ~"""'THALAMU'9
. . I):
.')
are said to form tf~ PEDICEL .
,.._ PEDUNCLE
the perianth of the CALYX
flower, as in lilies,
FIG. 156. Flower of gold mohur (Delonix
tuberose, onion, gar- regia) dissected out.
lic, Asparagus, etc.
6
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Thalamus. Nature of the Thalamus. The thalamus (see fig.

155), is the suppressed swollen end of the flower-axis on
which are inserted the floral leaves, viz. sepals, petals, stam.ens

A B c
Thalamus. FIG. 157. A, flower of Gynandropsis; B, passion. flower ;
C, flower of Pterospermum .(with the staminal tube adnate to
gynophore). A, androphore; G, gynophore.
and carpels. In most flowers this thalamus is exceedingly
short; but in a few cases it becomes elongated, ar.d then' it.
shows distinct nodes and internodes: Thus the internode be-
tween the calyx and the corolla may be elongated; this, how-
ever, is very rare. More commonly the internode between the
. Gynophore ~~.:::-- .:.

~.~'
\~~~Al/ _/"\~ ~.1~·::e~t.b%·~:':{;~.:.
\, \,I/Ly
~.. \ \11, .~/./
\,,'Il._~ ~i;,,·~ 1UJ.·:·:l~::~·.;_:':~':"~.'.~·:
%d" / "':.:.-$!:.:' .. t?'.Q.:~:t?
~~ ~~/ -- ·::·~:':6'" ',.:.:_.'

~:;t.'~""~."'K
,,<{;tv~
A B C
Thalamus (contd.). FIG. 158. A, flower of Capparis; B, rose (in
section); C, lotus.

corolla and the androecium is considerably elongated, and is

known as the androphore (andros, male), as in Gynandropsis
(fig. IS7A) and passion-flower (fig. IS7B). In Capparis (fig. IS8A),
 •
THE FLOWER
Gynarldropsis (fig. IS7A) and pterospermum (B. MOOCH-KANDA;
H. KANAK-CHAMPA-fig. IS7c) the axis between the androecium
and the gynoecium is elongated, and is known as the gyno-
phore (gyne, female). It is to be noted that in Gynandropsis
(fig. IS7A) both androphore and gynophore develop and they
are together known as the gynandrophore, In Magnolia (B.
DULEE-CHAMPA) and Michelia (B. CHAMPA; H. CHAMPAK) the
'. thalamus is fleshy and elongated, and bears the floral leaves
spirally round it. In rose (fig. IS8B) it is concave and pear-
shaped. The thalamus of lotus (fig. IS8c) is spongy and top-
shaped.
Position of Floral Leaves on the Thalamus (fig. 159). The
~clativ/: positions of the floral whorls with respect to the ovary
are of three kinds: hypogyuy, perigyny and epigyny.
(1) Hypogyny. In a typical flower the ovary occupies the
highest position on the thalamus, while the stamens, petals
and sepals are separately and successively inserted below the

A B c
Position of. Floral Lea~s on the Thalamus. FIG. 159, A, hypogyny;
B, perigyny (two types-A & B); C, epigyny.
-
ovary. Such a flower is said to be bypogynous. In this case
the ovary is said to be superior and the rest of the floral mem-
bers inferior. Examples are seen in mustard, brinjal, China
rose, Magnolia, etc.
(2) Perigyny. In some flowers the thalamus grows upward
around the ovary in the form of a cup, carrying on its rim the
sepals, petals and stamens. Such flowers are said to be peri-
gynous, and the ovary in them is said to be half-inferior.
Examples are seen in rose, plum, peach, crepe flower, etc.
(3) Epigyny. In other flowers the thalamus grows further
upward, completely enclosing the ovary and getting fused
with it, and bears the sepals, petals and stamens on the top
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

of the ovary. Such flowers are said to be epigynous. The

ovary in this case is said to be inferior, and the rest of the
floral members superior. Examples are seen in sunflower,
guava, gourd, cucumber, apple, pear, etc.
Bracts (fig. 160). Bracts are special leaves from the axil of
which a solitary flower, or a cluster of flowers, arises. When
a small leafy or scaly structure is present on any part of the
flower-stalk (pedicel) it goes by the name of bracteoJe. Bracts
vary in size, colour and duration, and are commonly of the
following kinds.
(I) Leafy Bracts. These a.e green, flat and leaf-like in
appearance, as in Acalypha (E. MUKTO-JHURI; H. KU1,>PI),
Adhatoda (E. BASAK ; H. ADALSA), etc.
(2) Spathe (A-B). This is a large, sometimes very large,.
commonly -boat-shaped and brightly coloured bract, enclosing
a cluster of flowers or even a whole inflorescence (spadix). It

lW
s~ G
FIG. 160. Bracts and Bradeoles.· A, spathes of banana; B, spathe of
an ~roid ('Typ7wniU1n); C, p~taloid bracts of glory of the garden;
!J, nlVolucre of sunflower; E, eptcalyx (braeteoles) of China rose;
P, glumes of paddy grain (Gr, Gn, empty glumes; L, lemma or
flowering glume; P, palea-a bracteole); G, scaly bractcole (8) of
a central floret of sunflower.

protects the flowers while they are still young, and later at-
tracts insects for pollination by its colour. Examples are seen
in aroids, banana, palms, maize cob, etc.
(3) Petaloid Bracts (C). These are brightly coloured bracts
looking somewhat like petals, as in glory of the garden (B.
BAGAN-BILAS) and poinsettia (E. LAL-PATA).
(4) Involucre (D). This is a group of bracts occurring in
 THE FLOWER

one or more whorls around a cluster of flowers, as in sun-

flower, marigold, Cosmos, etc. The involucre often encloses
the whole inflorescence and protects the flowers when young.
The bracts of the involucre are usually green, and may be
free or united.
(5) Epicalyx (E). This is a whorl of bracteoles developing at
. the base of the calyx, as in China rose, cotton, lady's finger, etc.
(6) GJumes (F). These are special bracts, small and dry,
found only in grass family and sedge family.
(7) Scaly Bracteole (G). This is a very small, thin, papery
scale occurring at the base of the central floret of sunflower.

IjLOWER IS A MODIFIED SHOOT

. The following facts may be cited to prove that the thalamus
is a modified branch; sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are
modified vegetative leaves; and the flower as a whole a modi.fied
vegetative bud.
(I) ILl so~e flow~rs the thalamus be-
comes elongated showing distinct nodes
and internodes (see figs. r57-8), as in
Gynan drop_sis, .passion-flower, etc. The
thalamus may, therefore, be regarded as
a modified branch.
(2) The thalamus sometimes shows
monstrous development, i.e. after bearing
the floral members it prolongs upwards
and bears ordinary leaves. The thalamus
thus behaves as a Lr'anch, as sometimes
seen in rose (fig. 161), larkspur, pear, etc.
(3) The arrangement of sepals~ petals,
etc., on the thalamus is the same as that
of the leaves on the stem or the branch,
being either whorled, alternate (spiral) or
opposite.
(4) The foliar nature of sepals and FIG. 161. Rose showing
· eVI'd ent fTOm t h
peta I s IS elr" ' lanty
SImI ' to monstrous developmen~
of the thalamus.
leaves as regards structure, form and vena-
tion ; in fact, in Mussaenda (fig. 162) one of the sepals becomes
modified into a distinct white or coloured leaf. But stamens
and carpels are unlike leaves in all respects. Their homology
with leaves can be made out from certain flowers. Thus water
86 A CLASS-BOOK OF BO)'ANY

lily (figs. 163-4) shows a gradual transition from sepals to petals

and from petals to stamens. The cultivated rose shows mahy
petals; while in wild rose there are only five. The explanation
is that many stamens have gradually become modified into
petals.

FJO. 2[;{1 li'IG. 1&3

FIG. 162. ilf ussaendOJ flower with a sepal modified into a leaf. FIG. 163.
Water lily flow~r showing transition of floral parts.

(5) The inflorescence axis normally b<::ars flowers. Some-

times, as in American aloe (Agave; see fig. 363), some of the
floral buds become modified into vegetative buds, called

Sepal Petals ---_____,.. Stamens

FIG. 164. Transition of floral parts in water lily flower.

bulbils, for vegetative reproduction. In pineapple also the

inflorescence axis bears one or more vegetCitive buds or bulbils
(see fig. 365) for vegetative propagation. Such bulbils thus
show a reversion to ancestral forms, i.e. the forms from which
they have been derived.
 THE FLOWER

Symmetry of the Flower. A flower is said to be symmetrical

when it can be divided into two exactly equal halves by any
vertical section passing through the centre. Such a flower IS
also said to be regular or actiuomorphic, e.g. mustard, potato,
brinjal, Datura, etc. When a flower can be divided into two
similar halves by one such vertical section only, it is said to be
zygomorphic, e.g. pea, bean, gold mohur, Cassia, etc., and
when it cannot be divided into two similar halves by any verti-
cal plane whatsoever, it is said to be irregular.
A flower is also said to be symmetrical when its whorls (often
leaving out the gynoecium) have an equal number of parts or
when the number in one whorl is a multiple of that of another.
!,Such a symmetrical flower is said to be trimerous when the
number of parts in each whorl is 3 or any multiple of it, as
mostly in monocotyledons, and pentamerous when the number
is 5 or any multiple of it, as mostly in dicotyledons.

(1) CALYX
Calyx ·is tile first or the lowermost whorl of the flower, and
consists of a number of sepals. It is usually green (sepaloid),
but sometimes it becomes coloured (petaloid), as in gold mohur,
dwarf gaM mohur and garden nasturtium. ,It varies in shape,
size and colour; it may be regular, zygomorphic, or irregular.
The sepals may remain free from each other or they may be
united together; in the former case the calyx is said to be
polysepalous (polys, many), as in mustard, radish, etc. ; and in
the latter it is gamosepalous (garno, united), as in brinjal, chilli,
China rose; etc. The "talyx is sometimes altogether absent from
a flower, or it may be modified into scales, as in sunflower,
marigold, etc., or into pappus (see fig. 236A), as in Tridax and
many other plants of sunflower family. In Mussaenda (H.
BEBINA- see fig. 162) one of the sepals becomes large, leafy and
perfectly white or brightly coloured.
Functions. (1) Protection, as in most flowers. (2) Assimila-
tion, when green in colour. (3) Attraction, when coloured and
showy. (4} Special function, when modified into pappus (see
fig. 236A); the pappus is persistent in the fruit and helps its
distribution by the wind. '
Duration. The calyx may fall off as soon as the floral bud
opens, as in poppy. More commonly it falls off with the corolla
when the flower withers; it is then said to be deciduous.
88 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Sometimes it persists and adheres to the fruit; then it is said

to be persistent. A persistent calyx may remain green, as in
brinjal, or it may assume a withered appearance, as in cotton,
or it may continue to grow and become fleshy, as in DiLlenia
(E. & H. CHALTA).

(2) COROLLA
Corolla is the second whorl of the flower, and consists of a
number of petals. The petals are often brightly coloured and
sometimes scented, and then their function is to attract insects
for pollination; they are rarely sepaloid. In the bud stage of
the flower the corolla encloses the essential organs, namely,
stamens and carpels, and protects them from external heat and
rain.
Like the calyx, the corolla may also be regular, zygomorphic
or irregular. Like the calyx again, the corolla may be gamo-
petalous or polypetalous, according as the petals are united or
free. In the former case the petals may be united partially or
wholly. In the polypetalous corolla each petal may sometimes
be narrowed below, forming a sort of stalk, known as the claw,
and expanded above; this expanded portion is called the limb,
as in mustard, radish, etc.
Forms of Corollas. The \Tarious forms of corollas may be
studied under the following four main heads:
I. REGULAR AND POLYPETALQU8
(I) Cruciform (fig. 165). The cruciform corolla consists of
four free petals (each differentiated into a claw and a limb)
arranged in the form of a cross, as in mustard family, e.g.
mustard, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, candy tuft, etc.

FIG. 165 FIG. 166 FIG. 167

Forms of Corollas. FIG. 165. Cruciform. FIG. 166. Caryophyllaceous.
FIG. 167. Rosaceous.
 THE FLOWER

(2) Caryophyllaceous (fig. 166). This form of corolla con-

sists of five petals with comparatively long claws, and the
limbs of the petals are placed at right angles to the claws, as
in pink (Dianthus).
(3) Rosaceous (fig. 167). This form consists of five petals
with very short claws or none at all, ap.d the limbs spread regu-
larly outwards, as in rose, tea, prune, etc.

II. REGULAR AND GAMOPETALOUS

(I) Bell-shaped (fig. 168). When the shape of the corolla
resembles that of a bell, as in gooseberry, bell flower, wild man-
gosteen (B. GAB; H. KENDU), etc., it is said to be campanulate.
I X-~.- ~~ ~
" __...--..1"
./ Ii

FIG • .168 FIG. 169 FIG. 170 FIG. 171

Forms of Corollas (contd.). FIG. 168. Bell.shaped. FIG. 169. Tubular.
FIG. 170. Funnel-shaped. FIG. 171. Rotate.

(2) Tuhular" (fig. 169):' When the corolla is cylindrical or

tube-like, that is, more or less eq_ually expanded from base to
apex, as in the central florets of sunflower, marigold, Cosmos,
etc., it is said to be tubular.
(3) Funnel-shaped (fig. 170). When the corolla is shaped like
a funnel, that is, gradually spreading outwards from a narrow
base, as in Datura, water bindweed (B. & H. KALMI-SAK), rail-
way creeper, morning glory, yellow oleander, etc., it is said to
be funnel-shaped.
(4) Rotate or Wheel-shaped (fig. 171). When the tube of
the corolla is comparatively short" and its limb is at a right
angle to it, the corolla having more or less the appearance of a
wheel, as in night jasmine, periwinkle, etc., it is said to be
rotate.
90 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

III. ZYGOMORPHIC AND POLYPETALOUS

(1) PapiIionaceous or Butterfly-like (fig. 172). The general
appearance is like that of a butterfly. It is composed of five
petals, of which the outermost one is the largest and known
as the standard or vexillum, the two lateral ones are known as

A B c
FIG.172. A, papilionaceous flower of pea; E, petals of the same
opened out; C, vexiIIary aestivation of papilionaceous corona.
S, standard or vexillum; W, wing; K, keel.
the wings or alae, and the two innermost ones are the smallest
and are together known as the keel or carina. These two are
apparently united to form a boat-shaped cavity. Examples
are found in pea family, e.g. pea (fig. 172), bean, gram, butter-
fly pea (B. APARAJITA ; H. APARAJIT)., etc.
IV. ZYGOMORPHIC AND GAMOPETALOUS
(I) Bilabiate or Two-lipped (fig. 173). In this form the limb
of the corolla is divided into two portions or lips-the upper

FIG. 173 FIG. 174 FIG. 175

Forms of Corollas (contd.).
FIG. 173. Bilabiate. FIG. 174. PerRonate. FIG. 175. Ligulate.
and the lower, with the mouth gaping wide open. Examples
may be seen in sacred basil (Ocimum; B. & H. TULSI), Leo-
 THE FLOWER 91
nurus (E. DRONA; H. HALKUSHA), Adhatoda (E. BASAK; H.
ADALSA), etc.
(2) Personate or Masked (fig. 174). This is also two-lipped
like the previous one, but in this case the lips are placed so
near to each other as to close the mouth of the corolla, as in
snapdragon, Lindenbergia, etc. Insects sit on the lower lip
and push open the mouth of the corol!a.
. (3) Ligulate or Strap-shaped (fig. 175). When the corolla
forms into a short, narrow tube below, but is flattened above
like a strap, as in the outer florets of sunflower, marigold,
Cosmos, etc., it is said to be ligulate.
Corona (fig. 176). Sometimes, by a transverse splitting of the
corolla, an additional whorl may be formed at its throat.
This additional whorl may be made up of lobes, scales or hairs,
free or united, and is known as corona (crown). The corona

A B c
Corona. FIG. 176. J', pas:;ion-flower; B, dodder; 0, oleander.

may be well seen in passion-flower (A), dodder (B), and olean-

der (C). A beautiful, cup-shaped corona is seen in daffodil.
The corona adds to the beauty of the flower and is thus an
adaptation to attract insects for pollination.
Aestivation (fig. 177). The mode of arrangement of the sepals
or of the petals, more particularly the latter, in a floral bud
with respect to the members of the same whorl (calyx or
corolla) is known as aestivation. Aestivation is an important
character from the view-point of classification of plants, and
may be of the following types.
(1) Valvate (A), when the members of a whorl are in con-
tact with each other by their margins, or when they lie very
 A CLASS-BOOK OF,BOTANY

close to each other, but do not overlap, as in cu~tard-apple,

madar, Artabotrys (B. & H. KANTALl-CHAMPA), etc.
(2) Twisted or Contorted (B), when one margin of the sepal
or the petal overlaps that of the next one, and the other
margin is overlapped by the third one, as in China rose,

.aestivation of Corolla. FLG.177. A, valvate; B, twisted; C, imbricate;

lJ, vexillary. Top, corolla in transection; bottom, floral bud
cut transversely.

cotton, etc. Twisting of the petals may be clockwise or anti-

clockwise. In China rose both types (clockwise and anti clock-
wise) are found. .
(3) Imbricate (C), when one of the sepals or petals is inter-
nal being overlapped on both the margins, and one of. them
is external and each of the remaining ones is overlapped on
one margin and it overlaps the next one on the other margin,
e.g. Cassia, gold mohur, dwarf gold mohur, etc.
(4) Vexiliary (D), when there are five petals, of which the
posterior one is the largest and it almost covers the two lateral
petals, and the latter in their turn nearly overlap the two
anterior or smallest petals. Vexillary aestivation is universally
found in :l 11 papilionaceous corollas, as in pea, bean. butter-
fly pea, rattlewort, etc.

(3) ANDROECIUM
Androecium (andros, male) is the third or the male reproduc-
tive whorl of the flower, and is compos~d ot a number or
 THE FLOWER 93
stamens. Etich stamen consists of filament, anther and con-
nective (fig. 178). The filament is the slender stalk of the
stamen, and the anther is the expanded head borne by the
POLI,EN-SAC WI1"H
POLLEN GRAINS

FIG. 179.

nG. 178. Two stamens. A,

face of the anther showing
fonr pollen-sacs; B, back
of the anther showing
connective.

FIG. 179. Anther

.FIG. 178 jn sectjon,

filament' at its tip. Each anther consists usually of two lobes

connected together by a sort of midrib known as the connec-
tive. Each lobe contains within it two chambers or loculi,
called the pollen-sacs; thlis there are altogether four loculi in

FIG. 180.
Pollen grains.
A, an entire
grain;
E, 11 grain in
section showing
tube-nucleus
(bigger one) and
generative nucleus
(smaller one).

FIG. 181.
Growth of the
pollen-tube.

FIG. 180 FIG. 181

each anther (fig. 179), sometimes two or even one. Within
each pollen-sac there is a fine, powdery or granular mass of
cells, called the pollen grains: Sometimes pollen grains are
 94 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

produced in large quantities, and when the anther bursts they

are scattered by the wind like par-
ticles of dust, as seen in pine, palms,
screwpine, maize, etc. A sterile stamen,
i.e. the one not bearing pollen grains,
is called a staminode, as in noon
flower. In madar and orchids the
pollen cells are not free but become
united into a mass known as pollinium
(fig. IS2).
Pollen Grains. These are the male re-
FIG. 182. Pollinia of madar productive bodies of a flower and are
(Calotropis). " '
contamed III the pollen-sacs. They
are very minute in size, varying from IO to 200 microns,
and are like particles of dust. Each pollen ~rain consists at a
single microscopic cell, and possesses two coats: tbe e~e
and the intine. The e~..a. tollgh.,-mtiuized layt;L_'Y~ is
often provided with spinous outgrowths or marking_~~ffer­
e~t.E.atterns, sometimes smooth, :rhe ill~~ne, however, is aJl1in,
d_t:licate, cellulose layer lying internal to the exjne. In pine the
pollen grain is provided with two distinct wings. When the
pollen grain germinates the intine grows out into a tube,
called the pollen-tnbe (fig. I S I), through some definite thin and
weak slits or pores, called germ pores, present in the exine
(fig. ISO). The pore may be covered by a distinct lid which is
pushed open by the growth of the intine. Two nuclei may
be seen in the pollen grain, of which the larger one is known
as the vegetative nucleus or tube-nuCleus and the smaller one
the generative nucleus. As the pollen-tube grows it' carries
with it at its apex the tube-nucleus and the generative nucleus.
The generative nucleus soon divides into two male reproduc-
tive units called male gametes. The tube-nucleus becomes dis-
organized.

Attachment ~f the Filament to the anther (fig. IS3). The

anther is said to be (A) basifixed or innate, when the filament
is attached to the base of the anther, as in mustard, radish,
sedge, water lily, etc.; (B) adnate, when the filament runs up
the whole length of the anther from the base to the apex, as
in Michelia, Magnolia, etc.; (C) dorsifixed, when it is attach-
ed to the back of the anther, as in passion-flower; and (D)
versatile, when it is attached to the back of the anther at one
 THE FLOWER 95
point only so that the latter can swing freely III the air, as in

FIG. 183.
A,
B,
basifixed;
adnate;
o
0, dorsified;
D, versatile;
E, elongated
connective
of sage (Salvia)
separating the
two anther·lobes.
A B G D M
grasses, palms, spider lily, etc. (E) In sage (Salvia) the filament
is attached to the elongated connective separating the two
anther-lobes, of which the upper one is fertile and the lower one
sterile. The connective plays freely on the filament.
Cohesion and Adhesion. The terms· 'adhesion', 'adnate', and 'adherent'
are used to designate the union of members of different whorls, e.g. petals
with stamens, or stamens with carpels; and 'cohesion', 'connate', and
'coherent' to designate the union of members of the same whorl, e.g. stamens
with each other, and carpels with each other.
Cohesion 01' Stamens. Stamens may either remain free or they
may be united (coherent). There may be different degrees of
cohesion of stamens, an~ these may be referred to as the (a)
adelphous condition when the stamens are united by their
filaments only, the anthers remaining free; or (b) syngenesi-
ous condition when the stamens are united by their anthers
only, the filaments remaining free. Accordingly the following
types are seen.
(1) Monadelphous Stamens (monos, single; adelphos,
brother). When all 'the filaments are united together into a

FIG. 184 FIG. 185 FIG. 186 FIG. 187

Cohesion of Stamens. Fif. 184. Monadelphous. Fig. 185. Diadelphous.
Fig. 186. Polyadelphous. Fig. 187. Syngenesious.

single bundle but the anthers are free, the stamens are said to
be monadelphous (fig. 184). as in China rose family. e.g. China
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

rose, lady's finger, cotton, etc. In them the filaments are unit-
ed into a tubular structure, called staminal tube, ending in free
anthers.
(2) Diadelphous Stamens (di, two). When the filaments are
united into two bundles, the anthers remaining free, the sta-
iIllens are said to be diadelphous -(fig. 185), as in pea family,
e.g. pea, bean, gram, butterfly pea, coral tree, rattlewort, etc.
In them there are altogether ten stamens of which nine are
united into one bundle and the tenth one is free.
(3) PoJyadelphons Stamens (polys, many). When the fila-
ments are united into a number of bundles-more than two,
but the anthers are free, the stamens are said to be polyadel-
phous (fig. 186), as in silk cotton tree, castor, lemon, pummelo
or shaddock, etc.
(4) Syngenesions Stamens (syn, together or united; genes,
producing). When the anthers are united together into a
bunQle or tube, but the filaments are free, the stamens are
said to be syngenesious (fig. 187), as in ::unflower family, e.g.
sunflower, marigold, safflower, Tridax, etc.
Adhesion of Stamens. When the stamens adhere to the
corolla wholly or partially by their filaments, anthers remain-
ing free, they are said to be (I) epipetalous, as in Datura,
tobacco, potato, Ixora (E. RANGAN ; H. GOTAGANDHAL), sunflower,
etc. Most of the flowers with a gamopetalous corolla have epipe-
talous stamens. When the stamens adhere to the carpels, either
throughout their ~hole length or by their anthers only, they
are said to be (2) gynandrous, as in madar (E. AKANDA ; H. AK),
orchids, etc. .
The stamens of a flower may be
of the same length, or their
lengths may vary without any
definite relation to each other.
But in some cases there is a
definite relation between short
and long stamens. Thus in
sacred basil (E. & H. TULSI),
Leonurus (B. DRONA; H. HAL-
A B KUSHA), Leucas (E. SWET-
Length qf Stamens. FIG. 188. DRONA; H. CHOTA-HALKUSHA),
A, didynamous; B, tetradynamolls.
<etc., there are four stamens, of
which two are long and two short; such stamens are said to
 THE FLOWER 91
be (I) didynamous (di, two; dynamis strellgth). In musta:-d
family, e.g. mustard, radish, turnip, rape, etc., there are SlX.
stamens, of which four are long and two short; such stamens
are said to be (2) tetradynamous (tetra, four).

(4) G Y N 0 Eel U M OR PIS TIL

Gynoecium (gyne, female) or pistil is the fourth or \~e
female reproductive whorl of the flower, and is compos~d
of one or more carpels which are modified leaves mean\

--STIGMA ~

--STYLE

·-OVARY

'cC
B

FIG. 189 FIG. 190

Pistil. FIG. 189. A, a simple pistil of pea; B, one-chambelled: (')vary
of the same. FIG. 190. A, a syncarpous pistil; B, ovary of the same
in transection; 0, ovary of the same in long i-section

to bear ovules (fig. 19Q B-C) and an embryo-sac within each

ovule (see fig. 193). When the'pistil is made of only one carpel

.'

,
.,
,,'

A B c .n
Apocarpous Pistil. fIG. 191. A, lotus 1 B,.Michelia; 0, rose; ;,.)
D, stonecrop (Sedum): u,' carpels. .'
7
98 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

,as in the flowers of pea, bean, gold mohur, sensitive plant,

etc., it (the pistil) is said to be simple or monocarpellary
(fig. 189), and when it is made of two or more carpels, the
pistil is said to be compound or polycarpellary. In a compound
pistil the carpels may be free (apocarpous) with as many ovaries
as the number of carpels (fig. 191), as in lotus, Michelia (B.
CHAMPA; H. CHAMPAK:A), rose, stonecrop (Sedum-a pot herb),
Magnolia etc., or the carpels may be united together into one
ovary (syncarpous; fig. 190); the latter is mere common. Each
pistil consists of three parts-stigma, style and ovary (fig.
190 A). The small rounded or lobed head of the pistil is known
as the stigma; the slender stalk supporting the stigma is called
the style; and the swollen basal part of the pistil which forms
one or more chambers is termed the ovary. The ovary contains
one or more little, roundish or oval, egg-like bodies which are
the rudiments of seeds and are known as the ovules. Each
ovule encloses a large oval cell known as the embryo-sac (see
fig. 193)' The ovary gives rise to the fruit and the ovules to
the seeds. A functionless or sterile pistil is called a pistillode,
as in the ray floret of sunflower. .
Carpels in Syncarpous Pistil. In a syncarpous pistil it is often
difficult to determine the number of carpels. To obviate this
difficulty the following points should be noted: 1St, the number
of stigmas or of stigmatic lobes; 2nd, the number of styles;
yd, the number of lobes of the ovary; 4th, the number of
chambers (loculi) of the ovary; sth1 the number of placentae
in the ovary; and 6th, the number bf groups of ovules in the
ovary. It is seen that in most cases the number of parts, as
mentioned above, corresponds to the number of carpels making
up the syncarpous pistil.
The Ovary. The ovary is the closed chamber formed by the
union of margins of one or more carpels (which are regarded
as metamorphosed leaves). In the simple or apocarpous pistil
the carpel folds along the mid-rib and the two margins meet
and fuse together forming the ovary (fig. 189). In the syncarp-
ous pistil the carpels likewise meet by their respective margins
and form the ovary. If then the margins extend inwa,rds and
meet in the centre the ovary becomes two- or more-chambered
according to the number of carpels (fig. 190). If, however, the
margins only meet at the circumference but do not grow fur-
ther the ovary remains one-chambered (fig. 192 n). The junc-
 /
THE FLOWER 99
tion of two margins of one or more carpels is caIled the ventral
suture, and the mid-rib along which each carpel folds is called
the dorsal suture. The placenta normally develops along the
ventral suture.

PLACENTATION
Placenta is a ridge of tissue in the inner wall of the ovary,
bearing one or more ovules, and the manner of distribution
of the placentae within the ovary is called placentatipn. The
placentae most frequently develop on the margins of carpels
either along their whole line of union, called the suture, or at
their base or apex.
Types of Placentation (fig. 192). In the simple ovary (of one
carpel) there is one common type of placentation, known as
marginal, and in the compound ovary (of two or more carpels
united together) placentation may be axile, parietal, central,
free-central, basal. or superficial.

.B o

D E F
Types of Placentation. FIG. 192. A, marginal; a, longitudinal section;
11, transverse section; B, axile; 0, central; D, parietal; E, basal;
F, superficial.

. (I) Marginal. In marginal placentation (A) the ovary is one·

chambered and the placenta develops along the junction of the
 100 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANy

two margins of the carpel, called the ventral suture, as in pea,

gram, gold mohur, Cassia, sensitive plant, etc.)
(2) Axile. In the axile placentation (B) the ovary is many-
chambered-usually as many as the number of carpels-and
the placentae bearing the ovules develop from the central
axis corresponding to the confluent margins of carpels, and
hence the name axile (lying in the axis), as in lemon, orange,
China rose, tomato, potato, etc.
(3) Central. In -the central placentation (c) the septa or par-
tition walls in the young ovary soon break down so that the
ovary becomes one-chambered and the placentae bearing the
ovules develop all round the central axis, as in pink fainily,
e.g. pink (Dianthus), Polycarpon (B. GIMA-SAK), soapwort, etc.
Remnants of partition walls may often be seen .
. (4) Parietal (parietis, wall). In the parietal placentation (D)
the ovary is one-chambered, and the placentae bearing the
ovules develop on the inner wall of the ovary corresponding to .
the confluent margins of carpels. There ,He as many placentae
as the number of carpels, as in papaw, poppy, prickly poppy,
orchids, etc. In mustard family, e.g. mustard, radish, rape,
etc., the placentation is also parietal but here the ovary be-
comes 2-chambered due to the development of a false parti-
tion wall called replum.
(5) Basal. In the basal placentation (E) the ovary is unilocular
and the placenta develops directly on the thalamus, and bears
a single ovule at the base of the ovary. This is seen in sunflower
family, e.g. sunflower, marigold, Cosmos, etc .
.(6) Superficial. In the superficial placentation (F) the ovary
is multilocular, carpels being numerous, as in the axile placen-
tation, but the placentae in this case develop all round the inner
surfaces of the partition walls, as in water lily.

THE OVULE
Structure of the Ovule. Each ovule (fig. 193) is attached to the
placenta by a slender stalk known as (I) the funicle. The point
of attachment of the body of the ovule to its stalk or funicle
is known as (2) the hilum. In the inverted ovule, as shown in
fig. 193, the funicle continues beyond the hilum along~ide the
body of the ovule forming a sort of ridge; this ridge is called'
(3) the rapbe. Through the raphe food is carried to the nucel-
Ius. The distal end of the raphe or the funicle which is the junc-
tion of the integuments and the nucellus is called (4) the
 THE FLOWER 101
chalaza. The main body of the ovule is called (5) the nucel-
Ius, and it is surrounded by two coats (or only one in some)
termed (6) the integuments. A small opening is left at the apex
of the integuments; this is called (7) the micropyle. Lastly,
there is a large, oval cell lying embedded in the nucellus ~o­
wards the micropylar end; this is (8) the embryo-sac, that IS,
the sac that bears the embryo, and is the most important part
of the ovule.

CHALAZA

NUCELLUS

INTEGUMENTS
RAPHE +

ANTIPODAL CELLS

EMBRYO-SAC

FIG. 193. DEFINITIVE NUCLEUS

An anatropous EGG-CELL } EGG-APPA-
or inverted
ovule in ' SYNERGlDS RATUS
longitudinal
section. For an
MICROPYLE
orthotropous
Or straight HILUM
ovule see
FIG. 195B. FUNICLE

Parts and Functions of the Embryo-sac (figs. 193 & 1941). In

the mature embryo-sac a group of three cells, each surrounded
by a very thin wall, may be seen always lying towards the
micropyle; this group is called (1) the egg-apparatus. One
cell of this group is tHe female gamete known as (a) the egg-
cell or ovum, and the other two known as (b) the synergids
(syn, together; ergein, to workfor co-operating cells or help
cells.· The egg-cell on fertilization, i.e. on fusion with a male
gamete of the pollen-tube, gives rise to the embryo; this is
the most important function of the embryo-sac. The syner-
gids may aid in the process of fertilization by guiding the two
male gametes of the pollen-tube to the egg-cell and the defini-
tive nucleus. As soon as their function is over they become
disorganized. At the opposite end of the embryo-sac there is
another group of three cells known as (2) the antipodal ceUs,
each often surrounded by a very thin wall. These have no
definite function; so sooner or later they get disorganized.
Somewhere in the middle of the embryo-sac there is a distin~t
nucleus known as (3) the definitive nucleus which is the fused
102 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

product of the two polar nuclei i.e. the two nuclei coming
from the two poles or ends of the embryo-sac (fig. 194 G-1).
After a second fusion with the rem<lining male gamete it
forms the endosperm nucleus which may soon grow into the
endosperm of the seed (see pp. 19-20); this is the second
important function of the em.bryo-sac. •
Development of Embryo-sac (fig. 194). At a very early stage in the life of
the ovule a particular cell of it-the mother cell of the embryo-sae-enlarges
(A-B). It divides twice to produce a row of four megaspores(c). The upper
three degenerate and appear as dark caps (D), while the lowest one func·
tions. It enlarges and finally forms the embryo-sac; its nucleus divides
thrice to give rise to eight nuclei, four at each end or pole (E'G). Then one
nucleus from each pole moves inwards (0), and the two polar nuclei fuse
together, somewhere in the middle (H) forming the definitive nucleus, also
called the fusion nucleus (I). A fully developed embryo-sac consists of the "
parts as described before.
.A c D G

FIG. 194. Development of the embryo-sac. A., B, G, etc., are stages in its
development; I, fully developed embryo-sac.

Forms of Ovules (fig. 195)' The ovule is said to be (I) ortbo-

tropOUS (orthos, straight; tropos, a turn) or straight (B) when
the ovule IS erect or straight so that the funicle, chalaza and

A B C '\ D
'Forms of Ovules. 'FIG. 195. A, anatropou5; fl, orthotropo'us; C, amphi.
tropous; D, campylotropous.
 THE FLO W E R I03 .-
micropyle lie in one and the same verical line, as in polygo-
num, sorrel, betel, etc.; (2) anatropoos (and, backwards or up)
or inverted (A) when the ovule bends back alongside the funicle
so that the micropyle lies close to the hilum; the micropyle
and the chalaza, but not the funicle, lie in the same straight
line; this is the commonest form of ovule, (3) amphitropoos
(amphi, on both sides) or transver~e (c) when the ovule is placed
transversely at a right angle to its stalk or funicle, as in duck-
weed; and campyJotropoos (kampylos, curved) or curved (D)
when the transverse ovule is bent round likE' a horse-shoe so
that the micropyle and the chalaza do not lie in the same
straight line, as in four o'clock plant, Polycarpon (B. GlMA-SAK),
etc.
Features' used to describe a Flower
Flower :,solitary or in inflorescence (mention the type); sessile or stalked;
()omplete or incomplete; unisexual or bisexual; regular, zygomorphie or
irregular ; hypogynous, epigynous or perigynous ; nature of bracts and brao-
teoles, if present; shape of the flower, its colour and size.
CaJyx': poI,ysepalous or gamosepalous; number of sepals or of 10besJ
superior or inferior; aestivation; shape, size and colour.
Corolla: polypetalous or gamopetalous; number of petals or of lobes;
superior or inferior; aestivati.()n; shape, size, colour and scent; corona or
any special feature. (When there is not much difference between the calyx
and the corolla the term perianth bhouJd be used; it may be sepaloid or
petaloid; polyphyllous or gamophyllous.)
Androecium: number of stamens-definite (ten or less) or indefinite
(more than ten); free or united; nature ·of cohesion-monadelphous, diadel·
phous, polyadelphous, syngenesious or synandrous; nature of adhesion-
epipetalous or free from the petals; whether alternating with the petals (or
corolla-lobes) 'or opposite.J.hem i length of stamens-general length; inserted
or exerted; didynamous or tetradynamous i position of stamens-hypo-
gynous, perigynous or epigynous; attachment of the anther.
Gynoecium or Pistil: number of carpels; syncarpous or apocarpous;
nature ·of style-long or short; stigmas-simple, lobed or branched; their
number and nature-smooth or papillose; ovary-superior or inferior; num-
ber of lobes; number of chambers (loculi) ; nature of placentation; number
and for;; of ovules in each loculus of the ovary.
Description of Pea Flower (see fig. 452). Flowers axillary-either solitary
or in a few-flowered raceme, zygomorphic, complete, bisexual, hypogynous,
and papilionaceous. Calyx-sepals 5, unequal, united into an oblique tube,
5-lobed. Corolla- petals 5, free, papilionaceous, with vexillary aestivation-
the outermost petal known as the standard is broad, the lateral two are Om
wings, enclosing the two innermost ones-the keel. Androedum-stamens
ten, (9)+1, diadelphous. Gynoecium-carpel 1; ovary subsessile, one-cham-
bered and few-ovuled; placentation marginal; style one, inflexed, bearded
on the inner side.
 ,.

C HAP TE R IO Pollination
Pollination is the transference of pollen grains from the anther
of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another
flower of the same or sometimes allied species. Pollination is
of two kinds, viz. (1.) self-pollination or autogamy (autos, self;
gamos, marriage) and (2) cross-pollination or allogamy (alIos,
different). Self-pollination is the transference of pollen grains
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of: the same flower
.or to another flower borne by the same plant. In self-polli-
nation only one parent plant is concerned in producing the
offspring. Cross-pollination on the other hand is the trans-
ference of pollen grains from one flower to another flower
borne by two separate plants of the same or allied species,
irrespective of whether the flowers are bisexual or unisexual.
In cross-pollination two parent plants are involved and, there-
fore, a mingling of two sets of parental characters takes
place resulting in better offspring. BOlh the methods are,
however, widespread in nature.

l. SELF-POLLINATION OR AUTOGAMY
Self-pollination may under natUral conditions take place when
both the anthers and the
stigma of a bisexual flower
mature at the same time
(homOgamy). It is likely then
that some of the pollen grains
are dropped on the stigma
through the agency of insects
or wind. Then again in some
plants the bisexual flowers
never open. They remain
closed and the- pollen grains
may only pollinate the stigma
of the same flower (cleisto-
gamy), as III Commelina
berlgalensis (fig. 196). Self-
pollination also takes place
between two unisexual flowers
FIG. 196. Commelina bengalensis. borne by one and the same
Ft, underground flower.
. plant.
 POLLINATION
2. CROSS-POLLINATION OR ALLOGAMY
This is brought about by external agents which carry the
pollen grains of one flower and deposit them on the stigma
of another flower, the two being borne by two separate plants
of the same or closely allied species. The agents are insects
(bees, flies, moths, etc.), some animals (birds, snails, etc.), wind
. and water, and to achieve cross-pollination through them the
adaptations in flowers are many and varied.
I. Entomopbily (entomon, an insect; philein, to love). Polli-
nation by insects is of very general occurrence among plant-s.
Entomophilous or insect-loving flowers have various adapta-
tions by which they attract insects and use them as conveyors
of pollen grains from one flower to another for the purpose of
pollination. Principal adaptations are cnlour, nectar and scent.
There are some special adaptations also in certain flowers.
Colour. One of the most important adaptations is the colour
()f the petals. In this respect the brighter the colour and the
more irteguJ.ar the shape of the flower the greater is the attrac-
tion. Sometimes, when the flowers themselves are not con-
spicuous, other parts m~y become coloured and showy to
attract insects. Thus in Mussaenda (see fig. 162) one of the
~epals is modified into a large white or coloured leafy struc-
ture which serves as an 'advertisement' flag to attract insects.
In some cases bracts become highly coloured and attractive,
as in glory of the garden (B. BACAN'BILA8--see fig. 160 c),
poinsettia (B. LAL PATA), etc. The spathes also often become
brightly coloured, as,_in bananas and aroids. In sunflower,
marigold, etc., the head or capitulum consisting of a cluster
of small florets become as a wh.ole very attractive.
Nectar. Another important adaptation is the nectar. Nearly
all flowers with gamopetalous corolla secrete nectar which is a
positive attraction to the cleverer insects like bees. Nectar is
~ontained in a special gland, called nectary, and sometimes in
a special sac, or a tube-like structure called the spur (figs. 197-
200). The nectary occurs at the base of one of the floral
whorls, and as the bees collect the nectar from the nectary or
the sac or the spur they incidentally bring about pollination.
Scent. The third adaption is the scent. Most of the noctur-
nal flowers are insect-loving and they emit at night a sweet
scent which attracts insects from a distance. At night, when
the colour fails, the scent is particularly useful in directing
706 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
the insects to the flowers. Thus nocturnal flowers are mostly

FIG. 197 FIG. 198 FIG. 199 FIG. 200

Appendages of Perianth. FIG. 197. Saccate corolla (8') of snapdragon ..
FIG. 198. Flower of garden nasturtium. FIG. 199. Flower of larkspur.
FIG. 200. Flower of balsam. 8, spur.

sweet-smelling. Common examples are night jasmine, queen

of the night, jasmines, Rangoon creeper; (B. SANDHYA-
MALATI; H. LAL-MALTI), etc. On the other hand the stinking
smell that is emitted from
the appendix of mature
Amorphophallus inflores-
SPATHl!l
cence (fig. 20 I) is im-
APPENDIX mensely liked by certain
MALE
small flies (carrion-flies),
FLOWERS and pollination is achiev-
fEMALE
FLOWERS
ed through them.
The pollen grains of
entomophilous flowers are
either sticky or provided
with spinous outgrowths.
CORM The stigma is also sticky.
Pollen grains and nectar
sometimes afford excellent
food for certain insects.
They also often visit the
FIG. 201. Spadix of AnwTpho- flowers in search of shelter
phallta. (p. OL; H. KANDA}.
from sun and rain.
Polliaalion in sage (Salvia; FlO. 202). A very interesting caae of cross-
pollination by insects is seen in the flowers of this plant. In them the two
anther-lobes of each stamen ar~ widely separated by the elongated curved
connective. As the insect enters the flower it pushes the sterile lower lobe.
The connedive swings round and the upper fertile lobe strikes the back of
 POLLINATION

the insect and dusts it with pollen grains. After the insect leaves the
flower the stigma matures and bends
down to receive the pollen grains from
the back of another insect which has
brought them from another flower.
2. Anemophily (anemos, wind).
In wme cases pollination is
. brought about by wind. Anemo-
philous or wind-loving flowers are
small and inconspicuous. They
are never coloured or showy. B
They do not emit any smell nor FIG. 202. Sage (Salvia). A,
do they secrete any nectar. The entire flower; E, showing
elongated connective.
anthers produc'.! an immense
quantity of pollen grains, wastage during transit from one
flower to another being consider-
able. They are also minute, light
and dry, sometimes, as in pine, pro-
vided with wings. In this way the
pollen grains are easily carried by
the wind and distributed over a
. wide area, evidently helping cross-
pollination. Stigmas are compara-
tively large and protruding, some-
times branched and often feathery.
Examples are seen in maize, rice,
grasses, bamboo, sugarcane, pine
and several palms. (Wheat, however,
is habitually self-pollinated).
Anemophily is well illustrated by maize
or Indian corn plant (fig. 203). The male
flowers (spikelets) of the panicle on the top
produce an immense quantity of. pollen
grains. As the anthers burst, the pollen
grains are set adrift by air-currents :md
many of them, particularly those brought
from the neighbouring plants, are caught
FIG. 203. Maize plant with by the long hanging styles bOl;ne by the
',male flowers in <a panicle female flowers (spikelets) of the spadix
(above) and female flowers
in a spadix (below). Note lower down. .
the long hanging styles.
3. HydrophiIy (hydor, water). Polli-
nation may also be brought about in some aquatic plants,
particularly the submerged ones, through the medium of
water, e.g. Naias, Vallisneria, Hydrilla, etc.
 108 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
Hydrophily may be illustrated by Vallisneria (fig. 204). The plant is
dioecious and submerged. The minute male flowers get detached from
the small spadix of the male plant and float on water. Each female
flower borne on a long stalk by the female plant is brought to the level
of water. Then the free-floating male flowers are set adrift towards the
female flower. 'l.'hey come in contact with the female flower. The anthers
burst and tbe pollen grains are distributed on the stigma of the female
flower. Thus pollination is brought about. The stalk of the· female flower
then becomes closely coiled and the fruit develops under water.

FLOAT1NG
FLOATING MALE
FEM.lLE FLOWERS
FLOWER

MALE
FEMALE PLANT
PLANT

FIG. 204. Valli.meria. Left, a female plant with a floating female flower,
a- submerged flower (-bud) and a fruit (15 em. long) maturing under water
after pollination; 1'ight, a male plant with three spadices-young (covere,l
by spathe), mature (with the ~pathe bursting) ;,lnd old (atter the escape
of the male flowers). Male flowers are now seen floating on water.

4· Zoophily (zoonJ animal). Birds, squirrels, bats, snails, etc.,

also act as useful agents of pollination; for example, birds
and squirrels bring about pollination in coral tree and silk
cotton tree; bats in Anthocephalus (E. & H. KADAM); and
&nails in certain large varieties of aroid:; and in snake plant
(Arisaema-see fig. 138).
 POLLINATION 109
Merits and Demerits of Self- and Cross-pollinations. Self-pollination haa
this merit that it is almost certain in a bisexual flower provided that both
stamens and carpels of it have matured at the same time. Continued self-
pollination generation after generation has, however, this demerit that it
results in weaker progeny. The advantages of cross-pollinatioI} are many:
(a) it always results in much healthier offspring which are beft'lr adapted
to the struggle for existence; (b) more abundant and viable seeds are pro.-
duced by this method; (e) new varieties may alsu be produced by the method
'of cross-pollination; and (d) the adaptability of the plants to their environ-
lllent is better by this method. The disadvantages of cross-pollination are
that the plants have to depend on external agencies for the purpose and, this
being so, the process is more or less precarious and also less economical as.
various devices have to be adopted to attract pollinating agents, and tha.t
there is always a considerable waste of matHial (pollen) when wind is the
pollinating agent.
Contrivances for Cross-pollination. By cross-pollination better
se~ds and healthier offspring are normally produced. Nature.
therefore, favours this process and helps it by certain contri-
vances in flowers, which wholly or sometimes partially pre-
vent self-pollination. It must, -however, be noted that in many
flowers .):here is stUI provision for self-pollination if the other
method fails.
(1) Dicliny or Unisexuality.,_-- (a) Unisexual or diclinous
flowers, i.e. separate male and female flowers, may be borne
by one and the same plant; such a plant is said to be monoe-
dous (monos, single; oikos, house), e.g. gourd, cucumber.
castor, maize, etc. ; or, (b) these may be borne by two separate
plants; such plants are said to be dioecious (di, two), e.g.
palmyra-palm, papaw, mulberry, etc. In monoecious plants the
flowers may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated, while in
dioecious plants cross-pollination is indispensable for the pro-
duction of seeds.
(2) Self-sterility. This is the condition in which the pollen
of a flower has no fertilizing effect on the stigma of the same
flower. Tea flowers, many grasses, some species of passion-
flower, some orchids and mallow are self-sterile. Only pollen
applied from another plant of the same or allied species is.
effective in such cases. Cross-pollination is thus the only
method in them for the setting of seeds.
(3) Dichogamy (dicha, in two). In many bisexual flowers
the anther and the stigma often mature at different times.
This condition is known as dichogamy. Dichogamy often.
stands as a barrier to self-pollination. There are two conditions
of dichogamy: (a) protogyny (prolOs, first; gyne, female).
 110 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

when the gynoecium

matures earlier than the
anthers of the same
flower; here the stigma
receives the pollen grains
brought from another
flower, e.g. Ficus (fig,
bany:m, peepul, etc.), four
o'clock plant, Magnolia,
custard-apple, etc.; and
(b) protandry (protos,
first; andros, male) when
the anthers mature (burst
and discharge their pol-
len) earlier than the
stigma of the same flower;
here the pollen grains are A B
carried over to the stigma FIC. 205. Protandrous fllnvers of
of another flower, e.g. Clerodendron; A, stameI,ls maturing first;
fl, stigma maturing later.
Clerodendron (fig. 205),
cotton, lady'S finger, sunflower, marigold, coriander, rose, etc.
Protandry is more common than protogyry·

FIG. 206.
Dimorphic flowers
of primrose.
A, a flower with
long style;
B, a flower with
short style:

(4) Heterostyly (heteros, different). There are some plants

which bear flowers of two different forms. One form bears
long stamens and a short style, and the other form bears short
stamens and a long style. This is known as dimorphic hetero-
styly. Similarly there may be cases of trimorphic heterostyly,
that is, stamens and styles of three different iengths borne by
three different forms of flowers. In all such cases cross-pollina-
tion readily takes place between stamenS and styles of the
same length borne by different flowers. Dimorphic heterostyly
 THE FRUIT I IS

rity. ,The seed normally bea:-s only one embryo. (2) Protec-
tion of the E.mbryo. 'The seed encloses the embryo and pro-
tects it from excessive heat, cold and rain, and also from the
attack of insects, birds and other animals. (3) Storage ot Food.
The seed stores up food fa:: the embryo, either in the endo-
sperm or in the cotyledons. This food is ut]ized by the em-
bryo when the seed germinates. (4) Seed Dispersal (see chap-
te:: 14). Many seeds ha\.e spedal adaptations by which they are
easily dispersed by wind, water and many animals.

CHAPTER 13 The Fruit

Development of the Frnit. After fertilization the ova::y also
begins to grow and gradually it matur~s inte the fruit. The
frUlt may, therefore, be regarded as a nnture or ripened
ovary. If, for some reason or other, fertiEzation fails, the ovary
simply withers and falls off. A fruit consists of two port~ons,
viz. the ,pericarp (peri, around; karpos, fruit) developed from
the wall of the ovary, and the seeds devclopeci from the ovules.
In some cultivated varieties of oranges, bananas, grapes, apples,
pineapples and some other fruits the ovary may grow into the
fru:t without fertilization. Such a fruit is seedless or with
immature seeds and is known as the parthenocarpic fruit. The
pericarp may be thick or thin; when th~ck, it may consist of
two or three parts: the outer, called ej)icarp, fo:-ms the skin

FIG. 209 FIG. 210 FIG. 211

FIG. 209. Apple in transverse section. FIG. 210. Cashew-nut (Anacardium).
FIG. 21L Marking nut (Semecarpus).

of the fruit ; the middle, called mesocarp, is pulpy in fruits like

mango, peach, palms, etc., and the inner, called endocarp, is
often very thin and membranous, as in orange, or it may be
 116 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

har:d and stony, as in many palms, mango, etc. In many cases,

however, the pericarp is not differentiated into these three
regions. Functions oj the Fruit. The fruit gives protection to
the seed and, therefore, to the embryo. Ie stores food material.
It also helps dispersal of the seed.
Normally it is only the ovary that grows into the fruit; such
a fruit is known as the true fruit. Sometimes, however, other
floral parts, particularly the thalamus or even the calyx, may
grow and form a part of the fruit; such a fruit is known as
the false fruit. Common examples of false fruits arc apple
(fig. 209), pear, cashew~nut (fig. 210), marking nut (fig. 21I),
rose, Dillenia (E. & H. CHALTA), etc.
Dehiscence of Fruits (fig. 212). There are many fruits whose
pericarp bursts to liberate the seeds, when the former mature;
such fruits are said to be dehiscent. There are others again

FIG. 212. Dehiscence of fr·iuts. A, sutural' (pea); B, porous (poppy);

0, transverse (cock's comb); D, loculicidal; E, septicidal;
F-G. septifragal.

whose pericarp does not burst, and consequently the seeds can-
not be liberated from the fruits until decay of the latter has set
in. Fruits that belong to this category are said to be indehiscent.
Dehiscent fruits open in various ways, as shown in fig. 212, and
aid in the dispersal of seeds.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
All the different kinds of fruits may be broadly classified into
three groups, viz. simple, aggregate and multiple or composite.
A few common types are discussed under each group.
I. Simple Frnits. When a single fruit develops from the ovary
(either of simple pistil or of syncarpous pistil) of a flower with
 THE FRUIT 117

or without accessory parts, it is said to be a simple fruit. A

simple fruit may be dry or fleshy. Dry fruits may again be
<iehiscent or indehiscent.

I. DEHISCENT OR CAPSULAR FRUITS

(I) Legume or Pod (fig. 213). This is a dry, one-chambered
fruit dev~loping from a simple pistil and dehiscing by both
the margms, e.g. pea, bean, pulses, groundnut, etc.

FIG. 213 FIG. 214 FIG. 215 FIG. 216

Fruits. FIG. 213. Legume or pod of pea. FIG. 214. Follicle of madar
{Catotropts). FIG. 215. Siliqua of mustard. FIG. 216. Capsule of Datura.

(2) Follicle (fig. 214). This is also a dry, one-chambered

fruit like the prev~'ous one, but it dehisces by one suture only,
e.g. madar, blood flower, periwinkle, larkspur, etc. Follicles
commonly develop-in an aggregate of two to many fruits.
(3) Siliqua (fig. 215)' This is a dry, long, narrow, two-cham·
bered fruit developing from a bicarpellary pistil with two
parietal placentae. It dehisces from below upwards by both
the margins. The ovary is one-chambered at first, but soon it
becomes two-chambered owing to the development of a false
partition wall, called replum, which extends from one placenta
to the other, e.g. mustard, radish, etc.
(4) Capsule (figs. 216-17). This is a dry, one- to many-cham-
bered fruit developing from a syncarpous pistil, and dehiscing
in various ways. All dehiscent fruits developing from a syn-
carpous pistil are commonly known as capsules, e.g. cotton,
lady's finger, Datura, cock's comb, poppy. etc.
 1I8 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

II. INDEHISCENT OR ACHENIAL FRUITS

(1) Acbene (fig. 218). An achene is a small, dry, one-seeded
fruit developing from a single carpel; but unlike the next
.
one, the pericarp of this fruit is free from the seed-coat, e.g .

FIG. 217 FIG. 218 FIG. 219 FIG. 220

Fruits (contd.). FIG. 217. Capsule of coLton. FIG. 218. Achenes of Nara-
velia. FIG. 219. Samara of Dipterocarpus. FIG. 220. Samara of Hiptage.

rose, buckwheat, Naravelia (fig. 218), Clematis (see fig. 237A).

etc. Achenes commonly develop in an aggregate.
(2) Caryopsis (see figs. 25-6). This is a very small, dry, one-
seeded fruit developing from a simple pistil, with the pericarp
fused with the seed-coat, e.g. rice, wheat, maize, bamboo.
grass, etc. .
(2) Cypsela (see fig. 236A). This is a dry, one-seeded fruit deve-
loping from. an inferior bicarpellary ovary, e.g. sunflower.
marigold, Cosmos, etc. .
(4) Nut. This is a dry, one-seeded fruit developing from a
superior syncarpous pistil, with the pericarp hard and woody,.
e.g. cashew-nut, chestnut, oak, etc.
(sf Samara (figs. 219-20). This is a dry, one or two-seeded
frurt with one or more thin flat membranous wings, e.g. Hip-
tage (B. MADHABI-LATA), wood-oil tree (Dipterocarpus; B.
GARJAN), Hopea, Shorea (B. & H. SAL), etc.
(6) Scbizocarp. This is a dry fruit partitioned between the
seeds into a number of compartments, and splits through the
partitions separating the compartments. It does not, however.
dehisce to liberate the seeds, e.g. sensitive plant, nicker bean
(Entada; B. GILA), coriander, carrot, castor, etc.
 THE FRUIT 119

lII. FLESHY FRUITS

(1) Drupe (fig. 221). This is a fleshy, one- or more-seeded
fruit with the pericarp differentiated into the outer skin or
epicarp, often fleshy or sometimes fibrous mesocarp, and hard
and stony endocarp, and hence this fruit is also known as
stone-fruit, e.g. mango, plum, coconut-palm, palmyra-palm,
country almond, etc.
(2) Becca or Berry (fig. 222). This is a fleshy, usually many-
seeded fruit, e.g. tomato, gooseberry, grapes, banana, guava,
papaw, etc. With the growth of the fruit the seeds separate
FIG. 2fll A FIG. 222 B

FIG. ~23 ' - FlG. 224 FIG. 225

Fruits (contd.). FIG. 221. Drurc of mango; Epi, epicarp; Mes, mesocarpi
End, endocarp; Cot, cotyledon. FIG. 222. Berry of tomato; A, in longi-
tudinal section; H, in transverse section. FIG. 223. Pepo of cucumber in
transverse section. FIG. 224. Pome of apple (see also FIG. 209). FIG. 225.
Hesperidium of orange.

from the placentae and lie. free in the pulp. It is not infrequent
to find one-seeded berry, e.g. date-palm, Artabotrys, (B. & H.
KANTALl-CHAMPA), etc.
(3) Pepo (fig. 223). This is also a fleshy, many-seeded fruit
like the berry but it develops from an inferlOr, one-celled or
spuriously three-celled, syncarpous pistil with parietal placen-
tation, e.g. gourd, cucumber, melon, water melon, squash, etc.
In pepo the seeds, lying embedded in the pulp, remain attached
(0 the placentae.
 120 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(4) Pome (fig. 224). This is an inferior, two- or more-celled,

fleshy, syncarpous fruit surrounded by the thalamus. The
fleshy edible part is composed of the thalamus, while the
actual fruit lies within, e.g. apple and pear.
(5) Hesperidium (fig. 225). This is a superior, many-celled,
fleshy fruit with axile placentation. Here the endocarp projects
inwards forming distinct chambers; and the epicarp and the
mesocarp, fused together, form the separable skin or rind of
the fruit, e.g. orange, shaddock, lemon etc. -
2. Aggregate Fruits. An aggregate fruit is a collection of
simple fruits (or fruitlets) developing from an apocarpous pistil
(free carpels) of a flower. Since each free carpel develops into
a fruit there will be as many fruits as there are free carpels
in a flower. An aggregate of simple fruits borne by a single
flower is otherwise known as an 'etaerio', and the common
forms of etaerios are; (I) an etaerio of follicles, e.g. Michelia,
madar, periwinkle, larkspur, etc.; (2) an etaerio (.)f achenes,
e.g. rose, lotus, strawberry, Naravelia, etc.; (3) an etaerio of
drupes, e.g. raspberry; and (4) an etaerio of berries, e.g. custard-
apple, Artabotrys (B. & H. KANTALI-CHAMPA), mast tree (polyal-
thia; B./DEBDARU ; H. DEVADARU or ASHOK), etc.
3. Multiple or Composite Fruits. A multiple or composite
fruit is that which develops from an inflorescence where the
flowers are crowded togetN:r and often fused with one another.
(1) Sorosis (see fig. 365). This is a multiple fruit develop-
ing from a spike or spadix. The flowers fuse together by their
succulent sepals and at the same time the axis bearing them I
grows and becomes fleshy or woody, and as a result the whole
inflorescence forms a compact mass, e.g. pineapple, screwpine
and jack-fruit. Mulberry (see fig. 142) is also a sorosis, but
here the fleshly part is made of loosely attached sepals.
(2) Syconus (see fig. 153). The syconus develops from a
hollow, pear-shaped, fleshy receptacle which encloses a number
of minute, male and female flowers. The receptacle grows,
becomes fleshy and forms the so-called fruit. It really encloses
a number of true fruits or achenes which develop from the
female flowers lying within the receptacle, e.g., fig, banyan,
peepul, etc.
Some Common Fruits and their Edible Parts
Apple (pome)-fleshy thalamus. Banana (berry)-me~nd en~i:-p.
Cashew-nut (nut)-peduncle and cotyledons. Coconut-palm (fibrous drupe)-
 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS 121

endosperm. Cucumber (pepo)-mesocarp, endocarp and placentae. Custard-

apple (etaerio of berries)-fieshy pericarp of individual berries. Date-palm
(I·seeded berry)-pericarp. Dillenia (special)-accrescent calyx. Fig (syco-
nus)-fieshy receptacle. Jack ·(sorosis)-bracts, perianth and seeds. Grape
(berry)-pericarp and placentae. Guava (berry)-thalamus and pericarp.
Indian plum (drupe)-mesocarp including epicarp. Litchi (l·seeded nut)-
fleshy aril. Maize, oat, rice and wheat (caryopsis)-starchy endosperm.
Mango (drupe)-mesocarp. Melon (pepo)-mesocarp. Orange (hespiridium)-
juicy placental hairs. Palmyra-palm (fibrous drupe)-mesocarp. Papaw
(berry)-mesocarp. Pea (lcgume)-cotyledons. Pear (pam e)-fleshy thala.-
mus. Pineapple (sorosis)-outer portion of receptacle, bracts and perianth.
Pomegranate (special)-juicy outer coat of the seed. Pummelo or shaddock
(hespiridium)-juicy placental hairs. Strawberry (etaerio of achenes)
-succulent thalamus. Tomato (berry)-pericarp and placentae. Wood-
apple (special)-mesocarp, endocarp and placentae.

CHAPJ"ER 14 Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits

If seeds and fruits fall directly underneath the mother plant
and the seedlings grow up close together they soon exhaust the
soil of -its ~ssential food constituents. Besides, the available
space, light and air under such a condition fall far short of
the demand. A struggle for existence thus ensues, the conse-
quence of which may be fatal to all of them. To guard against
this the seeds and fruits have developed various devices for
their wide distribution so that some of them at least may meet
with favourable conditions of germination and normal growth.
Thus the risk of a species of plants becoming extinct is prac-
tically averted.
I. Seeds and Fruits dispersed by Wind. Seeds and fruits have
various adaptations like wings, pappus, hairs, etc., which help
them to be carried away by the wind to a shorter or longer
distance from the parent plant.

FIG. 226 FIG. 227 FIG. 228

vVinged Seeds. FIG. 226. OToxylon. FIG. 227. Cinclwna. FIG. 228. Crepe tree.

(I) WingS. Seeds and fruits of many plants develop one or

more thin membranous wings for facility of dispersal by the
 122 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
wind. Thus seeds of Oroxylon
(B. SONA; H. ARLU-fig. 226),
Cinchona (fig. 227), crepe tree
(B. & H. JARUL-fig. 228),
drumstick (B. SAJINAj H. SAINJNA
-fig. 229), etc., are provided
with wings for this purpose.
Similarly many fruits are also
I'IG. 229 FIG. 230 provided with one or _ more
FIG. 229. Winged seed of drum- wings to achieve the same end,
stick (lvJ~ringa). FIG •. 230 Wing- e.g. yam (Dioscorea; fig. 23 0 ),
ad frUlt of yam (Dw.scorea). • .
wood-oIL tree (Dzpterocarpus;
-B. CARJAN-fig. 231), Hiptage (B. MADHABI-LATA, H. MADHU-LATA
-fig. 232) and Shorea (B. & H. SAL-fig. 233).
(2) Parachute Mechanism. In many plants of the sunflower
family the calyx is modified into hair-like structures known

231
FIG. FIG. 232 FIG. 233
Winged Fruits. FIG. 231. DipteroCar[J'118. FIG. 232. IJiptage.
FIG. 233. Shorea.

as pappus (fig. 236 A) .. This pappus is persistent 'in the fruit,

and opens out in an umberella-like fashion. Thus acting like
a parachute it helps the fruit to be carried by air current to a
distance.
(3) Censer Mechanism. In some plants, as in poppy, prickly
poppy, bath sponge, cock's comb, pelican flower (Aristolochia
 DIS PER SAL 0 F SEE D SAN D F R U ITS 12.l
; B. HANSA-LATA-figs. 234-5)' etc., the fruit dehisces, and
it is disturbed by the wind, the seeds are thrown out.

FIG. 235
FIG. 234. Pelican flower
(Aristolochia) with duck-
shaped flowers.
FIG. 235 . .A fruit of the
same like a hanging basket.

Hairy Fruit and Seeds. no. 236. ..4., pappus of a (Jom1l1011:tae

ll, madar ( ; C, devil tree (..4.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(4) Hairs. A tuft of hairs or a dense coating of hairs on

seeds and fruits is very useful for their distribution by the
wind, e.g. madar (fig. 236 B), devil tree (fig. 236 c), cotton
(fig. 236 n) etc.
(s) Persistent Styles. In virgin's bower (Clematis; H.
BELKUN-fig. 237A) and traveller's joy (Naravelia; B. CHHAGAL-
BAn-fig. 237 B) the styles are persistent and very feathery.
The fruits are thus easily carried away by the wind.
(6) Light Seeds and Fruits. Some seeds and fruits are so
light and minute in size
that they may easily be
carried away by the gentlest
breeze. Thus orchids often
bear millions of dust-like
seeds (smallest in the vege-
table kingdom) in a single
fruit (capsule). Seeds of Cin-
A B chona (the quinine-yielding
Persistent styles. FIG. 237. A fruits plant) are also very small,
of Clemati3; B, fruits' flat, extremely light, and
of Namvelia.
provided with a membran-
ous wing (see fig. 227). There are about 2,470 seeds per
gramme.
2 •. Seeds and Fruits dispersed by Water. Seeds and fruits to
be dispersed by water usually develop floating devices in the
form of spongy or fibrous outer coats. The fibrous fruit of
coconut is capable of floating long'
distances in t.he sea without suffering
any injury. Hence coconut forms a
characteristic vegetation of sea-coasts
and marine islands. The fruit of double
coconut (Lodoicea; fig. 238), a native
of Seychelles, which bears the largest
seed in the vegetable kingdom, is also
distributed likewise by ocean currents .
. The top-shaped spongy thalamus of
lotus (see fig. 158 c) bearing the fruits
on its surface floats on water and is FIG. 238. Double coconut
. d seed (Lodoicea).
drifted by water-current or b y wm .
Seeds of water lily are small and light, and are further pro-
vided with an aril which encloses air.
 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS 125

3. Seeds dispersed by Explosive Fruits. Many fruits burst with

a sudden jerk, with the result that seeds are scattered on all
sides. Common examples of explosive fruits are balsam, wood-

FIG. 239. Ruellia; note the explosive fruit.

sorrel, night jasmine, castor, etc. Ripe fruits of balsam burst
suddenly. The valves roll up inwards, and the seeds are ejected

FIG. 240. BauMnia vahlii; note the explosive fruit.

with great force and scattered in all directions. Dry fruits of
Ruellia (fig. 239) coming ill contact with water, particularly

I
 l"'U A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
after a shower of rain, bu:-st suddenly with a noise and scatter
the seeds. Further the seed is provided with a curved hook
Uacularor) which straightens out instantly and jerks out the
seed. Mature fru:ts of Phlox, Andrographis (B. KALMEGH; H.
MAHATITA), Barleria (B. JHANTI; H. VAJRADANTI), etc., hurst
suddenly when the air is dry, particularly at m_id-day.
A very interesting example of bursting fruits is found in
camel's foot climber (Bauhinia vahb; B. LA'IA-KANCHAN; H.
CHAMBVLl). Its long pods, sometimes as long as 30 em., explode
with a loud noise like a cracker, scattering the seeds in all
directions (fig. 240).
4. Seeds and Fruits dispersed by Animals. Many seeds and
fru:ts are provided with hooks, harbs, spines, stiff hairs and
sticky glands on
their surface, by
means of which they
stick to the body of
woolly an:mals as
well as to the cloth-
ing of mankind, and
are often carried
by them to distant
places. Thus it is seen
that the fruits of
Xanthium (B. & H.
FIG. 241 FIG. 242
FIG. 241. Fruit of Xanthiu'm with curved OKRA-fig. 241) and
hooks. FlG. 242. Fl uit of Urena with " Urena (E. BAN-OKRA;
curved hooks.
H. BACHATA-fig. 242)

FIG. 243 FIG. 244 FIG. 245

FIG. 243. Fruit of Boerhaavia with sticky glands (see also FIG. 294B).
FIG. 244. Fluwers of Pupa/ia with hooked bristles. FIG. 245. Fruit of
tiger's nail (Mart!Jnia) with a pair of sharp, curved hooks.
 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS 127

are covered with numerous curved hooks. Seeds (fruits) of

spear g::ass and love-thorn (B. CHORKANTA) have a cluster of
stiff ha.rs pointing upwards. Fruits of Eoerhaavia (B. PUNAR-
NAVA; H. THIKRI-fig. 243) are provided with sticky glands.
In Pupalia (fig. 244) the perianth bears cluste::s of hooked
bristles. Tiger's nail (Martynia; B. BAGH-NAKHI-fig. 245) is
a very inte:-esting case. Its seed is provided with two very
sharp-pointed, stiff and bent hooks by which it easily sticks
to the body of woolly animals.
Human beings, birds, squ:'rrels, bats and jackals· are also
useful agents in distributing seeds and fruits over wide areas.
 PART II HISTOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 Tke Cell

An Early H~~l?fl'hV study of histology dates from the year 1665,
when plan t ('1ts'" ere disCl~ered for the first time. It was Robert Hooke,
an Eng~man, who first st~l.ied the internal structure of a thin slice of
b()4.l.p;ork with the help of a microscope improved by himself. He dis-
) ~d for the first time a honey-comb-lik8 structure in it, and to each
~ndividual cavity of such a structure he applied the term cell. It was then
only the cell-wall that was noticed, this being the prominent part of the
cell. Other prominent workers of that time, who studied plant tissues under
the microscope, were Leeuwenhoek, Grew and Malpighi. Leeuwenhoek of
Delft in Holland was the first to invent microscope. He was a dry-
goods dealer but at the age of 21 in the year 1653 he de-velope<f a mania
for grinding lenses. He pursued this work with zeal and assiduity and
within 20 years (1653-1673) accomplished marvellous fine~ess, accUl'acy and
perfection in his lenses. He gave a demonstration of his microscope before
the Royal Society in 1667. He was the first to discover bacteria, protozoa
and other minute forms of life--'the wretched beasties', as he called them,
under his own microscope. Grew, an English physician and botanist, pub-
lished his first paper on plant tissues in 1671. Malpighi, an Italian physician,
studied the various tissues of vascular plants, and published his first paper
in 1675. In 1838-39 Schleiden, a German botanist, and Schwann, a German
zoologist, proved definitely that both plants and animals are cellular in
character, and founded the cell theory.

Cell-structure. We have already learnt (see Introduction) that

the plant body is composed of cells which are its fundamental
structural and functional units. A plant cell may be defined

w
P

A B d
Plant Cells. FIG. 246. A, polygonal cell (three-dimensional diagram);
B, a cubical cell in section (three-dimensional diagram); G, a group of
cells in section. lV, cell-wall; P, protoplasm; lV, nucleus.

as a unit or independent, tiny or microscopic mass of proto-

plasm enclosing in it a denser spherical or oval body, called
 THE CELL 129

the nucleus, and bounded by a distinct wall, called the cell-

wall. Protoplasm and nucleus are living, while the cell-wall is
non-living; the latter has been formed by the protoplasm to
maintain its shape and firmness and to afford, necessary pro-
tection. Cells vary widely in shapes and sizes. In shapes they
may com.monly be spherical, oval, polygonal, cubical or na:-row
and elongated. When young, they are often spherical or of
like nature. Usually they are very minute in size invisible
to the naked eye. The average size of fully developed rounded
or polygonal cells varies between 1/ 10th and 1/ lOath of a
millimetre. There are, however, many cells far beyond these
limits.
""'LIVING CELL-CONTENTS (THE PROTOPLAST)
Protoplasm (see also Introduction) is the only substance that
is endowed with life; plants and animals containing this sub-
stance in their body are, the:-e£ore, regarded as living. The
protoplasm has to perform the manifold vital functions of a
cell such as manufacture of food, nutrition, growth, respiration,
reproduction, etc., and as such for the sake of conven:ence and
efficiency of work it becomes differentiated into distinct living
(protoplasmic) bodies, viz. (I) cytoplasm, (2) nucleus and in
special cells (3) pJastids, of which the first two are constant in
all living cells. Such differentiated protoplasmic bodies have
certain specialized functions. It must distinctly be noted that
these liv:ng bodies are never formed afresh in the cells but
always develop from pre-existing ones by divisions and that
one kind of liying body cannot give rise to another kind:
'-
DIFFERENTIATED PARTS OF PROTOPLASM
l. Cytoplasm. The protoplasmic -mass of a cell leaving out
the nucleus and the plastids is otherwise called cell-protoplasm
or cytoplasm. When the cell is young the cytoplasm com-
pletely fills its cavity, i.e. the space between the cell-wall and
the nucleus (fig. 247 A), bus as the cell rapidly increases in size
it cannot keep pace with the growth of the cell-wall. Conse-
quently a number of small (non-protoplasmic) cavities appear·
in it; these are called vacuoles (vacuus, empty; fig. 247 B).
With further growth of the cell all these small vacuoles fuse
together into a large one which then occupies by far the greater
part of the cell, pushing the cytoplasm outwards as a thin
lining layer against the cell-wall (fig. 247 c). In some cells com·
9
 13 0 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

:parativeIy small vacuoles persis~ and then the cytoplasm forms

-delicate strands around them (fig. 247 D). The vacuole is filled
with a fluid called the cell-sap which ill water containing
certain. mineral salts and food substances dissolved in it. The
vacuole is thus a tiny reservoir of the cell from which the
cytoplasm draws water and other materials according to its

.rI

,II·

~
?
v

.A B C D
FIG. 247. A-C, growth of a cell and development of vacuoles; D, a cell
with many vacuoles; OW, cell-wall; N, nuclel1S; C', cytoplasm;
V, vacuole; and P, plastid.

need. Referring to the cytoplasm again we find that it has

three distinct parts: (I) its outer surface forms an extremely
thin and delicate membrane called the ectoplasm; (2) its
middle part is granular and is called the endoplasm; and (3)
its innermost part surrounding the vacuole as a thin mem-
brane is called the vacuole membrane or tonoplasm. The
ectoplasm controls the entrance and ~xit of water and many
chemical substances into and out of the cell, the tonoplasm
does the same in respect of the vacuole, while the endoplasm
performs the general functions of the cytoplasm.
Tests. (a) Iodine solution stains protoplasm brownish yellow. (b) Dilute
caustic potash dissolves it. (e) Millon's reagent (nittate of mercury) stains
it brick-red; the reaction is hastened by heating.

Movements of Protoplasm. Protoplasm shows movements of

different kinds. Naked masses of cytoplasm, not enclosed by
the cell-wall, show two kinds of movement-ciliary and
ameoboid. The cytoplasm, enclosed by the cell-wall, shows a
streaming movement within it, which is spoken of as cyclos":s.
Cyclosis is of two kinds- rotation and circubltion.
(I) Ciliary movement (fig. 248) is the swimming movement
of free, minute, protoplasmic bodies provided with one or
more tail-like structures, called cilia. By the vibration of these
 )
THE CELL 131

cilia such ciliary bodies move or swim freely and rapidly in

water, e.g. zoospores of many algae and fungi, male gametes
of mosses and ferns, etc.
(2) Amoeboid movement (fig. 249) is the creeping movement
of naked masses of protoplasm (i.e. not enclosed by cell-wall).
They move or creep by the protrusion of one or more parts

lfIG. 248 FIG. 249

Movementb of Protopasm. FIG. 248. Ciliary movement. FIG. 249.
Amoeboid movement.

f FIG. 250

FIG. 251

Movements Df Protoplasm (contd.). FIG. 250. Rotation in the leaf of

Vallisneria. FIG. 251. Circulation in the staminal hair of
Gommelina obliquOl.

(3) Rotation (fig. 250). When the protoplasm moves or

streams within a cell alongside the cell-'NaIl, clockwise or anti.
 13 2 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

clockwise, round a large central vacuole, the movement is

called rotation. The direction of movement is constant so far
as a particular cell is conceined. As the protoplasm rotates, it
carries in its current the nucleus and the plastids. Rotation
is distinctly seen in Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Chara and also in
many other aquatic plants.
(4) Circulation (fig. 25')' When the protoplasm moves or
streams in ditfe:-ent directions within a cell in the form of
delicate strands round a number of small vacuoles, the move-
ment is called circulation. Circulation is very distinctly seen
in the staminal hairs of Comrnelina obliqua, spiderwc1rt
(Tradescantia), in the young shoot-hairs of gourd and in many
other land plants.
2. Nucleus. The nucleus is a specialized protoplasmic body,
much denser than the cytoplasm, and is commonly spherical
or oval. It always lies embedded in the cytoplasm. The
nucleus is universally present in all living cells. In the
h:gher plants there is almost always a single nucleus in each
cell, while in many algae and fungi numerous nuclei may be
present. In lower organisms like bacteria and blue-green algae
true nuclei are absent, but there is a corresponding nuclear
material. Nuclei may vary widely in SIzes. Their usual size
is between 5 and 25 microns (or 1/200 and 1/40 mm.). A
nucleus can never be newly formed, but it multiplies in
number by division of the pre-existing one•.

FTG. 252.
Cellular structure
and nuclei in
onion scale.

Structure. Each nucleus (fig. 253) is surrounded by a thin,

transparent membrane known as (I) the nuclear membrane
which separates the nucleus from the surrounding cytoplasm.
Within the membrane, completely filling up the space, there
is a dense but clear mass of protoplasm known as (2) the
nuclear sap or nucleoplasm. Suspended in the nucleoplasm
 THE CELL 133
there are numerous fine crooked threads, loosely connected
here and there, forming a sort of network, called (3) the
olldear reticulum or chromatin network. The threads are made
of a substance known as
NUCLEAR
chromatin or nuclein which MEMBRANE
is strongly stainable. The NUCLEOPLASM
chromatin or nuclein is a NUCLEAR
nucleoprotein which is a RETH.:ULUM

phosphorus-containing pro- NUCLEOLUS

tein! (see below). One or
more highly refractive,
FIG. 253. Nuclear structure.
very minute and usually
spherical bodies may be seen in the nucleoplasm; these are
known as (4) the nucleoli (sing. nucleolus).
Chemical Composition. The chemical composition of the
nucleus is very complex, mainly cons:sting of a variety of
proteins (see p. 143). A special kind of protein called nuclein
is constant in the nucleus, occurring in the reticulum only
but not in other parts. Nuclein is a phosphorus-containing
protein (or nucleoprotein) made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphu~ and phosphorus.
Functions. The nucleus and the protoplasm are together
responsible for the life of a cell and the various vital functions
performed by it. If they are separated both of them die. The
nucleus, however, is regarded as the controlling centre of all
vital activiti~s of the cell, particularly assimilation of food
and respiration. The ....specific functions performed by the
nucleus are as follows:
(1) The nucleus takes a direct part in reproduction. Two
reproductive nuclei called gametes (egg-cell and male gamete)
fuse together to give rise to an oospore which grows into an
embryo. Thus nuclei are directly concerned in the process of
reproduction.
(2) The nucleus takes the initiative in cell division, i.e. it
is the nucleus that divides first and this is followed by the
division of the cell. This is how the cells multiply in number
and the plant body grows.
(3) The nucleus is regarded as the bearer of hereditary
characters, i.e. it is through the media of two reproductive
nuclei that the characteristics of parent plants are transmitted
to the offspring.
134 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

3. Plastids. Besides the nucleus, the cytoplasm of certain cells

which have to perform specialized functions encloses many
small specialized protoplasmic bodies, usually discoidal, spheri-
calor oval in shape; these are called plastids (see fig. 250).
They are present in all plants except bacteria, fungi and
blue-green algae. Plastids are living. They are never formed
afresh, but multiply in number by division of the pre-existing
ones. According to their colour the plastids are of three types,
viz. leucoplasts, chloroplasts and chromoplasts. One form of
plastids can change into another; as for example, leucoplasts
change into chloroplasts when the former are exposed to light
for a prolonged period; similarly, chloroplasts change into
leucoplasts in the continued absence of light; similar changes
may take place in chromoplasts. In the young tomato fruit
the leucoplasts gradually change into chloroplasts which
finally turn into chromoplasts as the fruit ripens.
(I) Leucoplasts (leucos, white). These are colourless plastids.
Leucoplasts occur most commonly in the storage cells of roots
and underground stems; they are also found in other parts
not exposed to light. Their function is to convert sugar into
starch, an insoluble food substance, for the purpose of storage.
(2) Chloroplasts (chloros, green). These are green plastids,
their colour being due to the presence of a green pigmem
(colouring matter), called chlorophyll; sometimes the green
colour may be masked by other colours. Chloroplasts are only
found in parts exposed to light and oc<;ur abundantly in green
leaves. They absorb carbon dioxide from the air and energy
from the sun1ight ; utilize this energy in manufacturing sugar
and starch from this carbon dioxide and the water absorbed
from the soil; and liberate oxygen (by splitting the water)
which escapes to the surrounding air.
Chlorophyll is not one simple substance, but a mixture of
four different pigments, viz. chlorophyll a (blue-black), chloro-
phyll b (green-black), carotene (orange-red) ana xanthophyll
(yellow). Chlorophyll a and chlor9phyll b are associated with
each other in the chloroplast, but carotene and xanthophyll
may also occur without chloroplast in any part of the plant.
In old brown leaves chlorophyll becomes decomposed, while
carotene and xanthophyll are left behind. Chlorophyll is not
soluble in water. It forms about 8% of the dry weight of the
chloroplast, while carotene and xanthophyll form about 2%.
Functions. It is definitely known that chlorophyll absorbs
 THE CELL 135
energy from the sunlight. It may also help in the chemical
process involved in .the manufacture of food by the chloro-
plasts.
Extraction of Chlorophyll. Chlorophyll as a whole can be easily extracted
from the 1eaf by boiling it for a minute' or SO and then dipping it into
methylated spirit for some time. When all the chlorophyll is extracted the
'leaf becomes colourless. Tho chlorophyll solution examined through traru;.
mitted light appears deep green in colour, but by reflected light it appears
blood·red in colour. This is the physical property of chlorophyll, called
fluorescence. Then to the chlorophyll extract a small quantity of benzene is
added and the wh~e solution briskly shaken. It is then allowed to settle
for a few minutes;;· Benzene floats on the top (green solution) carrying
chlorophyll, while alcohol settles at the bottom (yellow solution) retaining
carotene and xanthophyll.

Chemical composition of chlorophyll

Chlorophyll a -C"H'205N4Mg Carotene -C"H"
Chlorophyll b -C 55 H,oO,N.Mg Xanthophyll -C' OH,,02
(3) Cbrollloplasts (chroma, colour). These are variously
coloured plastids-yellow, orange and red. They are mostly
present in, the petals of flowers and in fruits, and the colour-
ing matters (pigments) associated with them are xanthophyll
(yellow) and carotene (orange-red) which occur in different
proportions. Chtomoplasts .occurring in the petals of flowers
make them showy and attractive to invite insects for the
purpose of pollination. (Most other colours of flowers such as
violet, purple, blue, brown and often red are due to the pre-
sence of a group of colouring matters known as anthocyanin8
which remain dissolved in the cell-sap.)
~
,
PARTS OF A CELL ........------------~.

i ~~--cytoplasm-ectoplasm, endopla.sm and tonoplasm

living---nucleus-nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
! nuclear reticulum and nucleoli
~--- plastids-leucoplasts, chloroplasts and chromoplasts

r cell-wall (made of cellulose)

non-living
I vacuole (iilled with cell-s:tp)

THE CELL-WALL
Formation of the Cell-wall. Life begins as a single naked cell,
that is, as a small mass of protoplasm with a prominent
nucleus but no cell-wall. Protoplasm being a very soft and
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

delicate substance, its first need is self-protection. For this

purpose, before it grows any further in size or undergoes divi·
sion, it forms a wall round itself. The wall is the secretion
product of the protoplasm, that is, to form it the protoplasm
begins to secrete minute granules on the outer 'Surface of its
body. As more granules are secreted they fuse together, result.
ing in a complete but very thin and delicate wall, i.e. the cell-
wall, and the protoplasm becomes covered by it. The cell·
wall forms a framework round the protoplasm, maintains its
form and protects it from external injury. Besides, cell-walls
form the skeleton of the plant body, and are responsible for its
strength and rigidity.

Growth of the Cell-wall. The cell-wall, when formed first, is a

very thin and delicate layer. But as the cell grows the wall
undergoes both chemical and physical changes. Physical
-changes are: growth of the wall in surface area and growth
of it in thickness. (I) Growth of the cell-wall in surface area,
i.e. its increase in size, takes place in the early stage of the cell
and is due to stretching of the cell-wall in one or more direcr
nons accompained by an addition, within the original wall, of
new solid particles secreted
" by the protoplasm. (2)
Growth of the cell-wall in
thickness, on the other
hand, is mainly due to depo-
sition of definite thin plates
or layers by the protoplasm,
one after another, on the in-
;ner surface of the original
wall. When the cell-wall be-
comes considerably thicken-
ed, it shows a stratified
p
appearance, that is, the
appearance of a number of
strata or layers arranged in
FIG. 254. Cells of the endosperm of a series. The original cell-
date seed. O. W., cell-wall (reserve
cellulose; M.L., middle lamella; wall between two contiguous
P, protoplasmic threads. cells can still be recognized
under the microscope. This
-original or middle wall is knowrr as the middle lamella (fig.
254). It is composed of calcium pectate. It is further seen
 THE CELL 137
that the protoplasm of one cell is connected with that of the
neighbouring one by fine protoplasmic threads or strands pass-
ing through extremely minute pits (not visible under the
microscope) that develop in the cell-wall.
Secondary Thickening of the Cell-wall. The secondary thicken-
ing of the cell-wall takes place in vessels (see fig. 289) and
tracheids (see figs. 287-88) ; after they have grown considerably
and attained their full dimension their walls begin to thicken.
The thickening in these cases is due to the deposit of a hard
substance, called lignin, on the inner surface of the cell-wall.
This deposit of lignin takes the following patterns. All ligni-
fied elements are dead.
(1) Annular or ring-like (fig. 255), when the deposit of
lignin is in the form of rings. (2) Spiral (fig. 256), when the
thickening takes'the form of a spiral band. (3) ScalaxifoJ]ll

FIG. 255 FIG. 256 FIG. 257 FIG. 258 FIG. 259 FIG. 260
Thickening of the Cell-wall. FIG. 255. Annular. ~'IG. 256. Spiral.
FIG. 257. Scalariform. FIG. 258. Reticulate. FIG. 259. Pitted
(with simple pits). FIG. 260. Pitted (with bordered pits).

or ladder-like (fig. 257), when the thickening matter or lignin

is deposited transversely in the form of rods or rungs of a
ladder, and hence the name scalariform or ladder-like. (4)
Reticulate or netted (fig. 258), when the thickening takes the
form of a network. (5) Pitted (figs. 259-60), when the whole
inner surface of the cell-wall is more or less uniformly
thickened, leaving here and there some small unthickened
areas or cavities. These unthickcned areas are called pits, and
are of two kinds, viz. (a) simple pits and (b) bordered pits.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Pits are formed in pairs lying against each other on the oppo-
side sides of the wall. When
the area of a pit is uniform
throughout its whole depth,
it forms a simple pit (figs.
261-62); and when this area
is unequal, broader towards
the wall and narrower to-
wards the cavity of the cell,
more or less like a funnel
M.L
without the stem, it forms a
bordered pit (fig. 263). In
the bordered pit the adjoin-
ing thickeJ1ing matter of the
SimjJle Pits. FIG. 261. A cell in sec- wall grows inwards and
tion showing simple pits in its wall; arches over the pit from all
P, pit; C.W., cell-wall; M.L., . . h
middle lamella. sldes formlllg an over ang-
ing border and hence the
name 'bordered' pit. The portion of the middle lamella cross-
ing the pits becomes thickened and is known as the torus
(fig. 263 n-c).

FIG. 262 FIG. 263

FIG. 262. ~imple ~its. A, cell·wall with simple pits (surface view); B, the
s~me (sectIOnal. View). FIG. 263. Bordered pits. A, cell-wall with bordered
pits (surface view); H, .the same. (sectional view); C, the torus pushed to
one SIde blockmg the pit. '1', tofUS.

Chemical Nature of tbe Cell-wall. The cell-wall consists of a

variety of chemical substances, of which cellulose is very con-
spicuous; but as the cell grows older, it undergoes chemical
changes and variety of new substances are formed. Certain
mineral matters are also often introduced into the cell-wall.
 THE CELL 139
(I) Cdlulose. The wall of the young cell is composed of a
substance, called cellulose, which is an insoluble carbohydrate.
Associated with cellulose there is some amount of pectin which
acts as a cementing material holding together the cells of the
plant body very much like cement in a brick wall. Cellulose
is universally present in all green plants, particularly in their
soft parts and in all their living cells. It is a soft, elastic
and transparent substance, and is readily permeable by
water. Walls made up of cellulose are usually thin so that
water and soluble food materials can pass in and out. It is
represented by the formula (C6HlO05)n, the value of n not
being known. Cellulose is a very important substance. It is
used as food by herbivorous animals; it cannot, however, be
digested by human beings. Articles like paper, gun-cotton.
celluloid and artificial silk are prepared from it. Cotton and
linen are pure cellulose, while hemp is a mixture of cellulose
and lignin.
(2) Lignin. Lignin is a hard and chemically complex sub-
stance. It is found in the hard and woody tissues of plants.
Lignified tissues are thick-walled and dead. Although hard.
lignin is permeable by water. The water-conducting vessels are
all lignified. Most of the vegetable (textile) fibres are also
lignified. Cotton fibres, however, are made of cellulose. The
function of lignified tissues is mechanical, Le. they contribute
to the rigidity of the plant body.
(3) Cutin. Cutin is a waxy substance. It forms a definite
thick or thin layer, called the cuticle, on the skin of the stem
and the leaf. It makes t'Iie cell-wall impermeable or very slightly
permeable by water. Its function is to prevent or check evapo-
ration of water from the exposed surfaces of the plant.
(4) Suberin. Suberin is a fatty substance and occurs in the
walls of cork cells. The cells of the bottle cork are suberized. /
Suberin makes the cell-wall almost impermeable by water and.
therefore', like the cutin it also prevents or checks evaporation
of water.
(5) Mu<;i1age. Mucilage is a slimy substance. Its property
is that it absorbs water freely and retains it. When dry it is
very hard and horny, but when wet it forms a viscous mass.
Mucilage is abundant in the leaves of Indian aloe, flowers of
China rose, fruits of lady's finger, and seeds of linseed.
Plan1tago (B. ISOBGUL; H .. ISOBGOL), etc.
 A CLASS-BOOK
" OF BOTANY

Various mineral crystals may also be introduced into the

-cell-wall; these are mostly crystals of silica, calcium oxalate
and calcium carbonate (see figs. 269-73)' In the majority of
fungi, and sometimes also in algae, the cell-walls are made up
of a substance, called chitin-a substance allied to cellulose.
Chitin, however, is peculiar to animals.
Micro-chemical Tests of the Cell-wall
Reagents Cellulose Lignin Cutin and SuberinMucilage
J.. Iodine solution ... pale yellow deep yellow deep yellow
'2. Chlor-zinc-iodine blue or violet yellow yellowish brown
3. Iodine solution+
sulphuric aCId blue brownish deep brown violet
4. Aniline sulphate (acid) bright yellow
S. Phloroglucin (acid) violet red
6. Caustic potash sol. yellow and brown
7. Potabh+chlor-zinc-
iodine violet
8. Sudan IV red
9. Methylene blue deep blue

NON-LIVING CELL-CONTENTS
There is a variety of chemical compounds formed in the
plant body and stored up in certain cells. There are three
main groups of them, viz. (I) reserve materials. (II) secretory
products. and (III) waste products.

I. RESERVE MATERIALS
These are substances manufactured by the protoplasm and
stored up by it in particular cells, alld later utilized by it as
tood for its nutrition. Many of them occur in solution in the
cell-sap; others are deposited in solid form in the cytoplasm.
There are three main groups of them, viz. (I) carbohydrates.
(2) nitrogenous materials. and (3)~ts and oils.
I. Carbohydrates. All carbohydrates contain carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen. Of these, hydrogen ~nd oxygen occur in the
same proportion as they do in water, i.e. H 2 0. When these
substances are heated the water escapes and the carbon is
left behind as a black mass. Some carbohydrates are soluble
in water, e.g. sugars and inulin, while others a~e insoluble,
e.g. starch and glycogen.
(I) Sugars. There are various kinds of sugars formed in
plants. Of these, grape-sugar or glucose is chiefly found in
grapes, and cane-sugar or sucrose in sugarcanes and beets.
Grape-sugar is the simplest of all carbohydrates and is formed
 THE CELL 141

in the leaf by chloroplasts in the presence of sunlight. Other

forms of carbohyd~ates are derived from it. Commonly all the
glucose formed in the leaf becomes converted into starch, an
insoluble carbohydrate. At night this starch is reconverted
into sugar which then travels to the storage organs where it
is again converted into starch by leucoplasts. The chemical
formula of grape-sugar is C.H I2 0., and that of cane-sugar
CI~22011' Glucose contents of ,grapes are 12-15% or more;
sucrose contents of sugarcanes 10-15% and of beet rpots.
10-20%.
Test for Glucose. Add Febling's solution or an alkaline solution of copper-
sulphate to it, boil, and a yellowish red precipitate of cuprous oxide is
formed. Test for Sucrose. Boil sucrose solution wilh 1 or 2 drops of'
sulphuric acid, and then try the test for glucose.

(2) Inulin (fig. 264). Inulin is a soluble carbohydrate, and

occurs in solution in the cell-sap. When reqmred for nutriiun
it is converted into a form of sugar (fruit-sugar). Inulin is.
present in the tuberous roots of Dahlia and some other plants,

Jr=='
When pieces of Dahlza
roots are kept in alcohol
or glycerine for 6 or 7
days, preferably more,

-. ----- ( ,
inulin becomes preClpI-
tated in the form of sphe-
rical crystals (really ag~

-~ gregates of
Under the microscope
crystals).

fully-formed inulin crys--

FIG. 264. Inulin crystals in 'the tuberous tals are seen to be star~
root of DaMia.
or ·.vheel-shaped, and half-
formed ones more or less fan-shaped. These crystals are depo-
sited mostly across the cell-walls, and occasionally only in the
cell-cavity. Sometimes these crystals are So large that they
extend through many cells. Inulin has the same chemical!
compos:tion as starch viz. (C.H 10 0 5 )n.
(3) Starch (fig. 265). Zhis is an insoluble carbohydrate and'
occurs in the form of mmute grams. Starch grains occur as,
a ~ food in all green plants lh their storage organs.
Rice, wheat, maize and millets which ConstItute the stiple
food "otrnankmaar! specrally-rich -m-;tar<;._h. St::t_rch gr~ns
may be oval, s~herical, rounded and fiat, or polygonal. They
also -varyvery much in size, the largestknownbeing ibout
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

100 microns (or 1/ IO mm.) in length, as in the rhizome of

Canna, and the smallest about 5 microns (or 1/200 mm.) in
length, as in rice. In potato they are of varying sizes. Starch
is always derived from sugar, either in the leaf by the chloro-
plasts or in the storage organ by the leucoplasts. ~n
required for nutrition starch is convw~d into suga.r...

.~ "e.~
~:t@4 I~ • l

A B c D
Starch Grains. FIG. 265. A, 'simpie eccentric grains in potato; B, compound
grains in the same; C, a, simple concentric grain in maize; b, ditto in
pea; D, a, compound grain in rice; b, ditto in oat.

In the starch grain a dark, roundish 01 elongated spot may

be seen; this is the point of origin of the grain and is known
as hilum. Around the hilum a variable number of strata (i.e.

FIG. 266 FIG. 2fj7

Starch Grains (contd.). FIG. 266. Eccentric grains in a potato tuber.
FIG; 267. ConceI)tric grains (and small gl'anules of protein) in a cotyledon
.of pea.
 THE CELL 143
layers) of different densities are alternately deposited. Each
-starch grain has thus a stratified appearance. In some grains,
as in those of potato, th~yers are laid down on one side of
;the hilum; such starch grains are said to be eccentric. In
othefS;aS in t.hose ot
pea, tile layers -are-G:ep6s11ed concentri-
'cally round the hilum; such starch grains are said to be
'concentric. Commonly, as in potato and pea, starch grains
occur singly with one hilum, when they are said to be simple;
sometimes, however, two or more grains occur together in a
solid group with as maJ'y hIla as ther~ urrgra1lis III It; this
group then is said to ~_J! compound grai!!, ai?_ i~_ and
oat (fig. 26.s:n). A fe''i--Compound graIns are also sometimes
formed in potato (fig. 265 B). Starch has the same chemical
composition as celll!lgse and inulilh viz. (C6Hl~OS)n. It is in-
soluble in ~. Rice ~_ains.Jo-80% of starch;
wfieatabout 7°%; maize about 68%; barley 60-65% ; arrow-
root 20-3°%; and potato 20%. ~~,__
Test. It turns blue to black when treated with iodine solution, the density
of the Colc1ur dapending on the strength of the reagent. ~~

(4) Glycogen. This is a very ~£!!lmon form of carbohychlate

'occurring in_f~n yea~t{~.ee fig. 400), a unIcellular fungus,
it occurs to the extent o_~ about 30% .?f the dry wei~ht ortI1e
plant. ~ hk~.e!: Jl.I~nts but is wideIy'd1Stribl!~ed
among animals. IS, thereFore, siliiktirnes calI~ 'ani~a}_
stercl( It occurs in the form of granules ~e cytoplasm of
the cell. ,9lycogen dissolves in hotwat<:!:.. It~oure.Q ...re~~~~~_
brown with iodine solution. Its chemical formula is (C 6 H100S)n.
~---- . """--._-
2. Nitrogenous [email protected] The nitrogenous reserve materials
that are stored up in plants for their use as food are the various
kinds of proteins and amino-colnpounds (amines and amino-
acids).
(1) Proteins. Proteins are very complex, organic, nitro-
genous substances containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen, and also often sulphur and sometimes phosphorus.
Proteins are very important as food being the source of nitro-
gen, and they also form an integral part of protoplasm. There
are various kinds of them found in the plant body, particularly
in their storage organs. They are mostly insoluble in water
but all are soluble in strong acids and alkalis. A common'
form of insoluble or sparingly soluble protein, abundantly
found in the endosperm of the castor seed, is the aleurone'
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

grain (fig. 268). Each aleurone grain is a solid, ovate or rounded

body, and encloses in it a large crystal-like body, known as the
crystalloid. and a small rounded mineral body, called the

FIG. 268.
Aleurone grains in the
endosperm of ('Astor seed;
'light, a few grains
magnified. 1'< ote
the crvstalloid and the
globo(d in them. gO
globoid. The crystalloid is protein in nature, while the globoid
is a double phosphate of calcium and magnesium. The occur-
rence of crystalloid and gIoboid is not always constant in
the aleurone grain. Aleurone grains vary in size. When they
occur with starch they are very small, as in pea; but in oily
seeds they are very much larger, as in castor.
l!'atty seeds usually contain a higher percentage of proteins than starchy
seeds, e.g. rice contains only 7% of proteins, wheat 12%, while suuflower
seeds contain proteins as high as 30%. Starchy feeds of leguminous plants,
however, contain as high a percentage of prote'ins as fatty seeds, e.g. in the
pulses there is an average of about 25% of pl\oteins; in soybean (Glycine
max) protein contents vary from 42-47%. '
Average percentage composition may be given thus: carbon-50-54%;
hydrogen-about 7%; oxygen-20-25%; nitrogen-16-18%; sulphur-O.4%',;
and phosphorus-O.4%. ( ,
Tests for Proteins. (1) Proteins are coloured yellowish brown with strong
iodine solution. (2) Xanthoproteic reaction- add some strong nitric acid
and a white precipitate is formed; on boiling it turns yellow. After cooling
add a little strong ammonia and the yellow colour changes to orange.

(2) Amino-compounds. Amino-acids and amines are the

simplest forms of all nitrogenous food materials, and occur in
solution in the cell-sap. They are found abundantly in the
growing regions of plants, less frequently in storage tissues.
When translocation is necessary, proteins become converted
into amines and amino-acids. They travel to the growing
regions where the protoplasm is very active, and are directly
assimilated by it. They are also the initial stages in the for-
 THE CELL 145
mation of proteins. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, and sometimes also sulphur.
3. Fats and Oils. Fats :Jnd oils occur to a greater or less
extent in all plants. They occur in the form of minute globules
in the cytoplasm of the living cells. In the 'flowering' plants
often special deposits of them are found in seeds and fruits.
But in starchy seeds and fruits there is very little of them. Fats
and oJs are c0rrll'0sed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but
the latter two do not occur in the same proportion as they
do in water-the proportion of oxygen being always much less
than in the carbohydrates. They a:_.e insoluble in water, but
very readily soluble in ether, petroleum and chloroform. Com-
paratively few of them are solub:e in alcohol, e.g. castor oil.
Fats are synthesized in living bodies from fatty acids and
glycerine under the action of the enzyme lipase. Both these
products, viz. fatty acids and glycerine, are derived from carbo-
hydrates (sugar and starch) during respiration. Fats and oils
form an impo:-tant reserve food with a considerable amount
of energy Mored in them. Their energy value is more than
double that of the carbohydrates. When fats are decomposed
the energy stored in them is liberated and made use of by the
protoplasm for its manifold' activities. Digestion of fats into
fatty acids and glyccc'ine is also brought about by the enzyme
lipase. Fats that are liquid at ordinary temperature are known
as 'oils'. In plants fats are usually present in the form of oils.
A large number are used for food, for manufacture of soap
and oil-paints, for illumination, lubrication, etc., and are,
therefore, of considerable economic importance, e.g. coconut
oil, olive oil, sesame or g1ngelly 0:1, castor oil, ground nut oil, -
linseed oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil, etc.
Tests for Fats and Oils. (1) The dry endosperm of castor or coconut burns
when held over a flame. (2) It leaves a permanent greasy (oily) mark on
a paper when rubbed on it. (3) Alcoholic solution of Sudan Red stains fats
and oils red.

II. SECRETORY PRODUCTS

These incluae various products formed by the protoplasm, but
not utilized by it for its nutrition and growth. They serve
some special purpl)ses.
I. Enzymes. These are soluble nitrogenous substances secreted
by the protoplasm. Commonly they are known as the dlgestive
10
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

agent:;, and are meant to bring- about digestion of food and

also many other chemical changes.
2. Colouring Matters. Of the various colouring matters chloro-
phyll and anthocyanin are the most important.
3. Nectar. Nectar is secreted by many flowers in special celr.,
or glands to attract insects for pollination; the latter feed
upon it, and incidentally carry the pollen grains from one
flower to another.

III. WASTE PRODUCTS/ •

These include various substances which are not of any vital
use to the protoplasm, nor are they directly secreted by the
latter, but are formed as mere by-products. There being no
excretory system in plants, these waste products are deposited
in the bark, old lea~'es, dead wood, and in other special 'Cells
away from the~phere of protoplasmic activity.
I. Taunins. These are a group of complex compounds widely
distributed in plants. They commonly 'occur in single isolated
cells or in small groups of cells in almost all parts of the plant
body. They are abundant in the bark, heart-wood, many
leaves, young and old, and ~ny unripe fwjts As the fruits
ripen tannins disappear; th~nverted imo glucose
and other substances. Th~ are also abundant in the fruits
of wrobalans Tl;a leaves.£.Oll!aiu abO.ut IS%J:,llllnin. Catechu,
a kind of tannin, is obtained from th~ heart-wood of Acacia
catech~. Tannins a:-e Qi:rer substances, and t~at is why 'very.
..., strong tea ahd frUlts d myrobalan~a~~ hillel, :They. are
aseptIc, I.e. free from the attack of arasitic Tun 1 and insects.
~resence 0 tannins m s t woo ard and ura
"They-are extensively used in tanning, i.e. converting hide into
leather. They are also used for various ...Illcdicinal purposes._
T~turn blue-black with an i!9n salt such .3~jen;ic ch!.2.!i.d~

2. Essential Oils. These are volatile oils, and occur in oil-glands

(see fig. 294 A) which appear as transparent spots in the leaves
of sacred basil, shaddock, lemon, lemon grass, Eucalyptus, etc.,
in the skin of fruits like orang~, and
in the petals of flowers of many plants, as in rose, jasmines,
etc. In all of them the essential oils have their own characte-
ristic odours. They differ from fatty oils in their chemical
composition as well as in being volatile. They are sufficiently
 THE CELL 147
soluble in water to impart to it their taste and odour, but they
are readily soluble in alcohol. There are some 200 essential oils
of commercial value. Some of the common ones are lemon oil,
eucalyptus oil, dove oil, lavender oil, sandalwood oil, thyme
oil, etc.
3. Resins. These are chemically complex substances mostly
found in the stems of conifers (pine, for example) and occur in
abundance in specialaucts, known as re~l!:c_ts ~e fig. 279).
They are yellowish solids, ins~lubl~"J!l water but soluble in
alcohol, turpentine and methylated ~i.:_it. When present III the-
wood, resins add to its strepgth~_n.Q," durability. They occur---
associated with a sm~tity of turpentine which is removed
by distillation, and the residue in pure resin; they may also
occur associated with gums.
4. Gums. Gums are complex carbohydrates formed in various
kinds of plants, being the decomposition products of cell-walls
{cellulose). They are insoluble in ~ohoJ but soluble in water,
readily swell up in it, and form a viscous mass. Tliey are found
in many' 'flo~ and are of various kind·s. Acacia
sene al ie1ds the best gUll)...arabic of commerce. Gu also
ins.
5· Mineral Crystals. he common forms of cry Is co
of silica, calcium carbonate and calcium oxalate. They 0 ur
either in the cell-cavity or in the cell-wall. Of them, crys als
of calcium oxalate are
most common, and are :::S--~o:::;:;:o~o::;:o;:;:;o::::':;;o~O~()~O~o~-a=~o~CJ:=;::::o~t
very wide~y distributed :JOO
among vanous plant~
( I) Silica occurs as an
0
s;;:]OOOC
incrustation on the cell- =ri.'-r.::::::~;;;;:::::;: r.::;;;:;,~:;-,.::::r-
wall or lies embedded in
it. It is most frequently
found in the leaves of
grasses and in Equise- ~:r.;-~"".,\:-~~~
tum. Wheat straw con-
tains about 72 % of silica, Mineral Crystals. FIG. 269. Cystolith in
rye straw about 50 % and the leaf of India-rubber plant.
Equisetum about 7 I %.
(2) Calcium carbonate occurs as a big mass of small crystals
in the leaf of India-rubber plant, banyan, etc. The crystals are
deposited on a sort of stalk which is the ingrowth of the inner
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

ep:dermal wall. Finally the whole crystalline mass looks like

a bunch of grapes suspended from a stalk, and is known as
the cystolith (fig. 269).
(3) Calcium oxalate occurs as crystals of various forms. (a)
Rapbides (figs. 270-2) are needle-like crystals occurring singly

FIG. 270 l'IG. 271 FIG. 272

Mineral Cryst~ls (contd). FIG. 270. SO'litary raphides (twO') in the petiO'le
of water hyacmth. FIG. 271. A bundle of raphides in the same; bottom,
needles (raphides) shooting Olit. FIG. 272. Sphaero-crystals (four) and
a bundle of raphides in taro (Colocasio).

or in bundles. They are found in most of the plants in smaller

or larger quantities, but are specially common in water hya-
cinth, taro (B. KACHU; H. KACH-
ALU, A morphophallus (B. OL; H.

"l"'"17'~=-...>-_....::O:-,_ ~ KANDA), balsam (B. DOPATI; H.

GULMANDI), \ etc. They are fre-
---:------y-~__;__~ quently shut off by a cell-wall
..---"'----V'.::::::......__~)£_<~
. from coming in contact with the
protoplasm. (b) Sphaero-c~tal~

--
('j~ (fig. 272) are clusters of crystals
@ which radiate from ...a--eommon
- - - centre, and hence have a more or
Mineral Crystals (c{)ntd.).
FIG. 273. Various forms of less star-shaped appearance. They
calcium oxalate crystals in are found in taro (ColoCasia).
the dry onion scale. water lettuce ,eiJtiaY;-etc-: (c)
Octabedral, cubical, prismatic and rod-like crystals (fig. 273)
of calcium oxalate are also common in plants; they can be
readily seen in the dry scales of onion.
Tests. (a) 50% nitric acid (O'r hydrochloric or sulphuric acid) solutiO'n dis-
solves both calcium carbonate and O'xaJate crystals, but bubbles of carbon
diO'xide gas are evolved only in the case 01 carbonate crystals. (b) 30%
 THE CELL 149
acetic acid solution readily dissolves calcium carbonate crystals only, but
not the oxalate crystals.

6. Latex. This is the milky juice found in latex cells and

latex vessels (see figs. 292-93). Latex OCCUrs as an emulsion con-
sisting of a variety of chemical substances. Rod- or dumb-bell-
shaped starch grains may often be found in the latex. It also
sometimes contains some poisonous substances. The function
of latex is not clear; perhaps in some way it is associated with
nutrition, healing of wounds and protection against parasites
and animals. Latex is often white and milky, as in banyan,
peepul, jack, madar, oleander, Euphorbia, etc., sometimes
coloured (yellow, orange or red), as in opium poppy, garden
poppy, prickly poppy, etc.
7. Alkaloids. These are complex nitrogenous substances, and
occur combined with some organic acids, mostly in seeds and
roots of some plants. They have an intensely bitter taste and
many of them are extremely poisonous. There are over 200
known alkaloids found in plants, e.g. quinine in Cinchona,
nicotine in tobacco, morphine in opium poppy, caffeine in
coffee and tea, strychnine in nux-vomica, etc.

FORMATION OF NEW CELLS

Plants begin their existence as a single cell. This divides and
forms two cells; these again divide, and the process continues,
resulting in the development of the body of the plant. There
are various methods by which new
cells are formed in'4llants by divi-
sion of the pre-existing cell. In all
such cases it is the nucleus.. that
divides first, and this is followed by
the division of the cell.
I. Somatic Cell Division. l Cell
division leading to the develop-
ment of the vegetative body (soma)
of the plant is known as somatic
cell division. It includes the division A
of the nucleus, called mitosis (mitos, Mitosis. FIG. 274 A.
Metabolic nucleus.
thread) or karyokinesis (karyon, nut

I Pig. 274 A-I. r~dmwn after jig. 40 in Fundamentals of Cytology by L. W.

Sharp by permt88tOn of McGraw-H1l1 Book Company. Cop!Jright 1943.

 A CLASS-BODK OF BOTANY

or nucleus; kinesis) movement or indirect nuclear division,

and the division of the cytoplasm, called cytokinesis. It occurs
in the growing regions, as in the root-tip and the stem-tip.
Mitosis (fig. 274). In this process the nucleus (A)
passes through a complicated system of changes which may
conveniently be divided into four phases.
First Phase or Prophase. The first sign of the prophase is the
appearance of a number of separate, slender, crooked threads,
called chromosomes (B). The chromosomes, particularly the
longer ones, are more or less spirally coiled. The individual
chromosomes are always longitudinally double, with the two
threads, called chromatids, remaining adpressed against each
other throughout their length. Chromosomes are composed
of nucleopwteins. As prophase proceeds the chromosomes

>:

J;~:;'\{ib::\.i;6i~{<~;;::;~~; :~ii~;i~
B G

Mitosis (contd.). FIG. 274 B·D. Prophase.

relax their coils and thicken somewhat (C). Their double nature
becomes more apparent. As prophase advances a chromosomal
substance accumulates in a sheath or matrix round each
chromosome and the chromatids become closely coiled in it
(D). In well-fixed chromosomes some unstained gaps or con-
strictions are seen; these are the attachment regions, called
centromeres. The nucleoli lose their staining power and dis-
appear completely. The nucleus then rapidly passes into the
next stage, the metaphase, through a complicated series of
changes.
Second Phase or Metaphase. The nuclear membrane dis-
appears and a spindle-like body known as the nuclear spindle
is formed (E). The spindle may be formed entirely out of the
 THE CELL

nuclear sap, or, it may appear, commonly in root-tips, as twO

opposite polar caps outside the nuclear membrane (as in D).
The membrane then disappears and the spindle extends into
the nuclear area. The chromosomes
move to the equatorial plane of the
spindle and stand there clearly apart
from one another. At this stage
the chromatids come even more
closely together. From the centro-
meres of each pair of chromatids <t,.
fibre-like extensions, called tractile
fibres) are formed towards the oppo-
site poles through the nuclear
spindle. The number of chromosomes ~~~~~
is normally constant for a particular
species of plants and this number is Mitosis (contd.).
FIG. 274 JiJ. Metaphase.
also normally even, expressed as 2n
(or 2",) or diploid. Chromosome numbers cover a wide range
but 24 seem to be a common figure.
Third Phase or Anaphase. At the
lend of the metaphase the centro-
,meres of each pair of chromatids
appear to repel each other. They
diverge and move ahead towards
the two opposite poles along the
course of tractile fibres (F). The
chromatids soon become separated
from each other.
Fourth Phase or Telophase. At
each Fole the chromatids (now re-
garded as chromosomes) form a
close group (G). The nuclear
spindle disappears and so does the
matrix. A nuclear membrane is formed round each group of
chromosomes (H). Nucleoli reappear at definite points on cer-
tain chromosomes. The chromosomes reorganize themselves
as two nuclei. The nuclear sap reappears and each nucleus
increases in size (I). It passes into the metabolic stage or pre-
pares for the next division.
Cytokinesis. This is the division of the cytoplasm by the for-
mation of a new cell-wall in the equatorial region. This process,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

H
Mitosis (contd.). FIG. 274 G·I. Telophase.

known as the cell-plate method, is the usual one in· the vegeta-
tive cell. It usually begins in the
telophase when new cellulose parti-
cles are gradually deposited in the
equatorial zone, and soon these
particles fuse together to ·form a
delicate membrane, dividing the
cytoplasm into two new cells G).
Importance. TJJe importance of karyo·
kinesis lies in the fact that by this com-
plicated proc~s of nuclear division, the
constituents of the chromosomes are equally
apportioned to \he two daughter nuclei
and thus they become qualitatively and
Mitosis (contd.).
FIG. 274 J. Cyt~kinesis. quantitatively similar to the moth,er
nucleus. Chromosomes are the bearers of
hereditary characters and because of even distribution of chromosomal
substance the two daughter nuclei possess all the characters and qualitias
of the mother nucleus.

2. Meiosis or Reduction Division (fig. 275). Meiosis (meiosis, diminution)

is a complicated process of nuclear division by which the chromosome num-
ber is reduced to half in the four daughter nuclei so formed by this process.
The reduced chromosome number is expressed as haploid or n (or x). For
example, if there be 12 chromosomes in the mother nucleus there will be
only half this number, i.e. 6 chromosomes in the daughter nuclei. Meiosis
is completed in two divisions. In this process the mother nucleus with 211
chromosomes divides twice to give rise to four nuclei in a group, each
nucleus with n chromosomes. Of the two successive divisions it is only the
first one that is reduction division, while the second one is mitotic.
Meiosis takes place in all plants reproducing sexually at a certain time in
their life-cycle, most often in the formation 01 spores, as in all higher
 THE CELL 153
cryptogams and 'flowering' plants, and sometimes in the formation of
gametes, as in some algae. In green algae 8,nd many fungi reduction divi-
sion takes place either immediately after fertilization or on the germination

FIG. 275. Meiosis (diagrammatic). Note that the first division is reduc-
tional, while the second one is mitotic.

()f the zygote. Wherever meiosis may occur in the life-cycle of a plant, it is
universally true that all gametes have half the usual number of chromo-
somes. Then when sexual reproduction takes place, Le. when two gametes
{each with n chromosomes) fuse together the chromosome number becomss
doubled (n+n=o2n) in the zygote.
The significance of meiosis is that by this process the chromosome riumber
is kept constant from generation to generation. If no reduction had taken
place in the chromosome number at any stage of a plant the offspring would
have an ever-increasing number of chromosomes and a peculiar comp-osition of
them resulting in new peculiar and distinct types of offspring since chromo-
somes are the bearers of hereditary characteristics. and meiosis is the
mechanism for their transmission to the offspring.

3. Amitosis or Direct Nuclear Division (fig. 276). In this

case the nucleus elongates to some extent and then it under,
goes constriction, i.e. it becomes narrower and narrower in
the middle or at one end, and finally it splits into two. The
nuclei so formed may be of equal or unequal sizes. The
direct nuclear division may 01" may not be followed by the
division of the cell. Amitosis commonly occurs in certain
lower algae and fungi. In the higher plants it is seen to occur
in certain old cells here and there.
4. Free Cell Formation (fig. 277). This is a modification of
indirect nuclear division. It differs from it in that the cell-
wall is not formed immediately after the division of the
nucleus. In this process by repeated mitotic divisions a large
number of nuclei are formed. When the divisions of the
nuclei cease, cytoplasm aggregates round them, and a cell-
wall is formed round each nucleus. The formation of the
cell-wall gradually proceeds from one side to the other; result-
 154 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

ing in a regular tissue (combination of cells). The endosperm,

i.e. the food storage tissue of the seed, is formed by this
method.

FIG. 278
FIG. '2:76. Amitosis or direct mi'clear division. FIG. '2:77. Free cell formation
in the development of ertdosperm. FIG. 278. Budding ip- yeast .
.~ ~ .. ) ".)1
5· Budding (fig." 278). This is seen in yeast-~ unicellular
fungus. In this plant the cell forms one or more tiny out-
growths on its body. The nucleus undergoes direct division
(amitosis) and splits up into two. One of them passes on to
one outgrowth. The outgrowth increases in size and is ulti-
mately cut off from the mother yeast as a new independent
cell (a new yeast plant). This process of cell formation is known
as budding. Often budding continues one after the other so
that chains and even sub-chains of cells are formed. Ultimately
all the cells separate from one anothet.

INTERCELLULAR SPACES. AND CAVITIES

Intercellular Spaces. When the cells are young they remain
closely packed without any empty space or cavity between
them; but as they grow, their walls split at certain points,
'giving rise to small cavities or empty spaces; these are inter-
cellular spaces. They remain filled with air or water.
Schizogenous Cavities. Bigger cavities are also often formed
by the splitting up of common walls and the separation of
masses of cells from one another; these are schizogenous
(schizein, to split) cavities. Intercellular spaces and these cavities
form an intercommunicating system so that gases and liquids
can easily diffuse from one part of the plant body to the other.
Most resin-ducts in plants are schizogenous cavities (fig. 279)'
 THE TISSUE ISS
Lysigenous Cavities. Some-
times, during the deve-
lopment of a mass of cells,
their walls break down
and dissolve, and as a
consequence large irregu-
lar cavities appear; these
are known as lysigenous
(lysis, loosening) cavities.
These cavities are meant
for storing up • water, S C h'lzogenous C aVl't y.
gases, essential OIls, etc., FIG. 279. Resin,duct of pine stem with resin.
and thus a~~~~~~--~--------------
(see fig. 294A ,';' UCENI!cALU . . . . . " I t:d :
Ace: t,jo. i5~i ~ ~&~ -
Date: lo, (:Z~~
CHAPTER e Tinae
Cells grow' and assume distinct shapes to perform definite
functions. eelIsor'tne S'afrfe shape grow together and combine-
into a groUp for tile discharge of a common function. Each
group of mature cells gives r1se to a tissue. A tissue is_thus_!j
group of cells 'Or of vessels wkic.h...are alike in form and function
and have a cormnOn origi,lJ:.... Tissues may primarily be classified
into two groups: meristemat~d
-._
Meristematic Tissues (meristos,
- divided).
permanent.._./------
-
These are composed._
of cells that ar~ in a state of division or ret<:!in. the power 0£.-
dividing. These cells ~_ spherical, oval or polygonal. '
in shape withou_~, any intercellular spaces; their walls thin and ____
homoge~eous ; th..::.. pro.!.oe1asgl almndant and active with larga.e..
_ _ __
nuclei; aI)d the vacuoles small orabsent. Meristematic tissues
may be apical and lateral: (a) the apical meristem lies at the,__' - -
apex of the stem and the root (see figs. 295-96) and gives rise to
primary permanent tissues,- while COtJ1lC'Jateral meristem-,---
e.g. cambium (see figs:-303-4), lies amoug masses of permane~
tissues and gives rise to secondary permanent tissues.
'-:---_"~--.---

Permanent Tissues. These are compos-;:d of cells that have

lost the power of dividing, having attained their definite form
and size. They may be living or dead and thin-walled or
thick-walled. Permanent tissues are formed by differentiation
of the cells of the meristems and may be primary or secondary.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

The primary permanenC tissues are derived from the apical

meristems of growing regions and the secondary permanent
tissues from the lateral meristems.

PRIMARY PERMANENT TISSUES

Classification. Primary permanent tissues may be classified
as simple and complex. A simple tissue is made up of one type
of cells forming a homogeneous or uniform mass, and a com-
plex tissue is made up 'of more than one type of cells working
together as a unit. To these may be added another kind of
tissue-the secretory tissue.

I. SIMPLE TISSUES
1. Parenchyma (fig. 280). Parenchyma consists of a 'collec-
tion of cells which are more or less isodiametric, that is, equally
FIG. :::80

FIG. 281 FIG. 282

FIG. 280. Parenchyma. FIG.·281. Col1enchyma in transection.
FIG. 282. Collenchyma in longitudinal section.
, THE TISSUE

expanded on all sides. Typical parenchymatous cells are oval,

157

spherical or polygonal in shape. Their walls are thin and

made of cellulose; they are usually living. Parenchyma is of
universal occurrence in all the soft parts of plants. Its function
is mainly storage ,_9L_~cl material. Parenchyma containing
chloroplasts, often' called chlarenchyma, manufactu:'es sugar
and starch. Star-like parenchyma with radiating arms, leaving
a lot of air-cavities, is called aerenchyma, as in the petiole of
banana and Canna (figs. 283-84) and --also in many aCjuatic
plants~--" -_ .

FIG. 283 FIG. 284

~·IG. 283, Aerench'Jllna in the petiole of banana. FIG. 284. The same in the
petiole of Canna.

2. Collenchyma (figs. 281-82). This tissue consists of somewhat

elongated cells with the corners or intercellular spaces much
thickened' with, a deposit of cellulose and pectin. In a trans-
verse section of the stem:- the cells, however, look circular or
. oval. Their walls are provided with simple pits here and there.
Collenchyma occurs in a few layers- und~r the skin (epidermis)
of herbaceous dicotyledons, e.g. sunflower, gourd, etc. (see
figs. 304 & 306). It is absent from the root and the monocoty~
ledon except in special cases. The cells are living and often
contaiil SOlne chloroplasts. Being flexible in nature collenchyma
gi~tlstle strength to the stem. Containing chloroplasts it
also manufactures sugar and starch. Its functions are, there-
fore, both mechanical and vital.
3. Sderenchyma (f1g:·-28.sf Sderenchyma (scleras, hard) con-
sists of very long, narrow, thick-walled and lignified cells,
usually pointed at both ends. They are fib,e-like in appear-
ance, and hence they are also called sclerenchymatous fibres,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

or simply fibres. They have simple, often oblique, pits in their

walls. The middle lamella is conspicu.
ous in sclerenchyma. Sclerenchyma·
to us cells are found abundantly in
plants, and occur in patches or definite
layers. They are dead cells, and serve
a purely mechanical function,~lhat is,
they give strength and rigidity to the
A plant body and thus enable it to with·
stand various strains. Their average
length is I to 3 mm. but in the fibre-
yielding plants such as hemp (B. & H.
c GANJA), Indian hemp (B. SII001E; H.
SAN), jute, rhea, flax, etc., these cells
may be of excessi~ le~Ktps ranging
frQ:l.ll_Z.Q mm. to 550 mm. Such fibres
are of commercial importancc.._
B Sometimes here and there in the
plant body special types of scleren-
chyma may be developed. These are
FIG. 285. Sclercnchyma ; known as the stone or scleroti~ cells
A, fibres as seen in longi-
section; lJ, the same as (fig. 286). The cells are very thick-
seen in transection; and walled and strongly lignified, and) are
C, a single fibre.
mostly isodiametric or irregular in
shape or slightly elongated. Stone cells occur in hard seeds,

A B
FIG. 286. Stone c'eUs; A, as seen in transection; B, as seen in longi-section.

nuts and stony fruits. They contribute to the firmness and

hardness of the part concerned. The flesh of pear is gritty
because of the presence of stone cells in it.

II. COMPLEX TISSUES

I. Xylem. Xylem or wood is a conducting tissue and is com-
posed of elements of different kinds, viz. (a) tracheids, (b)
 THE TISSUE

vessels or tracheae (sing. trachea), (c) wood fibres, and (d) wood
parenchyma. Xylem as a whole is meant to conduct water
and mineral salts upward from the root to the leaf, and to
give mechanical strength to the plant body. Except wood
parenchyma all other xylem elements are lignified, thick-
walled and dead.
(a) Tracheids (figs. 287-88). These are elongated, tube-like
dead cells with hard, thick and lignified walls and a large cell-
cavity. Their ends are commonly tapering or oblique. Their
walls are usually pro-
vided with one or
more rows of bor-
dered pits. Tracheids
may also be annular,
spiral, scalariform
(Jr pitted (with sim-
ple pits). In trans-
verse section they
are mostly ,angular,
either polygonal or
rectangular. Trach-
eids (and not vessels)
occur alone in the
wood of ferns and
gym nos per m s,
whereas in the wood f:\.
(Jf angiosperms they FIG. 287 FIG. 288
occur associateq with Tracheids with Bordered Pits. FIG. 287. Pine stem
the vessels. Being ill. radial s€ction. FIG. 288. The same in
lignified and hard, tangential section.
tracheids give strength to the plant body but their main
function is conduction of water from the root to the leaf.
(b) Vessels or Tracheae (fig. 289). Vessels are rows of
elongated tube-like dead cells, placed end to end, with their
transverse or end-walls dissolved. A ves'lel or trachea is thus
very much like a series of water-pipes forming a pipe-line.
Their walls are thickened in various ways, and according to the
mode of thickening vessels have received their names such as
annular, spiral, scaJariform, reticulate, and pitted. Associated
with the vessels are often found some tracheids. Vessels and
tracheids form the main tissues of the wood or xylem of the
vascular bundle (see fig. 302). They have large cell-cavities
 160 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

which serve for conduction of water and mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves. They are dead, thick-walled and lignified,

ABC D E F
- Kinds of Vessels. FIG. 289. A, annular; lJ, spiral; C, scalariform;
D, reticulate; E, a vessel with simple pits; Ji', a vessel with bordered pits.

and as such they also serve the mechanical function of streng-

thening the plant body.
(c) Wood Fibres. Sc1erenchymatous cells associated with wood
or xylem are known as wood fibres. They occur abundantly in
in woody dicotyledons and add to the mechanical strength of
the xylem and the plant body as a whole.
(d) Wood Parenchyma. Parenchymatous cells associated with
xylem together form the wood parenchyma. The cells are alive,
thin-walled and generally abundant. the wood parenchyma
assists, directly or indirectly, in the coriduction of water up-
wards through the vessels and the tracheids ; it also serves ~or
food storage.
2. Phloem. Pholem or bast is another conducting tissue,
and is composed of the following elements: (a) sieve-tubes,
(b) companion cells, (c) phloem parenchyma, and (d) bast fibres
(rarely). Phloem as a whole is meant to conduct prepared food
materials from the leaf to the storage organs and the growing
regions.
(a) Sieve-tubes (figs. 290-91). Sieve-tubes are slender, tube-like
structures composed of elongated cells, placed end on end.
Their walls are thin and made· of cellulose; each transverse
wall is, however, perforated by a number of pores. It then
looks very much like a sieve, and is called the sieve-plate.
In winter, the sieve-plate is covered by a thin pad, called
 THE TISSUE 161

~a)Jus or callus pad. In spring, when the active season begins.

SIEVE-PLATE

SIEVE-TUBES

COMPANION.
CELL

PHLOEM
PARENCHTI.1&

SIEVE'PLATE

..
FIG. 290. Sieve tissue in longitudinal
section.

the callus gets dissolved. In old sieve-tubes the callus forms a.

permanent deposit. The sieve-tube contains no nucleus, but
has a lining layer of cytoplasm
which is continuous through the CJ
pores. Sieve-tubes carry prepared
food materials~proteins and carbo-
hydrates-from the lea'ves to the s'
storage organs and the growing FIG. 291. Sieve-tube in tran-
. f h - section. C, companion cell;
regIOns 0 t e plant body. A heavy 8, sieve-tube.
deposit of food material is found on either side of the sieve'"
plate with a narrow median portion.
(b) Companion Cells. Associated with each sieve-tube and
connected with it by simple pits there is a thin-walled,
elongated cell, known as the companion cell. It is living, con-
taining protoplasm and a large elongated m:cleus. The com-
panion cell is present only in an3iosperms.
(c) Phloem Parenchmya. There are some parenchymatous:
cells in the phloem. These are living, and in shape often cylin-
drical. Phloem parenchyma, however, is mostly absent in
monocotyledons.
II
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(d) Bast Fibres. Sclerenchymatous cells occurring in the

phloem or bast are known as bast fibres. These are generally
absent in the primary phloem but are of frequent occurrence
in the secondary phloem.
III. SECRETORY TISSUES
L Laticiferous Tissue. This consists of thin-walled, greatly
elongated and much branched ducts (figs. 292-3) containing a
milky juice, known as latex (see p. 149). Laticiferous ducts are
of two kinds: latex vessels and latex cells. They contain
numerous nuclei which lie embedded in the thin lining layer
of protoplasm. They occur irregularly distributed in the mass

FlG. 292 FIG. 293

Laticiferous Tissye. FIG. 292. Latex cells. FIG. 293. Latex vessels.

of parenchymatous cells. The function of laticiferous ducts is

not clearly understood. ~may___act ~1S_ food-storage orgam
Qr as reservoirs of waste products. They may also act as trans-
_!pea tory tissues.
Latex vessels (fig. 293) are rows of more or less parallel
ducts, connected with one another by the fusion of their
branches, forming a network. Latex vessels are found in the
poppy family, e.g. opium poppy, garden poppy and prickly
poppy, and also in some species of the sunflower family, e.g.
Sonchus.
Latex cells (fig. 292), on the other hand, although much
branched like the latex vessels, are really single or independent
 THE TISSUE

units. They branch profusely through the parenchymatous

tissue of the plant, but without fusing together to form a net-
work. Latex cells are found in madar, Euphorbta (B. & H. SII),
oleander, periwinkle, Ficus (e.g. banyan, fig, peepul), etc.
2. Glandular Tissue. This tissue is made of glands which
are special structures containing some secretory or excretory
products. GlanQs may corisist of single isolated cells or small
groups of cells with or without a central cavity. They are of
various kinds and may be internal or external.
Internal glands are (I) oil-glands (fig. 294 A) secreting essen-
tial oils, as in the fruits and leaves of orange, lemon, pummelo,
etc.; (2) mucilage-secreting glands, as in the betel leaf;
(3) glands secreting gum, resin, tannin, etc.; (4) digestive
glands secreting enzymes or digestive agent~; and (5) special
water-secreting glands at the tips of vein~.

ABC D
Glands. FIG: 294:. A, an oil·~~d of orange skin; B, a glandular hair of
Boerlwavla frUIt; .0, ~ digestive gland of butterwort (insectivorous);
D, a digestive gland of sundew (insectivorous).
External glands are commonly short hairs tipped by glands.
They are: (I) water-secreting hairs or glands; (2) glandular
hairs (fig. 294 B) secreting gummy substances, as in tobacco,
Plumbago (B. CHITA; H. CHITRAK), and Boerhaavta (B. PUNAR-
NAVA; H. THIKRI); (3) glandular hairs secreting irritating,
poisonous substances, as in nettles (fig. 137); (4) honey glands
or nectaries, as in many flowers; and (5) enzyme-secreting
glands (figs. 294 c-n), as in carnivorous plants.
Distribution of Strengthening or Mechanical Ti§lsues. The dis-
tribution of mechanical tissues in the plant body is deter-
mined by several factors. From a purely mechanical stand-
point the principle of distribution is as follows. Stems have to
 A. CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
bear the weight of the upper parts, and are swayed back and
forth by the wind. They are, therefore, subjected to alternate
stretching and compressing. The best position for strengthen-
ing tissues in stems, therefore, is close to the periphery, either
in the form of a cylinder or in patches. Roots, on the other
hand, are subjected to the pulling force exerted by the swaying ,1
stem and also to the compressing force exerted by the sur-
rounding soil. These forces are met by roots by the develop-
ment of a solid wood cylinder in or around the centre.
Collenchyma and sclerenchyma including wood fibres and
bast fibres are the two most important tissues concerned in
the strengthening of the plant body. Their distribution may
be studied with reference to the sunflower stem (see fig. 304)
and the maize stem (see fig. 306).
Roots develop' sclerenchyma less frequently and they are
wanting ill collenchyma. Here the lignified wood vessels and
tracheids give the necessary strength. Later on wood fibres
develop in the secondary wood and contribute materially to
the mechanical strength of the root. In many monocotyle-
donous roots, as in aroids, the pith is sc1erenchymatous. Some-
times, as in orchids, the conjunctive tissue is also sclerenchy-
matous.
Distribution of sclerenchyma in the leaf is rather irregular.
It is commonly associated with the vein or vascular bundle, or
it may occur as patches here and there. '
APICAL MERISTEM
I. Stem Apex (fig. 295). A median longitudinal section
through the apex of a stem, when examined under the ~icro­
scope, shows that the apical meristem or growing region is
composed of a mass of small, usually rounded or polygonal
cells which are all alike and are in a state of division; these
meristematic cells constitute the promeristem. The cells of the
promeristem soon differentiate into three regions, viz., derma-
togen, periblem and plerome. The cells of these three regions
grow and give rise to primary permanent tissues in the mature
portion of the stem. The section further shows on either side
a number of outgrowths which arch over the growing apex;
these are the young leaves of the bud, which cover and protect
the tender growing apex of the stem. . .
(I) Dermatogen (derma, skin; gen, producing). This is the
single outermost layer of cells. It passes right over the apex and
 THE TISSUE 165
continues downwards as a single layer. The cells divide by
radt'al walls only, i.e. at right angles to the surface of the
stem, and increase in circumference, thus keeping pace with

PLEROME
FIG. 295. Stem apex in longitudinal section.

the increasing growth in volume of the underlying tissues.

The dermatogen gives rise to the skin layer or epidermis of
the stem (see p. 167).
(2) Periblem. (peri, around; blema, covering). This lies inter-
nal to the dermatogen, 'lmd is the middle region of the apical
menstem. At the apex it is single-layered but lower down it
becomes multi-layered. It forms the cortex of the stem, which
is often, particularly in dicotyledons, differentiated into hypo-
dermis, general cortex and endodermis (see p. 170).
(3) Plerome (pleres, full). This lies internal to the periblem,
and is the central region of the stem apex. At a little distance
behind the apex certain groups or strands of cells show a
tendency to elongate. These groups or strands of elongated
cells are said to form the procambium. In a transverse section
of the stem each pro cambium appears as a small group of cells
which soon become differentiated into the elements of xylem
and phloem, i.e. into a vascular bundle. A portion, however,
remains undifferentiated, and it forms the cambium of the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

vascular bundle. Plerome as a whole gives rise to the central

cylinder or stele (see p. 172) as it is called, which in a dicoty-
ledonous stem is differentiated into the pericycle, medullary
rays, pith and the vascular bundles (see fig. 304. A-B).

2. Root Apex (fig. 296). A median longitudinal section

through the apex of the root shows that it is covered over and
protected by a many-layered
ilERMATOGEN DERMATOGEN tissue which constitutes the
! PERIBLEM PLEROME PERIBLEM \
,----A---. .---"----. ---------.. \ root-cap. The apical meri-'
stem or growing region lies
within and behind the root-
cap (see fig. 41). The pro-
meristem, as in the stem,
early differentiates into three
regions, viz. (I) dermatogen,
(2) periblem, and (3) plerome.
In many roots, however,
these three regions are not
clearly marked.
( I) Dermatogen. As in the
stem, this also is single-
layered, but at the apex it
merges into the periblem;
,outside this the dermatogen
cuts, off many new cells,
formipg a small-celled tissue,
known as the caiypkogen
FJG, 296, Root apex in longitudinal
section. (calyptra, cap; gen pro.du-
eing). The calyptrogen is also
meristematic, and by repeated divisions of its cells gives rise
to the [oot-cap. As the root passes through the hard soil, the
root-cap often wears away but then it is rene1ved by the
underlying calyptrogen. The walls of outer cells of the root-
cap may be modified into mucilage which helps the root to
push forward in the soil more easily. At a little distance from
the root-tip the outermost layer bears a large, number of
unicellular root-hairs. The dermatogen continues upwards
as a single outermost layer called the epiblerna.
(2) Periblem. As in the stem, this also is single-layered at the
apex and many-layered higher up. Periblem forms the middle
region or cortex of th~ root (see fig. 309).
 THE TISSUE SYSTEM r6'l
(3) Plerome. Its structure and function are practlcaUy the
same as those of the stem. But here some procambial strand5,
give rise to bundles of vessels (xylem) and others to bundles of
sieve-tubes (phloem) in an alternating manner (see fig. 303 A);
In many roots and stems, however, the apical meristem is not sharply
,eparable into the three regions mentioned above particularly into the'
periblem and the plerome. In such cases the division is as follows:
(1) protoderm, which corresponds to the dermatogen, (2) procambium,.
which forms isolated groups or strands of cells, as in the previous classi-
fication, and (3) ground or fundamental meristem, which fills up the
remaining spaces. It is a combination of the periblem and the plerome
(excluding the procambium).

CHAPTER 3 The Tissue System

There exists in the higher plant a division of labour, and
in response to this, tissues are arranged into three systems, each
taking a definite share in the common life-work of the plant.
Each system may consist of only one tissue or a combination
of tissues which.may structurally be of like or different nature,
but perform a common function and have the same origin.
The three systems are: (I) the epidermal tissue system, (II) the
ground or fundamental tissue system, and (III) the vascular
tissue system.
I. The Epidermal Tissue System. The epidermal tissue system
consists mainly of a single outermost layer called the epidermis
(epi, upon; derma, skin) which extends over the entire surface
of the plant b~dy. At surface view the cells of the epidermi~
are somewhat irregular 'in outline (see fig. 297), but closely
fitted together without intercellular spaces. They, however,
appear more or less rectangular in transection. Epidermal
cells are parenchymatous in nature with colourless cell-sap.
In the leaves and young green shoots the epidermis possess~
numerous minute openings called stomata (see fig. 297). The
outer walls of the epidermis are often thickened and cutinized.
The cutinized layer OF the cuticle checks evaporation of water.
In many plants the epidermis bears hairs of different kinds-
soft, stiff, sharp, stinging, glandular, etc. Functions. The epi-
dermis functions as a protective tissue. It protects the plant
body against excessive evaporation of water, attacks of herbi-
vorous animals, parasitic fungi and bacteria, and excessive heat
or cold.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

The outermost layer of the root is called the epiblema or

piIiferous layer. It is mainly concerned with the absorption of
water and mineral salts from the soil. Thus to increase the
absorbing surface which may be 5 to 20 times greater, the
outer 'walls of most of its cells a little behind the apex (see
'fig. 41) extend outwards and form tubular unicellular root-
hairs. The epiblema is neither cutinized nor is it provided
\With stomata.
Stomata. Structure and Behaviour. Stomata (stoma, a mouth)
are very minute openings (fig. 297) formed in the epidermal
layer in green aerial parts of the plant, particularly the leaves.
Roots and non-green parts of the stem are free from them.
Each stoma is surrounded by two semi-lunar cells, known as
the guard cells. The term 'stoma' is often applied to the
stomatal opening plus the guard cells. The guard cells are
living and always contain chloroplasts, and their inner walls
are thicker and outer walls thinner. They guard the stoma
or the passage, i.e. they regulate the opening and closing of
it like lips. Under normal conditions the stomata remain closed

FIG. 297.
Stomata
in epidermal
layer (surface
view) .

.at night, i.e. in the absence of light, and they remain open
during the daytime, i.e. in the presence of light. They may
close up at daytime when very active transpiration (evapora-
tion of water) takes place from the surface of the leaf under
certain conditions such as high temperature, dryness of the
air, blowing of dry wind and deficient wpply of water in the
soil. The opening and closing of the stomata are due to the
movement of the guard cells, and this movement is mainly
connected with two factors-light and water. In the presence
of light the guard cells absorb water from the neighbouring
cells, expand and bulge in an outward direction and the
 THE TISSUE SYSTEM

stoma opens. In the absence of light the guard cells lose

water and become flaccid and the stoma closes. The intensity
{)f light also directly affects the degree of stomatal opening.
The expansion or contraction of the guard cells is due to the presence of
sugar or starch in them. In light the sugar manufactur~d by the chloro-
plasts of the guard cells accumulates in them, and being soluble, increases
the concentration of the cell-sap. Under this condition the guard cells
absorll water from the neighbouring cells and become turgid, and the stoma
'opens.' In darkness on the other hand the sugar pres~nt in the p:iard cells
becomes converted into starch-an insoluble compound. The concentration
o()f the cell-sap is, therefore, lower than that of the neighbouring cells. Under
this condition the guard cells lose water and shrink, and the stoma closes.
Functions and Distribution. Stomata are used for inter-
-change of gases between the plant and the atmosphere-oxygen
for respiration and carbon dioxide for manufacture of carbo-
hydrates. For the facility of diffusion of these gases each

FIG. 298 lOW. 299 FIG. 300

,Stomata in betel leaf. FIG. 298. Lower epidermis with numerous st?mata ..,
FIG. 299. Section of leaf (a portion of the lowe; sid~); l!C, respIratory
cavity internal to a stoma. FIG. 300. Upper epIdermIS wIth no stoma.

stoma opens internally into a small cavity, known as the

Tespiratory cavity (fig. ~9) which in its turn communicates with
the system of inter-
-cellular spaces and
air-cavities. Stomata
.are also the organs
through which eva-
poration of water
takes place; in this
way the plant gets
rid of the surplus
water. Stomata are
most abundant in
the lower epidermis
FIG. 301A. Sunken stomata in the leaf of
{fig. 298) of the American aloe (Agave).
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

dorsiventral leaf (see p. 51); none (or sometimes compara-

tively few) are present in the upper (fig. 300). In the
isobilateral leaf stomata are more or less evenly distributed
on all sides (see fig. 313). In the floating leaves, as in those
of the water lily, stomata remain confined to the upper epi-
dermis alone; in the sub-
merged leaves no stoma jo
present. In plants growing
in deserts or dry regions~,
e.g. American aloe (fig.
30IA), oleander (fig. 30IB),.
etc., stomata occur sun-
ken in pits to reduce
excessive transpiration
against gusts of wind ..
The number of stomata
per unit area varies with-
in wide limits. In ordi-
FIG. 301B, Sunken stomata in the leaf nary land plants there is;
of oleander (Nerium), an average of about 100
to 300 stomata per square millimetre, sometimes much less or
many more. In desert plants they may be only 10 to 15 inl
the same area. '"
z. The Ground or Fundamental Tissue System. This system
forms the main bulk of the body of the plant, and extends
from below the epidermis to the centre (~xc1uding the vascular
bundles). This system consists of various kinds of tissues, of
which parenchyma is the most abundant. It is differentiated
into the following zones and sub-zones.
(I) Cortex. This is the zone that lies between the epidermis
and the pericycle, varying in thickness from a few to many
layers. In dicotyledonous stems (see fig. 304) it is usually
differentiated into the following sub-zones; (a) hypodermis-a'
few external layers of collenchyma or sometimes sc:lerenchyma·;
(b) general cortex or cortical parenchyma-a few middle
layers of thin-walled ceps with or without chloroplasts; and'
(c) endodermis-a single internal layer, often wavy; it is also
called starch sheath as it often contains numerous starch
grains. In monocotyledonous stems (see fig. 306), owing to the
scattered arrangement of vascular bundles, there is no such
differentiation into sub-zones. In roots (see fig. 309) tbe cortex
 THE TISSUE SYSTEM

consists of (a) many layers of thin-walled parenchyma and

(b) a distinct circular layer of endodermis.
Functions. In stems the cortex primarily functions as a
protective tissue; its secondary functions are the manufacture
and storage of food. In roots the cortex is essentially a storage
tissue. It is also the pumping station of the root where the
individual cells by their alternate expansion and contraction
act as pumps forcing water, absorbed by the root-hairs, into
the xylem vessels.
(2) Pericycle. This forms a multi-layered zone between the
endodermis and the vascular bundles and occurs as a cylinder
encircling the vascular bundles and the pith, as in dicotyledon-
ous sterns. It may consist wholly of sclerenchyma forming a
continuous zone, as in the gourd stern (see fig. 305), but more
commonly it is made of both parenchyma and sclerenchyma,
the latter forming isolated strands in it. Each such strand asso-
ciated with the phloem or bast of the vascular bundle in the.
form of a cap is known as the hard bast, as in the sunflower
stern (see fig. 304). In roots the pericycle consists of a single
layer of small, very thin-walled, more or less barrel-shaped cells.
Functions. In all roots the pericycle is the seat of origin of
lateral roots (see fig. 311). In dicotyledonous roots it further
gives rise to lateral meristems-·a portion of the cambium (see
fig. 318) and later the whole of the cork cambium (see fig. 320).
In all stems the pericycle is the seat of origin of adventitious
roots. Otherwise its function is mechanical or storage.
(3) Pith and. Pith Rays. The pith or medulla forms the
central core of 'the stem 'ftnd the root and is usually made of
large-celled parenchyma with abundant intercellular spaces. In
the dicotyledonous stem the pith is" often large and well deve-
loped. In the dicotyledonous root the pith is either small or
absent, bigger vessels having met in the centre; while in the
monocotyledonous root a distinct large pith is present. It is
often parenchymatous, but sometimes sclerenchymatous. In
the dicotyledonous stem the pith extends outwards to the
pericyc1e between the vascular bundles. Each such extension,
which is a strip of parenchyma, is called the pith ray or
medullary ray. It is not present as such in the root.
Functions. They serve to store food material. The func-
tion of the sclerenchymatous pith is, of course, mechanical.
fhe medullary ray further transmits water and food material
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

outwards to the peripheral tissues, and is the seat of origin of

a strip of cambium (see fig. 314) prior to secondary growth .
.3. The Vascular Tissue System. This system consists of a
number of vascular bundles which are distributed in the stele.
The stele is the central column of the dicotyledonous stems
and all roots surrounded by the endodermis and consists
of pericycle, vascular bundles, medullary rays and pith.
Each bundle may be made up of both xylem tissue and phloem
tissue with a cambium, as in dicotyledonous stem, or without
a cambium, as in monocotyledonous stems, or of only one kind
of tissue-xylem or phloem, as in roots. The function of this
system is to conduct water and raw food materials from the
roots to the leaves, and prepared food materials from the
leaves to the storage organs and the growing regions. The
vascular bundles may be regularly arranged in a ring, as in
the stems of most dicotyledons and in all roots, or they
may be scattered in the ground tissue, as in the st~s of
monocotyledons.
Elemeuts of a Vascular Bundle (fig. 302). A vascular bundle
of a dicotyledonous stem, when fully formed, consists of three
well-defined tissues; (1) xylem or wood, (2) phloem or bast,
and (3) cambium. They have different kinds of tissue elements.
(I) Xylem or Wood (see pp. 158-60). This 1ies towards the
centre, and is composed of the following elements; (I) tracheae
or vessels, (2) some tracheids, (3) a number of wood fibres, and
(4) a small patch of wood parenchyma. Vessels are of various
kinds (see fig. 289) such as spiral, annular, scalarifarm, reticu-
late and pitted (with simple or bordered pits). Some tracheids
also lie associated with the vessels. Wood fibres and wood
parenchyma are ordinary sclerenchymatous and parenchy-
matous cells lying associated with the wood or xylem, and
provided with simple pits in their walls. Xylem vessels and
tracheids are used for the conduction of water and mineral
salts from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plant;
xylem parenchyma assists them in their task and also serves
for food storage, and wood fibres give proper rigidity to the
xylem. Except for the wood parenchyma all the other elements
of xylem are dead and lignified, and hence their secondary
function is to give mechanical strength to the plant. The
first-formed xylem or protoxylem consists of annular, spiral
and scalarifarm vessels: it lies towards the centre of the stem
 THE TISSUE
. SYSTEM 173
and its vessels have smaller cavities. The later-formed xylem
or metaxylem consists of reticulate and pitted vessels and
. some tracheids; it lies away from the centre and its vessels

FIG. 302.
Vascular bundles
of sunflower stem
ill transverse and
longitudinal
sections.
A, wood
parenchyma;
8, protoxylem
(annular and
spiral vessels) ;
U, tracheids and
wood fibres; A B D E F G
D, metaxylem
(reticulate and
pitted vessels) ;
E, cambium;
l!', phloem •
(sieve-tubes,
companion
cells and
phloem
parenchyma) ;
G, sclerenchyma
(hard bast).

'-
have much bigger cavities. The development of xylem IS cen-
trifugal in the stem. _
(2) Phloem or Bast (see pp. 160-62). This lies towards the cir-
cumference, and consists of (I) sieve tubes, (2) companion cel1s~
and (3) phloem parenchyma. Companion cells and phloem
parenchyma are provided with simple pits, particularly in the
walls lying against the sieve-tubes. Phloem as a whole is used
for translocation of prepared food materials from the leaves to>
the storage organs and also to the different growing regions.
All the elements of phloem are made of cellulose, and are
living. Primary phloem hardly ever contains bast fibres but
it may be capped by a patch of sc1erenchyma, called hard'
bast, as seen in the sunflower stem (see fig. 304). The outer
portion of phloem consisting of narrow sieve-tubes is the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

first-formed phloem or protophloem, a;nd the inner portion

consisting of bigger sieve-tubes is' the later-formed phloem
or metaphloem.
(3) Cambium. This is a thin strip of primary meristem
lying in between xylem and phloem. It usually consists of a
few layers of thin-walled and roughly rectangular cells. Al-
though cambial cells look rectangular in transverse section,
they are much elongated, often with oblique ends. They be-
come flattened tangentially, i.c. at right angles to the radius
of the stem.
Types of Vascular Bundles (fig. 303). According to the arrange-
ment of xylem and phloem, the vascular bundles are of the
following types.
(I) Radial (A), when xylem and phloem form separate
bundles and these lie on different radii alternating with each
other, as in roots.
(2) Conjoint, when xylem and phloem combine into one
bundle. There are different types of conjoint bundles.'
(a) Collateral (B), when xylem and phloem lie together on
the same radius, xylem being internal and phloem external.
When III a collateral bundle the cambium is present, as in
A B

Phloem (outer)

Xylem

c D
Types of Vascular Bundles. FIG. 3{)3. A, r:tdial; B collateral-A, open;
n, closed; C, bicollateral; D, concentric~A, ~ylem cenlral;
E, phloem central.
 ANATOMY OF STEMS 175
dicotyledonous stems, the bundle is said to be open, and
when the cambium is absent it is said to be closed, as in mono-
cotyledonous stems.
(b) BicollateraJ (C), when in a collateral bundle both
phloem and cambium occur twice-once on the outer side of
the xylem and then again on its inner side. The sequence is :
outer phloem, outer cambium, xylem, inner cambium and
inner phloem. Bicollateral bundle is characteristic of the gourd
family. It is always open.
(c) Concentric (D), when xylem lies in the centre and is
surrounded by phloem, as in ferns, or phloem lies in the
centre and is surrounded by xylem; the latter is found only
in some monocotyledons, e.g. sweet flag (Acarus; B. & H.
BOCH), dragon plant (Dracaena) and dagger plant (Yucca).
A concentric bundle is always closed.
Apical Meristems and Tissue Systems
PRO][ERISTEM

-+dermatrigen.+.epidermis --~---+epide!'mal tissue system

. l-hYPOdermiS-j .
-;.periblem ..... cortex..... general cortex
I-endodermis I. .
'. -pRricycle -+ground tissue system
pith ray
pith -.

,-+plerome ..... stele--+ vascular ---+ vascular tissue system

bundles
(phloem, cambium
-and xylem)
.'~

CHAPTER 4 Anatomy of Stems'

DICOTYLEDONOUS STEMS
1. Young Suuflower' Stem (fig. 304). Prepare a thin trans-
verse section of the stem and properly stain it with safranin.
All the lignified elements are stained deep red. At first note
under a pocket lens the distribution of three zones in it:
epidermis, cortex and stele; in the stele note the distribution
of numerous vascular bundles in a ring and also a large pith.
Then under a microscope study the internal structure of a
sector in detail.
176 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

(I) Epidermis. This forms the outermost layer, and consists

of a single row of cells, flattened tangentially and fitting closely

EPIDERMIS

HYPODERMIS
(COLLENCHYMA)
~
H
GENERAL CORTEX ~
(PARENGHYMA) 8

ENDODERMIS

MEDULLARY RAY
PERICYCLE
(HARD BLAST) ~
..:l
VASCULAR
BUNDLE
~
rn

PITH

FIG. 304A. Young sunflower stem in transection, as seen under a pocket lens.

along their radial walls, with a well-defined cuticle extending

over it. Here and there it bears some multicellular hairs and
a few stomata, but no chloroplasts except in the guard cells.
(2) Cortex. This is the zone that lie~ in between the epi-
dermis and the pericycle, and consists of hypodermis ext.er-
nally, general cortex centrally, and endodermis internally.
(a) Hypodermis (collenchyma)-this lies immediately below
the epidermis, and consists of some 4 or 5 layers of collenchy-
matous cells. These cells are specially thickened at the corners
against the intercellular spaces owing to a deposit of cellulose
and pectin. The cells are living and contain a number of
chloroplasts. (b) General cortex-this lies internal to the hypo-
dermis and consists of a few layers of thin-walled, large,
rounded or oval, parenchymatous cells. It may be reduced to
I or 2 layers outside the vascular bundle. There are conspi-
cuous intercellular spaces in it. Some isolated resin ducts are
also seen here and there in it. (c) Endodermis -this is the
innermost layer of the cortex consisting of more or less barreI-
shaped cells and surrounding the stele. Endodermis is con-
 ANATOMY OF STEMS

spicuous outside the hard bast, but often loses its identity o~
either side. It contains numerous starch grains and is also
known as the starch sheath.

- EPIDERMIS

- HYPODERMIS } ~
!'l
p-..AJ""T---r r- GENERAL CORTEX ~

.,.c::"~:c- ENDODERMIS '"

- PERICYCLE
~~~ (liARD BAST)

-WOOD
PARENCHYMA

....
FIG. 3MB. Young sunflower stem (a sector) in transectioII.

(3) Pericycle. This is the region lying in between the enda--

dermis and the v;:lscular bundles, and is represented by semi-
lunar patches of sclerenchyma and the intervening masses of
parenchyma. Each patch associated with the phloem of the
vascular bundle is called the hard bast.
(4) Medullary Rays. A few layers of fairly big polygonal or
radially elongated cells, lying in between two vascular bundles.
constitute a medullary ray.
(5) Pith. This is very large in the sunflower stem, and'
occupies the major portion of it. It extends from below the
vascular bundles to the centre, and is composed of rounded or
12
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

polygonal, thin-walled, living cells with conspicuous inter-

-cellular spaces between them.
'(6) Vascular Bundles-. These are collateral and open, and
"are arranged in a ring. Each bundle is composed of (a) phloem
or bast, (b) cambium and (c) xylem or wood.
(a) Phloem. This lies externally and is made of only thin
and cellulose-walled elements. It consists of (i) sieve-tubes,
which are the larger elements; (ii) companion cells, which are
the smaller cells associated with the sieve-tubes; and (iii)
phloem parenchyma, which is the remaining mass of small
cells. All the above phloem elements are living, and contain
various kinds of food material.
(b) Cambium. Passing inwards, a band of thin-walled
tissue is seen, lying in between the phloem and xylem; this is
the cambil\m. Its cells are arranged in radial rows and are
roughly reci::r'ngular in shape, very small in size and very thin-
walled.
(c) Xylem or Wood. This lies internally and consists of the
following elements. (i) Wood vessels are the large, lignified,
thick-walled elements distributed in a few radial rows. The
smaller vessels lying towards the centre constitute the pro-
foxylem, and the bigger ones lying away from the centre con-
stitute the metaxylem. Protoxylem consists of annular, spiral
and scalariform vessels, and metaxylem of reticulate, and pitted
vessels. (ii) Tracheids and (iii) wo'~d fibres are the smaller
thick-walled and lignified cells lying around the metaxylem
vessels and in between them. In transverse section of the
stem these two can hardly be distinguished from each ·other.
(iv) Wood Parenchyma is the patch of thin-walled paren-
chyma lying on the inner side of the bundle surrounding the
protoxylem. Its cells are living.
2. Young Gourd (Cucurbita) Stem (fig. 305)' Prepare a thin
transverse section of the stem and stain it properly with
safranin. Note under a pocket lens the three zones in it-epi-
dermis, cortex and stele. Further note the five ridges and five
furrows, ten vascular bundles in two rows, the outer roW cor-
responding to the ridges and the inner row to the furrows, and
the central cavity (the stem being hollow). Then under a
microscope study the internal structure of a sector in detail.
(I) Epidermis. This is the single outermost layer passing
 ANATOMY OF STEMS

over the ridges and furrows; it often bears many long and
narrow multicellular hairs.

, .i.', \
.•.•....

-':
.

FIG. 305A.
L/
Young gourd (Cucurbita) stem in transection, as seen
under a pocket lens.
(2) Cortex. This consists of hypodermis externally, general
cortex in the middle, and endodermis internally. (a) Hypo-
dermis (collenchyma) lies immediately below the epidermis,
:and consists pf six or seven (sometimes more) layers of collen-
'Chymatous cells in th~ ridges. In the furrows the number
of layers is reduced to two or three, sometimes none; in the
furrows the underlying parenchyma may be seen to pass right
up to the epidermis. Collenchyma contains some chloroplasts.
(b) General cortex forms a narrow zone of parenchyma,
two or three layers thick. In the furrows it often passes
'Outwards right up to the epidermis. Chloroplasts are abun-
<dant in the cortex. (c) Endodermis is the innermost layer of the
'Cortex, lying immediately outside the pericycle. This layer is
wavy in outline and contains starch grains.
(3) Pericycle. Below the endodermis there is a zone of
sclerenchyma which represents the pericycle. This zone con-
sists of four or five layers of thick-walled, lignified cells which
are polygonal in shape.
 180 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(4) Ground Tissue. This is the continuous mass of thin-

walled parenchyma extending from below the sclerenchyma
to the pith cavity; in this tissue lie embedded the vascular
bundles.

- EPIDERMIS
- HYPODERMIS

FIG. 305B . . Young gourd (Oucurbita) stem (a sector) in transection.

(5) Vascular Bundles. These are bicollateral, usually ten in

number, and are arranged in two rows. Each bundle con-
sists of (a) xylem, (b) two strips of cambinm, and (c) two
patches of phloem.
(a) Xylem occupies tne centre of the bundle, and consists,
on the outer side, of very wide vessels (pitted) which constitute
the metaxylem, and on the inner side, of narrower vessels
which constitute the protoxylem. Protoxylem vessels remain
scattered. There may be some tracheids and wood fibres, but
wood parenchyma is abundant.
(b) Cambium. This tissue occurs in two strips-the outer
and the inner-one on each side of xylem. Its cells are thin-
walled and rectangular, and arranged in radial rows. The
 ANATOMY OF STEMS

outer cambium is many-layered and is more or less flat, while

the inner cambium is few-layered and curved. Each strip of
c.ambium gradually merges into phloem and xylem.
(c) Phloem occurs in two patches-the outer and the inner.
Note that the outer phloem is plano-convex and the inner one
semi-lunar in shape. Each patch of phloem consists of sieve-
tubes, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma. Sieve-tubes
are very conspicuous in the phloem of the Cucurbita stem.
Here and there sieve-plates with perforations in them may be
distinctly seen. The r.est of the phloem is made up of small,
thin-walled cells which constitute the phloem parenchyma.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEMS
I. Indian Corn or Maize Stem (fig. 306). Cut a thin trans-
verse section and properly stain it with safranin. Note under

FIG. 306. Maize or Indian corn stE,m (a sector) in transection.

the microscope the internal structure in detail from the cir-

cumference to the centre.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(I) Epidermis. This is a single outermost layer with a thick

cuticle on the outer surface. Here and there in the epidermis
a few stomata may be seen.
(2) Hypodermis (sclerenchyma). This forms a narrow zone
of sclcrenchyma, usually two or three layers thick, lying be-
low the epidermis.
(3) Ground Tissue. This is the continuous mass of thin-
walled parenchyma, extending from below the sclerenchyma
to the centre. It is not differentiated into cortex, endodermis.
pericycle, etc., as in a dicotyledonous stem. The cells of the
ground tissue enclose numerous intercellular spaces.
(4) Vascular Bundles (fig. 307). These are collateral and
closed, and lie scattered in the ground tissue; they are more
numerous, and lie closer together nearer the periphery than

FIG. 307. A vascular bundle of maize stem (magnified).

the centre. The peripheral ones are also seen to be smaller in

size than the central ones. Each vascular bundle is somewhat
oval in general outline and is more or less completely sur-
rounded by a sheath of sclerenchyma which is specially deve-
loped on the two sides-upper and lower. The bundle consists
 ANATOMY OF STE1\.,JS

of (a) xylem and (b) phloem only; cambium IS altogether

absent.
(a) Xylem consists mainly of usually four distinct vessels;
arranged in the form of a Y, and a small number of tracheids.
arranged irregularly. The two smaller vessels (annular and
spiral) lying radially towards the centre constitute the proto-
xylemJ and the two bigger vessels (pitted) lying laterally
together with the small pitted tracheids lying in between them
constitute the metaxylem. Besides, thin-walled wood (or
xylem) parenchyma almost surrounding a conspicuous water-
containing cavity is present in the protoxylem, and a few wooel
fibres occur associated with the tracheids in between the two
big pitted vessels. The said water-containing cavity has been
formed lysigenously, i.e. by the breaking down of the inner
protoxylem vessel and the contiguous parenchyma during the
rapiel growth of the stem.
(b) Phloem consists exclusively of sieve-tubes and companion
cells; no phloem parenchyma is present in the monocoty-
ledonous ·stem. The outermost portion of the phloem, which
is a broken mass, is the protophloem, and the inner portion
is the metaphloem. The former soon bets disorganized, and
the latter shows distinct sieve-tubes and companion cells.
Differences between Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Stems
Dicotyledonous stem Monocotyledonous stem
(e.g. sunflower) (e.g. maize)

1. Hypodermis collenehymatous sclerenchyr:l~toUS.

2. General Cort~x a few laye15 of parenchyma Itcontinuous mass of
3. Endodermis II wa"" layer parenchyma up to the
4. Pericycle a zone of parenchyma centre (ground tissue)
and sclerenchyma without differentiation
into distinct tissues.
5. Medullary Ray a strip of parenrhyma in
between vascular bundles not marked out.
6. Pilh the central cylinder not marked out.
7. Vascular Bundl<"s (a) collateral and open collateral aud closed.
(b) arranged in a ring scattered.
(e) of uniform size larger towards the centre.
(el) phloem parenchyma it is absent.
present
(e) usually wedge-shaped usually oval.
(I) bundle sheath absent strongly developed_

2. Flowering Stem (Scape) of Canna (fig. 308). A thin trans-

verse section stained with safran in shows clearly the following
internal structure under a microscope.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(I) Epidermis. This is the single outermost layer of very

small, polygonal cells flattened tangentially. Its outer"walls are
cutinized.

. .,., -CHLOROP~YLLOUS
TISSUE
SCLERENCHYMA
-GROUND Tissue

- BUNDLE SHEATH.

TISSUE

FIG. 308. Flowering stem (scape) of Canna (a sector) in transection.

(2) Ground Tissue System .. From belqw the epidermis to the

centre the whole mass of tissues, leaving out the vascular
bundles, constitutes the ground tissue system. It is difft;ren-
tiated into (a) cortex, consisting of two layers of fairly large
polygonal cells, (b) chlorophyllous tissue, consisting of one or twO
layers of chloroplast-bearing ceIls, intruding inwards here and
there, (c) several patches of sclerenchyma of different sizes, lying
against the chlorophyllous tissue, and (d) ground tissue, con-
sisting of a continuous mass of large, thin-walled, parenchy-
matous cells, containing starch grains and enclosing numerous
intercellular spaces between them.
(3) Vascular Bundles. These are numerous and of differ-
ent sizes, lying/ scattered in the ground tissue. Each bundle
is collateral and closed. It is incompletely surrounded by a
sheath of sclerenchyma (bundle sheath), with a distinct patch
of it on the outer side in the form of a cap, and a thin strip
on the inner side; seldom is a regular and complete sheath
 ANATOMY OF ROOTS

formed encircling' the vascular bundle. liach -bundle consists

of (a) xylem on the inner side, and (b) phloem on the outer.
Xylem consists of a large prominent spiral vessel, often with
'one or two smaller ones, also spiral in nature, lying usually
on its outer side, and some parenchyma. Phloem consists of
sieve-tubes and companion cells.

CHAPTER 5 Anatomy of Roots

1. Young Dicotyledonous Root (fig. 309). A thin transverse
section stained with safranin shows under a microscope the
following internal structure from the circumference to the
-centre.

ROOT-HAIR

EPIBLEMA

ENDODERMIS
PERICYCLE
CONJUNCTIVE TISSUE

PROTOXYLEM

METAXYLEM

PHLOEM

PITH

FIG. 309, Young dicotyledonous root in transection.

(I) Epiblema or PiIiferous Layer. This is a single outermost

layer of thin-walled cells; the outer walls of most of these cells
extend outwards and form unicellular root-hairs. This layer is
used for absorption of water and various mineral salts from the
186 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

soil and, therefore, has no cuticle. Root-hairs increase the

absorbing surface of the root.
(2) Cortex. This 'consists of many layers of thin-walled round-
ed cells, with numerous intel cellular spaces between them. The
cells of the cortex contain leucoplasts and store starch grains.
(3) Endodennis. This is a single ring-like layer of barrel-
shaped cells which are closely packed without· intercellular
spaces. The radial walls of this layer are often thickened, and
sometimes this thickening extends to the inner walls also.
The endodermis is the innermost layer of the cortex and
surrounds the stele as a cylinder.
(4) Pericycle. This lies internal to the endodermis,. and, like
it, is a single ring-like layer; its cells, however, ire much
smaller and thinner-walled, but with abundant protoplasm.
(5) Conjunctive Tissue. The parenchyma lying between the
xylem and phloem bundles constitutes the conjunctive tissue ..
(6) Pith. This occupies only a small area in the centre of
the root. Sometimes the pith is nearly obliterated owing to
the wood vessels meeting in the centre.
(7) Vascular Bundles. These are arranged in a ring, as in
the dicotyledonous stem, but here xylem and phloem form an
equal number of separate bundles, and their arrangement is
radial (see p. 174). The number of xylem or phloem bundles
varies from two to six, very seldom more. The cambium is
absent in the young root but soon makes its appearance.
Phloem bundle consists of sieve-tub~~, companion cells and
phloem parenchyma. .Xylem bundle consists of protoxylem
which lies towards the circumference abutting on the .peri-
cycle, and metaxylem towards the centre. The development
of xylem is centripetal. Protoxylem is composed of small
vessels (annular and spiral) and metaxylem of bigger vessels
(reticulate and pitted). The metaxylem groups often meet
in the centre, and then the pith gets broken.
2. Monocotyledonous Root (fig. 310). A thin transverse
section stained with safranin reveals the following internal
structure under a microscope.
(I) Epiblema or Piliferous Layer. This is the single outer-
most layer with a number of unicellular root-hairs.
(2) Cortex. This is a many-layered zone of rounded or oval
cells with intercellular spaces between them.
(3) Endodermis. This is the innermost layer of the cortex
 ANATOMY OF ROOTS

and forms a definite ring around the stele. Radial walls and
often the inner walls of 'the endodermis are considerably
thickened. Cells of the endodermis are barrel-shaped.

ROOT-HAIR

El'IBLEhlA

/'

, CORTEX

ENDODER~US

PHLOEM

- -_ _ PITH

FIG. 310. Monocotyledonous root in transection.

(4) Pericycle. This is the ring-like layer lying internal to.

the endodermis. Its cells are very small and thin-walled, but
contain abundant protoplasm.
(5) Conjunctive Tissne. The parenchyma in between the
xylem and phloem bundles is known as the conjunctive tissue.
(6) Pith. The parenchymatous mass of cells in the central
portion of the toot is the pith. It is well developed in mos~
monocotyledonous roots. In some cases the pith becomes thick-
walled and lignified.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(7) Vascular Bundles. Xylem and phloem form an equal

number of separate bundles, and they are arranged in a ring.
The arrangement is radial (see p. 174). Bundles are numerous.
It is only in exceptional cases that they are limited in number.
Phloem bundle consists of sieve-tubes, companion cells and t,
phloem parenchyma. Xylem bundle consists of protoxylem
which lies abutting on the pericycle, and metaxylem towards
the centre. The development of xylem is centnpetal. Proto-
xylem consists of annular and spiral vesseJs, and metaxylem
{)f reticulate and pitted vessels.

Differences between Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Roots

Dicotyledonous root Monocotyledonous root
1. Xylem bundles vary from 2 to 6, rarely numerous, rarely a
nlOl'e limited number.

2. Pith small or absent large and well developed.

,3. Pericycle giVl)s rise to lateral gives rise to lateral ruots

roots, cambium and only.
cork-cabium

4. Cambium appears later altogether absent.

Origin of Lateral Roots (fig. 3 I I). Lateral roots originate from

an inner layer; so they are said 'to be endogenous. The inner
layer is the pericycle. The cells of the pericycle lying against
the protoxylem begin to divide tang~ntially, and a few layers

~IG. 311.
Origin of a
lateral root.
A, B, and C
,are stages in
.its formation
from the pericycle.

\
l'rotoxylem VesseJ

·are thus cut off. They push the endodermis outwards and
tend to grow through the cortex. At this stage the three
regions of the root-apex, namely, dermatogen (or calyptrogen),
periblem and plerome, become well marked out. The endo-
'dermis and some of the cells of the cortex form a part of the
root-cap, but as the root passes through the soil this portion
soon wears off, and the root-cap is renewed by the calyptrogen.
r

CHAPTER 6 Anatomy of Leaves

J. Dorsiventral Leaf (fig. 312). A dorsiventral leaf (see p. 51!
IS more strongly illuminated on the upper surface than on the

CUTICLE

UPPER EPIDERMIS

PALISADE
PARENCHYMA
SCLERENCHY1\[A
BORDER
PARENCHYMA
XYLEM

PHLOEM
SPONGY
PARENCHYMA
AIR CAVITY
RESPIRATORY CAVITY
STOMA
LOWER EPIDERMIS

FIG. 312. A dorsi ventral leaf in section.

lower. This unequal illumination induces a difference in the

internal structure between the upper and the lower sides. A
section made at a right angle to one of the bigger veins reveals
the following internal structure.
(r) Upper Epidermis. This is a single layer of cells with a
thick cuticle which checks excessive evaporation of water from
the surface. It does not'"tontain chloroplasts. Stomata are also
usually absent.
(2) Lower Epidermis. This is also a single layer but with
a thin cuticle. It is, however, interspersed with numerous
stomata, the two guard cells of which contain some chloro-
plasts; none are present in the epidermal cells. Internal to
each stoma a large cavity, known as the respiratory cavity, may
be seen. The lower epidermis of the leaf is meant for the
exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the
atmosphere and the plant body. Excess water also evapo-
rates from the plant body mainly through the lower epidermis.
(3) Mesopbyll. The ground tissue lying between the upper
epidermis and the lower one is known as the mesophyll. It is
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

differentiated into (a) palisade parenchyma and (b) spongy

parenchyma.
(a) Palisade parenchyma consists of usually one to two or
three layers of elongated, more or less cylindrical cells, closely
packed with their long axes at right angles to the epidermis.
The cells contain numerous chloroplasts and manufacture
sugar and starch in the presence of sunlight.
(b) Spongy parenchyma consists of oval, rounded, or more
commonly irregular cells, loosely arranged towards the lower
epidermis, enclosing numerous, large, intercellular spaces and
air-cavities. They, however, fit closely around the vein or the
vascular bundle. The cells contain a few chloroplasts. Spongy
cells help diffusiem of gases through the empty spaces left
between them; they manufacture sugar and starch to some
extent only.
(4) Vascular Bundles. Each vascular bundle (vein) consists
of xylem towards th~ upper epidermis and phloem towards the
lower. Xylem consists of various kinds of vessels (particularly
annular and spiral), tracheids, wood fibres and wood paren-
chyma. Xylem ~onducts and distributes the water and the
raw food material to different parts of the leaf-blade. Phloem
-consists of some narrow sieve-tubes, companion cells and
phloem parenchyma. Phloem carries the prepared food mate-
rial from the leaf-blade to the growing and storage regions.
Surrounding each vascular bundle there is a compact layer
of thin-walled cells, containing a fe~v chloroplasts or none at
all; this layer is known as the border parenchyma or bundle
sheath .. It may extend radially towards the upper and the
lower sides. .
Frequently sclerenchyma occurs as a sheath, complete or
incomplete, surrounding a bigger bundle, or as patches asso-
ciated with xylem and phloem. Otherwise its distribution in
the leaf is somewhat irregular.
2. IsobiIateral Leaf (fig. 313). An isobilateral leaf (see p. 51)
is more or less equally illuminated on both sides. A section
.at a right angle to one or more veins reveals the following
internal structure.
The structure is more or less uniform from one surface to
'the other. The epidermis on either side bears more or less an
equal number of stomata, and is also somewhat uniformly
thickened and cutinized. The mesophyll is often not differen-
 SECONDARY GROWTH IN THICKNlc"'",

MESOPHYLL

LOWER
EPIDERMIS

FIG. 313. An isobilateral leaf (a lily leaf) in section.

tiated into. palisade and spongy parenchyma, but consists of

spongy cells onTy, in which chloroplasts are evenly distributed.

CHAPTER 7 Secondary Growth in Thickness

1. Dicotyledonous Stem. In sturdy herbs and in all shrubs and
trees secondary growth takes place as a result of the formation
of new (secondary) tissues in them. Secondary tissues are
formed by twp meristems-cambium in the stelar region and
·cork-cambium formed lat'er in the extra-stelar or cortical region.
The increase in thickness due to the addition of secondary
tissues cut off by the cambium and the cork-cambium in the
stelar and extra-stelar regwns respectively is spoken of as
secondary growth.

A. ACTIVITY OF THE CAMBIUM

Cambium Ring. At first a portion of each medullary ray in
a line with the cambium becomes meristematic and forms a
strip of cambium called the interfagcicular cambium. This
joins on to the cambium proper on either side and forms a
'COmplete ring known as the cambium ring (fig. 314). Secondary
growth begins with the activity of this cambium ring.
 192 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

Secondary Tissnes. The cambium ring as a whole begins to

cut off new cells both externally and internally. Those cut

EPlDERMIS

CORTEX -_-f
PRIMARY --/':'__~"_I"'"'iiI&1;J
PHLOEM

FIG. 314. Formation of cambium ring.

off on the outer side are gradually modified into the elements
of phloem; these constitute the secondary phloem. The secon-
dary phloem consists of sieve-tubes, companion cells and
phloem parenchyma and often also some bands or patches of
bast fibres.
The new cells cut off by the cambium on its inner side
are gradually modified into the various elements of xylem;
these constitute the secondary xylem. The secondary xylem
consists of scalariform and pitted vessels, tracheids, numerous
wood fibres arranged mostly in radial rows, and some wood
parenchyma. The cambium is always mOre active on the
inner side than on the outer. Consequently xylem increases
more rapidly in bulk than phloem, 'and soon forms a hard
compact mass, occupying the major portion of the stem. As
xylem increases in bulk the peripheral tissues become stretched
and some of them even get crushed. Primary xylem, however,
remains intact.
Here and there the cambium forms some narrow bands of
parenchyma, radially elongated and passing through the secon-
dary xylem and the secondary phloem; these are the secondary
mednllary rays. They are one, two or a few layers in thickness,
and one to many layers in height.
Annnal Rings (fig. 315). The activity of the cambium in-
creases or decreases according to favourable or unfavourable
climatic conditions. Thus it is seen that in spring the cambium
becomes more active and forms a greater number of vessels
with wider cavities (large pitted vessels); while in winter it

- .(',
 SEC 0 N DAR Y G ROW T H IN T HIe K N E S S 193
becomes less active and forms elements of narrower dimensions
(narrow pitted vessels, tracheids and wood fibres). The wood
thus formed in the spring is called the spring wood or early
wood, and that formed in winter is called the autumn wood
or late wood. These two kinds of wood appear together, in a
transverse section of the stem, as a concentric ring known as
the annual ring or growth ring, and successive annual rings
are formed year after year by the activity of the cambium.
Annual rings are readily seen with the naked eye in the logs
of a tree trunk, as in pine and many other timber trees (fig.
3ISA), Each annual ring corresponds to one year's growth, and
therefore, by counting the total number of annual rings the
age of the plant can be approximately determined.

FIG. 315 A. Cut surface of a stem FIG. 315 B. An annual ring in section
showing annual rings. (magnified).
Heart-wood and Sap-wood. In old trees the greater part of
the secondary wood is filled up with tannins, resins, gums,
essential oils, etc., which make it hard and durable. This
region is known as the heart-wood or duramen. It looks dark or
brown. The heart-wood no longer conducts water, but simply
sives mechanical support to the stem. The outer region of
the secondary wood which is of lighter colour is known as the
sap-wood or albumum, and this alone is used for conduction

,
of water and salt solutions from the root to the leaf.
13
 194 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANy

B. ORIGIN AND ACTIVITY OF THE CORK-CAMBIUM

Sooner or later another meristematic tissue, i.e. the cork-
cambium (or phellogen) makes its appearance in the cortical
reglOn. Commonly it originates in the outer layer of coUen-
chyma. It may also arise in the epidermis itself, or in the

LENTICEL

EPIDERMIS
-I BARK
'
CORK -
CORK-CAMBIUM
SECONDAR,Y CORTEX

COLLENCHYMA
CORTE,X

SCLEIlENCHYMA

SEY'O"'DARY PHLOEM

CAMBIUM
AUTUMN WOOD

"z
Sl
...:l
.."
P
SECONDARY MEDUL- z-
Z
LARY IlAY .."
iOI 1'\
Z 0
0
0
0
is':
'"'" >t
i>l
.."
"~ Z
P
i>l 0
...:l
0
.." 1:}
P
SECONDARY MEDUL- z-
Z
LARY RAY .."
...
..el
<11

SPRING WOOD

',' ?fIG. 316. A t"lo-year old djcotylcdonou.s stem (a sector), m transection

, show~ng secondary ~rowth in thickness. ,,;'W,: ;:1

~()r " " , ;;:':!1~

,q;

tFe¢p'erTayeifs of .mB!{:{j~rex[! It is a few layers in thickness?antl

cohsiSt~ '~lf' ria~ir6w,'-diin:lWalled and roughly rectangular cells.
It beginktb dNidl'! aW8 gi'te dfftt'1ew ceil!;.:on both! sides ' ' ';' ' ; ,cork
[1
 \ :
195
.. . , " ' . '

on the' Miter side and secondary'cortek on the inner. The

'cells of the secondary cottexrlai'tl';;par~n.(jhymatous in nature
fA>lild' 6iften: col1tain Lchlotl)pia~s?'.n ig b:l:: ,.. .
'(, " ;' .. n,,:.:·' '!~)d:t mUJcfIIlJ;J '.. dA .,:1:' .~')
Cork. The new :cel~)l cut off.,by the cork-cambium· on its' OljIter
side . are ro~ghly '~ect~ng~Iar in shape and soon become
~uberized. They form the cork of the plant. Cork cells are
dead, suberi?:,e;d and tl;lick-walled, ~nd are arranged in a few
.radial ro~s" Cotk,)s usuaHy:
Jnowuish in colom, and being
sube~iz:e4 i~, is imp'ervious to water. For functions see pp. 198-99.
Bark. ".A:ll th~ dead tissues lying outside the active cork-
cambium constitute the bark of the plant. It, therefore, in-
cludes' the epidermis, lenticels and cork, and sometimes also
hypodermis and a pot:tion of the cortex, depending on the
,position of the cork-cambium, that is, the deeper the ori$in
·of the cork-cambium, the thicker the bark. . :/,-
; , ,\\Then the cork-cambium appears in the form of a compiere
:ring the qark that is formed comes away in a sheet; such a
QaJ;'k is known, as the ring-bark, as in Betula (B. BHURJJA-
'P41;RA); and when it appears in strips the resulting bark
,cpm,es; ,away in the form of scales; such a bark is, therefore,
;imown as the scale-bark, as' in guava. The function of the
Park is tp give protection (see p. 199).
tenticelsfl~(fig . :317). These are aerating pores formed m the
bark, through wHich ".,
exchange of gases takes
place. Externally they
appear as scatS or small ...
protrusions on the sur-
face of the stem.',t\' oo~O 0 .
section through' one of . ~pL:9Q D48<:,g.Rs,,:,o~
the ~ars shows th~t w; (:ir?:~;\Or~~~n<Y;,--:..._9
the lellticel'consists ot'i\;':, ~~''',)J:llv:l'i' ! " "::':1.,.; .\.I~
".-lG. m:r.J:dO em ee > as seen III tr"tl:.lictlOn:
a loose mass ·of s~a,l!r~) W;lf( :)?')c:r Ill> i~
thin-walled cells (complemeIl.Wry c.tln~).'(z '
2. DicotyledoilouS Root.': A~r;rs.~ ?t'ire;;%em the secondafy
,growth in thickness of the root is' dUe to the addition of new
'tissues cut 6ff by the cam'bidill: a'Pd tl~~ cork-cambium i.p. the
itltertor' as 'well' as in the' 'phipiih,al region. i In the root the
setandarY'; growth ,c~mmenc~s' 'a 'J~eJw cell dinettes behind. $i
'apex. 'uOJ; 2[li)J.!1;)DOJ 1£1'1:)); 10 ,;f1;11J;51ibV ,.;] ",,~ .. ;. il!?
 196 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

A. ORIGIN AND ACTIVITY OF THE CAMBIUM

At first tne conjunctive tissue on the inner side of phloem b,e- ,
comes meristernatic and gives origin to a strip of cambium '
{fig. 318). The cambium then extends outwards between
phloem and xylem. Then the portion of the pericyde just
outside the protoxylem becomes meristematic; it divides and
forms a strip of cambium there, joining with the earlier-
formed cambium strips on either side of the xylem. Thus a con-
tinuous wavy band of cambium is formed, extending over
the xylem and down
the phloem. The
secondary growth
then commences
with the activity of
this cambium band.
The portion of the
cambium adjoining
the inJ}er phloem be-
comes active first. It
begins to cut off new
cells more profusely
on the inside. As a
result the cambium
and the phloem are
gradually ,pushed
outwards. The wavy
FIG. 318. Secondary growth of a dicotyledonous band of cambium
root (early stage) showing the origin soon becomes circu-
of the cambium.
lar or ring-like (fig.
319). The whole of the cambium ring then becomes active,
more so on the inner side than on the outer.
Sec~ndary Xylem. The new cells cut off by the cambium on
the inner side gradually become differentiated into the ele-
ments of xylem and all these new elements together consti-
tute the secondary xylem. The secondary wood' increases
rapidly and soon forms the main bulk of the root. It is made of
numerous large vessels with comparatively thin walls, abun-
dance of wood parenchyma, but few wood fibres. As more
wood is added, the cambium and phloem are gradually
pushed further out. As the root lies underground it is not
,subjected to variations of aerial conditions; consequently
 SEC 0 N DAR Y G ROW T H IN T HIe K N E S S lYi

annual rings, which are so characteristic of woody stems, are

rarely formed in the root. Even when the root has increased
considerably in thickness the primary xylem bundles still
remain intact and can be recognized under the microscope in
several cases. Against the protoxylem the cambium forms
distinct and widening radial bands of parenchyma, which
constitute the medullary rays. These extend up to the secon-
(lary phloem. Other smaller and thinner medullary rays are
also formed later by the cambium. Medullary rays are larger
and more prominent in the root than in the stem.
PRIMARY SECONDARY PHLOEM 6'10
CAMBIUM 'OC'o
-t}-: \-\to
(.1?4;-1<t~
"kt;
"'' '<t.s-

FIG.319. Secondary growth of a dicotyledonous root (later stage) showing

the activity of the cambium with the formation of secondary xylem and
secondary phloem.

Secondary Phloem. The new elements cut off by the cam-

bium on the outer side become gradually modified into the
elements of phloem, and all these together constitute the
secondary phloem. It consists of sieve-tubes with companion
cells and abundant parenchyma, but less bast fibres (except
in special cases). The secondary phloem is much thinner than
the secondary xylem. The primary phloem soon gets crushed.
 t~~ a a 3:}1 ~ ~lltrAIS ~1B R 91ft (9.if >.B I{ Ji -} N r" J ' ,

~.; .9l~]fiIlf.J(5t)};{qoA,C,TIVI,TYdQE';; T_l;JJi! ~q~F;~CI;1MBIUM

Whenlthe~secondaryigrowth has advanced tJ some extent the
single-layered pericycle as a whole becomes meristematic and
divides int!o a few rows of thin-walled, roughly rectangular
cells; these constitute' the cork-cambium or phellogen. As in
tl1(flstem;;; it ip iodl1ces a few brownish laye~ii5f iH)fk can the
O"utside;dand the secondary 'cortex, on the' iri§i:de:" Th& secon-
dai-y't6rtex of the root does ur;>t contfiin chlorpplasts. The
blirk:'of'the·root is not extensivgti~) tHrin'~dotil~ptantWln cover-
_..,. ", CHiT n[ ,n')i1)f' OFt ::L

'~~l". ~ C' 11' :' .' I "t

, ing. The cortex, being ",thin-walled" " gets disorganized. Such

i~ Ills a , tl;le fate of the endqd~rmil>~, E;piplema dies out earlier.
&ntftndLm~r~.J~n~~;Jm~Y)B~od9:lel~ped, as in the stem.

~~~~i~ri~:~gfJcJi~~~d ,if~rk: :~orkrr~nd bark are protective

tissueS'fmmed in shrubs and trees. Both are much thicker
.; . : ' , • '-, • ~ 1

4jln the ep.idermis,: bH-~, t~~ ~9r~<has an additional advan-

.~dJJ}F i:!i~ ,R:fOl r!lM1Y,'!4 'fly:[1th~ u~derlying cork-cambium.
 SEC 0 N DAR Y G R 0 'V T H I NTH 1 c 1>. "' -'" ~ _

(1) Cork. (a) All the cork cells are suberized, and thus the
cork acts as a waterproof covering to the stem. Loss of water by
evaporation is, therefore, prevented or greatly minimized.
(b) The cork tissue also protects the plant against the attacks
of parasitic fungi and insects. (c) Cork cells, being dead and
empty, containing air only, are bad conductors of heat. This
being so, a sudden variation in outside temperature does not
affec~ the internal tissues of the plant. (d) Cork is also made
use of by the plant for the healing of wounds.
(2) Bark. Since bark is a mass of dead tissues lying exter-
nally as a hard dry covering, its function is protection. It
protects the inner tissues against the attack of fungi and in-
sects, against loss of water by evaporation, and against the
variation of external temperature.
 PART III PHYSIOL'OGY

CHAPTER I General Considerations

Physiology deals with the various £uncti@ns of life, such as
the construction of food, nutrition of the protoplasm, building
up of the body, respiration, metabolism, reproduction, growth,
movements, and so on. All these vital functions are performed
by the protoplasm. To maintain the life and activity of the
protoplasm the primary requirements are water, air, food, heat
and light.

Water. Water (see also p. 24) is indispensable to the proto-

plasm for its manifold activities. There is always a high per-
centage of water-75-9s%-associated with the protoplasm
in its active state. Besides, inorganic materials are absorbed
from the soil in a state of dilute solution; prepared food
travels in the plant through the medium of water; similarly
gases reach the protoplasm in solution, and many chemi-
cal changes are also carried out in solution in the plant body.
Air. Air is another necessity of the plant. Of the gases
present in the air the plant normally utilizes only oxygen and
carbon dioxide. The plant requires oxygen for respiration and
carbon dioxide for the manufacture of food.
Food. Protoplasm also requires food for its nutrition. This
is of primary importance to all living organisms; but unli~e
animals, plants manufacture their own food from raw
food material-water and inorganic salts absorbed from the
soil and carbon dioxide absorbed from the air. Food furnishes
the necessary materials for body-building and is the source
of energy.
Heat. A certain amount of heat is necessary to maintain the
activity of the protoplasm and for all the vital processes
carried on by it. Within certain limits, the higher the tem-
perature, the greater the activity of the protoplasm. Gene-
rally speaking, the maximum temperature may be stated to
be 4S-So°C., with the optimum lying at about 30°C.
Light. Sunlight is the original source of energy and has a
stimulating effect on growth; it makes the plant sturdy. It
 SOl L S 201

!is not, however, essential in the early stages of growth. Light

is an important factor responsible for green colouration of the
plant, utilization of carbon dioxide of the air, and manufacture
of sugar and starch. It is also responsible for f>s:>me kinds of
movement in plant organs.

CHAPTER 2 Soils
Since water and mineral salts are almost exclusively obtained
from the soil for their utilization later in the plant body, a
knowledge of soil science in different aspects is an essential
prerequisite to the study of plant physiology.
Soil Formation. Soils are formed by the disintegration and
decomposition of rocks due to weathering (action of rain-water,
running streams, glaciers, wind, alternate high and low tem-
peratures, etc.) and the action of soil organisms such as' many
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, earthworms, etc., and also inter-
actions of vatious. chemical substances present in the soil.
Although soils are normally formed from underlying rocks
in a particular region, they may be transported long dis-
tances by agencies such as rivers', glaciers, strong winds, etc.
Physical Nature. Physically the soil is a mixture of mineral
particles of varying sizes-coarse and fine-of different degrees,
some angular and others rounded, with a certain amount of
aecaying organic matter in it. The soil has been graded into
the following typ~s according to the size of the particles:
Coarse particles . , ~ 2 -'2 mm. form coarse sand
Smaller particles '2 - '02 mm. form sand
Finer particles '02-'002 mm. form silt
Very fine particles less than '002 mm. form clay
Types of Soil and their Properties. (1) Sandy soil contains more-
or less 60% of sand particles with a small proportion of clay
and silt, usually not exceeding 10% of each. It is well aerated,
being very porous; but as it allows easy percolation of water
through the large pore spaces it quickly dries up and often
remains dry. This soil is loose and light and has no cohesive
power. Capillarity decreases in this soil and it can hold only
25% of water of its own weight, when saturated. It contains
very little plant food. It can, however, be improved by the
 202 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

addition of clay, lime or humus. Being loose and porous it

helps seed germination and root growth but is not suitable for "
subsequent growth. (2) Clay soil contains over 50% of clay
particles. It is compact and heavy. It easily becomes water-
logged, and is badly aerated. Drainage is difficult, and its work-
ability equally so. It is hard and often cracks when dry, but
becomes soft and sticky when wet. Capillarity increases consi-
.derably in this soil, and it has a great capacity for holding
water (40% or more of its own weight), particles being very fine.
This soil always contains a considerable amount of plant food, .
but the root cannot easily penetrate it. The addition of lime or
.sand improves it and makes it suitable for normal plant growth.
(3) Loam contains 30-50% of silt and a small amount of clay
(5-25%), the rest being sand. It is the best soil for vigorous
plant growth and is most suitable for agricultural crops because
.all the important physical conditions are satisfied-porosity
for proper aeration and for percolation (downward movement)
-of excess water, and capillarity for upward movement of sub-
'Soil water. It can hold 50% or a little more of water of its own
weight. At the same time it is rich in plant food.
'The proportions of the above constituents of the 80il can be approximately
·determined by stirring a small lump of soil in a beaker to which an excess
·of water has been added, and then pouring the contents into a measuring
cylinder. 'When the mixture is allcnved to settle, it is seen that. sand
particles collect at the bottom, silt higher up, and clay on the top, in three
·distinct layers. A fine portion of the claY" however, remains suspended in
water. Their proportions are then determ\ned and percentages calculated.
Humus mostly floats on water. .
There a're other kinds of soils also. (I) Calcareous soil con-
tains over 20%' of calcium carbonate which is useful in 'neutra-
lizing organic acids formed from humus. It is commonly
whitish in colour. (2) Laterite soil contains a high percentage
,of iron and aluminium oxides. It is reddish, brownish or
yellowish in colour. (3) Peat soil contains a high percentage
(even up to 80% or 90%) of humus. It is dark in colour, porous
and light. The floating garden of Kashmir is made of peat
soil.
Soil Water and Soil Air. Ordinarily two-thirds of the pore
space occupied by water and one-third occupied by air are
found to be suitable for normal growth of most crop plants.
An excess of water in the soil chokes its pore space and is,
therefore, harmful to plants. Conversely a very low percentage
 SOIL S 20 3

(If water in the soil results in the wilting of plants. The water
loosely held by the small soil particles by capillary force, with
mineral salts dissolved in it, is the water absorbed by the root-
hairs.
Water Content of the Soil. To find out the water content of the soil the
following procedure may be adopted. Collect from a depth of 0'3-1 m. a
.small sample of soil by digging the earth, and keep it in a stoppered jar.
Take out a small lump from it and weigh it. Heat it at 100° C. for a while,
:stirring the mass occasionally. All the water will be driven out by then.
After cooling take the weight of the soil again. To make sure that all the
water has been driven out, heat the Eame soil over again. A constant weight
.of the soil will indicate the loss of all the water from it. The difference
in weight is the quantity of water originally present in the soiL Then
calculate the water content on a percentage basis.

Chemical Nature. Chemically the soil contains a

variety of
inorganic salts such as nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, chlor-
ides, carbonates, etc., of potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magne-
sium (Mg), sodium (Na) and iron (Fe), and of the 'trace'
elements like boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc
(Zn), alumiI}ium (AI), molybdenum (Mo), etc. A certain amount
(lf organic compounds, chiefly proteins and their decomposi-
tion products, are also present in the soil. Humus (see below)
is also present in many soils as a source of organic food.
Acidity or alkalinity of the soil is no less important for plant
growth than the availability of plant food in the soil. Soils
containing a high amount of lime (calcium carbonate) are
alkaline, and soils containing a high quantity of humus are
acid. These conditions can, however, be altered by the addi-
tion of one or 1;he other, as the case may be. Most of the field
-crops prefer a slightly add soil. The acid or alkaline nature of
the soil may be tested by special chemical indicators. The soil
containing a certain amount of lime (calcium carbonate) is
1laid to be calcareous soil. The presence of calcium carbonate
in such a soil can be detected by adding strong hydrochloric
acid to a small sample of it when effervescence is noticed in it
either with the naked eye or under a pocket lens.
Humus. Humus is decomposed vegetable matter (dead
roots, trunks, branches and leaves). It forms a dark-coloured
surface layer on the ground, often occurring to some depth
in forests and swamps. It is very useful both physically and
chemically. It is rich in plant food, particularly nitrogen.
Humus absorbs and retains water to a considerable extent
 204 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

(about 190 parts of its own weight). Added to sandy soil it

increases its water-holding capacity, and added to day soil it
loosens its compactness and makes it porous for better aeration.
Soil containing 5-15% of humus is suitable for agricultural
crops. It is mostly the seat of bacterial activities of the soil.
Humus Content of the Soil (ignition method). After heating a lump of
soil at 100°0. to drive out the water, cool it in a desiccator and take its
weight. Then in a platinum crucible burn the dehydrated soil at a high
temperature for about an hour, occasionally stirring the mass. During igni.
tion fumes are seen to escape. (Organic matter becomes converted into
ammonia, oxides of nitrogen or free nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and carbon
dioxide, and escapes as such.) After complete combustion cool it in a desic·
cator and then weigh it again. The loss in weight approximately represents
the quantity of humus originally present in the soil sample. Then calculate
the humus content of the soil on a percentage basis. The residue left after
combustion is the incombustible or inorganic matter present in the soil.

Soil Organisms. Various kinds of bacteria are present in the

soil, sometimes to the extent of a few million individuals per
gram of soil, particularly in the region of organic matter, and
many of them are useful agents of soil fertility. Thus nitri-
fying bacteria convert proteins of dead plants and animals
into nitrates, and it is a fact that but for the activity of such
bacteria the proteins would remain locked up in the soil as
such without being used. Then there are nitrogen-fixing bac-
teria, ammonifying bacteria, sulphur bacteria and a host of
other types in the soil. Fungi are also abundant in the soil,
particularly in acidic soil, often replacing bacteria. Like
the bacteria they are also useful agents in decomposing pro-
teins. Many algae are also psesent in the soil. It is no~ defi-
nitely known that many of the blue-green algae fix atmospheric
nitrogen in the soil. Among animals the soil-dwellers, such as
protozoa, earthworms, rats, etc., are useful agents in altering
the soil. The burrowing animals make the soil loose for better
aeration and percol~ltion of water.

Fertilizers. Ordinarily the soil contains the necessary salts

required by plants. Deficiency, however, sometimes occurs in
one or more of them, particularly in nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and calcium, and to make good this deficiency the
use of fertilizers or manures becomes a necessity. Fertilizers
are certain chemical substances which when properly added to
the soil make it fertile, i.e. enable it to produce more abun-
dantly. Manuring the field for better crop production may
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PLANT 205

be done by any of the following three methods. (I) Artificial

manuring is done by introducing into the soil certain chemical
fertilizers, such as ammonium sulphate, superphosphate, leaf
compost, bonemeal, oil-cakes, etc., in suitable proportions. It
may be mentioned in this connexion that the Sindri Fertilizer
Factory constructed at Sindri (Bihar) will shortly be producing
400 tonnes of ammonium sulphate daily. (2) Farmyard manur-
ing is done by adding cowdung and organic refuse to the soil.
(3) Green (natural) manuring is done by rotation of crops
(see p. 212).

A. Physiology of Nutrition
Physiology may (or chemical physiology)
be divided into B. Physiology of growth and movements

c. Physiology of reproduction

A. PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION

CHAPTER 3 Chemical Composition

of the Plant
The vanous elements that have entered into the composi-
tion of the plant body may be determined by chemical
analyses, and those essentially required by the plant deter-
mined by water culture ~perimeuts.
I. Chemical Analyses. Chemical analyses of different plants
have so far revealed the presence "Of a long list of elements-
over 40-in them, occurring of course in varying proportions.
Of these, the following elements have been found to be con-
stantly present in all plants. Analyses of the organic com-
pounds as a whole show the presence of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), oxygen (0), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P).
Analyses of the ash show the presence of potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe) and sodium (Na) among the
metals, and sulphur (8), phosphorus (Pj, chlorine (CI) and
silicon (Si) among the non-metals, and also certain other ele-
ments in mere traces only known as 'trace' elements such as
boron (B), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and molyb-
206 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

denum (Mo.). Aluminium (AI), though not constant, IS very

widespread in plants.
2. Water Culture Experiments. Water culture experiments
are carried out to ascertain (a) which of the elements men-
tioned above are essential, i.e. required by plants for their
normal growth, (b) which are non-essential, i.e. absorbed by
plants only incidentally, and (c) which are 'trace' elements, i.e.
required in mere traces only. These experiments also help us
to understand the nature of chemical compounds suitable for
absorption, their particular concentration and the source of
supply (soil or air). Water culture experiments consist in
growing some seedlings in water containing some known salts
in particular proportions, known as normal cultural solution,
and t>tudying the effect produced on the seedlings with regard
to growth and development. A standard solution worked out
by Knop, known as Knop's normal culture solution, is as
follows. Minute doses of salts of 'trace' elements are also to be
added.
Potassium nitrate, KN0 3 1 gm.
Acid potassium phosphate, KH 2 PO. 1 gm.
Magnesium sulphate, MgSO. 1 gm.
Calcium nitrate, Ca(N0 3)2 4 gms.
Ferric chloride solution, FeCl 3 a few drops
Water 1,000 c.c.

This is a stock solution of 0'7 % strength. To make a 0'1%

solution which is suitable for water culture experiments add
6,000 c.c. of water to the stock solution.

Experiment 1. Water culture experiments. A series of bottles or jars of

the same size and shape, marked respectively A, B, C, D, etc., and each
fitted with a split cork, an appropriate number of seedlings of the same
kind and more or less of the same oize, and culture solutions of known
composition are required for these experiments. Through the split cork a
seedling is introduced into each bottle. The bottles are wrapped with black
paper and exposed to light. Arrangements should be made for proper aera-
tion of the roots. It is desirable that the culture solution should be renewed
fortnightly. Later the following observations are made.
In bottle A (with normal culture solution) the growth of the seedling
is normal. In bottle B (the same minus potassium salts) the growth
becomes checked and leaves lose their colour. In bottle C (the same minus
calcium salts) roots do not develop properly and leaves become yellowish,
spotted and deformed. In' bottle D (the same minus magnesium saIts)
chlorophyll does not develop and the seedling is stunted in growth. In
bottle E (the same minus iron salts) the seedling becomes chlorotic. In
 C HEM I CAL COM P 0 SIT ION 0 F THE P LAN T 207"

bottle fi' (the same minus nitrogen compounds) the seedling is weak and
straggling, and leaves yellowish.
Inference. The inference that may be finally drawn from the water"
culture experiments is that the following elements in suitable soluble com-
pounds are essential for normal growth of a plant: K, Ca, Mg, Fe among""
metals, H, 0, N, S, P
among non-metals, and Cer-
tain 'trace' elements, e.g.
Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo and B,
making a total of 15 ele-
ments including C; that
free oxygen and carbon
dioxide aloe obtained from
the air (and not from the
soil); that free nitrogen
of the l'\ir is of no use to
the plant.
Sand Culture Experiments.
To obviate many diffic:ul-
tie"s in water culture ex-
periments it has become
the growing practice with
scientists to u;e sand or
charcoal culture. Charcoal
is thoroughly washed and
powdered. In the case of
sand, it is washed, dried
and then ignited to r;move
organic impurities. Nor-
mal culture solution is"
added to any of the two
FIG. 321. Water culture experiments; left~
media and growth of the
in normal solution; right, in the same
seedling studied. The minus one of the essential elements.
effect produced on the '-
seedling under the exclusion of a particular element is studied in the same
way as in water culture experiments.

Classification of Elements
Essential: metals-E:, Ca, Mg and Fe.
non-metals-C, H, 0, N, Sand P .
. Non-essential: metal-Na.
non-metals-Ol and Si.
Trace (essential): metals-Mn, Zn, On and Mo.
non-metal-B.
Hydro!)onics. Hydroponics or soilless cultivation is the technique of grow-
Hig ,.plants directly in normal culture solution including the essential 'trace"
~lt;lrnentswithout th~ ,Dse of soil, or in ]Jure sand irrigated with this solution.
Waterproof earthen "easels, t!ough~~ I sQlI',.,i,pucca beds, etc., filled with the
~~l,ution are commonly used fD~ 1rh~ PU~1(~~~;~~n.d tff~S,V!~' laid out in vera~­
dhll,'backyards, house r(iOfs, .etc.' Rocky 'h~ds;'barr\;n arllas; ~~~:;'where cuItl-
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

vat ion is not possible, are also profitably utilized for hydroponic culture.
Hydroponics was established by Geriche of California University in the
year 1929. By this method he was able to grow tomato plants to a height of
.Bm. Hydroponics is now regarded as an established science. At pre-sent
there are about twenty hydroponic research centres in the world.

ROLE PLAYED BY THE ELEMENTS IN THE PLANT

BODY
(I) Potassium is abundnatly present in the growing regions.
It is essentially a constituent of the protoplasm but is absent
from the nucleus and the plastids. Potassium is known to help
synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins and also growth of the
plant body; starch grains are not formed in its absence. In
the absence of potassium the stem becomes slender and the
leaves lose their colour and gradually wither.
(2) Maguesium is present in the chlorophyll to the extent
of about 5'6% by weight and, therefore, in its absence chloro-
phyll is not formed, and the plant becomes stunted in growth.
It is present to a considerable extent in the seeds of cereals
and leguminous plants.
(3) Calcium occurs in the cell-wall, particularly in the
middle lamella, as calcium pectate. Calcium neutralizes certain
organic acids to form insoluble salts such as calcium oxalate;
otherwise the acids would be injurious to the protoplasm. It
promotes the growth of roots. Plants like lemon, orange,
shaddock, etc., grow well in a soil rich in calcium (lime). Fruits
in general, and stone-fruits in patticular, require plenty of
calcium for their normal development. Plants become stunted
in growth in the absence of calcium, and are liable: to be
diseased.
(4) Iron is essential for the formation of chlorophyll al-
though it is not present in. the latter. It may be associated
with the plastids. Iron is always present in the protoplasm
and in the chromatin of the nucleus.
(5-6) Sulphur and Phosphorus. Sulphur is present in the
protoplasm and enters into the composition of many plant
proteins. It is an important constituent of mustard oil. In
its absence leaves become chlorotic and the stem slender.
Phosphorus is always present in the nucleoprotein, a consti-
tuent of nucleus, and in lecithin, a constituent of protoplasm;
it promotes nuclear and cell-divisions. Phosphorus aids in
nutrition and hastens maturity and ripening of fruits, parti-
.~
 C HEM I CAL COM P 0 SIT ION 0 F THE P LAN T 209

cularly of grains. It promotes the development of the root

system and other underground organs.
(7) Carbon forms the main bulk-4S% or even more-of
the dry weight of the plant. It is the predominant consti-
tuent of all organic compounds which are, in fact, known
as compounds of carbon. Carbon is absorbed from the atmo-
sphere as carbon dioxide. Although carbon dioxide occurs in
the air to the extent of only 0'03 %, air is still the only source
of all the carbon for the plant, as proved by water culture
experiments. Carbon Cycle. It is to be noted that there is a
regular circulation of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the
green plant and the atmosphere, and two processes are con-
nected with it: one is photosynthesis and the other is respira-
tion. In photosynthesis green plants take in carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere during the daytime to manufacture
food, and they give off oxygen (by the breakdown of water in
the process). There is thus a tendency of the atmosphere be-
coming poorer in carbon dioxide and richer in oxygen. In
the reverse' proeess, i.e. in respiration, all plants and animals
take in oxygen from the atmosphere at all times, and by
oxidation and decompositio~ of food they give off carbon
dioxide. In the combustion of coal and wood also carbon
dioxide is given out to the atmosphere. Thus the atmosphere
has a tendency of becoming richer in carbon dioxide and
poorer in oxygen. There is thus a regular circulation of
carbon dioxide and oxygen between the green plant and the
atmosphere, and by the two processes mentioned above the
total volumes Of these gases are kept constant in the air.
(8) Nitrogen. Although nitrogen occurs to the extent of
about 78 parts in every 100 parts of air by volume, it is not as
a rule utilized by plants in its free state. Nitrogen occurs in
the dry substance of the plant to the extent of 1-3% only.
Nevertheless, it is indispensable to the life of the plant, as
it is an essential constituent of proteins, chlorophyll and
protoplasm. Nitrogen is essential for growth, more parti-
cularly of leafy herbs like lettuce. In the absence of this
element leaves become yellowish.
Nitrogen of the Soil. Nitrogen is present in the soil in the
form of inorganic and organic compounds. The chief forms
of inorganic compounds are the nitrates and nitrites of
potassium and calcium. as well as ammonia and its
14
 210 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

compounds; while the organic compounds are chiefly the

proteins. Normally the ammonium compounds present in
the soil are made available for the use of the green plants
after conversion into nitrate by the action of certain micro-
organisms-the nitrifying bacteria-which live in the soil.
The process is called nitrification. In this process the ammo- .
nium compounds are oxidized into nitrate in two stages:
{a) these are acted on by the nitrite-bacteria (Nitrosomonas)
,and oxidized into nitrite (-N0 2 ), and (b) the nitrite thus form-
ed is again acted on by the nitrate-bacteria (Nitrobacter) and
further oxidized into nitrate (-N03)' The nitrate thus pro-
duced is readily absorbed by green plants. In certain types
of soils, however, ammonium compounds are the chief forms
in which nitrogen is readily absorbed by plants. A portion
of the ammonium compounds, however, is disintegrated 'by
<lenitrifying bacteria into free nitrogen which then escape~
into the atmosphere (denitrification).
The chief forms of organic compounds of nitrogen are the
various kinds of proteins. Dead bodies of animals and plants
containing proteins are decomposed by different putrefying
bacteria and also to some extent by certain fungi present in
the soil. In the first stage, in the absence of oxygen, the
proteins are reduced to amino-acids and then to ammonium
compounds (ammonification) by the putrefying bacteria and
fungi; and in the second stage, in the presence of oxygen,
the ammonium compounds undergo nitrification, as stated
above. The nitrate thus produced is readily absorbed by
green plants.
Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. The gaseous nitrogen of
the air combines with other elements and is ultimately made
available to the plants as compounds of nitrogen in the soil.
The methods by which the free nitrogen of the air may be
fixed are as follows: (I) discharge of electricity in the atmo-
sphere, (2) activity of certain saprophytic bacteria, (3) activity
of symbiotic bacteria, and (4) activity of blue-green algae.
1. Nitrogen Fixation by Electric Discharge. The free nitrogen of the air to
'Some extent becomes available to the green plants by the discharge of
-electricity (lightning) during a thunderstorm. Under the influence of
.electricity nitrogen of the air combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide
-N,+02 = 2NO (nitric oxide). This nitric oxide of the air is finally
washed down into the soil by rain as nitric acid (RNO.) and nitrous acid
(RNO,). In the soil they combine with some metal-like K or Ca and form
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PLANT 211

corresponding salts-nitrate and nitrite. On an average the rain water brings

down to the soil I. bout 4 kilogrammes of nitrogen per year per hectare.

2. Nitrogen Fixation by Saprophytic Bacteria of the Soil.

Certain types of soil bacteria, particularly species of Azoto-
bacter (aerobic) and Clostridium (anaerobic) have the power
of fixing free nitrogen of the soil air in their own bodies in
the form of amino-acids and finally building up proteins from
them. After the death of these bacteria the proteins are
released to the soil. In due course these are acted on by the
nitrifying bacteria and finally transformed into nitrates which
are then made use of by the green plants. The chemistry of
nitrogen fixation is not, however, definitely known.
3. Nitrogen Fixation by Symbiotic Bacteria: Nodule Bacteria
of Leguminosae. Agriculturists have known for a long
time that leguminous
plants, such as pulses,
grown in a soil make it
fertile and lead to an in-
crease in. the: yield of
cereals. It was later dis-
covered that the roots of
these plants possess some
swellings, called nodules
or tubercles, which are
infected with some types
of nitrogen-fixing bacte-
ria, particularly the diff-
erent strains. of Rhizo- •
bium radicicola, and th'ese
bacteria have the power
of fixing the free nitro-
gen of the soil air in the
nodules. Bacteria enter FIG. 322:. Nodules of a leguminous plant.
through the tip of the
root-hair (fig. 323) and pass into the root-cortex. Bacteria
then multiply in number and colonize the cortex. By their
activity and possibly also by some kind of secretion the cortical
'Cells become stimulated, and they grow Qut here and there in
'small swellings or nodules of varying sizes (fig. 322). Bacteria
then fix in these nodules the nitrogen of the soil air in the
form of some amino-compounds. A portion of the amino-
 212 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

compounds is absorbed into the plant body, another portion

is excreted out of the nodules,
and the remaining portion re-
mains locked up in the nodules.
Thus the soil becomes richer in
nitrogen, more particularly so if
the nodule-bearing leguminous
plants are ploughed into the soil.
The leguminous plants supply
the bacteria with carbohydrates,
and the bacteria supply the for-
mer with nitrogenous food; so
this is a case of symbiosis (see
p. 9)·
Nitrogen Cycle. Although plants are
rIG. 323. A root-hair infected continually absorbing salts of nitrogen
with bacteria. from the soil it should not be supposed'
that the nitrogen content of the
soil would sooner or later become exhausted. Under natural conditions the
soil soon becomes replenished with this element. This is so because there is
a regular circulation of nitrogen through the air, soil, and plants and
animals. Nitrogen in the soil is, therefore, inexhaustible. We have already
seen how the free nitrogen of the air is brought down into the soil as ulti-
mate products of nitrite and nitrate of some metals. Nitrates are absorbed
by plants and made into proteins in their body. Plant proteins are taken up.
by animals. After the death and decay of animals and plants the proteins
contained in their bodies are again converted into nitrates in several stages,.
,as already described (see p. 210), and again absorbed as such by plants.
At the same time a portion of the ammonium compounds present in the soil
is disintegrated by denitrifying bacteria into free nitrogen or oxides oll
nitroge'n which then escape into the air.

Rotation of Crops. The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil is

of very great agricultural importance. Most crops absorb the nitrogenous
compounds from the soil and impoverish it. Leguminous plants, on the
other hand, enrich it in nitrogen when their nodule-bearing roots are left in
the soil. Thus leguminous crops such as pulses, Sesbania cannabina
(B. DHAINCHA), cow pea (Vigna sinensis), etc., are grown in the field in
rotation with the non-leguminous crops such as cereals (rice, wheat, maize,
barley, oats, etc.) and millets. For the same reas.on certain leguminous
plants-Tephrosia and Derris, for example-are grown in tea gardens as
nature fertilizers (and also for shade). Root crops, such as turnip, radish,
beet, etc., take plenty of potash, calcium and nitrogen from the soil.
CHAPTER 4 Absorption of Water
and Mineral Salts
Roots and leaves are the main absorbing organs of plants.
Roots absorb water and dissolved mineral or inorganic salts
from the soil, while leaves take in gases-oxygen and carbon
dioxide-from the atmosphere.
J. Water and Inorganic Salts from the Soil. Green plants
absorb water and mineral or inorganic salts from the soil by
the unicellular root·hairs which pass irregularly through the
interstices of the soil particles and come in close contact with
them. Absorption is also carried on by the tender growing
regions of the roots. Surrounding each soil particle there is
a film of water, thin or sometimes thick, loosely held to it
by capillary force, with various mineral salts such as nitrates,
chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, etc., dissolved in it. This
capillary water is readily absorbed by the root-hairs. It is to
be noted that water is absorbed in large quantities, always
in excess of the requirements of the plant, while the various
soluble inorganic salts are a~sorbed in small quantities in a
state of very dilute solution by a process called osmosis (see
p. 21 4).
Experiment 2. Absorption of water. (a) An interesting experiment may be
carried on in the following way. Take a cut branch of a lupin plant with
white flowers in a glass cylinder filled with water coloured with eosin.
Within a few minutes it will be seen that the white flowers turn pinkish-
the colour of eosil1.-as a result of absorption of coloured water by the cut
end of the branch. The Peperllrnia plant may be similarly used and streaks of
red noticed thrQugh the stem. (b) To demonstrate the rate of absorption
proceed in the following way. Arrange tha experiment as shown in fig. 331
and mark the level of water in the graduated tube. Note every few hours
the gradual fall of the water level. At the end calculate the rate of absorp.
tion per unit of time. The experiment may be repeated under different
'Conditions of light and temperature and the rates of absorption compared.
It will be noted that strong light and high temperature enhance the rates
of absorption.
2. Gases from the Atmosphere. Of the various gases pre-
sent in the air 1 it is only oxygen and carbon dioxide that are
absorbed and utilized by the plant. Other gases may enter

1 Composition of the Air. Of 100 parts of air by volume nitrogen occupies

78%, oxygen 21%, carbon dioxide 0'03%, and other gases such as hydrogen,
ammonia, ozone, aqueous vapour, etc., occur in traces only.
214 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

the plant body, but they are returned unused. Oxygen i&
absorbed and utilized by all the living cells of the plant for
respiration; but carbon dioxide is absorbed by only the green
cells for the manufacture of carbohydrates.
Osmosis. There are certain membranes which allow a solvent
(water, for example) to pass through them freely but resist the
passage of a solute (salt or sugar in solution) so that only a
minute quantity of the latter can pass through. On account
of this property of selective transmission such membranes are
said to be. semipermeable or differentially permeable, e.g.,
parchment paper, fish- or any animal-bladder, egg-membrane,
etc. When weak and strong solutions are separated by such
a membrane there is a net transfer of the solvent from the
weaker solution to the stronger one. This process of selective
transmission of a solvent in preference to the solute through a
semi-permeable membrane is termed osmosis. Osmosis conti-'
nues until the hydrostatic pressure due to the accumulated
flow of the solvent has attained a value sufficient to stop further
flow. This excess pressure is called the osmotic pressure of
the stronger solution (see experiment 3). The greater the
concentration of a solution the greater would be its osmotic
pressure. A familiar example of osmosis is that raisins
immersed in water are seen to swell up as a result ·of endos-
mosis. Similarly, grapes immersed, in a strong solution of
sugar or salt (say, 25% or 30%) are s~~n to shrink.
Importance of Osmosis in Plant Life. Root-hairs absorb water
from the soil through the process of osmosis. All the cells of
the plant body are saturated with water as a result of cell to cell
osmosis. The cortex of the root generates root-pressure by this
process. Parenchymatous cells surrounding xylem vessels
absorb water from the latter by the same process. Similarly
the mesophyll cells of the leaf draw water from the ends of
veim generating a suction force. Osmosis gives rise to turgi-
dity which is responsible for some kinds of movements of plant
organs (see p. 216).
Experiment 3. Process of osmosis (fig. 324). T'ake a wide thistle-funnel
with a long, narrow stem and close its mouth with parchment paper or fish-
bladder. Fill it with strong salt solution a little above its neck and intro-
duce it, stem upwards, into a beaker containing water. Mark the level of
the solution in the stem. After an hour or so note that the level of the
solution in the stem has gone up. This rise is due to the accumulation of
 A B S 0 R P T ION 0 F ..w AT b.K ""- m , " , __ .... -

water in the funnel as a result of a more rapid flow of the water into the-
thistle-funnel by osmosis (endosmosis)
through the membrane. This rise is seen
to continue until the level has gone suffi-
ciently high IIp to exert a hydrostatic
pressure on the membrane which then stops
further net transfer of water by osmosis.
This value of the hydrostatic pressure is
equal to the osmotic pressure of the solu-
tion. At the same time a small qua.ntity
of sa.lt also passes out through the
membrane.
Parts played by Root-hairs (fig. 325).
In the case of root-hairs which
contain some sugars and salts in
solution, the cell-sap is stronger
than the surrounding soil water.
The two fluids (cell-sap and water)
are separated by the cell-membrane na. 324. Experiment
(cellulose cell-wall + plasma mem- on process of osmosis.
brane). As a consequence osmosis
is set up. There is a flow of water from the soil into the
root-hairs through the intervening cell-membrane (endosmo-
sis). Osmosis, however, is not in this.
ca'se a purely physical process. Al-
though the cell-wall is permeable to
both the water and the solutes, the
plasma membrane is. but differen-
tially and flelective1y permeable,
allowing the water to flow in, while
'-0 checking the sugars and salts of the

cell-sap from flowing out. This selec-

tive permeability is characteristic of
the plasma membrane.
Turgidity. As the cell absorbs more
and more water by osmosis it in-
creases- in volume, the protoplasm is
forced outward against the cell-wall
FIG. 325, A root-hair with
and the latter also becomes much
soil particles adhering to it. stretched. The fully expanded con-
dition of a cell with its wall in a
st.ate of tension due to excessive accumulation of water is callea
turgidity. It will be noted that in a cell in a turgid condition
 216 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

two pressures are involved: outward and inward. The out-

ward pressure exerted on the cell-wall by the fluid contents of
the cell is called the turgor pressure, and the inward pressure
exerted on the cell-contents by the stretched cell-wall is called
the wall pressure. Normally these two pressures counterbalance
each other and a state of equilibrium is maintained between
them. Turgidity of a cell depends on three factors, viz. (I)
formation of osmotically active substances inside the cell,
(2) an adequate supply of water, and (3) a semi-permeable
membrane.
Importance. A turgid condition is necessary for cell to cell
osmosis. Turgidity is always the initial stage of growth. It is
r.esponsible for different kinds
of movements of plant organs.
Thus movements of the guard-
cells of the stomata are due to
changes in the turgidity of
these cells; similarly, the
rising and the falling of the
leaf and leaflets of the sensi-
tive plant (Mimosa; see fig.
357), Indian telegraph plant
(Desmodium; see fig. 35 I)
'sleep' movement in legumin-
ous and some other plants,
etc., arc, brought about by al-
terations' in the turgidity of
the cells of the pulvinus. Tur-
gidity of the cells of the root
cortex is responsible for for-
cing the water into the xylem
vessels. Turgidity also gives a
certain amount of rigidity to
the plant, particularly to the
growing regions and the soft
parts.
Plasmolysis (fig. 326). If a
FIG. 326. Plasmolysis in a cel! of . f I f
Vallisneria leaf under the action sectlon rom a green ea or a
0.£ 10% potassium nitrate Eolu- coloured petal, or a Spirogyra
han; A, a normal cell· B-D fil bid .
stages in plasmolysis'. 'ament e pace 10 strong
. salt or sugar solution (say, 5 or
10%) and observed under the m.icroscope, it will be seen that
 CONDUCTION OF WATER& MINERAL SALTS 217

the cell as a whole contracts and more obviously the proto-

plasm together vvith the nucleus and the plastids gradually
shrinks away from the cell-wall and forms a rounded or irre-
.gular mass in the centre; while the space between the cell-
wall and the protoplasmic mass becomes filled with the salt
Dr sugar solution. The reason for such shrinkage of the pro-
toplasm is that the salt or sugar solution being of greater
Dsmotic value than the cell-sap, the cell loses water by out-
ward osmosis. As the water moves out of the cell, the
protoplasm and the cell-wall are no longer in a stat~ of
tension. Further loss of water evidently results in the shrink-
.age of the protoplasm. This shrinkage of the protoplasm from
the cell-wall under the action of some strong solution-stronger
than that of the cell-sap-is known as plasmolysis. If the salt
Dr sugar solution be replaced by pure water, soon after pl~smo­
lysis, the protoplasm is seen to return to its normal position
.and the vacuole reappears (deplasmolysis). Potassium nitrate
solution (10%) is a very good plasmolysing reagent.
Plasmo)ys:s is a vital phenomenon since dead cells or those
killed by boiltng for a few minutes show no plasmolysis. The
process explains the phenomenon of osmosis; it shows the
permeability of the cell-wall and semi-permeability of the
.ectoplasm; it also shows that the protoplasm can retain in
its body the osmotically active substances of the sap; and it
indicates the osmotic value of the cell-sap.

CHAPTER 5 Conduction of Water

.'!
ana-Mineral Salts
ROOT PRESSURE
The water with the mineral salts absorbed from the soil by
the root-hairs gradually accumulates in the cortex. As a result
the cortical cells become fully turgid. Under this condition
their elastic walls being much stretched exert pressure on the
fluid contents and force out a quantity of them towards the
xylem vessels, and the cortical cells become flaccid. They again
.absorb water and become turgid and the process continues.
Thus an intermittent pumping action goes on in 'the cortex of
the root, and this pumping action naturally gives rise to a
considerable pressure. As a result of this pressure the water
is forced into the xylem vessels through the passage cells of
218 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

the endodermis, and the unthickened areas and pits that the
vessels are provided with. Besides, the lignified walls of the

FIG. 327. A root in transection showing the course of water from

the root-hair to the xylem.

vessels are also permeable by water. Root pressure is thus

explained as the pressure exerted on
the liquid contents of the cortical cells
of the root, under fully turgid condi-
tion, forcing a quantity of them into·
the xylem vessels and through them
upwards into the stem up to a certairr;_
height.
Experiment 4. Root pressure (fig. 328). Cut across
the stem of a healthy plant (preferably a pot
plant) a few cm. abovo the ground in the morn-
ing, and fix a T-tube to it by means of rubbe~
tubing. Pour flome water into the tube ·and
freely water the soil. Fill a manometer (i.e.
a U-tube with a long arm and a bulb) partially
with mercury. Connect the manometer to the-
T-tube through a rubber cork. Insert a cork
fitted with a parrow glass tube to the upper end'
of the T-tube. Make all the connexions air-tight
by applying melted paraffin-wax. Seal the bore
of the narrow tube and note the level of mercury
in the long arm of the manometer.
Observation. After a few hours note the rise
of mercury-level in the long arm; also note the,
rise of water-level in the T-tube.
Inference. The rise of mercury is certainly
FIG. 328. ExperimEmt
on root pressure. due to accumulation of water in the T-tuhe and
the pressure exerted by it. This phenomenon is.
evidently due to exudation of water from the cut surface of the stem.
 CONDUCTION OF WATER & MINERAL SALTS 2I9'

This €xperiment thus shows that the water is forced up through the
stem by root pressure.

Sometimes it so happens that certain plants, when cut.

pruned. tapped or otherwise wounded. show a flow of sap from
the cut ends or surfaces. often with considerable force. This
phenomenon is commonly known as bleeding, and is often
seen in many land plants in the spring. particularly grape vine.
some palms. sugar maple. etc.
Conditions affecting Root Pressure. (I) Temperature. The
temperature of the air as well as of the soil affects root pres-
sure. The warmer the air and the soil. the greater is the
activity of "the root. (2) Oxygen. There must be an adequate
supply of oxygen to the roots in the soil for respiration; other-
wise their activity diminishes and may soon come to a stand-
still. (3) Moisture in the soil. A certain amount of moisture
must be present in the soil. Within certain limits. the more
the better. (4) Salt in the soil. Preponderance of salts, making
the soil saline;, greatly interferes with the absorption of water.
TRANSPIRATION
Plants absorb a large quantity of water from the soil by the
root-hairs. Only a part of this water is retained in the plant
body for the building up processes. while a greater part of it is
lost in the form of water vapour. Transpiration is the giving
off of water vapour from the internal tissues of living plants
through the aerial parts such as the leaves, green shoot, etc.,
under the irifluence of sunlight, regulated to some extent by
the protoplasm. It is n'ot a simple process of evaporation since
it is regulated by the vital activity of the protoplasm and some
structural peculiarities of the transpiring organs (see pp. 223-24).
A detached leaf is seen to lose water much more rapidly than
the one still attached to the plant, and this loss has been found
to be 5 or 6 times greater. The total quantity of water that
evaporates from a single plant is considerable. Water vapour
escapes into the atmosphere either through the stomata or
through the thin cuticle. The former is called stomatal trans.-
piration, and the latter cnticular transpiration. The stomatal
transpiration is the rule, and is many times in excess of the
cuticular transpiration. At night the stomata being closed,
transpiration is checked. Transpiring Organs. In dorsiventral
leaves the lower surface \vith a larger number of stomata tran~
220 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTAKY

spires water more vigorously than the upper; whereas in isobi-

lateral leaves transpiration is more or less equal from the twO
surfaces. The guard cells regulate transpiration by partially
or completely opening the stoma or by closing it altogether.
Lenticels (see fig. 317) are also concerned in the process of
transpiration; water vapour escapes through the loose mass
of cells of the lenticel.
.'~
Experiment 5. Transpiration: bell-jar experiment. Transpiration can be
demonstrated in the following way. A pot plant with its soil-surface covered
properly with a sheet of oil-paper is enclosed in a bell-jar and maintained
at room temperature for some time. It is then seen that the inner wall of
the bell-jar becomes bedewed with moisture.
Experiment 6. Unequal transpiration
from the two surfaces of a dorsi-
ventral leaf (fig. 329). Soak small
pieces of filter paper or thin blot-
ting paper in 5% solution of
cobalt chloride (or cobalt nitrate)
and dry them over a flame. The
property of cobalt papers is that
they are deep blue when dried,
but in contact with moisture they
turn pink. Place two dried cobalt
papers, one on. each surface of II
thick, healthy leaf, as shown in
the figure. Cover them complete-
ly with mica pieces or glass slides
(or with a leaf-clasp, lis shown
in the \ figure), and clamp them
properly to the leaf. Then
quickly seal the sides with vase-
line to prevent atmospheric mois-
FIG. 329. Unequal transpiration
from the two surfaces of a leaf. ture from coming in contact with
the papers. It will be seen that
the cobalt paper on the lower surface of the leaf turns pink sooner than
the one on the upper surface. This change in colouration takes place
within a few minutes. This evidently shows that the leaf transpires
water more vigorously from the lower surface than from the upper. This
is due to the occurrence of a, large number of stomata on the lower surface,
none or few heing present on the upper.

Experiment 7. Measurement of the rate of transpiration current (fig. 330).

The apparatus, called a potometer, is filled with water, and a branch cut
under water is fixed air-tight to the upper wide end of the apparatus
through a cork. The distal end of the apparatus is dipped into water con-
tained in a beaker. The water in the beaker may be coloured with eos:n.
As transpiration goes on, the coloured water is seen to enter the tube. Then
remove the end of the tube from the beaker for a while and allow air to
enter it, Dip it into water again. An air-bubble formed at the distal enJ
 CON Due T ION 0 F W ATE R & MIN ERA L SAL T S ZZ I

of the tube is seen to rise and slowly travel through the horizontal arm
of the potometer as a result of suction due to transpi;:ation. Note the time

FIG. 330. Potometer experiment on the rate of transpiration current.

that the bUbble takes to cover the journey from one end of the graduation
to the other, and calculate the rate of transpiration current. By opening the
stopcock ihe bubble may be pushed back and the experiment re-started.

Experiment 8. Relation between transpiration and absorption (fig. 331).

A wide-mouthed bottle with a graduated side· tube and a split India·rubbel'

FIG. 331 FIG. 332

FIG.331. Relation between transpiration and absorption. FIG. 332. Com-.
pression balance.
cork are required for this experiment. A small rooted plant is introduced!
through the split cork into the bottle which is filled with water. The leve~
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
of water is noted in the side-tube, and 1 or 2 drops of oil pouJ:ed into it
,to prevent evaporation of water from the exposed surface. The conneXtOllS
are, of course, made air-tight. The whole apparatus is then weighed on
a compression balance (fig. 332) and the weight noted. It is seen after a
time that the water-level has fallen, indicating the volume of water that h(l3
already been absorbed by the plant. The apparatus is then re-weighed. The
difference in weight evidently shows the amount of water that has trans-
pired from the leaf-surfaces. If the experiment be continued for a period
of 24 hours it will be seen that the volume of water (in c.c.) absorbed is
slightly greater than the amount of water (in grams) lost by transpiration
(1 c.c. of water=l gm.). In this way the relation between transpiration
,and absorption can be worked out fOJ: the various hours of the day and
.under diverse conditions.
Note. This experiment not only shows the relation between transpiration
,and· absorption, but also separately proves 'absorption' and 'loss of water'
by transpiration.
Experiment 9. Suction due to transpiration (fig. 333). Take a manometer
l(i.e. the U-tube with a long arm, as shown in the figure) and fix to its lower
end a long narrow glass tube. Completely
fill the tubes with water and insert a leafy
shoot, with the cut end kept under water,
into one of the arms of the manometer
through a rubber cork. Close the other
end with a cork. Make all the connexions
air-tight by applying melted paraffin-wax.
Dip the lower end of the tube into a beaker
of mercury. As transpiration goes on water
is absorbed, and within a few hours the
mercury is seen to rise in the tube to some
height. This rise of mercury indicates ths
suction exerted\ by transpiration.

Importance of Transpiration. Trans-

piration is of vital importance to
the plant in many ways. (1) In the
first place We find that roots are
,continually absorbing water from
the soil, and this water is several
times in exc~ss of the immediate
requirement of the plant; the
excess is got rid of by transpira-
tion. (2) There is a definite relation
between transpiration and absorp-
tion. The greater the transpiration,
the greater the rate. of absorption
of water from the soil. (3) Absorp-
FIG. 333. Suction due to
transpiration. tion of water helps the intake of
 CON Due T ION 0 F W ATE R & MIN ERA L SALT S 223

()rganic salts from the soil. It is, however, not a fact

that the greater the transpiration, the greater the rate
()f absorption of inorganic salts from the soil. As a matter
ot fact the intake of salts is independent of the quantity of
water absorbed. (4) Transpiration secures concentration of the
cell-sap and thereby helps osmosis. (5) As a result of transpira-
tion from the leaf-surface a suction force (see experiment 9)
is generated which helps water to ascend to the top of
lofty trees. (6) Transpiration also helps the distribution of
water throughout the plant body. (7) As a result of transpira-
tion, plants become cooler as a considerable amount of latent
heat is lost in converting water from a liquid into a gaseous
.state. In the face of all these advantages the fact cannot be over-
looked that excessive transpiration is often a real danger to
plant life. Many plants are often seen to dry up and die when
excessive transpiration takes place for a prolonged period.
Factors which affect Transpiration. (I) l,ight. Light is the most
important factor. During the daytime stomata remain fully
open and evaporation of water takes place normally through
them. At night stomata remain closed and consequently trall-
spiration is ch_ecked. Duri~g the daytime again heat-rays of
the sun falling directly upon the leaves greatly enhance the
rate of transpiration. (2) Humidity of the Air. There is an
increase or decrease in the rate of transpiration according to
whether the air is dry or moist. When the atmosphere is very
dry it receives moisture very readily, but when it becomes very
moist or saturated it can receive no more water vapour. Loss of
water by transpiration-.is then very sl,ight. (3) Temperature of
the Air. The higher the temperature, the greater the transpira-
tion; at high temperatures the water evaporates more freely
than at low temperatures. When the two factors, viz. dryness
of the air and high temperature, combine transpiration is
markedly enhanced. (4) Wind. During high wind transpiration
becomes very active because the water vapour is instantly re-
moved and the area around the transpiring surface is not allow-
ed to become saturated.
Adaptations to reduce excessive Transpiration. Anatomical.
Plants have developed many structural devices to reduce
excessive transpiration which could be fatal to them. Thick
·cuticle, multiple epidermis, cutinized hairs and scales, a dense
-coating of hairs, sunken stomata, temporary closure of stomata!
 224 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

cork and bark, etc., are some such devices. Morphological.

The leaf-area is often very much reduced; in extreme cases.
leaves are modified into spines. The size of the plant is also-
often reduced. Leaves may be rolled up or variously folded,
exposing minimum surface for transpiration. They may also-
assume a drooping or vertical position to avoid strong sunlight.
Deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter as a protection
against excessive transpiration, while evergreen trees have their
leaves well covered with cuticle.
Exudation of Water. The excess water is also got rid of in
many herbaceous plants and undershrubs by a process, com-
monly called exudation or guttation. In this process, as seen
in rose, balsam, water lettuce, grape vine, many aroids, garden
nasturtium, many grasses, etc., water escapes in liquid form.
at night and accumulates in drops at the ends of veins. These
drops of water may be seen in the early morning. Exudation
• takes place in the absence of transpiration. .

ASCENT OF SAP
The water absorbed from the soil by the root-hairs slowly
move" up through the plant body to the leaves and the
growing regions of the stem and the branches, usually at the
rate of 1-2 metres per hour. Two questions naturally arise
in this connexion: what is the path of movement of sap and
what are the factors responsible for th~. ascent of sap?
Path of Movement of Sap. The path of movement of sap
may be determined in the following way. A small herba-
ceous plant (e.g. Peperomia) or a small branch of a plimt
(e.g. lupin) may be immersed in eosin solution. After a
short time sections, cross and longitudinal, are prepared from
it at different heights and examined under the microscope.
Sections will show the presence of coloured solution only in
the vessels and tracheids. Therefore, there are the elements
through which movment of sap, or transpiration current as
it is called, takes place.
Factors Responsible for the Ascent of Sap. Various theories
have been advanced from time to time to explain the ascent
of sap, but none has proved satisfactory yet. It is believed
that root pressure forces up the water to a certain height and
transpiration exerts a suction force on this column of water
from above. In short, it may be said that root pressure gives
 CON Due T ION 0 F W ATE R & MIN ERA L SAL T S 225

a 'push' from below and transpiration exerts a 'pull' from

above. In this respect transpiration is a more powerful factor.
Probable theories regarding the ascent of sap are as follows:
(1) Root Pressure. Root pressure is regarded as one of the forces raspon-
sible for the ascent of sap. By alternate expansion and contraction of the'
cortical cells of the root a pumping force is no doubt generated, but thil50
force, which is the root pressure, is only adequate to force up water in herbs"
shrubs and low trees, and that too in the absence of transpiration. Root
pressure can hardly generate 2 atmospheres of pressure and the maximum
height to which a column of water may be raised by this pressure is only
19 metres. The process is also slow and cannot keep pace with the water-
lost by transpiration. In many plants root pressure is absent or feeble at
certain times of the year. Besides, water still rises through the stem if
the roots are decapitated and the cut end of th~ stem dipped into water.
(2) Cohesion Theory. According to Dixon and Jolly (1914), the water
molecules cohere together and form a long continuous column from the
root to the leaf with no air-bubbles in it. This column does not break any-
where in its entire length even under a state of very high tension. Appa-
rently this water-column behaves as a so:id column. Then as transpiration
takes place from the leaf-surface, a suction force is geJ;ler!ited, Le. a pun
is exerted on the water-column at its upper end (see experiment 9). As a.
result the whole water-column is bodily pulled up. This theory explains
how the water can be lifted through the vessels to the height of the tallest
trees (over 100 metres).
(3) Imbibition Theory. Sachs (1874) suggested that water moves along
the walls of xylem vessels (and not through their cavities) as a result of
imbibition of water by the solid particles of vessel-walls. But when the
cavities of the vessels are artificially blocked with oil, air or gelatin the'
I branches are seen to wilt, showing thereby that the amount of water absorbed,
, by this process cannot at all keep pace with the amount of water lost bY'
transpiration.
(4) Vitalistic Th~ory. It i~lso believed by some that the activity of
living cells, e.g. wood parenchyma and medullary ray cells surrounding
xylem, is responsible for the rise of sap through the plant body. The role
played by the living cells is like that of rel~y pumps. The living cells take
up water from the vessels at a particular level and then force it again into'
the vessels at a higher level, and the sap thus rises. Strasburger (189'1:),
however, refuted the idea of vital forc.3 by killing the living' cells by the·
application of hea.t as well as by poisonous chemicals.
(5) Pulsation Theory. According to the late Sir J. C. Bose (1923), the
ascent of sap is due to active pulsation of the internal layer of the cortex
abutting upon the endodermis. Conduction of water takes place through
this layer even in the absence of root pressure and transpirlltion. Xylem
vessels being dead and inactive no pulsation is exhibited by them, and these
were regarded by him as only reservoirs of water. All the living cells
exhibit pulsation to a greater or less extent, but the activity of the internal
cortex is exceptionally great. Anatomical and experimental evidence, how-
ever, does not support this view.

IS
 'CHAPTER 6 Manufacture of Food
Food of Plants. Food consists of certain organic substances
which are more or less directly utilized by the living
organisms for their nourishment. In this respect there is
llardly any difference between the food of plants and that
of animals. Such substances are carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats and oils. Animals, non-green plants and non-green cells
'of plants have to depend directly or indirectly on the organic
.food prepared by the chloroplast-bearing cells of green plants.
It is evident, therefore, that green plants hold a vital posi-
tion so far as the living world is concerned.
/. CARBOHYDRATES
Pbotosynthesis.~ Photosynthesis (photo, light; synthesis, build-
ing up) consists in the building up of simple carbohydrates such
as sugars in the green leaf by the chloroplasts in the presence
'Of sunlight (as a source of energy) from carbon dioxide and
water absorbed from the air and the soil respectively. The
process is accompanied by a liberation of oxygen (see experi-
ment 10). The volume of oxygen liberated has been found to
be equal to the volume of carbon dioxide absorbed. But it is
to be noted that all the oxygen liberated in the process is
. released exclusively from water (H 2 0) and not from carbon
dioxide (C0 2 ), as first proved by Hill in 1937 and later by
.others by using radioactive oxygen, 0 18 , in water (H;2018) .
.oxygen escapes from the plant body through the stomata.
This formation of carbohydrates, commonly called carbon-
assimilation, is the monopoly of green plants only, chlorophyll
being indispensable for the process. By this process not only
:are simple carbohydrates formed but also a ~considerable
amount of radiant (light) energy absorbed from sunlight is
stored up as potential chemical energy in the organic sub-
sFinces formed. It must be noted that photosynthesis takes
place only in the green cells and, therefore, mainly in the
leaf and to some extent also in the green shoot.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis. The intermediate chemical
stages in the process stilI remain a mystery. Numerous re-
searches carried out over a long period have failed to trace
 MANUFACTURE OF FOOD
the diffeJient chemical reactions involved in the production of
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and water (H 2 0),
and this has led to a great deal of speculation. Photosynthesis
takes place in a series of chemical reactions-some are photo-
chemical requiring light energy and some are chemical or
enzymic requiring a particular temperature. Chlorophyll no
doubt is indispensable for photosynthesis, but it is not known
what exact role it plays in the process except that (a) it
absorbs radiant (light) energy and possibly also transfers this
energy to the photosynthetic products, and (b) it acts as a
catalytic agent, itself undergoing no change during the photo-
synthetic process. External factors like light, carbon dioxide
and temperature are most essential for proper functioning of
the chloroplasts. Several enzymes also play a part in succes-
sive stages of the process.
In recent years with the discovery of radioactive elements,
particularly radioactive carbon, C14, it has been possible to trace
at least some of the compounds through which the carbon
dioxide passes on its way to the final products formed during
the proce~s of·photosynthesis. This is called the 'tracer' method.
Thus in 1950 Benson and Calvin by using Cl4 0 2 (with radio-
active carbon in it) succeeded in tracing it through some of the
intermediate stages of photosynthesis. They found that when
the period of photosynthesis, i.e. the period of exposure to
light, was shortened to a few seconds a detectable quantity
of phosphoglyceric acid was formed. Phosphoglyceric acid is,
therefore, . the first stable intermediate product formed in.
photosynthesis. It is a 3-carbon compound and possibly it is
formed from' an unk~wn z-carbon compound. The radio-
active carbon used in the experiments could be traced in the
phosphoglyceric acid and finally -in the sugar formed in the
process. But exactly how sugar appears is not clear. It is pos-
sible that the union of two such 3-carbon compounds produces
a 6-carbon compound, i.e. sugar, The over-all reaction may
be represented thus: 6C02+ 12H20____",C6H,206+ 6H 2 0 +60 2,
Photosynthesis as a whole resolves itself into two types of
reactions-light and dark. The process of photosynthesis
begins with the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll and
utilization of this energy in breaking up water (H 2 0) into
oxygen and hydrogen. The splitting of water is possibly the
<only light reaction. Oxygen escapes, while hydrogen is stored
in the chloroplasts in combination with some unknown com-
228 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

pound which acts as an acceptor of hydrogen. By this process

the light ·energy is converted into potential chemical energy.
Next, hydrogen is transferred to CO 2 (whic.il now acts as an
acceptor of hydrogen) to form a 3-carbon compound-phos-
phoglyceric acid, as stated before. Finally the phosphoglyceric
acid becomes transformed into sugar. All the reactions from
the reduction of CO 2 (i.e. addition of hydrogen) to the forma-
tion of sugar and starch are dark react£ons. Nearly the whole
of CO 2 taken up in photosynthesis enters into the composition
of sugar. Sugar is almost immediately converted into starch.
End Products in J>hotosynthesis. Oxygen and starch are the
final products formed in photosynthesis. Oxygen escapes from
the leaf (see experiment 10) but starch accumulates in it (see
experiment I I). Starch may be detected in the following way.
In the evening collect one or more leaves and bleach them
with methylated spirit. Then dip them into iodine solution.
They are seen to turn bluish-black in colour indicating the
presence of starch grains. Starch is insoluble in water. At
night it is converted into sugar by the action of an enzyme
known as diastase and translocated to storage organs. In the
storage tissues sugar is recon-
verted into starch by the leucD-
plasts.
v Experiment 10. Photosynthesis: to show
that oxygen is given off during photo-
synthesis (fig. 334). Place some cut
branches of Hydrilla (an aquatic plant)
under cover of a funnel in a large
beaker filled with water. Add a pinch
of soda bicarbonate as a source of
carbon dioxide. Invert over the funnel
a test·tube filled with water. Expose
the apparatus to bright sunlight. With·
lU a few minutes streams of gas bubbles
will be seen to rise from the cut ends of
the bran~he. and collect in the test·tube
by displacing the water. If the apparatus
be removed to a dark or semi·dark
room or covered with a black paper or
cloth no bubbles are seen to come out.
Then remove the test· tube with the gas.
to pyrogallate solution. It rises and
completely fiEs up the tube. Pyrogal.
FIG. 334. Evolutiort of oxy-
late solution absorbs oxygen. The gas.
gen bubbles in photo~ynthesis
of a water plant (Hydrilla). in the tube is, therefore, oxygen.
 MANUFACTURE OF FOOD 229
Experiment 11. Photosynthesis: to demonstrate that starch is formed in
photosynthesis (figs. 365-6). Select a healthy green leaf of a plant in situ
and coYer a portion of it on both sides with two uniform pieces of black
paper, fixed in position with
two paper clips or soft
wooden clips either in the
morning before the sun
rises or the previous even-
ing, so that the experiment
is performed with a starch-
free leaf. N ow expose
the plant to light for the
whole day. Then co[ect
the leaf and decolorize it
with methylated spirit.
Dip it into iodine solution
for a minute or so. Note
that the exposed portions FIG. 335. Formation of stnrch grains in
turn blue or black showing photo~ynthesis of land plants. A, leaf
partially covered with black paper; fl,
the presence of starch, covered POl'tlOll without starch grains;
while the screened portion uncovered portions with plenty of them.
turns yel:owish brown,
there bein~ no .starch formed in it; this yellowish brown colour is due
to the action of iodine solution on protoplasm and cellulose.

FIG. 336. Starch print in photosynthesis.

A very interesting experiment known as the starch print (fig. 336) may
be carried out in the following way. A stencil (which may be a blackened
thin tin plate or a black paper) with the letters S TAR C H punched or
cut in it is used for this purpose, the procedure being the same as de~cribed
under experiment 11. Later, when the leaf is decolorized and treated with
iodine solution, the print of S TAR C H will stand out boldly in black on
the bleached leaf owing to the formation of starch grains which have turned
black by contact with iodine.
Instead of loose black paper or stencil a light-screen, as shown in fig. 337,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

may be used to cover a portion of the leaf. The advantage of the light-
screen is that it allows free ventilation, while it cuis off ~ll light.

FIG. 337. A light-screen .

..I Experiment 12. To show that plants cannot photosynthesize unless carbon
dioxide is available: Moll's experiment (fig. 2'38). Take a wide-mouthed
bottle and a split cork of appropriate size. Pour a small quantity of dilute
caustic potash solution into the bottle.
Before sunrise cut a healthy green leaf,
evidently starch-free, and place it-half.
inside the bottle and half outside-between
the two halves of the split cork. Lay the
J). bottle flat on a wooden tray, with the
petiole dipped into a dish of water. Smeal'
~IG. 338. Moll's experiment
on photosynthesis. the edges of the split cork with vaseline
to make the bottle air-tight. The tray with
the bottle and dish is then exposed to direct sunlight till the evening.
Then remOVe the leaf, decolorize it with methylated spirit and dip it into
iodine solution. It will be seen that the portion of the leaf lying' outside
the bottle turns black; while the portion insrde the bottle turns yellowish.
This evidently shows that no starch grains ar!) formed when carbon dioxide
is not available, all the carbon dioxide contaiIlild in the bottle havf~g been
absorbed by the caustic potash solution.
Expel'iment 13. To !\how that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.
Select a garden croton plant with variegated leaves. Cut out a small branch
from it and dip the cut end into water in a bottle. Keep it in a dark room
for 1 or 2 days to free the leaves of starch grains. Then mark the green
portions in 1 or 2 leaves, and expose the branch to bright sunlight for the
whole day. In the evening collect the marked leaves, decolorize them with
methylated spirit and dip them into iodine solution for a few minutes.
Note that only the green portions 01 the leaf turn black indicating the
presence of starch grains; while the non-green portions turn yellowish. It is,
therefore, evident that without chlorophyil photosynthesis cannot take place.

Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis. Light intensity, tem~

perature and carbon dioxide concentration of the air are the
three most important external conditions for photosynthesis
and its rate. //~
(1) Light. This is the most important condition/ for photo-
synthesis. Formation of carbohydrates cannot take place un-
 MANUFACTURE,OF FOOD 23 1
less light is admitted to the chloroplasts (see experiments
10 & II). The rate of photosynthesis also varies according to·
the intensity of light.
(2) Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide of the air is the source
of all the carbon for the various organic products formed in
the plant, such as sugar, starch, etc., and, therefore, the pro-
cess is in abeyance it carbon dioxide is not available to the
plant (see experiment 12). Under favourable conditions of light
and temperature if carbon dioxide concentration rises from
0·03 per cent in the air to 0·1 per cent or even more, carbo-
hydrate formation greatly increases.
(3) Water. Water is indispensable for photosynthesis be-
cause water and carbon dioxide undergo chemical changes
leading to the formation of carbohydrates under the influence
of chlot:oplasts and in the presence of sunlight. It is, however,
a fact that less than I per cent of the water absorbed by the
roots is utilized in photosynthesis.
(4) Temperature. Photosynthesis takes place within a wide
range of temperature. It goes on even when the temperature
is below 'the .freezing point of water, but the maximum tem-
perature lies at about 4SoC. The optimum temperature, i.e.
the most favourable temperature for photosynthesis, may be
stated to be 3SoC. .
(S) Chlorophyll. This is essential for photosynthesis; the
plastids are powerless in this respect without the presence of
chlorophyll. For the same reason non-green parts of plants
cannot photosynthesize (see experiment 13). Fungi and sapro.,
phytic and parasitic phanerogams have altogether lost thi~
power, being" devoid olchlorophyll. '
(6) Potassium. Potassium helps synthesis of carbohydrates
and, therefore, in its absence starch grains are not formed.
Potassium does not enter into the composition of carbohy-
drates but acts as a catalyst helping in their synthesis.
Conditions necessary for the Formation of Chlorophyll. A
number of factors, both internal and external, are re~ponsible
for the formation of chlorophyll. In the absence of any of'
them chlorophyll synthesis is in abeyance.
(I) Light. Without light chlorophyll cannot develop; con-
tinued absence of light decomposes chlorophyll, and the plants'
become etiolated, i.e. pale, sickly and drawn out (see fig. 349)."
Very strong light decomposes chlorophyll in the leaf, parti-,
cularly in shade-loving plants. )
 232 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

(2) Temperature. Chlorophyll develops within a wide range

of temperature; very high temperature (4S-48°C.), however,
decomposes chlorophyll.
(3) Iron, Magnesium and Manganese. In the absence of
the salts of these metals ehlorophyll is not formed, and seed-
lings assume a sickly yellow appearance. In this condition they
are said to be chlorotic. Of these metals it is only magnesium
that enters into the composition of chlorophyll.
(4) Nitrogen. Nitrogen er _ers into the composition of chlo-
rophyll and, therefore, in the absence of nitrogen chlorophyll
fails to develop.
(S) Water. Leaves, when they dry up in the absence of
water, are seen to lose their green colour. Desiccation thus
brings about decomposition of chlorophyll. In prolonged
droughts the leaves of many plants turn brownish in colour.
(6) Oxygen. This is also necessary for the formation of
chlorophyll. Etiolated seedlings fail to develop chlorophyll in
the absence of oxygen, even when these arc exposed to sun-
light.
(7) Carbohydrates. Cane-sugar, grape-sugar, etc., are also
necessary for the formation of chlorophyll. Etiolated leaves
without soluble carbohydrates in them, develop chlorophyll
and turn green in colour when floated on sugar solution.
(8) Heredity. This is a powerful factor and determines the
formation of chlorophyll in the offspring. F.1miIiar examples
are those with multi-coloured leav~s. e.g. garden crotons,
aroids (e.g. Caladium), amaranth, Cole,!s, etc.
Chemistry of Chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a mixture of four different pig-
ments, as follows: .
1 Chlorophyll a, C"H"O,N .Mg-a blue-black micro-crystalline solid.
2 Chlorophyll b, C"H,.O.N.Mg-a green-black micro-crystalline solid.
o Carotene, C.,Hs.-an orange-red crystalline solid.
4 Xanthophyll, C.,H"O.-a yellow crystalline solid.

II. PROTEINS.
Nature of Proteins. These are very complex organic nitr6gen-
ous compounds found in plants. Analyses of proteins show
that carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and often sulphur
and sometimes phosphorus enter into their composition, but
we know little about their molecular structure. Protein mole-
cules are very large and extremely complex, consisting of
hundreds or thousands of atoms, and are composed of several
chains of amino-acid molecules. Various kinds of proteins
 MANUFACTURE OF FOOD 233
are found in plants. Amino-acids are the initial stages in the
formation of proteins, and are also the decomposition products
of the latter.
Synthesis of Proteins. Proteins are normally formed from
nitrates absorbed from the soil. But the chemical reactions
.leading to the formation of these complex compounds are only
imperfectly known. Protein synthesis mostly takes place in
the meris~ematic and storage tissues, and also in all active
cells of the plant body. Light, however, is not necessary for
this process. It is believed that the whole process of protein
synthesis takes place in three different stages. (a) Reduction
'of Nitrates. Nitrates, after they are absorbed into the plant
body, are first reduced to nitrites, and the nitrites further
redu~ed to ammonia (amino group. -NH 2 ). This reduction
takes place either in the root or in the leaf under the
action of some enzymes. (b) Synthesis of Amino-acids. This
aIIUp.onia (amino group, -NH 2 ) then combines with sugar or
some of its intermediate or decomposition products (formed
during photosynthesis and respiration) as sources of carbon, ""'.
hydrogen and oxygen, and amino-acids are bu:!t out of them.
The:-e are over 20 different amino-acids known to be consti-
tuents of plant proteins. Amino-acids are mainly formed in
leaves and stem-tips, and from there they may travel to any
part of th~ plant body. (c) Synthesis of Proteins. A protein
molecule may be finally formed by linkage of hundreds or
thousands of amino-acid molecules which may be arranged
in the protein molecule in practically an infinite variety of
ways. Complex proteins contain sulphur and phosphorus
also. These 'elements '&re supplied by sulphates and phos-
phates obtained from the soil. Proteins may break down into
amino-acids which may again combine into proteins.
III. FATS AND OILS
The different stages in the formation of fats and oils are
not clear. It is believed that they are synthesized from
glycerine and fatty acids under the action of the enzyme lipase.
Both glycerine and fatty acids are derived from carbohydrates.
The process is independent of light and chlorophyll. See
also p. 145.
 CHAPTER 7 Special Modes of Nutrition
Green plants are autotrophic (autos, self; trophe, food) or
self-nourishing, that is, they are able to manufacture carbohy-
drates from raw or inorganic materials and thus nourish them-
selves. Non-green plants on the other hand are heterotrophic
(heteros, different), that is, they cannot prepare carbohydrates
and nourish themselves. They get their supply of carbohy-
drate food from different sources. They can, however, pre-
pare other kinds of food. Heterotrophic plants are parasites,
when they aepend on other living plants or animals, and
saprophytes, when they I depen~ on the organic material
present in the soil or in the dead bodies of plants and animals.
Their nature and mode of nutrition have already been dis-
cussed (see pp. 6-9).
Carnivorous Plants. These plants are known to capture lower
animals of various kinds, particularly insects. They digest
the prey and absorb the nitrogenous products (proteins)
from its body. Digestion is extra-cellular in all carnivorous
plants. Being green in colour, they can manufacture their
own carbohydrate food. Altogether over 450 species of carni-
vorous plants have till now been discovered representing IS
genera belonging to 6 families; of them over 30 species occur
in India. According to the mode of catching the prey they
may be classified into four groups.
(a) Plants with sensitive glandular ~airs on the leaf-surface,
secreting a sweet sticky fluid, e.g. sundew (Drosera).
(b) Plants with special sensitive hairs-trigger hairs-on
the leaf-surface~ e.g. Venus' fly-trap and Aldrovanda.
(c) Plants with leaves modified into pitchers, tg. pitcher
plant (Nepenthes).
(d) Plants with leaf-segments modified into bladders, e.g.
bladderwort. Bladqerwort and Aldrovanda are aquatic.
(I) Sundew (Drosera; fig. 339)-90 sp. ; only 3 sp. in India.
They are small harbs, a few to many cm. in height. Each leaf
is covered on the upper surface with numerous glandular hairs
known as the tentacles. Each gland secretes a sticky fluid
which glitters in the sun like dew-drops and hence the name
'sundew', When any insect, attracted by the glistening fluid.
which is possibly mistaken for honey, alights on the leaf, it
gets entangled in the sticky fluid, and the tentacles bend
 S PEe I A L MOD E S 0 F ::-J U T R. I T 10::-J 23S
down on it from all sides and cover it. When it is suffocated.
to death the process of digestion
begins. The glands secrete an
enzyme, called pepsin hydro-
chloric acid,' which acts on the
insect and changes the proteins
in its body into soluble and
simple forms. The carbonaceous
materials are rejected in the form
of waste products. If the tentacles
are poked with any hard object,
they show no movement. A bit
of raw meat placed on the leaf,
however, induces movement.
(2) Venus Fly-trap (Dionaea ;
fig. 340)-1 sp. The plant is a
native of the U.S.A. It is herba-
ceous in nature and grows in
damp mossy.places. Each half of
the leaf-blade is provided with FIG. 339. Sundew (D70sera).
three long pointed hairs-trigger
hairs-pla~ed triangularly 'on the leaf-surface. The hairs are
extremely sensitive from base to apex. The slightest touch.

FIG. 340.
Venus'
fly-trap

(Dionaea).

to any of these hairs is sufficient to brin!?: about a sudden

closure of the leaf-blade, the mid-rib acting ·as the hinge. The
upper surface of the leaf is thickly covered with reddish
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

,digestive glands. When the insect is caught, or any nitrogen-

ous material such as meat, fish, etc., placeo on the leaf, it
closes suddenly and the glands begin to secrete pepsin hydro-
chloric acid. The enzyme then brings about the digestion of
,proteins.
(3) Aldrovanda (figs. 341-2)-1 sp. This plant is very widely
distributed over the earth. It has been found in abundance
in the salt-lakes of the Sundarbans, the salt-marshes south of

FIG. 341. Aldrovanda.

'Calcutta, the freshwater 'jheels' of East Pakistan and in several

tanks in Manipur. Aldrovanda may be regarded as a minia-
ture Dionaea in some respects. It is a rootless, free-floating
plant with whorls of leaves. The mechanism for catching
prey is practically the same as that of DlOnaea, but instead of
only six sensitive hairs there are a number of them here on
either side of the mid-rib, and the leaf is protected by some
bristles. There are, of course, numer!?us digestive glands ori
the upper surface of the leaf, and the margins are beset with
minute teetli pointing inwards.
(4) Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes; figs. 343 & 12~21)-60 sp ; 'only

342.
'I'IG.
Atdrovanda "
A, an entire
leaf open;
H, section of
a closed leaf.

FIG. 343.
A pitcher of
,pitcher plant.
(See also
FIGS. 120-21).
FIG. 343

J Sp. (N. khasiana) in India (in the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo
hills). Pitcher plants are climbing herbs or undershrubs which
 S PEe I A L MOD E S 0 F NUT R I T ION 237

often climb by means of the tendrillar stalk of the pitcher.

Each pitcher varies from 10-20 centimetres and sometimes
more in height. The mouth of the young pitcher remains closed
by a lid which opens afterwards and stands more or less erect.
Below the mouth the inside of the pitcher is covered with
numerous smooth, sharp hairs, all pointing downwards.
Lower down, the inner surface is studded with numerous,
large, digestive glands. The pitcher is also partially filled with
a fluid. Animals, as they enter, slip down the smooth surface~
and are drowned in the fluid. After their death the process
of digestion commences. The digestive agent secreted by the
glands is in the nature of a trypsin which digests proteins into
peptones and the peptones into amines. Amines are readily
absorbed by the pitcher. Bits of egg-white, meat, etc., dropped
into the pitcher, as was first found by H~oker, are seen to.
become dissolved and ultimately absorbed in the form of
amines. Carbohydrates and other materials remain un-
digested in the pitcher as waste products.
(5) Bladderw~rt (Utricularia; fig. 344)-210 sp ; over 20 sp. in
India. They are mostly floating or slightly submerged, root-
less, aquatic herbs; there are a few terrestrial species also. The
leaves are very much segmented, looking like roots except

FIG. 344.
Bladderwort
(Utricutaria)
with many
smaller bladders;
top, a bladder
in section
(magnified).

that they are green in colour. Some of these segments become

transformed into bladders. Each bladder is about 3-5 mm. in
diameter and is provided with a trap-door entrance. The trap-
door acts as a sort of valve opening only inwards when pushed
from outside. Very small aquatic animals enter by pushing the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF' BOTANY

trap-door. Once inside the trap (bladder) there is no escape for

them. The inner surface of the bladder is dotted all over with
numerous digestive glands. After the death of the animals the
process of digestion begins.

'CHAPTER 8 Translocation and Storage

of Food
Translocation. Food materials are prepared mostly in the
leaves. From there they are translocated to the storage organs
which often lie at a considerable distance. For this purpose
there are definite and distinct channels extending through the
whole length of the plant body. These are the sieve-tubes and
associated cells. Through them soluble proteins, amines,
amino-acids and sugars travel downward t9 the storage organs ..
,Such materials can easily pass through the perforated sieve-
plates. The protoplasmic threads extending through the pores
in the s,ie've-plates also help in this respect. In the storage
organs these substances are converted into insoluble (complex)
proteins and starch grains, and stored up as such.
Later during the period of active growth-formation of buds
and flowers-the various forms of stored food are rendered
soluble and, therefore, suitable for travelling. Now an up-
ward movement of the soluble food materials takes place
through the phloem and finally they \are brought to the grow-
ing organs.' At this time of active growth a part of the food
also moves upward through the xylem. The forces responsible
for the downward or upward movement of food through the
phloem are not known. That the phloem is definitely the
principal channel for conduction of food can be proved by
'chemical analysis of its contents. Such analysis reveals the
presence of 'soluble carbohydrates (sugars), proteins and other
nitrogenous compounds in it.
Storage. Food is prepared in excess of the immediate need of
plants. This surplus food exists in plants in two conditions-
either suitable for travelling or suitable for storage. The travel-
ling form is characterized by solubility) and the storage form
by insolubility in the cell-sap.
'Storage Tissues. Tissues meant for storage of food are mostly
made of living parenchymatous cells with thin cellulose walls.
 T RAN S L 0 CAT ION AND S TOR AGE 0 F F 0 0 D 239
If the walls are thick they are provided with many simple pits
in them. All parts made of large-celled parenchyma always
·contain a certain amount of stored food. The cortex of roots
is particularly rich in it, as also are the large pith of the
monocotyledonous root and that of the dicotyledonous stem.
There is also a quantity of food stored up in the endodermis,
medullary rays and xylem parenchyma of the stem, and
border parenchyma of the leaf. Storage Organs. Food materials
are stored up in the endosperm or in the thick cotyledons of
the seed for the development and growth of the embryo. In
the fleshy pericarp of the fruit there is a considerable amount
of food stored up. Food is specially stored up in the fleshy
roots such as the fusiform, napiform, conical and other roots,
and in the underground modified stems such as the rhizome,
tuber, corm, etc. All fleshy stems' and leaves, as in Indian
.aloe (Aloe vera), American aloe (Agave), purslane (Portu-
laca), etc., and fleshy scales of onion always contain a store of
food in them. The swollen stem-base of l~ohl-rabi also contains
stored food.·
Forms of Stored Food. The various forms in which the food
materials are stored in these different organs and tissues may
now be considered. The food materials are carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats and oils (see also pp. 140-45). Among the
carbohydrates starch is most abundant in almost all the storage
'organs; glucose accumulates as such in grapes to the extent
12-15%, and sucrose in sugarcane and beet to the extent of
10-15% and ,!0-20% respectively; inulin in the tuberous roots
of Dahlia; reserve cellOtose (see fig. 254) in the endosperm of
,date seed, vegetable ivory-palm seed, -etc.; and glycogen in
fungi. Among the nitrogenous-materials various kinds of
proteins, particularly aleurone grains, are found in both starchy
and oily seeds but bigger aleurone grains occur in oily seeds;
pulses are rich in proteins; while amino-compounds are
scarce in storage organs.> Fats and oils are found in almost all
living cells; they are specially common, however, in seeds and
fruits. In oily seeds very little carbohydrate is found.
Food Stored in the Seed. There is always a considerable
amount of food stored up in the cotyledons and in the endo-
sperm of the seed for the use of the embryo as it grows. Food
materials occur there in insoluble forms and these are first
,digested, i.e. rendered soluble and chemically simpler under
240 A C LAS 5 - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

the action of specific enzymes (see next chapter), and then

utilized by the embryo for its nutrition and growth. Common
forms of such food materials are the following. (I) Starch is
a very common form of carbohydrate stored up in the seed.
Cereals such as rice, wheat, maize, oat, barley, etc., are parti-
cularly rich in starcn. (2) Reserve cellulose is deposited as
thickened cell-walls of the endosperm of many palm seeds,
e.g. date-palm, betel-nut-palm, nipa-palm, vegetable ivory-
palm, etc. (3) Oils are deposited in most seeds to a g~eater or
less extent. There is a special deposit of them in seeds like
groundnut, gingelly, coconut, castor, safflower, etc. (4) Proteins
also occur in all seeds in varying quantities. In seeds like
pulses they occur in fairly high percentage. Soybean contains
42-47% of proteins. Oily seeds also contain a high percentage
of proteins, e.g. castor seed.

CHAPTER 9 Digestion and Assimilation

of Food
Digestion. The stored materials are generally insoluble in
water or cell-sap and also indiffusable, but when translocation
is necessary they are rendered soluble and diffusible by the
action of enzymes. It is only in the soluble forms that food
materials are absorbed by the protoplasm. This rendering
of insoluble and complex food substances into soluble arnd
simpler forms suitable for translocation through the plant
body and assimilation by the protoplasm is collectively known
as digestion.
The process of digestion is chiefly intra-cellular,_ that is,
it takes place inside the cell. Extra-cellular digestion occurs
in a few cases, as in the digestion of proteins by carnivorous
plants, parasites, fungi, etc. Digestion, like all other physio-
logical functions, is performed by the protoplasm. For this
purpose it secretes digestive agents known as enzymes.
Enzymes. Enzymes are digestive agents secreted by the
protoplasm to act upon insoluble and complex foodstuff and
other substances and render them soluble. They also act upon
soluble materials and split them up into simpler compounds.
They are very complex organic compounds (containing nitro-
gen) and are protein in nature. They are soluble in water,
 DIG EST ION AND ASS I MIL A T ION 0 F F 0 0 D 24 r
and when dry, form a white amorphous powder. They are
not directly formed by the protoplasm, but at first very
minute granules, known as zymogen, are secreted by it. The
zymogen is then converted into the active enzyme, e.g. pepsirt
from pepsinogen and trypsin from trypsinogen. Here pepsin
and trypsin are the enzymes and pepsinogen and trypsinogen
are the zymogens. A temperature of 70°C. destroys the pro-
perties of most enzymes.
Properties of Enzymes. (I) The action of an enzyme is
mostly specific, i.e. for a particular subst<:nce there is a
particular enzyme; for instance, the enzyme that acts on
stdrch will not act on protein or any other substance. This
is expressed as 'lock and key' action. (2) The enzyme is
never exhausted; a small quantity of it can act on an almost
unlimited supply of the substance, provided that the products
of digestion are removed from the seat of its activity. (3) The
enzyme acts as a catalytic agent; this means that the presence
of the enzyme induces some chemical action in the substance
without itself undergoing any change. Thus the enzyme
may be r'egarded as an organic catalyst.
Kinds of Enzymes and Nature of Digestion
Diastase converts starch into dextrin and maltose.
2 Maltase converts maltose into glucose.
3 Invertase changes sucrose into glucose and fructose.
4 Cellulase converts cellulose into glucose.
5 Cytase converts hemicellulose into glucose.
6 Inulase changes inulin into fructose. .
7 Pepsin. changes ,eroteins into peptones.
8 Trypsin transforms proteins into amino-acids.
9 Erepsin transforms pepton_es into amino-acids.
IO Lipase breaks up fats into fatty ~cids and glycerine.

Assimilation. Assimilation is the absorption of the simplest pro-

ducts of digestion of foodstuff by the protoplasm into its own
body and conversion of these products into the similar complex
constituents of the protoplasm (the term assimilate means
to make similar.) The various kinds of carbohydrates are
converted into sugar, particularly glucose, and the various
kinds of proteins converted into peptones and amino-acids.
These simplest products of digestion travel to the growing
regions where the protoplasm is very active. Here glucose is
mostly broken down during respiration, releasing energJ;
16
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

while the digested products of proteins are assimilated by the

\protoplasm into its own body. We know that the protoplasm
. itself is a living substance composed of very complex proteins.
The food proteins are, therefore, changed into complex proto-
plasmic proteins, i.e. into 'live' proteins, or, in other words,
'food passes from non-life into life, that is, protoplasm. This
is the goal of nourishment. How this mysterious change takes
place we do not know. We know only that the protoplasm has
the power of bringing it about.

CHAPTER 10 Respiration
Respiration is essentially a process of oxidation and decom-
position of organic compounds, particularly simple carbohy-
: drates, such as glucose, in the living cells with the release of
energy. The most important feature of respiration is that
. by this oxidative process the potential energy stored in the
organic compounds in living cells is released in a stepwise
manner in the form of active or kinetic energy under the
influence of a series of enzymes and is made available, partly
at least, to the protoplasm for its manifold activities such as
manufacture of food, growth, movements, reproduction, etc.
Often a considerable amount of energy escapes from the plant
body in the form of heat, as seen in germinating seeds. It is
principally glucose that undergoes. oxidation, but sometimes
in its absence other materials like fats, proteins, organic acids
and even protoplasm under extreme conditions may also be
,oxidized. The main facts associated with respiration are:
(I) consumption of atmospheric oxygen, (2) oxidation and
decomposition of a portion of the stored food resulting in a
lo~s. of dry weight as seen in the seeds germinating in the
.'dark, (3) liberation of carbon dioxide and a small quantity
·of water (the volume of CO 2 liberated being equal to the
'. volume of O 2 consumed), and above all (4) release of energy
: by the breakdown of organic food. The over-all chemical
.reaction may be stated thus: C GH 12 0 6 +602~6C02'+ 6H2 0+
'Energy (sugar + oxygen ~ carbon dioxide + water + energy).
,This shows that for oxidation of one molecule of sugar six
; molecules of oxygen are used and that six molecules each of
:C02 and H 2 0 are formed. By burning sugar at a high tem-
~perature CO 2 and H 2 0 are also formed, but in the living cells
 RESPIRATION 243
this process is carried on by a series of enzymes at a compara-
tively low temperature.
All the living cells of the plant, however deeply seated
they may be, must respire day and night in order to live. If
the supply of air is cut off by growing the plant in an atmo-
sphere devoid of oxygen, it soon dies. Growing organs, such
as the floral and vegetative buds, the germinating seeds, and
the stem- and root-tips, respire actively; while adult organs
do so comparatively slowly. Entry of oxygen and exit of
carbon dioxide normally take place through the stomata, and
in shrubs and trees through lenticels also (see fig. 317). For
diffusion of gases through the plant body a network of inter-
cellular spaces and air-cavities develops in it.
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration (aer, air; an, not; bios,
life). Normally free oxygen is used in respiration resulting in
complete oxidation of stored food -and formation of carbon
dioxide and water as end products; this is known as aerobic
respiration. A considerable amount of energy is released by
this prQcess as represented by the equation C GH 12 0 6 + 60,,---+-
6C02 + 6H 2 0 + 674 cal. (sugar)+ oxygen ---+- carbon dioxide+
water+674 cal. of energy). Under certain conditions, as in
the absence of free oxygen, many tissues of higher plants, seeds
in storage, fleshy fruits and succulent plants like cacti tempo-
rarily take to a kind of respiration, called anaerobic respiration,
which results in incomplete oxidation of stored food and forma-
tion of carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol, and sometimes also
various organic acids such as malic, citric, oxalic, tartaric;
etc. Very l~.ttle energt is released by this process to maintain
the activity of the protoplasm. This may be represented by the
equation-C6 H 12 0,,---+-zC 2 H 5 0H -±' zC02 + 28 cal. (sugar---+-ethyl
alcohol+carbon dioxide+z8 cal. of energy). It is otherwise
known as intramolecular respiration. A:naerobic respiration
may continue only for a limited period of time, at most a few
days, after which death ensues. Certain bacteria and fungi
normally take to anaerobic respiration for release of energy.
Experiment 14. Respiration (fig. 345). A flask with a bent bulb, called
respiroscope (or an ordinary long-necked flask) with some germinating seeds
in it is inverted over a beaker containing a good quantity of mercury. A
small caustic potash stick is introduced into the flask. The respiroscope is
fixed in a vertical position with a suitable stand and clamp. The enclosed
air in the flask is completely cut off from the outside atmosphere. Now leave
the apparatus in this position for some hours, preferably till the next day.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

It will then be seen that mercury has risen in the flask to the extent of
nearly one-fifth the total volume of the flask. The rise of the mercury is evi·
dently due to absorption of a certain volume or gas contained in the flask.
Since caustic potash absorbs carbon dioxide it may be easily inferred that
the gas absorbed is carbon dioxide. This gas must have been exhaled by
the germinating seeds during respiration.

FIG. 345 FIG. 346

Experiments on Respiration. FIG. 345. Aerobic respiration. FIG. 346.
Anaerobic or intramolecular respiration. S, seeds; 0, caustic potash
stick; M, mercury; G, gas.
Note. Instead of mercury dilute caustic potash solution may be used.
The rise of this solution in the flask will be one-fifth the total volume of
the enclosed air. This indicates that the volume of carbon dioxide evolved
is equal to the volume of oxygen absorbed since oxygen occupies one-fifth
the total volume of air. ,,
Experiment 15. Anaerobic respiration (fig. 346). Completely fill a short
narrow test-tube with mercury (M), close it with the thumb and invert it
over mercury contained in a beaker. Keep the tube in a vertical position
with a suitable stand. Take some germinating seeds, and remove the seed-
coat from them to get rid of the enclosed air (oxygen). With the help
of the forceps hold the skinned seeds under the test-tube, and release them
one after another. As soon as released the seeds rise to the closed end
of the tube. Introduce in this way five or. six seeds. They are now free
from oxygen. Prior to their introduction it is better to soak the seeds in
distilled water, or to introduce into the test· tube a small quantity of dis-
tilled water with the help of a bent tube. This keeps the seeds moist.
Note on the following day that the mercury column has been pushed down,
owing to the exhalation of a gas (0) by the seeds. Within one or two days
nearly the whole of the mercury is seen to be pushed out of the tube.
Introduce a small piece of caustic potash stick into the test. tube with the
help of the forceps. It floats on mercury, and coming in contact with the
 RESPIRATION 245
gas, absorbs it quickly. The mercury rises again and fills up the test-tube.
The gas evidently is carbon dioxide.

Respiration is a destructive process consisting of the decom-

position of some of the food materials, more particularly the
simple carbohydrates, and this decomposition is brought
about by the action of specific enzymes secreted by the proto-
plasm. Nevertheless, it is highly beneficial to the life of the
plant for the reason that respiration sets free energy by which
work is performed. T~is energy is absolutely necessary for
the various synthetic processes, growth, movements, etc. If
we think of the enormous development of a large tree we can
at once realize what a vast amount of energy has been utilized
in constructing that body. A considerable amount of energy,
of course, escapes from the plant body in the form of heat.
During vigorous respiration heat is generated. A thermo-
meter thrust into a mass of germinating seeds will show a
marked rise in temperature (see experiment 16). This pro-
duction of heat is an easily observed form of energy. Respi-
ration results- in a loss of dry weight of the plant. This is
believed to be due to the escape of carbon dioxide.
Experiment 16. Heat generated in respiration (fig. 347). Take two
thermoflasks, and . fill one of
the (A) with germinating seeds
and the other (B) with the seeds
killed by boiling for a few
minutes and then soaked in 5%
formalin to prevent any fermenta-
tion in the flask generating heat.
Insert a sensiti ve therffiQIIleter
in each as shown in the figure
and pack the mouth of the flask
with cotton. It is better to place,
half-immersed in seeds, a small
test-tube containing a small piece
of caustic potash stick. Wait for
some time and note a remarkable
rise in temperature in the case
of flask A containing germinating
seeds; while flask B containing
killed seeds shows no rise of tem-
B
perature. This evidently proves
that heat is evolved in respira- FIG. 347. Experiment to show that
heat is generated in respiration.
tion.

Conditions affecting Respiration. (I) Oxygen. The presence of

oxygen is the first and the most essential condition for respi-
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

ration since this is an oxidation process. If the concentration

of oxygen in the air goes below 5 per cent the process rapidly
falls off. With higher concentration up to even roo per cent
the rate correspondingly increases.
(2) Temperature. This affects markedly the rate of respira-
tion. The minimum rate is reached at o°C. or even at rooC.,
and the maximum at 45'C. or even at 40°C. Beyond this
point protoplasm is injured and respiration decreases in rate.
(3) Light. The effect of light is only indirect; in;bright
sunlight the respiratory activity is greater than in £ubdlled
light, possibly because the stomata remain wide open for free
exchange of gases.
(4) Supply of Water. Protoplasm saturated with water
['espires more vigorously than protoplasm in a desiccated con-
dition, as in the dry seed. For this reason the rate of respira-
tion increases with the supply of water.
(5) Vitality of Cells. Respiration in young active cells is
more rapid than in old cells. Vegetative buds, floral buds
and germinating seeds respire more vigorously than older
parts of the plant body.
(6) Carbon Dioxide Concentration. If, as a result of respi-
ration, carbon dioxide be allowed to accumulate, respiration
slows down and may even come to a standstill.
(7) Nutritive Materials. Soluble carbohydrate, more parti-
cularly glucose, affect respiration to a ,\onsiderable extent since
the latter is quickly broken down in the process releasing
energy.
Respiration and Photosynthesis. (I) In respiration plants
utilize oxygen and give out carbon dioxide, while in photo-
synthesis plants utilize carbon dioxide and give out oxygen;
that is, one process is just the reverse of the other.
(2) Respiration is a destructive (catabolic) process, but
photosynthesis is a constructive (anabolic) process. In the
former process sugar is broken down into CO 2 and H 2 0 with
the liberation of energy, while in the latter process CO 2 and
H 2 0 are utilized to build up sugar with the storage of energy.
Respiration is thus a breaking-down process, and photosyn-
thesis a building-up process.
(3) The intermediate chemical reactions in the breakdown
of sugar in respiration and those in the synthesis of sugar in
photosynthesis are much the same. In both processes phos-
 METABOLISM 247
phoglyceric acid is formed representing an intermediate,
product.
(4) Respiration is performed by all the living cells of the:
plant at all times, i.e. it is independent of light and chloro-i
phyll; while photosynthesis is performed only by the green
cells, and that, too, only in the presence of sunlight. Although
photosynthesis persists only for a limited period, this process
is much more vigorous than respiration.
(5) Respiration results in a loss of dry weight of the plant
due to breaking-down of food materials and the formation of
carbon dioxide which escapes from the plant body; but photo-
synthesis results in a gain in dry weight due to formation of
sugar, starch, etc., which accumulate in the plant body.
Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of sugar into
alcohol and carbon dioxide brought about by certain micro-
organisms in the absence of oxygen. The change is due tq
the action of an enzyme, known as zymase, secreted by the'
micro-organisms, and not due to their direct action on sugar.
Fermentation'is most readily seen in date-palm juice, where
sugar is, broken up by unicellular yeast plants into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, the frothiJ;1g being due to the formation of
this gas. The process is analogous to anaerobic respiration
and may be represented by an identical formula-C sH 12 0.
(sugar + zymase---+2C 2 H 5 0H (alcohol) + 2CO z (carbon dio-
xide) + zymase + energy.

CHAPTER II Mefabolism
I

Two series of chemical changes _or processes are simultane-

ously going on in a plant cell, one leading finally to the con':
I3truction or building-up of the protoplasm, and the other to,
its decomposition or breaking-down. These processes, which,
are constructive on the one hand and destructive on the other,
are together known as metabolism. Metabolism takes place
only in the living cells, and is one of the characteristic signs
of life. The processes that lead to the construction of various
food materials and other organic compounds and finally of
protoplasm are together known as anabolism, and those pro-
cesses leading to their destruction or breaking-down as
catabolism. The main anabolic or constructive changes are:.
formation of sugars and other carbohydrates, formation of
 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F. B:O TAN Y

proteins, and formation of fats and oils.. These changes or

processes are regarded as anabolic because the protoplasm
continually reconstructs itself with these nutritive substances.·
By anabolism a considerable amount of potential energy is
stored in those substances for future use of the protoplasm.
The main. catabolic or destructive processes are: digestion,
respiration and fermentation. By these processes complex
food substances are gradually broken down into simpler
products, e.g. 'various carbohydrates into glucose, various
proteins into amines and amino-acids, and fats and oils into
fatty acids and glycerine. The potential energy already stored
up in them is released by catabolism into kinetic energy for
manifold activities of the protoplasm. Carbon dioxide and
water are formed as a result of complete oxidation of glucose
in aerobic respiration, and alcohols and organic acids as a·
result of incomplete oxidation of glucose in anaerobic respira-
tion or fermentation. Various secretory products such as
enzymes, vitamins, hormones, cellulose, nectar, etc., and
various waste-products such as tannins, essential oils, gums,
resins, etc., are the results of catabolic processes.

B. PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH
AND MOVEMENTS

CHAPTER· 12 Growth
. .
Growth is a vital phenomenon. The protoplasm assimilates
the products of digestion and increases in bulk and weight.
The cells divide and numerous new cells are formed; these
increase in size and become fully turgid, and the plant grows
as a whole. Growth may be defined as a permanent and irre.
versible increase in size and form attended by an increa.se in
weight. Growth is usually very slow in plants, but it can be
accurately measured with the help of an instrument, called the
:arc indicator or lever·auxanometer (fig. 348).
Experiment 17. Growth in Length of the Shoot. The arc indicator is an
instrument by means of which a small increase in length can be magnified
many times. From this total known magnification recorded by the instrument
the actual length attained by a plant within a certain specified time can
·~'l.sily be calculated.
 GROWTH 249
The arc indicator consists of a movabltl lever or indicator fixed to a
'\'heel round which passes v. cord, and a graduated arc. One end of the cord
~s tied round or gummed to the apex of the stem, and from the other end
.11. small weight is suspended to keep the cord taut. As the stem increases in

FIG. 348.
Arc indicator
or lever
,auxanometer.

aength the wheel slowly rotates under the suspended weight and the indi-
cator moves down the graduated arc. The growth in length of the plant is
·thus recorded by the instrument on a magnified scale. From the record
thus obtained the actual increase in length of the stem is calculated; for,
instance, if the lever has traversed a distance of 45 cm. in 24 hours, and the
magnification is 90 times, the actual growth in the same period is ~~ em.,
i.e., 0'5 em. or '5 mm. and.... therefore, in 1 hour the actual growth of the
plant is 1'4 mm., i.e. 0'2 mm.
Conditions necessary for Growtl!. Since growth is brought
about by the protoplasm the conditions necessary for growth
are the same as those that maintain the activity of the proto-
plasm (see p. 200). (I) A supply of food is indispensable for
growth. It is the source of necessary nutritive materials
required for growth and is also a source of energy to the proto-
plasm. (2) An adequate supply of water maintains the turgi-
dity of the growing cells and the activity of the protoplasm.
(3) A supply of oxygen is indispensable for respiration of all
the living cells. Respiration releases energy stored in the food
for the manifold activities of the protoplasm. (4) An average
temperatnre of more or less 30°C. is very suitable for proto-
plasmic activities and growth of the plant body. (5) The fOrce
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTA"Y

of gravity determines the direction of growth of certain organs,.

e.g. the root downwards towards this force , while th e stem
upwards away from it. (6) A certain intensity of light main-

FIG . 349. Effect of light and darkneEs on the gro wth of seedlings. Left,
gourd seedlings; right, gram seed lings . A, grown in light; B, grown
in darkness.

tains the healthy condition of plants. Strong light, however,

retards growth, ~s during the daytime, while continued
absence of light makes plants 'Soft, weak, brittle, slender, long
and drawn out, pale-green or pal e:yclI ow in colour and sickly
in appearance; such plants are said to be etiolated (fig. 349).
They seldom produce flowers. Moreover, stomata open and
chloroplasts function only in the presence of light manufactur-
ing food materials which are required for growth. The effect
of unilateral light is discu ssed on p. 255.
Grand Period of Growth. Every organ of the plant body,
in fact every cell that the organ is composed of, shows a
variation in the rate of its growth. The growth is at first slow,
then it accelerates until a maximum is attained, then it fall s
Qff rather quickly, and gradually slows down until it comes
to a standstill. This growth of an organ or a cell or the plant
as a whole extending over the whole period is called the
grand period of growth. Within the grand_period variations
in growth occur owing to external and other causes. There is
thus the diurnal variation of growth. Light inhibits growth,
and too intense light even checks it altogether. Thus plants
grow quicker during the night than during the day. During
the night the retarding or inhibiting action of light is removed ,
 GROWTH

and the rate of growth of a plant gradually increases until:'

dawn, while during the day the rate of growth gradually
decreases until about sunset. There is also seasonal va,riation
of growth; during winter the growth of many plants is
checked or becomes very slow, but during spring growth
proceeds rapidly.
Hormones. It is now definitely known that certain organic products formed
in very minute quantities as a result of metabolism inside the plant body
have a profound influence on the growth of the plant organs and on the
various kinds of tropic movements exhibited by such organs; they also have
a marked effect on certain physiological processes. They are known as the
hormones or growth-regulating substances. They are formed in one part
of the plant body, chiefly in the apical meristem, and transported from
t here to another part to produce a particular physiological effect there. The
presence of hormones was first demonstrated by experimental methods. It
'has now been possible to extract them from plants by appropriate chemical
methods. At low concentration they dimulate growth, while at high con·
centration they retard growth. Various kinds of hormones have been dis·
covered till now. Of them auxins and heteroauxin (indole·acetic acid), first
obtained from human urine, are well known. Certain synthetic compounds
such as indblyl hutyric acid also act as hormones. Heteroauxin causes the
formation of roots in stem· cuttings, leaf.cuttings (fig. 350) and in grafting.
Auxins are responsible for seed'germination, seedling·growth and growth,
of plant organs; they also stimulate ccll divisions in the meristematic tissue,
and influence certain physiological processes;
also, the role of hormones in tropic responses has
now been well established. Thus phototropism
and geotropism are now explained on an hormonal
basis. Hormones responsible for the development
of the root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, etc., have
also been discovered.

Vitamins. Vitamins are a group of organic sub·

stances which have proved to be most valuable
in preventing and curing deficiency disea:ses such
as scurvy (livid spots on the skin and general
debility), beri·beri, rickets, malnutrition, loss of
appetite, poor physical growth, eye ,infection,
nervous breakdown, etc., caused by the absence
of vitamins in the food or their faulty absorption
due to intestinal troubles. For over two centuries
scurvy was a dreaded disease among sailors,
resulting in many deaths. About the year 1793 it
was found that the use of orange or lemon juice
dispelled scurvy from the navy. tEvidently the
juice contains something (now known as vitamin FIG. uOU. Hoot·!onnation
C) which cures the disease. It was only from the in leaf-cutting of Pogo·
1906 th . t' t' . 't' stemon treated with
year at mves Iga IOns mto VI amms were indolyl butyric acid.
made from the biological standpoint and up to
today several vitamins have been discovered and their value established.,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Vitamins are required only in minute quantities for a particular effect

a~d they are used up in the metabolic processes. They are mostly formed
by plants and stored up in their different organs. Plants are, therefore,
the main sources of vitamins for animals including human beings. It has
now been possible to synthesize some of the vitamins, particularly vitamins
C and D, on a commercial scale. Some of the well-Jsnown vitamins are
as follows.

Vitamin A is a growth.promoting vitamin, fairly resistant to heat. It

increases resistance to bacterial infections of the lungs and the intestines,
prevents many eye-diseases, particularly night-blindness, and cures skin-
diseases and nervOus weakness. Carotene of plants is the source of this
vitamin, and animals can synthesize it in their bodies by taking food con-
taining carotene of plants. Vitamin A is found in carrot, green leafy
vegetables (spinach, lettuce, cabbage, etc.), cereals (particularly in their
pericarp), pulses, many fruits (particularly yellow ones such as tomato,
mango, orange, apple, papaw, etc.), fish-liver oils (e.g. cod-liver oil and
halibut-liver oil), liver of mammals, milk, butter, egg-yolk, etc.
Vitamin B consists of a group of closely allied vitamins, commonly
called vitamin B complex. Of these vitamin B1 (soluble in water and not
very resistant to heat) prevents beri-beri (accummulation of water in the
body resulting in serious diseases). Beri-beri was for a long time a dreaded
disease in the rice-eating countries of India, Malaya, China and Japan.
Polished rice (evidently something removed from its peri carp, now known
to be this vitamin) was found to be the cause of this disease which resulted
in immense suffering and innumerable deaths. Other vitamins of this group
are B" B., Bl21 etc., each having its own function. Vitamin B complex
is very widely distributed. One or more of thilm are found in dry yeast,
cereals, pulses, most vegetables, many fruits (e.g. orange, banana, apple,
tomato, etc.), nuts, milk, cheese, egg, meat;, fish, liver, etc.
Vitamin C (soluble in water and sensitiv.e to heat) prevents scurvy,
mental depression, swelling and bleeding of' gums, and degeneration of
teeth. It is found in most fresh fruits (particularly orange, lemon, pummelo,
tomato, pineapple, guava, papaw, etc.), many vegetables, sprouted ·pulses
and cereals.
Vitamin D cannot stand strong light; otherwise it is sufficiently stable.
Its deficiency causes rickets, wftening of bones, dental caries, poor develop-
ment of teeth, and inhibits proper abr,orption of calcium and pho~phates.
It is found in dry yeast, ergot, milk, butter, egg-yolk, fish and fish liver-
(lils. It is commonly associated with vitamin A. Vitamin D can be produ<;ed
in the human body by the action of ultraviolet ray (from sunlight or
illectricity) on the skin.
Vitamin E is resistant to heat and light but destroyed by ultra-violet
ray. Its deficiency causes sterility in animals (not yet definitely proved
in the case of human beings) and degeWlration of muscles. It is found in
green vegetables, germinating grains, wheat embryo, etc.
To summarize, it may be said that our daily diet should include at least
Borne of the following, as sources of vitamins, in addition to cereals and
pulses: green vegetables, fruits including tomato, some of the vegetable
(lils, milk and milk products, eggs, animal liver, fish, meat, eto.
CHAPTER 13 Movements
Movement is a sign of life. But most plants are fixed to the
ground and cannot move bodily. Protoplasm, however, is
sensitive to various external factors which act as stimuli, such
as heat, light, gravity, certain chemicals, electricity, etc., and
many plant organs or entire free organisms respond to them
by some kind of movement. The various kinds of move-
ments may be broadly classified into (A) spontaneous or
autonomic and (B) induced or paratonic.
A. Spontaneous movement is the movement of certain
organs of plants or more commonly of entire free organisms
of their own accord, i.e. without the influence of any external
factor; it 'may be due to some internal cause not clearly
understood. Common instances are: movements of proto-
plasm and all ciliate bodies, oscillating movement of Oscilla-
toria (see fig. 377), brisk movements of many desmids and
diatoms, etc. Spontaneous movement of plant organs may be
of two kinds, as follows:
(I) Movement of variation is the movement of mature
organs due to variation in turgidity of the cells making up
those organs. It is somewhat rapid, but in-
stances are rather rare. The spontaneous
movement of variation is, however, very
remarkably exhibited by the pulsatzon, i.e.
the rising and falling of the two lateral
leaflets of the Indian telegraph plant (Des-
modium gyrans; fig. 351) during the day-
time, the terminal leaflet remaining fixed
in its position.
(2) Movement of growth is the -movement
of growing organs due to unequal growth
on different sides of those organs. It is very
slow. This kind of movement is seen in
some trailers and creepers. In them at one
time the growth is comparatively rapid on
one side of the stem and then it passes on FIG. 351. Indian
to the opposite side. The stem tip then telegraph plant
showing spontane·
moves from one side to the other. In such ous movement of .
a case the stem, as it elongates, moves in the two lateral
leaflets.
a zigzag course. Young fern leaves at first
remain closely coiled but then because of more rapid growth
 254 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

-on the upper side they uncoil and straighten out. Opening of
flowers is also a kind of growth moveinent.
B. Induced movement is the movement of certain plant
organs or of enthe free organisms induced by some external
factors acting as stimuli. The power of receiving stimulus
from outside and of responding to it is spoken of as irritabi-
,Jity. Irritability expresses itself in some kind of movement,
. depending • the nature of the stimulus. Induced move-
ments ma e of the following kinds: (a) taxes (sing, taxis),
{h) t ms,4'nd (c) nasties.
Ta~ or taxic movements are the movements of free
<: an ~r entire organisms induced by external stimuli such
)
:a 'ght, temperature and chemical substances. Ciliate bodies
. ':e antherozoids and zoospores typically show taxic move-
me t. These bodies are either attracted by the stimulus or
l Y;c'/"
~
e r pelled by it.
(b) Tropisms or tropic movements are the movements ot
• plant organs influenced by external stimuli, particularly con-
~ tact, light, gravity and moisture. Tropic movement is always
directive, i.e. the organ concerned moves either towards the
source of the stimulus or away from it. Depending on the
nature of the stimuli the movements may be as follows :
(I) Haptotropism is the movement of an organ induced by
contact with a foreign body. Twining stems and tendrils are
good examples of haptotropism. 'In such cases the reaction
is rather slow and, therefore, the'. contact must be of long
duration ~o bring about the movement. When such organs
come in contact with any support or any hard object the
growth of the contact side is checked, while the opposite side
continues to grow. The result is that the organs slowly coil
round that object. This is a mechanism for climbing. Some
move clockwise and others anticIockwise. If the direction be
artificially altered, growth becomes arrested.
(2) Heliotropism or pbototropism is the movement of plant
organs in response to incidence of rays of light. Some organs
are attracted by unilateral light and grow towards it; they
are said to he positively heliopropic, e.g. the shoot; and others
grow away from it and are said to be negatively heliotropic,
e.g. the root. Dorsiventral organs such as leaves, runners, etc.,
grow at right angles to the direction of light so that their
upper surface is exposed to light; such organs are said to be
~~--

MOVEMENTS

, .cliaheliotroplc. Positive heliotropism is seen markedly in

potted plants, particularly seedlings, when these are grown in a
dosed box (heliotropic cham-
_ ber; fig. 352) with one open
window on one side. They
..all tend to grow towards
the window, i.e. towards
the source of light, and
ultimately corne out through
it. The flower-stalk of
FIG. 352, Heliotropic chamber.
,groundnut (fig. 353) grows
. towards light, but after pollination ;t becomes negatively
heliotropic and positively geotropic like the root. The stalk
. bends down and quickly elongates, pushing the fertilized
ovary into the ground where gradually the ovary ripens into
a pod (fruit).
(3) Geotropism is the movement of plant organs in res-
ponse to the force of gravity. Geotropism has a mark'~d
,effect on the direction of growth of plant organs. The
primary roO't is seen to grow towards the centre of gravity,

:FIG. 353. Groundnut

showing that the
flower-stalk is nega-
tively heliotropic and
positively geotropic
after pollination of
the flower.

and the primary shoot away from it. The former is, there-
fore, said to be positively geotropic, and the latter negatively
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

geotropic. The lateral roots and the branches usually grow

at right angles to the force of gravity and are said to be
diageotropic. That the direction of growth is determined by
the stimulating action of the force of gravity is clearly seen
in a seedling which has been placed in a horizontal position
away from light. Both the stem and the root undergo
curvature in their growing region behind the apex, passing
through an angle of 90. ; the root curves and grows vertically
downwards, as does the stem upwards. It is the very tip
of the root, for a distance of I to 2 mm. in length, that is
sensitive to this stimulus; but the actual bending takes place ~
some distance behind the tip in the region of greatest growth.
If the tip of the root be decapitated, no bending takes place.
Besides, it is seen that the root of a germinating seed can,
under the force of gravity, grow downwards even through
mercury overcoming considerable pressure. Further, it has
been found possible with the help of a clinostat (fig. 354) to
eliminate the effect of geotropic stimulus on the root and the
shoot by introducing a centrifugal force (see experiment 18).

FIG. 354. Clinostat in the horizontal position to eliminate the effect

of the force of gravity.

Experiment 18. Geotropism. A c1inostat (fig. 354) may be used to

demonstrate geotropism. A clinostat is an instrument by which the effect of
lateral light and the force of gravity on an organ of a plant-root or stem-
can be eliminated. It consists o~ a rod with a disc mounted on it, to which
a small potted plant may be attached, and a clockwork mechanism for rotating
the rod and the disc. The clinostat works slowly-its rotation being ordi-
narily t to 4 turns per hour. A plant, preferably a pot plant, may be fixed
in the cIinostat in any position-vertical, horizontal or at an angle-and
I

MOVEMENTS 257
made to rotate by clockwork mechanllim in the clinostat. When the plant i~
horizontal, the root and the stem grow' horizontally, instead of the root
curving downwards and the stem upwards. This is due to the fact that all
sides of lhe growing axes are in turn directed downwards, upwards and
sideways so that the force of gravity cannot act on any definite position.
This results in the effect of the force being eliminated altogether. The root
and the stem cannot, therefore, bend. If, however, the plant be fixed in
a vertical positior: and the clinostat rotated, it is seen that the plant grows-
in a vertical direction-the root downwards and the stem upwards.
(4) Moisture. The movement of an organ in response to,
the stimulus of moisture is known as hydrotropism. Roots are
sensitive to variations in the amount of moisture. They show
a tendency to grow towards the source of moisture, and
are said to be positively hydrotropic. It is seen that roots of
plants, growing in a hanging basket made of wire-netting ana
filled with moist sawdust, project downwards at first, coming:
out of the basket, under the influence of the force of moisture
(moist sawdust of the basket), but turn back and pass again
into the basket having formed loops.
Experiment '19. flydrotropism. A porous clay funnel, covered around with
a filter paper, is placed on a wide-mouthed glass bottle (or hyacinth glass)
filled with water, as shown in fig. 355. The paper
is thus kept moist. The porous funnel is filled with
dry sawdust and the soaked seeds are arranged,
in a circle, each near a pore. It is necessary to
add a few drops of water now and then to the'
seeds to help their germina,tion. As they germii-
nate it is seen that the roots, instead of going,
vertically flownwards in response to the force of
gravity, pass out through the pores towards the'
moist. filter paper outside and grow downwards
alongside the paper into the bottle. Roots thus.
show movements towards moisture, or, in other'
words, they are - positively hydrotropic.
(e) Nasties or nastic movements are the move~
ments of mainly dorsi ventral organs like leaves
and petals, induced by external stimuli such as
FIG. 355. Experiment 0
on hydrotropism. contact, light and temperature. But these
movements are not directive, as are the tropisms,
i.e. the direction of movement is not determined by the direction of
the stimulus; in other words, whatever be the direction of the stimulus·
it equally affects all parts of the organs, and they always move in the same'
way and in the same direction. Two kinds of such movements are conspi-
cuous, as follows.
(1) Seismonasty 'is the movement brought about by mechanical stimuli,
such as contact with a foreign body, poking with any hard object, drops,
of rain, a gust of wind, etc. Movements of the leaves (leaflets) of the·
sensitive plant (fig. 357), the sensitive wood-sorrel (B. BAN-NARANGA; H.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
J:.AJALU-fig. 356), Neptunia (B. PAl'{I-r.AJUK), carambola (B. KAMRANGA;
H. KAMRAKH), etc., are familiar examples. Leaflets of such plants close
.up, when touched. The Venus' fly-trap (Dionaea,' see fig. 340) is another
very interesting example.

FIG. 356 FIG. 357

FIG. 356. Sensitive wood-sorrel (Biopliyturn sellsitivllm).
FIG. 357. Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica).
(2) Nyctinasty is the movement induc,ed by alternation of day and
iIlight, i.e. light and darkness. It is otherwise called sleep movement.
Leaves and flowers, particularly the former, are markedly affected by
nyctinasty. 'This kind of movement is most remarkably exhibited by the
leguminous plants. Leaflets of these plants close up and often the leaf
as a whole droops in the evening when the light fails, and they open up
again when the light appears in the morning. A few other plants like
'Ohenopodium (B. & H. BATHUA-SAK), carambola (B. KAMRANGA; H. KAM-
BAKH), wood-sorrel, etc., also show the same phenomenon. Among the
flowers showing nyctinasty mention may be made of Gerbera (a garden
lherb), Portulaca (wild or garden variety), etc.
 G PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER I4 Reproduction
Since the life of an individual plant is limited in duration
it has developed certain methods by which it can reproduce
itself in order to maintain the continuity of the species and
.also to multiply in number. The following are the principal
methods of reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual.
I. VECET A TlVE REPRODUCTION
A. Natural Methods of Propagation. In any of these
methods a portion gets detached from the body of the mother
plant, and this detached portion embarks on a new career
under suitable conditions, gradually growing up into a new
independent plant.
(I) Budding. In the case of yeast (see fig. 278) one or
m,ore tiny Outgrowths appear on one or more sides of the
vegetative cell immersed in sugar solution. Soon these out-
growths get detached from the mother cell and form new
individuals. This method of outgrowth-formation is known as
budding. Often budding continues one after another so that
chaitts and even sub-chains of cells are formed. The indivi-
,dual cells finally separate from one another and form new
yeast plants.
(2) Gemmae. In Marchantia, special bodies, known as
gemmae (see' fig. 412), "develop on the thallus for the purpose
,of vegetative propagation.

FIG,358
Walking fern
(Adiantum
caudatum).

(3) Leaf-tip. There are certain ferns, commonly called

walking ferns (e.g. Adiantum caudatum), which propagate
,
 260 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANy

vegetatively by their leaf-tips (fig. 358). As the leaf bows down

and touches the ground the tip strikes roots and forms a bud.
This bud grows into a new independent fern plant. Ferns
normally, however, reproduce vegetatively by their rhizome.
(4) Underground Stems. Many flowering plants repro-
duce themselves by means of the rhizome, e.g. ginger, the
tuber, e.g. potato, the bulb, e.g. onion, and the corm, e.g.
Gladiolus and Amorphophallus. The buds produced on them
gradually grow up into new plants.
(5) Sub-aerial Stems. The runner of wood-sorrel and Indian
pennywort (fig. 359), the stolon of taro, the offset of water
lettuce and the sucker of Chrysanthemum are made use of
by such plants for vegetative propagation.

FIG. 359. Runner of Indian pennywort (Centella) showing vegetative

mode of propagation.

(6) Adventitious Buds. In the sprout-leaf plant (Bryophyllum

pinnatum; see fig. 60) and in Kal.anchoe (fig. 360) a series of
adventitious (foliar) buds are produced on the leaf-margin,
each at the end of a vein; these buds grow up into' new
plants. In the elephant ear plant (Begonia; see fig. 61) a few

FrG. 360. A leaf of Kalanchoe sp. with adventitious buds.

adventitious buds are produced on the surface of the leaf

from the veins and also from the petiole. Similarly the roots
 REPRonUCTION

()f some plants may produce adventitious (radical) buds for

the same purpose, as in sweet potato.
(7) Bulbils. In Globba bulbifera (fig. 361), American aloe
(fig. 363) and garlic some of the lower flowers of the inflores-
cence become modified into small
multicellular reproductive bodies
called bulbils. These fall to the
ground and grow up into new
'_'-~·plants. Bulbils, big or small, are
also produced in the leaf-axil of
wild yam (Dioscorea bulbifera;
B. GACHH-ALOO; H. ZAMINKHAND-
wild yam (Dioscorea bulbifera;
FIG. 361. Globba bulbifera. In wood-sorrel (fig. 364) a large
B, bulbil.
number of small buds (bulbils)
may be seen on the top of the swollen tuberous root. These
buds break off easily and grow up into new plants. In some

FIG. 362 FIG. 363 FIG. 364

Bulbils. FIG. 362. Dioscorea bublifera. FIG. 363. Bulbil of American
aloe (Agave). FIG. 364. Wood-sorrel (Oxalis).

varieties of pineapple (fig. 365) the inflorescence is surrounded

at the base by a whorl of reproductive buds or bulbils and
also crowned by a few of them.
B. Artificial Methods of Propagation. In any of these methods
a portion can be separated from the body of the mother plant
by a special method and grown independently. There are
several such methods.
262 A C LAS S - BOO K' 0 F BOT ANY

(I) CuttingS. (a) Stem-cuttings. Many plants like rose, sugar-

cane, -tapioca, garden croton,
China rose, drumstick (Mor-
inga) , Duranta, Coleus (see
fig. 40), etc., may be grown
easily from stem-cuttings.
When cuttings from such
plants are put into moist
soil they strike roots at the
base and develop adventi-
tious buds which grow up.
(b) Root-cutting. Sometimes,
as in lemon. ci~ron, ipecac
(see fig. 53B), tamarind,
etc., root-cuttings put into
moist soil sprout, forming
Toots and shoots.
FIG. 365. Pineapple with a crown (2) Grafting. Some of the
and a whorl of bulbils.
common methods of grafting
including layering and goatee adopted for the sake of fruits,

FIG. 366 FIG. 367 FIG. 368

Artificial Methods of PrOT agation. FIG. 366. Layering. FIG. 367. Gootee.
FIG. 368. Inarching or approach grafting.

e.g. mango, litchi, guava, sapodilla plum, lemon, etc., or for

the sake of flowers, e.g. lvlagnolia, MicheliaJ Ixora) etc., are
illustrated by figs. 366-72.
 REPRODUCTION

SCION
!

FIG. 369 FIG. 370 FIG. 371 FIG. 372

Artificial Methods of Propagation (contd.). FIG. 369. Bud grafting.
FIG. 370. WhIP or tongue grafting. FIG. 371. Wedge grafting.
FIG. 372. Crown grafting.

II. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This takes place by means of special cells or asexual repro-
ductive l_\nits, called spores, produced by the parent plant>
which grow b'y themselves into new individuals, without two
such cells fusing together, as in sexual reproduction. Spores
are always unicellular and microscopic in size. They may be
motile or non-motile.
(I) Motile spores are provided with one or more tail-like
projections known as cilia. Such ciliate spores are called zoo-
spores, as in many algae and fungi. Commonly they are formed

FIG. 373. Rejuvenescence in Vaucheria.

in large numbers and are very minute in size. Aafter escaping

from the mother plant they swim briskly about in water for.

,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

some time, clothe themselves with a wall losing their motility,

and finally grow up into new plants. In Vaucheria) a green
alga, the whole mass of protoplasm of a cell escapes as a
single large zoospore (fig. 373) covered with many pairs of
-cilia. The zoospore swims freely in water for some time,
clothes itself with a wall and develops into a new Vaucheria
filament. This return of old protoplasm of a cell to a youth-
ful condition again is known as rejuvenescence.
(2) Non-motile spores commonly borne by terrestria1 fungi
are very light and dry, and provided with a tough coat. Such
spores are well adapted for dispersal by wind and at the same
time to meet the ever-changing conditions of the atmosphere.
They are of diverse kinds, and have received special names
according to their mode of origin.
(3) True spores are always borne by a sporophyte. In mosses
and ferns which show distinct alternation of generations repro-
duction takes place by both asexual and sexual methods. The
sporophyte reproduces asexually by spores which on germina-
tion give rise to the gametophyte, and the gametophyte re-
produces sexually by gametes which by fusion in pairs (male
and female) give rise to the sporophyte again.

III. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This consists of the fusion of two sexual reproductive nnits,
called gametes. Gametes are always unicellular and microscopic
in size. Two gametes of opposite sexeS fuse together. The pro-
auct of such fusion is a new cell called'the zygote; the zygote
develops into a new plant.
(I) Conjugation. In lower algae and fungi the paiTing
gametes are essentially similar, i.e. not differentiated into male
and female, and are called isogametes. The union of such
similar gametes is known as conjugation, and the zygote thus
formed is called the zygospore, as in Ulothrix (see fig. 38 I),
Spirogyra (see figs. 384-5) and Mucor (see fig. 395')' In Ulothrix
several small motile gametes are produced in a cell, while in
Spirogyra and l,,1ucor a single large n.on-motile gamete is pro-
duced in a cell.
(2) Fertilization. In all the higher forms of plant life, on
the other hand, the pairing gametes are dissimilar, i.e. differen-
tiated into male and female, and are called heterogametes.
The union of dissimilar gametes is known as fertilization, and
the zygote thus formed is called the oospore. In higher algae
 REPRODUCTION

:and fungi, mosses, ferns and allied plants male gametes are very
minute, motile, ciliate and active, and are known as anthero-
.zoids or spermatozoids. The female gamete in them is station-
ary, non-ciliate and passive, larger in size, and is known as the
egg-cell, ovum or oosphere. The corresponding male and female
reproductive units in the 'flowering' plants are the two
:gametes of the pollen-tube and the ovum or egg-cell of the
embryo-sac within the ovule.
IV. SPECIAL MODE OF REPRODUCTION
Parthenogenesis. The development of the zygote from the
egg-cell without the act of fertilization, as seen in many lower
plants, e.g. Spirogyra, Mucor, and in many ferns, is known as
parthenogenesis. In some species of 'flowering' plants the
embryo also may develop by parthenogenesis, i.e. without
fertilization. The development of the fruit from the ovary
without the act of fertilization is called parthenbcarpy. Par-
thenocarpic fruits are almost always seedless. Examples are
found i~ certain varieties of banana, pineapple, guava, grapes,
apple, pear, papaw, etc. Sometimes mere spraying with certain
chemicals (growth-promoting substances) like naphthalene-
:acetic acid results in the setting of fruits without fertilization
(induced paJ'thenocarpy).

•
 PART IV ECOLOGY
C HAP T E R I Preliminary 'Considerations
Ecology (oikos, house; logos) knowledge) deals with the rela-
tions between plants or a plant community, or animals or an,
animal community (as they exist in their habitats) and the
various factors of their environment. It investigates the various
structural and functional peculiarities that have appeared in
response to the conditions prevailing in the locality (environ-
ment). Ecology, therefore, involves both morphology (external
and internal) and physiology. It should also be noted that
plants give food and shelter to animals; while the effects of
animals and human communities on plants are also manifold.
A study of ecology necessarily includes both animals and
plants, and also the interactions between them.
Environment. Environment includes all the factors that affect
the form and growth not only of individual plants, but also
of plant associations. Environmental factors may be climatic,.
edaphic and biological.
(I) Climatic Factors. These include all the conditions of the'
atmosphere such as temperature, light, water (rainfall), wind.
humidity, etc.
(2) Edaphic Factors: Soils. Edaphic factors incfude the physi-
cal and chemical nature of the soil, th~ availability of 'water
and air in it, its temperature, its acidity or alkalinity, etc.
(3) Biological Factors. These include the action of soil
bacteria, algae. protozoa, earthworms and burrowing animals.
which alter the soil, often making it fertile; the competition
of neighbouring plants for food, water and sunlight; parasitic
fungi and bacteria, parasitic phanerogams; symbiosis; ana
insects which help pollination and also damage plants.

CHAPTER 2 Ecological Groups

Although plants sometimes occur as isolated individuals, more-
commonly we find that they become adapted to the same
environment and are associated together in groups. The groups,
m~y include different plant species, belonging to different
 ECOLOGICAL GROUPS

families, and differing in shape, size, form and relationship,.

but w.bich live under the same climatic and edaphic conditions.
Some of'the common groups are as follows.
I. Hydropbytes. These are plants that grow in water or in
very wet places. They may be submerged, partly submerged,
floating, or amphibious. Their structural adaptations are
. mainly due to the high water content and the deficient supply
of oxygen.
Adap'ta,tions. The main features of aquatic plants are the
reduction of protective tissue (epidermis here is meant for
absorption, and not for protection), supporting tissue (lack of
sclerenchyma), conducting tissue (minimum development of
vascular tissue) and absorbing tissue (roots mainly act as
anchors, and root-hairs flre lacking), and the special develop-
ment of air-chambers for aeration of internal tissues.
The Root. The root system is on the whole feebly developed.
and root-hairs and root-caps are absent. Some floating plants.
are rootless, e.g. bladderwort (see fig. 344) and hornwort; while
others hav~ a cluster of fibrous roots but no root-caps and
root-hairs, e.g. water lettuce (see fig. 68), water hyacinth (see
fig. 82) and duckweed (see fig. 39 ; in these, imtead of the root-
cap, an analogous structure 'called the root-pocket is formed
(see p, 29). In those fixed to the ground under water, either
submerged, e.g. Vallisneria (see fig. 204) and Hydrilla, or partly
submerged with floating leaves, e.g. water lily and lotus, there
is scanty development of the roots.
The Sotem. This may be in the form of a rhizome, small or
large, or it may be 10ng and slender, either branched or un-
branched. The stem and "the branches, particularly the latter.
are soft and spongy, containing a large number of air-cavities
filled with gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide for respiration
and photosynthesis). They also help the plants to keep in
position under water or to float. There is minimum develop-
ment of mechanical and vascular tissues. Xylem and phloem
are reduced to a few narrow vessels and sieve-tubes respec-
tively. The epidermis is without cuticle and is meant for
absorption of water. There may be some chloroplasts in it.
In some plants prickles are present for self-defence.
The Leaf. Leaves of submerged plants are thin and gener-
ally ribbon-shaped, finely dissected or linear, rarely broad.
Cuticle and stomata are absent. The epidermis contains some
chloroplasts so that it can utilize the w,eak light under water
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

for photosynthesis. It is, however, primarily meant for absorp-

tion of water. The mesophyll is not differentiated into pali-
sade and spongy tissues. Leaves of floating plants are . well
developed, and have a thick cuticle and a large number of
stomata on the upper surface. Exchange of gases takes place

rIO. 374. Giant water lily (Victoria regia). Photograph taken at the Indian
Botanical Gardens, Calcutta.

through the upper surface, and absorption of water through

the lower. Many air-cavities develop in them and also it;l the
petiole for the purpose of aeration and necessary buoyancy.
Amphibious plants subjected to alternate flooding and drying
often show heterophyUy (heteros, different; phylla, leaves), i.e.
they bear different kinds of leaves on the · same individual
(see pp. 69-70).
 ECOLOGICAI. GROUPS

Examples. (a) Submerged: Vallisneria (see fig. 204), Hydrilla,

Naias, etc. (b) Floating: bladderwort (see fig. 344), hornwor4
duckweed ,(see fig. 39), water lettucce (see fig. 68), water hya-
cinth (see fig. 82), water chesnut (see fig. 58), etc. (c) Partly
submerged: water Ety, lotus, Euryale (B. &. H. MAKHNA), giant
water lily (fig. 374) etc. (d) Amphibious (showing heterophylly):
water crowfoot, water plantain, arrowhead (see fig. 135).
Cardenthera trifiora (see fig. 132), etc.
2. Mesophytes. These are plants that grow under average
conditions of tem.perature and moisture; the soil in which they
grow is neither saline nor is it waterlogged, and the tempera-
ture of the air is neither too high nor too low. Mesophytes are,
therefore, intermediate between hydrophytes and xerophytes.
Adaptations. The root-system is well-developed with the tap
root and its branches in dicotyledons, and a cluster of fibrous
roots in monocotyledons; root-hairs are luxuriantly produced
for the absorption of water from the soil. The stem is solid
(and not .spongy, as in water plants), erect, and normally
branched. Thorns on the stem are absent or few. All the
different kinds of tissues, particularly the mechanical and
conducting tissues, have reached their full development in the
mesophytes. The aerial parts of plants such as the leaves and
the branches are provided with a cuticle. In dorsi ventral leaves
the lower epidermis is provided witp. numerous stomata; there
are few stomata or none at all on the upper surface. In erect
leaves, as in monocotyledons, stomata are more or less equally
distributed on both surfaces.
"-
3. Xerophytes. These are plants that grow in deserts or in
very dry places; they can withs!and a prolonged period of
drought uninjured. For this purpose they have certain peculiar
adaptations. Dominant factors in a desert or a very dry region
are: scarcity of moisture in the soil and extreme atmospheric
conditions, such as intense light, high temperature, strong
wind and aridity of air.
Adaptations. In such conditions the xerophytic plants :have
to guard against excessive evaporation of water; this they do
by reducing evaporating surfaces. They have also to adopt
special mechanisms for absorbing moisture from the soil and
retaining it.
The Root. Plants produce a long tap root which goes deep
into the sub-soil in search of moisture; many of the desert
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

plants which live for a short period produce a superficial root-

system to absorb moisture from the surface-soil after a passing
shower of rain. To retain this water roots often become very
fleshy and contain plenty of mucilage, as in Asparagus.
The Stem. Stems of. many plants become very thick and
fleshy, as in Indian aloe (Aloe) and American aloe or the cen-
:tury plant (Agave). Aqueous tissue develops in them for storing
up water; this is further facilitated by the abundance of musil-
age contained in them. Stems are provided with thick cuticle to
.prevent loss of water by transpiration. In many cases the stem
becomes reduced in size and is provided with thorns, as in
Euphorbia spinosa. Modification of the stem into phylloclade
for storing water and food and at the same time performing
functions of leaves is characteristic of many desert plants, e.g.
-cacti (see fig. 74A).
The Leaf. In some desert plants leaves are very fleshy, con-
taining aqueous tissue and mucilage, as in Indian aloe; in
others they are reduced in size minimizing their evaporating
:surfaces. Thus they may be divided into small segments, as in
Acacia, or modified into spines, as in many cacti and spurges
(Euphorbia). or sometimes reduced to small scales only. as in
Tamarix and Asparagus. The cuticle develops strongly on the
·epidermis to check evaporation of water. For the same purpose
sometimes multiple (many-layered) epidermis develops, as in
,oleander (see fig. 301 B). In some plants, as in Gnaphalium and
Aerua, there is a dense coating of hairs. Stomata are fewer in
number-usually 10-15 per sq. mm., and remain sunken in
,grooves and occluded (see figs. 301 A & B). Modification of
the leaf into phyllode, turning its edge in a vertical direction
in strong sunlight to minimize transpiration, is characteristic
'Of Australian Acacia (see fig. 119). Under conditions of extreme
dryness leaves of most xerophytic grasses and also of many
other plants roll up, considerably reducing their evaporating
surfaces. Many of the xerophytic herbs lie prostrate on the
ground, completing their life-history within a short time, e.g.
Solanum xanthocarpum and Tribulus terrestris; some are
perennial in habit. Many xerophytes are elaborately armed
with prickles and spines.
Examples. Many spurges (Euphorbia), many cacti, dagger
plant (Yucca; see fig. 136), Indian aloe, American aloe, prickly
poppy, globe thistle, Asparagus, gum tree (Acacia), Tribulus
 ECOLOGICAL GROUPS

,terrestris (E. GOKHRI-KANTA; H. GOKHRU), Solanum xanthocar-

.pum (B. Kb.NTIKARI; H. KATELI) and some grasses.
4. Halophytes. These are plants that grow in saline soil or
water with a preponderance of salt; hence halophytes
.show some special characteristics. The majority of halophytes
have succulent leaves; some have a succulent stem also.
Leaves may be modified into or provided with spines. Typical
-examples of halophytes are sea-blite, saltwon, screwpine (see
fig. 55), Acanthus ilicifolius (B. HARCOZA; H. HARKUCH-KANTA),
.goosefoot (Chenopodium; B.· & H. BATHU-SAK), Basella (B.
PUIN; H .• POI), etc.
Special Adaptations. Halophytes growing on sea-CQasts and
estuaries, and also in salt-marshes and salt-lakes occasionally

A B
Pneumatophores. FIG. 375. A, two plants with pneumatophores; B,
pneumatophol'es growing vertically upwardb from an underground root.

inundated by sea tides, form a special vegetation known as

mangrove. Mangrove plants produce a large number of stilt
roots (see fig. 55) from the main stem and the branches. In
several cases, in addition to the stilt roots, special roots called
respirntory roots or pnenmatophores (figs. 375) ate also pro-
duced in large numbers. They develop from underground
roots, and projecting beyond the water level look like so many
conical spikes distributed all round the trunk of the tree. In
some places they grow so thickly that passage through them
is difficult. They are provided with numerous pores or respira-
tory spaces in the upper part, through which exchange of gases
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

for respiration takes place. Mangrove species also show a

peculiar mode of germination.
The seed germinates inside the
fruit while it is still on the
parent tree and is nourished
by it. This kind of germina-
tion is known as vivipary (fig.
376). The radicle elongates to
a certain length and swells at
the lower part. As the seedling
drops, the root presses into the
soft mud, keeping the plumule
and coty1edons clear above the
saline water. Lateral roots are
quickly formed for proper an-
chorage. The advantage is that
the fruit cannot be swept away
"76. V"IVlparous gernnnatlon.
FIG. v " by tidal waves. Typical
. . man-
grove plants are Rhizophora
(B. KHAMO), Ceriops (B. GORAN), Sonneratia (E. KEORA), Heri-
tiera (E. SUNDRI), Excoecaria (B. GEO). etc.
 PART V CRYPTOGAMS

CHAPTE R I Divisions and General

Description
Cryptogams are plants that do not bear flowers or seeds and
hence are commonly known as 'flowerless' or 'seedless'
plants. They are broadly classified as follows (see also item
12 in Introduction) :
(I) Thallophyta. The plant body is a thallus, i.e. not
differentiated into stem and leaf. Thallophyta include (a)
algae, i.e. thallophytes containing chlorophyll and sometimes
also other pigments, (b) fungi, i.e. thallophytes without
chlorophyll, and (c) bacteria, i.e. unicellular, microscopic, non-
green (without chlorophyll) organisms.
(2) Bry!>phyta. The plant body is thalloid or leafy;
there is regular alternation of generations; the main body is
always a gametophyte; the sporophyte always grows attached
to the gametophyte as a dependent body. Bryophyta include
(a) liverworts, i.e. bryophytes with mostly thalloid plant body.
e.g. Riccia and Marchantia, and (b) mosses, i.e. bryophytes
with leafy stem.
(3) Pteridophyta. The plant body is differentiated into the
stem, leaves and roots; there is regular alternation of genera-
tions; the sp.orop~yte and gametop:Qyte are independent of
each other; the main mant is always a sporophyte; vascular
tissues are well developed (another name for Pteridophyta is
vascular cryptogams). Pteridophyta include ferns and their
allies .
. Thallophyta are primitive plants and are regarded as lower
cryptogams, while Bryophyta and Pteridophyta are advanced
plants and are regarded as higher cryptogams.
Reproduction. Of the three methods of reproduction, viz .•
vegetative, asexual and sexual, a particular plant may take
to one or more methods. Vegetative reproduction takes place
commonly by cell division or by fragmentation. Asexual
reproduction takes place by fission or by spores of varied types
in different groups of plants. Sexual reproduction takes place
18
274 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

by the fusion of two gametes-either isogametes, as in lower

forms, or heterogametes, as in higher forms (see p. 264).
Differences between Algae and Fnngi. (I) Algae are green thal-
lophytes containing the green colouring matter chlorophyll.
In many algae the green colour may be masked by other
.colours; fungi, on the other hand, are non-green thallophytes
having no chlorophyll in them. (2) Algae are autotrophic
plants, i.e. they manufacture their own food with the help of
chlorophyll contained in them; whereas fungi are heterotro-
1.Jhic, i.e. their modes of nutrition are diverse; they may get
their food from decaying animal or vegetable matter, or from
the tissue of a living plant or animal; accordingly they
are either saprophytic or parasitic in habit. (3) The
body of the algae is composed of a true parenchymatous
tissue; while that of the fungi is composed of a false tissue
or pseudo-parenchyma which is an interwoven mass of fine
<lelicate threads known as hyphae. (4) The cell-wall of an
alga is composed of true cellulose, and that of a fungus of
fungus-cellulose or chitin mixed with cellulose, callose, pectose,
etc., in different proportions. (5) Algae live in water or in wet
:substrata; whereas fungi live as parasites on other plants or
animals or as saprophytes on decaying animal or vegetable
matter. (6) Reserve carbohydrate in algae is usually starch, but
in fungi it is glycogen.
In structure both the groups may be unicellular, multicel-
lular, filamentous or thalloid, and reproduction in them may
take place vegetatively by cell division or by detachment of a
portion of the mother plant, or asexually by spores, or sexually
by gametes.
Alternation of Generations. The life-history of any of the
higher cryptogams, e.g. liverworts, mosses and ferns, is com-
plete in two stages or generations, alternating with each other.
These two generations differ not only in their morphological
characters but also in their modes of reproduction. One
generation reproduces by the asexual method, i.e. by spores,
and the other by the sexual method, i.e. by gametes. The
former, therefore, is called the sporopbytic or asexual genera-
tion, and the latter the gametopbytic or sexual generation. To
-complete the life-history of a particular plant one generation
gives rise to the other-the gametophyte to the sporophyte
and the sporophyte to the gametophyte, or in other words,
 ALGAE

the two generations regularly alternate with each other. This

alternation of the gametophyte with the sporophyte and vice
versa is spoken of as alternation of generations.
Cytological Evidence of Alternation of Generations. Alternation of genera-
tions can be traced on the basis of chromosome numbers. It is an established
fact that the sporophyte bears diploid or 2n chromosomes, while the gameto-
phyte bears haploid or n chromosomes. The diploid number of the former
is reduced (by meiosis) to the haploid number of the latter in the formation
of spores (n). The spore gives rise to the gametophyte, evidently represen-
ting the beginning of the gametophytic generation. In due course the
gametophyte bears gametes. Two gametes of opposite sexes (by fusion) give
,rise to the zygote (2n). The zygote grows into the sporophyte, evidently
representing the beginning of the sporophytic generation. The sequence of
stages in the two generations briefly is: zygote --+ sporophyte --+ spore
mother cells (stages representing sporophytic or 2n generation) --+ spores
--+ gametophyte --+ gametes (stages representing gametophytic or n gene-
ration).

CHAPTE R 2 Algae
[. OSCILLATORIA (100 sp.)
Oscillatoria (fig. 377) is a dark blue-green alga. It consists of
~ slender, unbranched, cylil).drical filament (A). It commonly

C
FIG. 3.77. OscjllatolW. A" filaments; lJ, 40fTlfogonia; and C, a portion of
"iJUl'Jil P[ 2lCL 1 ·''tIle: fill(memclnagnified. \
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

occurs in ditches, sewers, shallow pools of water and also on

wet rocks and walls. Filaments of Oscillataria are entangled
in masses which float in water. Each filament is made up
of numerous short cells. The individual cells are the Oscilla-
taria plants, and the filament is regarded as a colony. All
the cells are alike except the end cell which is usually convex,
and there is no differentiation between the base and the apex.
Here and there some dead' and empty cells occur in some
of the filaments. The protoplast of each cell is differentiated
into two regions: a coloured peripheral zone-the chromo-
plasm and an iriner colourless zone-the central body (C),
The colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll and phyco-
cyanin (a blue pigment) which diffuse through the chromo-
plasm. There is no plastid. True nucleus is also absent. The
central body, however, is regarded as an incipient nucleus
with only some chromatin but without nuclear membrane
and nucleolus. Cell division takes place in one direction only.
Each filament remains enveloped in a thin mucilaginous'
sheath. Under the microscope a slow swaying or oscillating
movement of the filaments with ends tossing from side to
side may be distinctly seen. The filaments may sometimes
exhibit a twisting or rotating motion. This is a characteristic
feature of Oscillatoria.
Reproduction. In blue-green algae reproduction takes place
vegetatively. Gametes and zoospores are altogether absent.
In Oscillatoria the filament breaks up into a number of frag-
ments, called hormogonia (B). Each hormogonium consists of
one or more cells and grows into a filament by cell division.s
in one direction. The hormogonium has a capacity for loco-
motion.

2. CHLAMYDOMONAS (43 sp.)

Chlamydomonas is a unicellular green alga found in ponds.
ditches and other pools of stagnant water. In shape it is
usually spherical or oval, and is provided with a thin wall and
two distinct long cilia (fig. 378 A). The protoplasm at the
anterior end of the cell is clear, and contains two contractile
vacuoles which are pulsating in nature, undergoing alternate
expansion and contraction. These may be respiratory or
excretory in function. There is a lateral orange or red pig-
ment spot, commonly called the eye spot. This is sensitive
 ALGAE 277
to intensity of light. In the posterior region there is a single
large cup-shaped chloroplast with a pyrenoid in it. The pyre-
noid consists of a central protein body surrounded by numer-
ous minute starch grains. There is a nucleus more or less
centrally placed. By the lashing of the cilia the ~ells quickly
move about in water.

C/damydomonos
FIG. 378.
A, a mature cell;
B, four daughter
cells formed by
asexual method;
C, a daughter cell
after escape;
lJ, palmella stage.

Asexual Reproduction. This takes place by zoospores. In the

formation of the zoospores the cilia of each cell are with-
drawn, and the contents divide into 2, 4 or 8 daughter cells,
seldom more (fig. 378 B). The cells grow, develop two cilia
each, and become motile zoospores. The wall of the mother
cell dissolves and the zoospores are set free (fig. 378 C).
Palmella Stage. Under unfavourable conditions the daughter
cells instead of forming zoospores divide repeatedly into
numerous cells. Their walls become gelatinous, and the cells
are held together· in clusters in the gelatinous mass. This
is known as the palmella stage (fig. 378 D). When the con-
ditions are favourable the cells develop cilia, swim out of the
gelatinous matrix, and become motile again.
Sexual Reproduction. This takes place by the fusion of motile
ciliate gametes which are formed in the same way as the
zoospores and are also like them but somewhat smaller
in size and more numerous-r6, 32 or 64, or even more (fig.
379 A-B). All gametes are similar and are called isogametes,
ind their fusion is known as isogamy. Gametes of different
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

parents usually conjugate in pairs (fig. 380 A). A zygospore-

the product of fusion of two similar gametes-is formed.
Their ciliate ends conjugate first. Soon after fusion the cilia

Chlamydomonas.
FIG. 379.
A, gametes
formed,
B, gamete;
escaping.

Chlamydomonas.
FIG. 380.
A, stages in conjugation
of gametes;
B, (top) a resting zygote;
(bottom) four dau~hter
cells after escape from
the zygote. -

\
\

\
A B
are withdrawn and the zygospore clothes itself with a thick
wall (fig. 380 B, toP). It undergoes a period of rest, and then its
contents divide and form 2 or 4 motile daughter cells (fig.
380 B, bottom). They grow in size, escape from the mother
cell, and become individual motile Chlamydomonas cells.
3· ULOTHRIX (30 sp.)
Ulothrix (fig. 381) is a green filamentous alga occurring in
fresh water in ponds, ditches, water-reservoirs, horse- or' cow-
troughs, slow streams, etc., particularly in the spring; a few
species are marine. It grows fixed to any hard object in water
by the basal elongated colourless cell called the hold/ast. The
filament, if detached, may freely float on water. The filament
of Ulothrix is unbranched and consists of a single row of more
or less rectangular cells. Each cell of the filament contains au
 ALGAE
nucleus and a peripheral band-like chloroplast with an entire
or lobed margin. Usually there are many (sometimes one or
few) pyrenoids lying embedded in the chloroplast. These are
rounded protein bodies with a starchy envelope.
Reproduction takes place asexually by zoospores, sexually by
gametes, and vegetatively by fragmentation of the filament.
Asexual Reproduction. (I) Zoospores with four cilia are
produced for the process of asexual reproduction by division
of the protoplast of any cell of the filament except the hold-
fast. They are larger than the gametes but produce$f in fewer
number~-2, 4, or 8 or sometimes even I, (rarely I6 or 32)

Ulothrix. FIG. 381. Life·cycle: sexual reproduction-A, vegetative fila·

ment; B, formation of gametes; C, gametes swimming; D·G, stages in the
conjugation of gametes; H, zygospore; I, the germ-plant with zoospores;
J, a zoospore (quadriciliate); K, a young filament; asexual reproduction-
E, a portion of the filament showing the formation of zoospores; 0, a.
quadriciliate zoospore; D, zoospores swimming; E, a zoospore rOlilJ1ded off;
P, zoospore germinating; and G, a young filaI)lent.
in each cell. Each zoospore is more or less pear-shaped and
contains a distinct red eye spot on one side, a pulsating vacuole
close to the flagellate end, and a large chloroplast. The zoo-
spores escape by an opening in the lateral wall of the cell and
~
 A'CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

swim briskly about in water for some hours or even for a few
days. Then they come to rest and attach themselves by their
colourless end to any hard object in water. Cilia are with-
drawn and a cell-wall is formed round each zoospore. Then
it germinates directly into a new filament. (2) Sometimes
smaller zoospores (but bigger than gametes) are produced in
the fil8!ment, and they possess either two cilia or four cilia.
They either germinate directly into new Ulothrix filaments
like the zoosp9res, or they fuse in pairs like the gametes. This
indicates that the origin of gametes lies in zoospores.
Sexual "Reproduction, Sexual reproduction is isogamous,
'COnsisting of the fusion of two similar biciliate gametes (iso-
gametes). The gametes may be formed in any cell of the
filament except the holdfast. They are smaller than the zoo-
spores, biciliate and may be 8, 16,32 or 64 in number in each
cell. Each gamete possesses a red eye spot and a chloroplast
band. The gametes are set free from. the cell in exactly the
same way as the zoospores and they swim about in water with
the help of their cilia for some time. Two gametes coming
.from two different filaments get entangled by their cilia and
gradually a complete fusion (conjugation) of the two takes
place laterally. Cilia are withdrawn towards the close of the
. process, and the fusion product still moves for a while but
soon comes to rest. It rounds itself off and clothes itself with
a thick cell-wall, and forms into a zygospore. After a period
()f rest the zygospore germinates into a unicellular germ-plant
which produces 4 to 16 quadriciliate zoospores. Each zoo-
spore develops into a new plant.
Vegetative Reproduction. This takes place by fragmentation
of the filament into short pieces, each consisting of a few cells.
Each piece or fragment grows into a long filament by trans-
verse divisions of cells and their enlargement.
4. PROTOCOCCUS (14 sp.)
Protococcus (or Pleurococcus) is a common unicellular green alga. It is
terrestrial in habit and grows on moist ·shady sides of tree-trunks, old d1mp
bricks, brick-walls, flower-pots, etc., forming a green (overing. Each plant
is commonly represented by a single globose or oval cell. But as a result
of division of the solitary cell 2, 3, 4 or more cells may appear in a small
group ()r colony. Ciliate cells and gelatinous covering are conspicuous by
their absence, and ·so also are gametes and zoospores. Under conditions of
excessive moisture ProtococCU8 cell may divide in one direction forming a
.short filament consisting usually of 3 or 4 cells, sometimes many more. Each
eel! is filled with a dense mass of cytoplasm and covered by a rather heavy
 ALGAE 281

wall. It encloses a single nucleus and a large parietal chloroplast without

any pyrenoid.

ProtocoCCU8. FIG. 382. A, a single cell; B-D, small colonies· formed

by divisions of the cell.

lIeproduction. The only method of reproduction is vegetative cell division

which is often rapid. In this process a transverse wall appears across the
-cell, and a second wall may then be formed in one or both the daughter
cells at right angles to the first wall. Subsequent walls, if formed, are in
the third plane. The daughter cells may remain attached together in small
groups or they may separate and form independent cells (plants). The
-cells have'the :remarkable power of resisting desiccation. They begin to
-divide again under favourable conditions.

5. SPIROGYRA (roo sp.). -

Occurrence. Spirogyra (fig. 383) is a green free-floating filamen-
tous alga. It is found growing abun-
dantly in ponds, ditches, springs, slow_-
running streams, etc.
Structure. Each Spirogyra filament is un-
branched and consists,-of a single row of
cylindrical cells. The walls are made of
cellulose and pectin. Pectin ~wel1s in
water into a gelatinous sheath. The fila-
ment shows no differentiation into the
base and the apex. Each cell has a lining
layer of protoplasm, one or more (up to
J4) spiral bands ,of chloroplasts with
smooth, wavy or serrated margins, and a
distinct nucleus situated somewhere in
FIG. 383.
the middle. The spiral chloroplasts are Spirogyra.
A cell of the filament.
the characteristic feature of Spirogyra. Note the two spiral
chloroplasts with pyre-
Each chloroplast includes in its body a noids, and the nucleus.
number of nodular protoplasmic bodies,
known as pyrenoids, around which minute starch grains are
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

deposited. If the filament happens to break up into pieces.

they grow up into new filaments by cell divisions.
Reproduction. This takes place in Spirogyra by the sexual
method only. It consists of the fusion of two similar gametes
(isogametes). The fusion of two similar gametes is known
as conjugation, which normally takes place between the cells
of two filaments (scalariform or ladder-like congugation;
fig. 384). Sometimes, however. conjugation takes place
between two adjoining cells of the same filament (lateral con-
jugation ; fig. 386).
Scalariform Conjugation (fig. 384). When two filaments come
to lie in contact in the parallel direction they form tubular

Spirogyra. FIG. 384. Scalariform conjugation. A·B are stages in the process.

outgrowths from their opposite or corresponding cells. These

tubular outgrowths, called conjugation tubes, give the whole
structure the appearance of a ladder (fig. 384 A) and hence the
name scalariform or ladder-like conjugation. Their end- or
partition-walls d~ssolve and an open conjugation tube is formed
(fig. 384 B). In the meantime the protoplasmic contents of
 ALGAE 2 83
each cell lose water, contract and become rounded off in the
centre. Every contracted mass of
protoplasm forms a gamete. All
gametes are alike in appearance,
but gametes of one filament (male)
creep through the conjugation tubes
into the corresponding cells of the
adjoining filament (female) and
fuse with the gametes of that fila-
ment. The fusion of two gametes
results in the formation of a thick-
walled zygospore (fig. 385) which
soon turns black or brownish-
black. Zygospores are formed in a
series in one filament (female),
while the other filament (male) be-
comes practically empty except
for a few vegetative cells here and
there. •
Lateral Conjugation (fig. 386). This takes SpirogY1·a. FIG. 385. For-
place between the cells of th!'l .same fila- mation of zygospores
ment. An outgrowth or conjugation tube after conjugation",
is formed on one side of the partition wall, and through the passage, thus
formed, the gamete of one
cell passes into the neighbour-
ing cell. Sometimes ouly an
opening is formed in the par-
tition wall through which the
gamHe passes. In lateral con-
jugation the gametes of alter-
nate cells only move to the
neighbouring cells, and thus
later on the zygote-bearing
cells are seen to alternate
with the empty cells in the
samE) filament.
Sometimes it so happens
that conjugation does not
take place, and then a
Spirogyra. FIG. 386. Lateral conjugation gametangium may be-
and formation of zygospore. d
come directly converte
into a zygospore-like. body called the azygospore. It germinates
like the zygospore.
Germination of the Zygospore (fig. 387). The zygospore is
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

provided with a thick cellulose-wall. It sinks to the bottom

of the pool of water in which it is grow-
ing, undergoes a period of rest and tben
germimltes. The protoplast of the zygo-
spore grows out into a short filament
which escapes and floats to the surface
of the water. Cells divide and the fila-
ment increases in length.
6. OEDOGONIUM (300 sp.)
Oedogoniu1n (fig. 388A) is a green filamentous alga
living in fresh water. The filament 'is un-
branched, and consists of a row of cylindrical cells.
Bpirogyra. FIG. 387. It remains attached to an object by its lobed
Zygospore germi- basal cell (ltoldfa.st) , but lat€r it may be free-
nating.
floating. Each cell contains a single nucleus and
a single large peripheral chloroplast which takes the form of a network.
Pyrenoids are present in the chloroplast.
Asexual Reproduction (fig. 388B-D). This takes place by large zoospores
formed singly in the cells of the filament. The whole contents of a cell
become converted into a large zoospore.
The process is called rejuvenescence
which means' that the old protoplas-
mic mass of a cell rejuvenates, i.e.
it becomes young and active again
in the form of a zoospore (B). The
ZODspore is pear-shaped. One end of
it is clear and with a ring of cilla,
while the other (broader) end is
green having a large chloroplast.
The zoospore escapes from the
mother cell and swims in water for
a while (0). All the cilia are then
withdrawn and a cell-wall formed
'round it. Soon it becomes attached
to an object (D) and germinates,
.gi ving rise to a filament.

Sexual Reproduction (fig. 389). This

takes placl:l by the fusion of two OedogonimfL. FIG. 388. Asexual Re-
differentiated gametes-the male one, production. A, a filament show-
-called the antherozoid, is very mi- ing a chloroplast and a zoospore
in the process of formation; B,
nute, ciliate and motile, while the zoospore escaping; G, zoospore
female one, called the egg-ccII or swimming; D, zoospore attached
()osphere, is large and passive. The to an object.
antherozoids are borne in pairs in a
cel! called the antheridium (fig. 389A), and the. egg-cell is borne singly
jn a large oval or spherical cell called the oogonium (fig. 389B). The
:antheridia are commonly formed in a row in any cell of the filament, while
 ALGAE 285
the oogonia appeal' singly here and there in the filament. Species of
OedogonillJll. may be monoecious or dioecious.

Oedogonium.
FIG. 339.
Sexual Rewoduction.
A, a filament showing
alltheriJia (11) and
antherozoids (lJ) ;
B, a filament showing
oogonium (0) and
egg-cell (D) with
receptive spot (E);
C, (bott01n) an oospore,
(top) formation of
zoospores from it.

A B
°
Fertilization. When the antherozoids are liberated they swim to the oogo-
nium with the help of their cilia. Then one antherozoid enters through
the slit in the oogonium wall and fuses with the egg-cell (fig. 389 B). The
egg-cell then covers itself with a thick wall and becomes a reddish-brown
oospore (fil';. 3811; 0, bottom). The oospore sinks to the bottom, undergoes a
period of rest and then germinates. By reduction division it gives rise to,

Oedogonium. FIG. 390.

A, a filament showing
two androspores;
B, a filament showing
oogonium with a
receptive spot and
two dwarf males
attached to it.

four zoospores (fig. 389 C, top). The zoospores escape and swim about for
some time. Then they rest for a while, attach themselves to some object,
and each germinates into a new filament.
In some species of Oedogonium a complicated process of reproduction takes
place. In them special small zoospores, called androspores (fig. 390A),
are produced by the same filament that. bears the oogonia or by a
distinct filament. Androspores are produced singly in special cells, called
 286 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

anlirosporangia, which may be formed either singly or in a row like the

antheridia by division of the ordinary vegetative cells of the filament.
The androspore, much like the antherozoid and the zoospore, is provided
with a crown of cilia and is motile. The androspore is, however, inter-
n:ediate in size between the zoospore and the antherozoid. When liberated,
the androspore swims for a while and soon attaches itself direct to
the oogonium or to a cell close to it. It then produces a short narrow
filament, called a dwarf male (fig. 390B), consisting of an elongated basal
cell and a terminal cell or sometimes a row of cells (usually 2 to 4).
Each such cell is an antheridium. It bears a pair of small motile anthero-
zoids crowned with cilia. The antheridium opens by a lid at the apex
or it ruptures at the wall and the antherozoids are liberated. They swim
• to the oogonium and fertilization takes place ill the way described above.

CHAPTER 3 Bacteria (Schizomycetes)

A Short Historical Account. Antoni von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) of Delft
in Holland was the first to discover bacteria (1653-1673) with the help of
the microscope invented and considerably improved by himself (see a~so
p. 128). Louis Pasteur (1831-1895) of France thoroughly established the
science of bacteriology. He carried on extensive work on fermentation and
decay, and the cause of hydrophobia. About the year 1876 Pasteur made
known to the world the importance of bacteria. He was the first to prepare
vaccine and use it for the cure of the disease. He saved many Russians
from hydrophobia by the use of this vaccine, and the Tsar of Russia in
honour of his marvellous discovery sent him a diamond cross and also
a hundred thousand francs to build a laboratory in Paris-now called the
Pasteur Institute. About the same year Robert Koch of Germany proved
that anthrax disease, so common in cattle, was caused by a kind of bacteria.
He also showed in 1882 that tuberculosis and Asiatic cholera were caused by
bacteria. \
Occurrence. Bacteria occur almost everywhere-in water, air
and soil, and in foodstuffs, fruits and vegetables. Many float
in the air; many are abundant in water; and many are spe-
cially abundant in the soil, particularly to a depth of half a
metre, and also in sewage. A few thousands of them may
occur in I c.c. of water, and a few millions in I gram of soil.
Many live within and upon the bodies of living plants and
animals. The intestines of all animals :llways contain a good
number of different kinds of bacteria.
Structure. Bacteria are the smallest and the most primitive
organisms known to us, and number about 1,500 species. They
are single-celled-usually spherical, rod-like or branched. Their
average size may be stated to be .5 to 2 microns. There is no
definite nucleus in the bacterial cell; chromatin granules repre-
 B ACT E R I A (S CHI Z aMY C E T E s) 287
:senting an incipient nucleus are, however, present. The cell-
ABC D E

F G H I J
Bacteria. FIG. 391. Bacilli: A, Bacillus tuberculosis; B, B, tetani; 0,
B. typhi; D, B. diphthel'iae) E, B. anthmcis. Cocci: F, Staphylococcus;
G, Streptococcus. Comma: H. Vibrio cholerae. Spirilla: I, Spirillum
(common in water); J, Spirochaete.

wall is made of chitin. Some forms of bacteria are provided

with 1 or more cilia. Chlor.ophyll is altogether absent.
Reproduction. There is no sexual mode of reproduction in
bacteria. They may divide repeatedly by fission or they may
take to spore formation.
(I) By Fission. Many bacteria divide by the process of
fission. A constriction appears around the middle of the cell
and it becomes split up"",into two parts. These parts grow in
size and form mature bacterial cells. By this method they
may multiply rapidly. Hay bacillus

~E-B'
(Bacillus subtilis), for instance, divides
2 to 3 times an hour under favourable

~0If) division conditions. At the minimum rate of

-.
a single cell may give rise to
~
~€WJ) ... over sixteen million (16,777,216) off-
spring at the end of twelve hours.
(2) By Spore Formation (fig. 391
FIG. 391 (eontd.). K.L., K-L). Some bacteria form spores which
spore formation in two are always 'resting' spores. The special
types of bacteria.
advantage of the spores is that they
can withstand very unfavourable conditions such as high
 288 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

temperature, freezing, extreme dryness, the presence of many

poisonous chemicals, etc., for months or even several years.
By this method bacteria, however, do not multiply in riumber.
Classification. Unbranched unicellular forms of bacteria may
be classified into the following groups: (I) bacilli (sing. bacil-
lus)-these are rod-shaped bacteria, e.g. Bacillus tuberculosis~
B. tetani, B. typhi, etc. ; (2) cocci (sing. coccus)-these are sphe-
rical bacteria, e.g. Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Azotobacter,
etc.; (3) spirilla (sing. spirillum)-these are bacteria with the
body spirally wound, e.g. Spirillum, Spirochaete, etc.; ap.d (4)
commas- these are slightly twisted like a comma, e.g. Vibrid,
cholerae.
Physiology of Bacteria. Bacteria are lacking in chlorophyll and
thus are mostly unable to utilize carbon dioxide for synthesis
of organic compounds for their food. They are mostly hetero-
trophic in habit, leading a saprophytic or parasitic life. A few,
however, are autotrophic containing a purplish or greenish
pigment, and are able to manufacture food for themselves.
Saprophytic bacteria live in media containing some organic
food. They secrete enzymes to bring about the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and absorb the digested pro-
ducts as their food. Parasitic bacteria infect living plants and
animals, and absorb food compounds from their body by the
same process of enzyme-secretion and digestion.
Hay bacillus (Bacillus 8ubtilis) is a common f9rm of saprophytic bacteria
growing in a decoction of hay. It can be grown ~asily in the laboratory by
soaking hay in W(l,ter and boiling it; the spores of hay bacillus withstand
prolonged boiling. The decoction may 'then be kept in a warm place .for
a day or two. One or two drops of it may then be examined under a
microscope at high magnification. Hay bacillus is unicellular and rod-
shaped, provided with a number of flagella all over its body. The cells may
be held together in chains. There is 11 granular vacuolated mass of proto-
plasm with chromatin grannIes but no definite nucleus. While growing in
the fluid hay bacillus reproduces by fission. The cell undergoes constriction -.
in the transverse plane and is split up into two. The process of fission may
be repeated several times and numerous cells formed within a short time. It
is seen that the cells overcrowding the liquid tend to come to the surface.
The cells lose their cilia and become non-motile. Their walls become gelatin-
ous and the cells are held together in long chains. Several such chains form
a mucilaginous mass, called a zoogloea, which floats as a thin film or scum
on the surface of the liquid. When food is exhausted, the bacillus cells
form 1 or 2 spores, called endosporeB, within the mother cell. The proto-
plasm withdraws from the wall and clothes itself with a fresh firm wall
which can resist the action of high temperature and many poisonous sub-
 BACTERIA (SCHIZOMYCETES)

stances. Later under favourable conditions the spore germinates in a suit·

able medium. The wall of the mother cell decays and the spore is liberated.
The tough coat of the spore splits and the protoplasm escapes into the.

Hay bacillus (Bacillus. subtilis). FIG. 392. A, motile forms; B, a chain

of motile formg; C, non-motile forms; p, fission; B, spore formation;
and P, chains of non-motile forms with spore formation in one chain.

surrounding water. Cilia are formed and the bacillus cell leads an active
life.

Harmful Effects of Bacteria. Many parasitic (or pathogenic)

bacteria attack living plants, human beings and domestic ani-
mals, and cause various and often serious diseases in them.
sometimes in epidemic form. They are always dreaded as an
invisible enelJly. Normally they infect the host through
wounds or they may b'e breathed in or taken in with food,
water and milk. After infection of the body they not only
absorb the stored food and destroy the cells but also at the
same time produce a toxin (poison). Some of the common
disease-producing bacteria are: Bacillus typhi causing typhoid
fever, B. tetani causing tetanus, B. diphtheriae causing diph-
theria, B. pneumoniae causing pneumonia, B. tuberculosis
causing tuberculosis, B. dysenteriae causing dysentery, Vibrio
choZerae causing cholera, etc. Some species of streptococci
(the blood-poisoning bacteria) are possibly the deadliest enemy
of mankind. They have the remarkable power of dissolving
the red corpuscles of the human blood, and are responsible for
erysipelas and extremely dangerous kinds of blood-poisoning.
Parasitic bacteria also attack plants and cause various
19
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

diseases such as blight disease of apple and pear, ring disease

,of potato, wilt of cucumber and melon, black rot of cabbage,
canker of Citrus, and many diseases of fruits and vegetables.
In plants, however, fungal diseases are far more common than
pacterial diseases, while in aninials the reverse is the case.
I Many of the bacteria are also responsible for the depy
(fermentation) of cooked food, meat, milk, vegetables, and
fruits, etc., particularly in storage during summer months,
often entailing heavy loss.
Beneficial Effects of Bacteria. Although some bacteria (the
disease-producing ones) are most harmful it is a fact that a
large number of them are most useful in various ways, parti-
cularly in agriculture and some industries. Many bacteria
are nature's scavengers.
(I) Agricultural. (a) Decay of Organic Substances. But for
the most useful work of many bacteria the dead bodies of
plants and animals would remain unaltered covering a vast
area. Besides, organic compounds contained in such dead
bodies would remain permanently locked up in them without
any further use. Fortunately, bacteria act on these bodies and
convert various organic compounds into simple forms such
as nitrate"" _sulphates, phosphates, etc. for utilization by green
plants again. (b) Nitrification. Proteins contained in the
dead bodies of plants and animals a:re acted on by different
kinds of bacteria and ultimately converted into nitrates
which are then absorbed and utilized by the green plants
(see p. 210). (c) Nitrogen Fixation. Fixation of free nitrogen
of the air by many soil bacteria like Azotobacter and Clos-
tridium directly in their own bodies, and Rhizobium (nodule
bacteria) in association with the roots of leguminous plants
is very important from an agricultural standpoint. (d) Fertil·
ity of the Soil. The fertility of the soil may largely be
attributed to the activity of soil bacteria (and also other soil
organisms). They bring about physical and chemical changes
in the soil, particularly conversion of insoluble materials
into soluble and suitable forms for absorption by green plants.
Thus they make the soil fertile. In addition, the conversion
of cowdung and animal excreta into manure, and the forma·
tion of humus or leaf-mould are due to bacterial activity.
(2) Industrial. From an industrial standpoint also many
bacteria are most useful. Curing and ripening of tobacco.
 F UNG I

,ieaves, fermentation of tea leaves, ripening of cheese. etc., for

their characteristic flavours, retting of fibres, formation of
vinegar from alcohol by acetic acid bacteria, fermentation of
'sugar into alcohol by yeast and a few bacteria, curdling of
milk by lactic acid bacteria, conversion of hide into leather,
.and such other cases of fermentation are specially important.
(3) Medical. We are normally protected against virulent
,germs by many ,of the good bacteria which have been living
as permanent flora in different parts of our body since our
childhood. Thus different and distinct types of such bacteria
have formed their permanent abode in the mouth, respiratory
tract, intestines, etc., and guard these passages against
invasion by the disease-producing germs by waging chemical
warfare against them.
Viruses. There are still smaller organisms than the bacteria, which
-cannot be detected even under the most powerful microscope; these are
the viruses. Their presence can be made out from the toxic effect they
produce in the plant body or the animal body. Recent investigations have
shown that viruses are the smallest, simplest and possibly the most primi-
tive living organisms yet known to science. They infect living animals
and plants, grow and multiply in them. Electron microscopes and X-ray
photographs have further revealed the fact that a virns contains a core of
nucleic acid surrounded by a very thin layer of protein. Viruses can be
purified and obtained in'the form of crystals like many organic substances.
Some of the human diseases such as mumps, smallpox, chicken-pox, measles,
yellow fever, scarlet fever, infantile paralysis, influenza, common cold,
('ancer, hydrophobia, etc., are supposed to be caused by viruses. Among
plants the mosaic disease of potato, tomato, tobacco, gourds, cucumbers,
ground nut, etc., the yellow disease of peach, curly top of beet, radish,
-cabbage, turnip, etc., and necrosis (necrotic disease) of potato and tomato
·are said to be caused by Wi-uses.

'CHAPTER 4- Fungi
2. . MUCOR (50 sp.)
Occurrence. .7IJuGor, commonly called 'pin-mould, is a sapro-
phytic fungus. It grows on horse-dung, wet shoes, stale
moist bread, rotten fruit, shed flowers and other organic
media, spreading like a cobweb. It can be easily grown in
the laboratory on a piece of moist bread kept under a bell-jar
in a warm place for three or four days.
Structure. The plant body is composed of a mass of white,
.delicate, cottony threads collectively known as the mycelium
 292 A C LAS S - BOO K 0 F BOT ANY

(fig. 393)' It is always very much branched, but is coenocytic.

i.e. unseptate and multi-
nucleate. Each indi-
vidual thread of the
mycelium is known as
the hypha (pI. hyphae).
Reproduction. Mucor
commonly reproduces
asexually, and some-
times sexually.
Asexual Reproduction.
This method of repro-
duction takes place by
means of spores (or
gonidia) which develop
in a case, called sporan-
Mucor. FlG. 393. Ramifying mycelia. with gium (or gonidangium),
some sporangia (or gonidangia).
under favourable con-
ditions of moisture and temperature. It is seen that mycelia
give off here and there numerous slender erect hyphae, each
ending in a spherical head-the sporangium (fig. 394). The
protoplasmic contents migrate to the spherical head (A)
and become differentiated into two distinct regions-the
outer and the inner. The outer regio ll is dense and contains
numerous J;lUclei, while the inner regi:on is thin and vacuo-
\

Mucor. FIG. 394. Development of sporangium, spores and columella' A th&

en.d of the hypha swells; B, two regions-dense and light-are ~pp~rent
wlth a layer of vacuoles between them; and 0, mature sporangium (or goni-
dangium) with spores (or gonidia) and dome-shaped columella.

late and contains few nuclei (B). A wall soon appears round
the central region, separating it from the outer one. The
central region, which is dome-shaped and sterile, i:e. without
 F UNG I

spores, is called columella (C). The protoplasm of the outer

region breaks up into a large number of small multinucleate
masses. Each wass is a spore. Its wall thickens and darkens.
The wall of the sporangium is thin and brittle. Finally as the
colu.ruella swells owing to accumulation of a fluid in it, it exerts
a pressure on the wall of the sporangium which as a conse-
quence bursts, setting the spores free. The spores are blown
about by the wind. Sooner or later under favourable condi-
tions they germinate in a suitable medium and grow directly
into the Mucor plant.
Sexual Reproductiou. Sexual reproduction takes place by the
method of coujugatiou (fig. 395) only under certain conditions,
particularly when the food supply becomes exhausted. Con-
jugation consists in the fusion of two similar gametes, i.e.
isogametes (cf. Spirogyra). The process is as follows. When two
hyphae borne by two different plants of opposite sexes (called
the + strain and the - strain) come close together, two short
swollen protuberances, called the conjugation tubes, develop,
forming a contact at their tips (A). As they elongate they push

FIG. 395 FIG. 396

Mucor: FIG. 395. Conjugation: A-E are stages in the process; note the
thIck-walled zygospore at E. FIG. 392. Germination of zygospore.
the parent hyphae apart from each other. Each tube enlarges
and becomes club-shaped (B). Soon it is divided by a partition
wall into a basal suspensor and a terminal gametangium (C).
294 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

The protoplasmic contents of each gametangium constitute

the gamete. The gametes, like the spores, are multinucleate.
The two gametes are identical in all respects. The end- (or
common-) walls of the two gametangia get dissolved, and the
two gametes fuse together (D) and form a zygospore (E). The
zygospore swells into a rounded body, and its wall thickens,
turns black in colour and becomes warted .. It contains an
abundance of food, particularly fat globules.
~~. ~
~ (~@JJo~Y-- ~
o 0°1:,.[0 ~
~ t [ + STRAIN _ ~
~< ~ ~
~~pf~ ~E
i71'
+SPORE GERMINATES

GERM'"? ." ~~
~~~~~~:A'"
() <!5) _ SPORES
€J)(jJ) (+OR-)
~~
I
\ /SPORANGIUM
(+OR-)

FIG. 397. Life-cycle of Mucor.

Sometimes it so happens that conjugation does not take place,

and then a gametangium may be the converted into a zygos-
pore-like body called the azygospore. Germination of the
azygospore has not been followed.
Germination of Zygospore (fig. 396). The zygospore undergoes
a period of rest and then it germinates. The outer wall bursts
and the inner wall grows out into a tube, called the sporangio-
phore or promycelium, which ends in a spherical sporangium.
 FUNGI

The sporangium contains numerous small spores but no

columella. The spore germinates, giving rise to the Mucor
plant.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPIROGYRA AND MUOOR
Habit and Habitat. Spirogyra is a green alga floating in stagnant •
water; while Mucor is a saprophytic fnngns growing in horse-dung, stale
bread, wet shoes, rotting fruit and vegetables, etc. Spirogyra manufactures
its own food; while Mucor absorbs ready-made food from the sustratum_
Carbohydrate is in the nature of starch in Spirogyra; while it is glycogen
in ~lI1ucor.
Structure. Each Spirogyra plant is a slender nnbranched filament con-
sisting of a row of cylindrical cells; while Mucor consists of a mycelium
which is a ~etwork of white much-branched cottony threads (hyphae).
Each cell of Spirogyra filament contains one or morc spiral bands of
chloroplasts with numerous pyrenoids in them, and one nucleus. In Mucor
on the other hand ea<,h hypha is coenocytic, i.e. unseptate and multi-
nucleate.
Reproduction. There is no regular vegetative reproduction in Spirogyra
or Mucor. The normal method of reproduction is sexual in Spirogyra
(asexual method being absent), and asexual in Mucor (sexual method
being conditional).
(a) Asexual Reproduction. This is absent in Spirogyra, whereas in
jJfucor this is the commonest mode of reproduction. Thus the latter repro-
duces asexually by innumerable minute spores borne in sporangia, each at
the end of an erect hypha. Each spore germinates and grows into a
Mucor plant.
(b) Sexual Reproduction. In Spirogyra sexual reproduction is commonly
in the nature of scalariform conjugation; while in Mucor conjugation takes
place between two hyphae (conjugating hyphae) of opposite sexes only
under certain conditions. In Spirogyra the zygote directly germinates into
a new filament; while in Mucor it grows into a sp_orangiophore which ends
in a sporangium with spores. The spores then germinate into Mucor
mycelia. '-
(c) Parthenogenesis. In both S}Jirogyra and Mucor, if conjugation fails,
a gametangium may be converted into- a thick-walled spore called azygo·
spore.

2. ALBUGO (25 sp.)

Occurrence. Albugo (Oystopus) candida (fig. 398) is a common 'downy
mildew'. It grows as a parasite on many plants of the mustard family,
e.g. mustard; radish, cabbage, turnip, etc., and causes a disease called
'white rust'. White blisters appear on the stem and the leaf (A).
Gradually t.he disease spreads to the flowers and the ovaries. The disease
is not a serious one in India.
Structure: The mycelia ramify through the intercellular spaces of the
host plant and branch profusely. The hyphae are unseptate and multi-
nucleate. Here and there they send globular or button-like haustoria (B)
into the living cells of the host to absorb food from them.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Reproduction. The fungus reproduces both asexually and sexually.

Albugo. FIG. 398. A, an infected leaf of mustard; B, an intercellular

hypha with button-like haustoria; 0, an infected leaf in section showing
chains of multinucleate sporangia under the epidermis (note the necks
separating the sporangia); D, germination of a sporangium; A, sporan-
gium dividing; B, zoospores escaping; 0, biciliate zoospores swimming;
and D, a zoospore germinating.
Asexual Reproduction (fig. 398 a-D). Hyphae grow luxuriantly at certain
points below the epidermis of the host, and form clusters of erect club-
shaped multinucleate hyphae (sporangiophores) which begin to cut off multi-
nucleate sporangia in chains at the tips. The sporangia are separated from
one another by short necks
made of gelatin. The epider-
mis koon gets ruptured and
the sPQrangia appear on the
surface as a white powdery
mass. The. sporangia are now
blown by the wind to other
plants. The contents 01 each
sporangium (D, A) divide to
form a few (4 or 8 or more)
zoospores, each with two late-
ral cilia. The sporangium bursts
and the zoospores escape (D,
B). They swim in water for
some time (D, OJ. Soon they
lose their cilia, cover them-
sel ves with a wall and come
to rest. Later they germinate
by producing a germ-tube (D,
p) which enters the host plant
Albugo. FIG. 399. A, fertilization; B, through a stoma. Sometimes a
zygote (oospore) ; 0, germination of
zygote; zoospores escaping into a vesicle; iSporangium germinates directly
and D, biciliate zoospores after escape. without forming zoospores.
 ·. FUNGI

Sexual Reproduction (fig. 399). In the intercellular spaces of the host

the hyphae form separately male and female organs called gametangia. The
tip of a hypha swells and gives rise to a spherical multinucleate female
gametangium called the oogonium. It shows two distinct zones: a dense
central zone called the oopla8m, which is the egg-cell or oosphere with an
~gg-nucleus in it (other nuclei of this zone usually degenerate), and a
lighter multinucleate outer zone called the peTiplasm. Similarly the tip of
another hypha close to the oogonium swells and gives rise to a club-shaped
multinucleate male gametangium called the antheridium. It soon comes in
contact with the wall of the oogonium and produces a beak or fertilization
,tube which penetrates into the oosphere. One or more male nuclei are set
free through this tube but only one of them fuses with the egg-nucleus.
Thus fertilization is effected (A). The zygote (oospore) formed as a result
of fertilization covers itself with a thick wall (B). The periplasm is used up
in the process. The' zygote is liberated only after the decay of the host
tissue. Later it produces numerous (over 100) small zoospores which escape
:into a vesicle (zoosporangium; 0). Each zoospore develops two cilia
laterally. The vesicle dis sol ves and the zoospores are set free to swim
,about in water (D). Finally they germinate under appropriate conditions
by producing a germ-tube which infects the h0st.

3. SA~CHAROMYCES (40 sp.)

Occurrence. . Yeast (Saccharomyces) grows abundantly in
sugar solution such as the juice of date-palm, grapes, etc.; it
has the property of changing sugar into alcohol. This special
power of yeast has been taken advantage of in the manufac-
ture of toddy, alcohol, wine, beer, etc. Yeast is also used in the

A B
Yeast. FIG. 400 A-B. A, yeast cells as seen under the
microscope; B, budding.

making of bread, its sponginess being due to the production

of CO2 during fermentation. It is also used as a medicine
because of its high vitamin content.
Structure (fig. 400). Its structure is simple. A single cell repre-
sents the whole body of the plant. It is very minute in size
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

and looks like a pinhead under the microscope (A). Each

cell is oval or almost spherical~
CYTOPLASM provided with· a distinct cell-wall.
GLYCOGEN and contains a mass of cyto-
plasm with one or more vacuoles
CENTROSOME
and a single nucleus. The nucleus
NUCLEAR contains a large vacuole, and this
RETICULUM
nuclear vacuole is a peculiarity of
NUCLEAR yeast. In the vacuole lies the-
VACUOLE
nuclear reticulum (C). Embedded
FIG. 4OOC. One yeast cell (magni- . th t I th ra
fled) showing the nuclear vacuole.. In e cy op asm ere are g -
nules of glycogen, several oil-
globules, and also protein compounds.

Reproduction may be vegetative, asexual and sexual (in some

species).
Vegetative Reproduction (fig.- 400 B). This is a common
method in yeast cells growing in sugar solution. As they grow ~
two changes are noticed: budding of yeast cells, and alcoholic
fermentation of sugar solution (see p.' 299). Budding. In this
process each cell gives rise to one or more tiny outgrowths.
which gradually increase in size and are ultimately cut off
from the mother cell; these then lead a separate existence.
The budding may be repeated, resulting in the formation of
one or more chains and even sub-chai~s of bead-like cells;
these cells ultimately separate from one' another into indivi-
dual one-celled yeast plants. .
Asexnal Reproduction (fig. 401). When the food. supply is:
scanty or exhausted but oxygen abundant the yeast cell be~
comes larger and behaves as a sporangium, called the ascus (A).

Yeast. FIG. 401.

A, an ascus;
B-O, formation of
ascopores;
D, ascopore
germinating.
A B C D

The nucleus of the ascus divides twice to form four spores,

called ~scospores (B-C), each provided with a firm wali. Instead
of four spores, sometimes two or eight may be formed. These
are the resting spores, and can withstand unfavourable con-
ditions of life. The wall of the ascus ruptures, and the
 F U NG I

ascospores are blown about by the wind. When they get a

suitable medium they germinate and reproduce by the process
of budding (D).
Sexual Reproduction (fig. 402). Some species of yeast also
reproduce sexually by conjugation. In this process .two ad-
jacent cells send out short protuberances which unite with
each other. The two nuclei then pass on to the conjugating,
ABO

Yeast. FIG. 402. Oonjugation

of yeast cells and formation
of ascospores.

D E

tube and fuse with each other. The zygote (ascus) thus
formed qivides to produce eight nuclei. Each nucleus clothes
itself with a 'wall, enlarges and becomes known as the asco-
spore. The ascospore commonly germinates by budding.
Alcoholic Fermentation. When the yeast cells grow in sugar
solution, as in date-palm juice, palmyra-palm juice or grape
juice, they set up fermentation (see p. 247) in it by means of
an enzyme (zymase). Sugar is decomposed, and alcohol and
carbon dioxide are tl:e chief products formed. Carbon dioxide
escapes, and often gives rise to frothing on the surface of the
solution. Fermentatio:n_takes place only when the supply of
oxygen is cut off. Sugar undergoes the following chemical
change:
CSHlZOs (sugar)+zymase~2C2H50H (alcohol) + 2C02+ zymase
+ energy
Yeast cells are very rich in digestible compounds, specially proteins, fats,
carbohydrates, etc. and also enzymes and vitamins, and as such their value
as food is considerable. They are purified, dried at about 125°0., and sold
in the market as Yeastvite or under some other trade name.

4. AGARICUS (about 70 sp.)

Occurrence. Agaricus, commonly called mushroom, is a fleshy
saprophytic fungus. It grows during the rainy season on
damp rotten logs of wood, trunks of trees, decaying organic
matter, and in damp soil rich in organic substances.
 3 00 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Edible and Poisonous Forms. There are about 200 species of fleshy fungi
that are edible; many more are non-edible, and about 12 species distinctly
,poisonous. All puff-balls and many Gpecies of Agaricus are edible, parti-
cularly when they are young. Certain species of Amanita which resemble
'edible Agaricus are extremely poisonous; however, they are, usually dis-
tinguished from the latter by their possession of a cup-like structure at
the base, which is wanting in Agaricus.

Structure (fig. 403). The mycelium consists of a much-

branched mass of hyphae which unite at their points of
,contact and form a network in the substratum. The hyphae
are septate and hyaline. The aerial portion of the fungus
-constitutes its main body and is the 'fructification' or fruit-
Pileus body of the plant. It consists
of a fleshy stalk known as the
stipe and an urn brella-like
head borne on its top, known
as the pileus (a hat). The
whole body of the fungus is
composed of an interwoven
mass of hyphae, looking in
section like a tissue-a false
tissue, known as pseudo-paren-
chyma. When young, the fruc-
tification is spherical or oval
in shape (button stage) and is
completely enveloped by a thin
membranous covering, called
the velum. With' the growth
of the pileus, the velum gets
Agaricus. FIG. 403. Two plants,
young and old, with ramifying
ruptured from the stipe leaving
mycelia. a ring (annulus). Ultimately
the pileus spreads in an um-
brella-like fashion on the top of the stipe. From the under-
surface of the pileus suspend a very large number of thin
vertical plate-like structures, extending from the stipe to the
margin of the pileus ; these are known as the gills or lamellae.
They vary in number from 300 to 600 for each fructification.
Each gill bears innumerable spores on both surfaces.
Reproduction (fig. 404). This takes place by the asexual method
only. The spores are known in this case as the basidio-
spores, and are borne by the gills on both surfaces. A gill in
:section shows a central portion called trama which is an inter-
 FUNGI

woven mass (false tissue) of long slender hyphae. The hyphal

cells of the trama curve .outwards on either side of the gill
and terminate in a layer of club-shaped cells, called hymenium,
TRAMA HYMENWlL

PARAPHYSIS

BASIDIOSPORE

BASIDIUM

STERIGMA
r

Agaricus. FIG. 404. A portion of the gill in section.

Some of these cells bear spores and are called basidia; while
others are sterile and are called paraphyses. Each basidium
bears four basidiospores-- in some cases two only-on short
slender s!alks, known as sterigmata (sing. sterigma). The basi-
diospores, when mature, shoot off from the sterigma and
germinate under favourable conditions.
Plant Diseases caused by Fungi: Symptoms and Causes. Many parasitic-
fungi attack sevcral field crops, cultivated and ornamcntal plants and even
wild ones, and cause various and often serious diseases in them. The fungi
plunder the food stored in the host plants, block the conducting tissues,
destroy the affected cells and tissues, produce toxins (poisons) and finally
cause their death. The annual loss in agricultural crops on this account
alone is very heavy. A plant may suffer from more than one disease at a
time. Some of the common fungal disea5cs are as follows. (1) Leaf S!lOt
Disease is a common diseas~ appearing on the leaves of a variety of plants
as brown, orange-red or black patchas or spots, caused by a number of
parasitic fungi. The disease may sprelld from onc part to another and
destroy the affected plants, e.g. late blight of potato (caused by P7~ytoph·
tlwra) , leaf-spot of rica (caused by Helminthosporium)-the fungus also
attacks and destroys the grains, 'tikka' disease of groundnut (caused by
Cercospora) , etc. (2) Rust Disease is a serious disease of wheat and other
cereals (caused by Puccin.ia). The disease appears in the form of reddish.
orange or black spots and streaks on the leaf, leaf-sheath and stem.
(3) Smut Disease is another serious disease of wheat, barley, maize, oats
and sugarcane (caused by Ustilag.o). The disease is very widespread. The'
fungus mainly attacks the flowers and often the whole inflorescence. Th&
infected parts turn black and all the grains are often totally destroyed.
(4) Mildews appear on the leaves as whitish, yellowish or brownish spots
and are caused by a number of fungi, e.g. downy mildews of mustard,
radish, cauliflower, cabbage, etc. (caused by Albugo and others) and
powdery mildews of rose, pea, bean, barley, apple and Phlox (caused by
3 02 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Erysiphe and others). (5) Red Rot of sugarcane (caused by Colletotriclturn)

is a very serious and destructive disease in India. Many other fungal
·diseases affecting various plants are also common. For bacterial diseases,
see pp. 289-90.
Control. Prevention, Check u,nd Cure. Considering the heavy economic
·Ioss due to diseases the following methods have been devised to prevent
them, to destroy the causative fungi and to keep them under check.
(1) Spraying or dusting of the affected parts with certain poisonous chemi-
cals called fungicides, e.g. copper sulphate, sulphur, sulphur-lime, quick-
lime, etc., or a mixture of them. (2) Fumigation (exposure to fumes) with
'sulphur dioxide gas. (3) Seed treatment-cautious application of hot water,
formaldehyde or certain compounds of copper, sulphur or mercury. (4) Soil
sterilization by burning wood or straw in the field or by application of
-steam or some poisonous chemicals. (5) Selection of disease-free seeds and
.plants. (6) Eradication and destruction of diseased plants. (7) Destruction
of disease-carrying insects. (8) Breeding of disease-resistant varieties of
plants. (9) Rotation of crops-growing some other crop in place. of the
ex isting one for one or more years.

Antibiotics. Antibiotics (anti, against; bios, life) are toxic chemical sub-
'stances, possibly enzymes, secreted by certain soil bacteria and soil fungi,
which h[lve a destructive effect on particular disease germs invading the
human body and causing infectious diseases, often of a serious nature, e.g.
,pneumonia, typhoid, diphtheria, tuber~u]osis, cholera, erysipelas, etc. Anti-
biotics are the miracle drugs of modern times. They often act like
magic bullets shooting down the germs which have invaded the human
Lody. Within the last 15 years or so S021e 300 antibiotics have Leen dis-
covered. Of these about 13 have an established (herapeutic value. The first
antibiotic was a 'chance' discovery. It is penicillin discovered by the late
Sir Alexander Fleming, a bacteriologist, in 1928 from a blue-green mould
of the soil, called Penicillium notaturn. It has a powerful antibacteri[ll
action and is amazingly effective against a wide range of germ diseases
like scarlet fever, l'heumatic fever, sore throat, wound infections, erysipelas,
abscesses, carbuncles, tonsilitis, tetanus, pneumonia, meningitis, etc. It
'came into general use from 1943-44 when mass production was well under
way. Other antibiotics isolated from certain soil bacteria, particularly species
-of Streptornyces, came in fairly quick succession. Thus streptomycin was
discovered by \Vaksman in 1944; it has proved to be very valuable against
tuberculosis. Vigorous search for more antibiotics went on at this time at
an almost incredible cost, and several thousands of Boil samples were
-examined in this connexion. Soon another antibiotic called chloromycetin
was discovered in 1947; it has proved to be a magic drug in the treatment
of typhoid fever. Within the following few years some more antibiotics,
-aureomycin, terramycin, etc., have been discovered and put on the market
for the treatment of one kind of bacterial dise[\se or another. These wonder
drugs have saved millions of human lives from death or from untold
miseries, and that too within the shortest time possible. It is really a
miracle that such drugs lay hidden in a spoonful of good earth for the
~elief of human sufferings.
 <'HAPTER 5 Bryophyta
1. RICCIA (r35 sp.)
Riccia (fig. 405) is a rosette tIpe of thalloid liverwort showing
distinct dichotomous branching. The thallus is small and flat
with a longitudinal groove on the upper surface along the mid-
rib, and a number of slender unicellulal h:lir-like structures,
<:alled rhizoids, on the lower surface, serving as roots. Some
8cales may also be present. The plant glOWS during the rainy
season as a green carpet on wet ground, old damp walls, old
tree trunks and moist rosks, and dries up in winter.
Vegetative Reproduction may take place by the decay of the
older portion of the thallus and the separation of the branches.
Gametophyte and Sexual Reproduction. The Riccia plant is a
,gametophyte, i.e. it reproduces sexually by gametes. The two
kinds of. gametes-male and female-are borne in special
structures known as the antheridia and the archegonia res-
pectively (fig. 406). Some species are monoecious and others
dioecious. In the monoecious species antheridia and archegonia
-develop together in the median groove on the upper side of
the thallus. Each antheridinm (A) is more or less pear-
shaped and consists of a short stalk, a wall and a compact
m,ass of antherozoid mother cells. Each mother
-cell by a single division forms two cells, each
of which becomes converted into a small
twisted biciliate male--gamete or antherozoid
.(B). Each archegonium (C-D) also lies sunken
in the groove. It is a short-sta1"ked; flask-sha-
ped body with a swollen basal portion known FIG. 405. A Riccia
plant.
as t h e venter an d a narrow tub u Iar upper por-
tion known as the neck which often projects beyond the epi-
uermis and turns purpiish. The neck contains a few neck canal
cells surrounded by a wall, and the venter is occupied by a
large cell-the egg-cell with a distinct large nucleus in it-the
egg-nuclens (female gamete). The canal cells degenerate into
mucilage.
Fertilization. , The antherozoids swim to the archegonium.
The mucilage swells and forces out the cover cells of the
archegonium (D). An open passage is thus formed, and the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

antherozoids enter through it into the archegonium. They

A B c D
Biccia. FIG. 406. A, an antheridium; B, an antherozoid; 0, a young
archegonium; and D, a mature archegonium.

pass down into the venter and one of them fuses with the
egg-nucleus. After fertilization the ovum clothes itself with
a wall and becomes the oospore.
Sporophyte and Asexual Reproduction. The oospore gives
rise to the sporophyte which reproduces asexually by spores.

A
FIG. 407 FIG. 408 FIG. 409
Biecia. FIG. 407. Sporophyte (capsule) within enlarged archegonium.
FIG. 408. Spore; A, spores in a tetrad; B, a single spore. FIG. 409.
A-B, early stages in the germination of spore.

The sporophyte is a simple spherical body called the capsule

(fig. 407). It consists of a spore-sac and a wall surrounding it,
 BRYOPHYTA
the latter made of a single layer. The capsule develops in
situ within the venter of the archegonium. With the growth
of the capsule the venter also grows and covers the capsule;
this covering is called the calyptra. The spore-sac contains a
loose mass of spore mother cells. Each mother cell undergoes
reduction division and forms a tetrad of spores (fig. 40f:iA).
Eventually by the rupture of the calyptret and the wall of the
capsule the spores are set free. Each spore (fig. 40SB) is pm..
vided with a thick coat. The spore ge:-minates at first into
a short tube called the germ-tube (fig. 409) which gradually
develops into Riccia thallus.
Alternation of Generations. The plant passes through two successive gene-
rations-gametophyte and sporophyt"l-to complete its life-history. T.w
gametophyte begins with the spore and ends in the formltion of th2 gametes;
while the sporophyte begins with the o(lspore ancI ends in the spore mother
cells. The gametophyte gives rise to the sporophyte through sexual repro-
duction, and the sporophyte to the gametophyte through asexual reproduc-
tion. Thus there is a regular alternation of generations in Riccia.

2. MARCHANTIA (65 fp.)

Jl1archantia (figs. 410-1 I) is a rosette type of thalloid liver-
wort (much larger than Riccia) showin;s conspicuous d~choto­
mous branching with a distinct mid-rib. It grows on damp
ground and old walls and spreads rap:'dly during the rainy

FIG. 410 FIG. 411

MarcAantia. FIG. 410. Female plant with archefoniophores and gemma-cups_
FIG. 411. Male plant with antheridiophores ancI gemma-cups.

season, forming a sort of green carpet. It grows luxuriantly

in the cold climate of the hills. The plant dries up in winter.
20
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

The thallus bears on its undersurface a number of unicellular

rhizoids (hair-like structures functioning as roots), and also
rows of scales. On the upper surface it bears a number of
cup-like outgrowths, known as the gemma-cups, on the mid-
rib .. Marchantia is dioecious. The male plant bears some
special erect male reproductive branches (antheridiophores),
each with a more or less circular disc or receptacle on the top
(fig. 4I I). Similarly, the female plant bears special female
branches (archegoniophores) with a star-shaped disc or recep-
tacle with radiating rays or arms (fig. 410). The growing
point of the thallus lies in its groove,
Vegetative Reproduction may take place (a) by the decay of
the old basal portion of the thallus, thus separating a branch
or (b) by gemmae (fig. 412B)
which develop in the gemma-
cup (fig. 4IZA). Each gemma
is a small, more or less cir-
cular, flattened structure with
a conspicuous depression on
A B ,each side. When the gemmae
Marclwntia. FIG. 412. A, a gemma· get detached from the gem-
cup with gemmae; fl, a gemma.
ma-cup, each grows out into
a. dichotomously branched green thallus.
Gametophyte and Sexual Reproduction ....'\ !vlarchantia plant is
the gametophyte, i.e. it reproduces sexu~lly by gametes. The

M alChantia.
FIG. 413.
Section through the
antheridiophore.
a, antheridium;
b, air-porc ;
c, ostiolo;
d, air-chamber;
€, hairs;
t, scales;
Some spermatozoids
on the right.

male plant bears antheridia (or male organs) on the upper

side of the receptacle of the antheridiophore (fig. 413); and
the female plant bears archegonia (or female organs) on the
lower side of the receptacle of the archegoniophore (fig. 414).
 BRYOPHYTA

The antheridium (fig. 413a) is an ovoid body composed of a

mass of antherozoid mother cells and surrounded by a wall.
Each mother cell develops a spindle-shaped biciliate male
gamete called the antherozoid or spermatozoid. The anthero-
zoids escape through a narrow canal known as the ostiole (c).
Besides, the receptacle has a number of air-pores (b) and
air-chambers (d). The archegouium (fig. 414 B-C) is a flask-
shaped body consisting of a swollen basal portion, the venter,
and a narrow tubular portion, the neck. The venter contains
a large cell, the egg-ceH, with a distinct large egg~nucleus in
it. The neck contains a few neck canal cells and a wall around
it. Surrounding a group of archegonia a curtain-like out-
growth known as the involucre (or perichaetium), fringed at
the edges, is formed as a protective covering. Also, a cup-
shaped outgrowth known as the pseudo-perianth (or perigy-
nium) is formed at the base of each archegonium, later sur-
rounding it after fertilization. The receptacle further bears
air-porel:\ and air-chambers with chains of green cells in them.

\ ;:',
j fteMc}<lltkl7l
~ /ttnij~niu7tt
A B c.
~larchaTltia. 414. A, (top) undersurface of the
FIG. arch~goniophore; In.
lllvolucre; (bottom) upper surface of the same; E, sectlOn through the
.archegoniophore showing archegonia. etc. (see text); 0, an archegonium;
P, pseudo-perianth (or perigynium); TT, venter; E, egg-cell; iV, neck;
lV, wall.

Fertilization. After the antheridium bursts, the ciliate anthe::o-

zoids escape through the ostiole and swim to the archego-
nium through the medium of dew or rain-water. Many of
them enter into the venter through the neck. But only one,
-of them fuses with the egg-nucleus. Fertilization is thus
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

effected. After fertilization the egg-cell or ovum develops a

wall round itself and becomes the oospore.

FIG. 415 FIG. 416 FIG. 417

IJ[arcTwntia. FIG. 415. A young sporogonium; A, tissue of the gametophyte;
B. foot; C, capsule (",nil); D, archegonium (wall); and E, perigynium or
pseudo-perianih. FIG. 416. A mature sporogonium; A, foot; B, se,a; C,
remnant of venter (ealyptra); D, perigynium or pseudo perianth; E,
capsule; P, wall of the C'IPSllic; 0. 5-01"'; and fl, elat€r. FIG. 417.
An dater (enla1'g~d)

Sporophyte and Asexual Reproductio~

(figs. 415-16). The oospore germinates
in situ and gives rise to the sporophyte
which reproduces asexually by spores ..
The sporophyte is a complex body and
is known as the sporogonium. It con-

~A{s~
sists of a foot, a short stalk called seta,
and a capsule. The capsule consists of
a single-layered wall, and a mass of
small cells. Some of these cells grow
up into elongated, spindle-shaped, spi-
\t:iM/::i;/-i,J rally thickened structures called elaters
(figs. 416-17), while others form spore
.I'rlarchantia. FIG. 418. mother cells. Each spore mother cell
SpOl'O,OnlUm dehisc-
ing and. dischaq.!in~ undergoes reduction d'ivision and forms
spores; P, perigy. four spnres in a tetrad. Other pa:-ts of
Ilium; S, s€tn ; (), cap-
sule ; and S', spores. the archegoniophore also grow. Thua
 BRYOPHYTA
the wall of the venter grows and forms the calyptra which
surrounds the capsule (fig. 416c); the neck withers and dis~
appears. The perigynium (figs. 415E & 416n) grows rapidly
and ultimately surrounds the sporogonium. Finally the cap-
sule dehisces rather irregularly, and the spo:-es are discharged
(.fig. 4113). Under humid conditions the daters undergo a
tvyisting movement and push the spores out of the capsule.
The spore getminates and gives rise to a short tube which
develops into the Marchantia thallus.
Alternation ot Generations Marchantia shows two stages or
generations in its life-history. The plant itself is the game-
tophyte and the sporogonium is the sporophyte. The game-
tophyte reproduces sexually by gametes and gives rise to the
sporophyte, and the sporophyte reproduces asexually by
spores and gives rise to the gametophyte. Thus the two gene-
rations regularly alternate with each other.

3. MOSS
Moss (fig. 419) occurs most commonly on old damp walls,
trunks of trees, and on ~amp ground during the rainy season,
while in winter it is seen to dry up. It forms a green patch

\
~B
!
,rijc

~D
FIG. 419 FIG. 420 FIG. 421
Moss. FIG. 419. 'I'hree moss plants. FIG. 42). Apex of a moss shoot in sec-
tion showing anthcridia (AN), paraphyses (p) and leaves (L). FIG. 421. A,
a mature antheri(lium discharging antherozoid mother cells; fl, an anthero-
zoid mother cell; C, wall of the mother cell dissolving; and D, a biciliate
antherozoid.
 '3 10 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

or a soft velvet-like, green carpet. A moss plant is small,

usually 2-3 cm. or so in height, and consists of a short axis
with spirally arranged minute green leaves which are crowded
towards the apex. True roots are absent but the plant bears a
number of slender multicellular branching threads called
.rhizoids which perform the functions of roots. The axis may
be branched or unbranched.

Gametophyte and Sexnal Reproduction. The moss plant is

a gametophyte, i.e. it bears gametes and reproduces by the
sexual method. For the purpose highly differentiated male
and female organs are developed, either together at the apex
of the same shoot, or separately on two, often intermixed
with some multicellular hair-like structures called paraphyses.
The male organ is known as the antheridium (figs. 420-21) and
the female organ as the archegonium (figs. 422-23). The
antheridium (figs. 420-21) is a multicellular, short-stalked,

~CALYl'TRA

FIG. 422 FIG. 423 FIG. 424

Moss. FIG. 422. Apex of a moss shoot in section showing three archegonia,
three paraphyses and two leaves. FIG. 423. An archegonium. FIG. 424. A
moss plant showing the sporophyte growing on the gametophyte.

club-shaped body filled with numerous small cells, known as

the antherozoid mother cells. The antheridium bursts at the
apex and the mother cells are liberated through it in a mass
of mucilage (fig. 421). The mucilaginous walls of the mother
 BRYOPHYTA 3I1

cells get dissolv(;d in water and the antherozoids or male

gametes are set free. They are very minute in size, spirally
coiled and biciliate; after liberation they swim in water that
collects at the apex of the moss plant after rain. The
archegonium (figs 422-3) is a multicellular, flask-shaped body.
It consists of a short multicellular stalk, a lower swollen
portion-the venter (belly), and an upper tube-like portion-
the neck. The venter contains a large cell-the egg-cell with a
distinct egg-nucleus (female gamete) in it. The neck is
long and straight and contains many small neck canal cells
which soon degenerate into mucilage.
Fertilization is effected through the medium of rain-water
or dew that collects on the moss plants. When the archego-
nium matures it secretes mucilage with cane-sugar. This
attracts a swarm of antherozoids which enter through the
neck canal and pass down into the venter; one of them fuses
with the egg-nucleus and the rest die. After fertilization the
zygote clotpes itself with a wall and is then known as the
oospore.

CALYPTRA

FIG. 425 . FIG. 426 FIG. 427

Moss Capsule. FIG. 425. A capsule covered by calyptra. FIG. 426. A,
a capsule without calyptra; B, detached calyptra. FIG. 427. A, a capsule
showing peristome-opon; fl, operculum; G, peristome-closed (top view).

Sporophyte and Asexual Reproduction. The oospore grows

in situ and gives rise to the sporophyte on the moss plant
(fig. 424). The sporophyte reproduces asexually by spores. It
is a very complex structure and is known as the sporogonium.
It consists of foot, seta (sl;nder stalk) and capsule (case con-
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
3 12
taining spores). The sporogonium grows as a semi-parasite
on the moss plant. Although it draws most of its food from
the moss plant it can manufacture its own food to some
extent.
The capsule is a complex body with differentiated parts
(fig. 428). It is covered by a sort of loose cap known as the
calyptra (figs. 425-6) -which is soon blown away by the wind.
A longitudinal section through the capsule shows the follow-

OPERCULUM

PERISTO~r)i;

ANNULUS

COLUMELLA

SPOHE-SAC

TRABECULA

~IR-CAVITl{

CAPSULE-WALL "

STOMA
FIG. 428
1\'[08S capsule
APOPHYSIS
in longitudinal
section

ing parts. (1) Operculum is the circular cup-shaped lid on the

top. (2) Annulus is the ring-like layer of thickened cells at the
base of the operculum. (3) Peristome is one or two rings of
tooth-like projections at the' rim of the capsule (see fig. 427A).
(4) Columella is the solid central column. (5) Spore-sac
is the hollow cylindrical sac surrounding the columella and
bearing numerous spores. (6) Air-cavity with strands of cells
(trabeculae) across it. (7) Capsule wall with epidermis as exter-
nal layer. (8) Apophysis is the solid basal portion of the
capsule, having chloroplasts in many cells and stomata in the
epidermis.
'Germination of the Spore. After dehiscence of the capsule
the spores are scattered by the. wind, and they germinate
 BRYOPHYTA 313
under favourable conditions. The
.spore grows into a green, much~
branched filament known as the
protonema (fig. 429). It produces
here and there some slender rhi~
zoids, and a number of small
lateral buds which grow up into
new moss plants. Thus the life- FIG. 429. Protonema of moss
cycle of moss is completed. (note the buds and rhizoids).

Alternation of Generations. (fig. 430). The moss plant shows in its life-
history two generations which regularly alternate with each other. The moss
plant itself is the gametophyte and it reproduces sexually by gametes

/
'~~:~~h~
FIG. 430.
Life-cycle of moss
{diagrammatic)
Pi n
- , An"";\A"h''''"~
showing alternation Spores c;'Q_»t.et \
\___ __ Sta <:>;i.ijte Alltheroz:!? Ovum

V
of generations;

::.::,~···st~i;···"..
gametophyte stage
(haploid or n) and
sporophyte stage gp... m ...
(diploid or 2n). ~ . ';tte
Sta ---_
" 'Je Oospor.
Spore~5ac /
~ (sporoph~te)
. --....... Sporogomum
(antherozoid and ovum) to give rise to the sporophyte; while the sporogonium
is ihe sporophyte and it reproduces asexually by spores to give rise to the
gametophyte. Thus the two generations regularly alternate with each oiller.
d
'~,

CHAPTER 6 Pteridophy fa
FERNS
Ferns (fig. 43 I) are a big group of highly advanced crypto~
, gams and are widely distributed all over the earth. They
grow abundantly in cool, shady, moist places, both in the hills
and in the plains. The stem is mostly a rhizome, but some-
times it is erect and aerial, as in tree ferns. Roots are adven-
titious (flbrous) growing profusely from the rhizome. Leaves
are usually pinnately compound and circinate (rolled from
the apex downwards) when young (fig. 431), the leaflets being
known as the pinnae (sing. pinna). The stem and the petiole
are covered with numerous brownish scales known as the
ramenta.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

FIG. 431. A fern plant; left, portion of a pinna with sori.

 PTERIDOPHYTA 315
Sporopbyte and Asexual Reproductiou. The fern plant (fig.
43 I) is the sporophyte, i.e. it bears spores and reproduces
by the asexual method. On the undersurface of the leaf or
the sporopbyll (as the spore-bearing leaf is called) a number
of dark brown structures, pale green when young, may be
seen; these are called sori (sing. sorus). They develop on the
veins, and are usually arranged in two rows in each leafiet
or pinna of the leaf. Each sorus (fig. 432) is a group of
sporangia (sing. sporangium) covered over by a kidney-shaped
shield called the indusium. The sporangia and the indusium
develop from a papilla-like outgrowth called the placenta.
Ea£h sporangium (fig. 433) consists of a long slender multi-
cellular stalk and a biconvex capsule. The capsule is filled

Fern. FIG. 433.

Sporangium
(capsule and stalk) ;
A, capsule just open
at the stomium;
B, the same after
bursting, with the
annulus bending back.

with a mass of spores. The capsule wall is thin but it

has a specially thickened and cutinized band or ring running
round its margin. This ring is called the annulus. The
annulus has an unthickened portio~ known as the stomium.
When the spores mature the capsule bursts at the stomium.
The annulus bends back exposing the spores, and then sud-
denly it returns to its original position, ejecting the spores
with a jerk (fig. 433). The spore germinates and gives rise to
the gametophyte.
Gametophytc and Sexual Reproduction. The gametophyte
in fern is a very small (more or less 8 mm. across) green fiat
heart-shaped body known as the protballus (fig. 434). It bears
gametes and reproduces sexually by them. For this purpose
the prothallus bears on its undersurface groups of highly
differentiated reproductive organs called antheridia (male) and
archegonia (female); it also bears many slender unicellular
hair-like structures called rhizoids which function as roots.
'rh" <lntJu~ridium (fie-. 4iS) is a spherical or oval body with
..
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

FIG. 431. A fern plant; left, pOl-tion of a pinna with sori.

\
\

Fern. FIG. 432. A sorus in section.

 PTERIDOPHYTA 315
Sporophyte and Asexual Reproductiou. The fern plant (fig.
431) is the sporophyte, i.e. it bears spores and reproduces
by the asexual method. On the undersurface of the leaf or
the sporophyll (as the spore-bearing leaf is called) a number
of dark brown structures, pale green when young, may be
seen; these are called sori (sing. sorus). They develop on the
veins, and are usually arranged in two rows in each leaflet
or pinn'a of the leaf. Each sorus (fig. 432) is a group of
sporangia (sing. sporangium) covered over by a kidney-shaped
shield called the indusium. The sporangia and the indusium
develop from a papilla-like outgrowth called the placenta.
Each sporangium (fig. 433) consists of a long slender multi-
cellular stalk and a biconvex capsule. The capsule is filled

Fern. FIG. 433.

Sporangium
(capsule and stalk) ;
A, capsule just open
at the stomium;
B, the same after
bursting, with the
annulus bending back.

with a mass of spores. The capsule wall is thin but it

has a specially thickened and cutinized band or ring running
round its margin. This ring is called the annulus. The
annulus has an unthickened portion known as the stomium.
When the spores mature 'the capsule bursts at the stomium.
The annulus bends back exposing the spores, and then sud-
denly it returns to its original position, ejecting the spores
with a jerk (fig. 433). The spore germinates and gives rise to
the gametophyte.
Gametophyte and Sexual Reproduction. The gametophyte
in fern is a very small (more or less 8 mm. a<;:ross) green flat
heart-shaped body known as the prothallus (fig. 434). It bears
gametes and reproduces sexually by them. For this purpose
the prothallus bears on its undersurface groups of highly
differentiated reproductive organs called antheridia (male) and
archegonia (female); it also bears many slender unicellular
hair-like structures called rhizoids which function as roots.
The antheridium (fig. 435) is a spherical or oval body with
Imany antherozoid mother cells in it. Each mother cell pro-
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

duces a single twisted and multiciliate antherozoid (male

gamete). The archegonium (fig. 436) is a flask-shaped body.

FIG.434. Prothallu~
(gametophyte) of
fern.

ARCHEGONIUM

ANTHERIDIUM

FIG. 435 FIG. 436

Fern. FIG. 435. Antheridium. A, a young one with ·antherozoid mother
<cells; E, a mature one aft€r bursting; and 0, an antherozoid. FIG. 436.
Archegonium. A, a young one; and B, a mature Ohe ready for ferlilization.
N ate the venter and the ne~k.
 PTERIDOpHYTA

The swollen basal portion of it is known as the venter, and

the slender tube-like upper portion as the neck. The neck is
short and curved in fern, and consists of a waIi and a row of
neck canal cells which soon degenerate into mucilage. The
venter lies embedded, partly at least, in the prothallus, and
encloses a single large cell- the egg-cell or ovum with a dis-
tinct nucleus in it - the egg-nucleus (female gamete).
Fertilization. After the antheridium matures and bursts the
antherozoid mother cells are liberated. Their mucilaginous
wall dissolves and the antherozoid of each is set free (fig. 435).
As the archegonium matures it sec-
retes mucilage and malic acid to at-
tract the antherozoids. They swim
to the archegonium in large
numbers, enter into it through the
neck and pass down into the ven-
ter. They vibrate around the ovum
for a while, and one of them soon
fuses with the egg-nucleus. Fertili-
zation is thus effected. The rest of
the antherozoids die out. The fer-
tilized ovum clothes itself with a
cell-wall and becomes the oospore.
The oospore gives rise to an embryo
which soon develops into a young
sporophyte (fig. 437). The prothal- FIG. 437. Prothallus of fern
with young sporophyte.
Ius decays and the y,gung sporo-
phyte grows into a fern plant .
.~Fern ____
~ (sporophyte) ~
Embryo Sporophyll
7' . ~
/ Sorus
°Ko~pore , S A o ) . . \

Ovum
• -. '_,
_, __
Antheroz?' 4"Q'~_
S Z"'q_°A1.y Z';
'JIe e J
Sporangium

\. '\.,_ i;:~~, '_ Spore mother-cella

Archegon.'!' Antberid~ "7e :7ce·· .... /
"--
~gametophyte)
' " I.
. - /Spores
I'rothallus~
FIG. 438. Life-cycle of fern (diagrammatic) showing alternation of genera-
tions : sporophyte stage (diploid or 2n) and gametophyte stage (haploid or n), /

/
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Alternation of Generations (fig. 438). A fern plant passes

through two stages or generations to complete its life-history.
The plant itself is the sporophyte, and the prothallus the
gametophyte. The sporophyte or the fern plant reproduces
asexually by spores and gives rise to the gametophyte or the
prothallus. The prothallus reproduces sexually by gametes
(antherozoid and ovum) and gives rise to the sporophyte or
the fern plant. Thus the two generations regularly alternate
with each other.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MOSS AND FERN

Habit and Habitat. Moss plants are small, usually 2-3 em., sometimes
much more in height, growing in clusters from protonemal buds forming a
green soft cushion on damp ground or damp old walls; while fern plants
are much bigger in size, usually 25-40 em., growing close togelher in cool
shady moist places. ,
Structure. The structure of the moss plant is simple consisting of a
short axis with spirally arranged minute leaves and a· number of rhizoids
at the base of the axis;' while the fern plant is much more complicated
in structure consisting of a rhizome with ssales or ramenta, several adventi-
tious roots and usually large well-developed leaves, often pinnately divided.
Vegetative Reproduction. Moss sometimes reproduces vegetatively by
splitting of protonemal branches or by resting buds on the protonema;
while fern reproduces by its rhizome.
Alternation of Generations. Both moss and fern are higher cryptogams
showing a regular alternation of generations in their life-history. Moss
plant is the gametophyte which is the dominant phase in its life-cycle;
while the sporogonium is the sporophyte which ~s dependent on the gameto-
phyte as a semi-p.arasite. The order is reversed in the case of fern. The fern
plant is the sporophyte which is the dominant phase in its life-cycle; ",hile
the prothaJlus is the gametophyte which although an independent body is
very much reduced in size and is inconspicuous. Thus from moss to fern
a reduction of gametophyte and an advance of sporoIJhyte are evident. In
both the cases the sporophyte reproduces asexually by spores and gives ris3
to the gametophyte and the latter reproduces sexually by gametes (anthero-
.zoid and ovum) and gives rise to the sporophyte.
 PART VI G YMN OSPERMS
[Gymnosperms (gymnos, naked; spcrma, seed) are naked-
seeded plants, i.e. those in which the seeds are not enclosed
within the fruit but are directly borne by the open carpel (i.e.
not closed to form the ovary, as in angiosperms). They form
an intermediate group between the cryptogams and the
angiosperms, being related to the higher forms of cryptogams
on the one hand and to the lower angiosperms on the other.
Gymnosperms number about 700 species. There are two
rnam groups of them: cycads and conifers.]

CHAPTER I Cy ca daceae
CYCAS (16 sp.)
Cycad (Cycas; fig. 439) is a lower gymnosperm. It consists of
an unbranched erect
stout and palm-like
stem with a crown
of Lrn-likc pinn:.Jtc
leaves arranged spi-
rally round the apex.
There is a long pri-
mary (tap) root.
Cycads ar~ dioe-
cious, i.e. male and
female flowers are
borne by two sepa-
rate plants. The
male flower is a cone
(fig. 440) borne at
the apex of the stem.
The male cone con-
sists of a collection of
stamens or micro-
sporophylls which arc
arranged s p ira 1- FIG. 439. A female plant ~f Cycas circinalis
Iy round the axis. with carpels.
Each stamen (fig. 44 I C) is III the form of a scale,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

narrowed below and broadened above. It bears on its under-

surface several pollen-sacs Or microsporangia grouped III
sari. There are usually 2 to 6 pollen-sacs in each sorus. In
each pollen-sac there are numerous pollen grains or micro-
spores. Each pollen grain before it is shed from the pollen-sac
produces within it an ex-
tremely reduced male pro-
thallus (fig. 443) which con-
sists of a prothallus cell, a
generative cell and a tube
cell.
In Cycas there is no pro-
per female flower; the plant
bears near its apex a rosette
of carpels (fig. 44I A-B)
which do not form a cone
but are arranged alternat-
ing with the leaves. They
are usually 15-30 "m. long.
flattened or bent over like a
hood, and often dilated
above. In many species
they are covered all over
with . soft brownish hairs.
Cyca8. FIO. 440. A male cone of The ~argin of the carpel
Cycas pectinata with stamens.
may be entire, crenate or

A B o
Cyra8: Carpels and Stamen. FIG. 441. A, a carpel of Cycas circinalis'
lJ, a carpeJ 01 Cycus rceoh,ta; C, a stamen of Cycas pectinata with nume/
ous pollen-sacs,
 CYCADACEAE 321
pectinate (pinnately divided). Carpels are open, bearing
usually 2-3 pairs of ovules. sometimes more, all their two
margins. The ovules grow considerably even before fertiliza-
tion, and are commonly oval and fairly large.
The ovule in longitudinal section (fig. 442A) shows: (a) a.
thick integument consisting of three layers, (b) a micropyle,
(c) a pollen chamber, (d) a nucellus fused with the integu-
ment, (e) a female prothallus (often called the endosperm)
. which grows quickly after fertilization and forms the major
part of the seed, ({) a few archegonia (2-8) borne by the
female prothallus towards the micropyle, and (g) an arche-
gonial chamber. Each archegonium (fig. 442B) is extremely
reduced and consists of a short neck with two neck cells, a
ventral canal cell represented only by a nucleus, and a vente)!'
filled with a large egg-cell with a distinct egg-nucleus in it.

A B
Oyca8. FIG. 442. A, an ovule in longitudinal section; I, II and III, outer,
middle (stony) and inner layers of the integument; B, an archegonium with
the egg-nucleus in the centre.

Pollination and Fertilization. Pollen grains are carried by

the wind. Some of them fall on the micropyle in a drop of
mucilage secreted by the latter. As the mucilage dries up, the
ponen grains are drawn into the pollen-chamber. The tube-
cell elongates into a long branched pollen-tube (fig. 443 B)
which penetrates into the nucellus. The pollen-tube of Cycas
is a sucking organ (haustorium) absorbing food from the
nucellus. The generative cell. divides into two-the stalk cell
21
322 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

.and the body cell. The stalk cell is sterile and the body ceU
divides into two large top-shaped multiciliate male gametes
{spermatozoids; fig. 443 C). The pollen-tube bursts at the apex
and the spermatozoids are set free. They enter the arche-
gonium and one of them fuses with the egg-nucleus. Fertili-
zation is thus effected.

A B c
O,!/caa. FIG. 443. A, top, a pollen grain; bottom, male prothallus; B, pollezr-
tube (a portion); 0, two spermatozoids.

Seed. The fertilized egg-cell grows into an embryo, and

the ovule as a whole into a seed. The mature geed bears
only one embryo with two cotyledons lying embedded in the
prothallus (endosperm) which again is surrounded by the in-
tegument. The endosperm stores a considerable quantity. of
food for the embryo to be utilized at the time of germination.
 PART VII ANGIOSPERMS

CHAPTER I Principles and Systems

of Classification
Systematic Botany or Taxonomy. It deals with the descrip-
tion, identification ,and naming of plants, and their classifica-
tion into different groups according to their resemblances and
differences mainly in their morphological characteristics. So
far as angiosperms or higher 'flowering' plants are concerned
it has been estimated that over 199,000 species (dicotyledons-
159,000 and monocotyledons--40'OOO) are already known to us,
and many more are still being discovered and recorded. Thus
plants are not only numerous but they are of varied types,-
and it is .not possible to study them unless they are arranged
in some orderly system. The object of systematic botany or
taxonomy is to describe, name and classify plants in such a
manner that their relationship with regard to their descent
from a common ancestry may be easily brought out. The
ultimate object of classification is to arrange plants' in such
a way as to give us an idea about the sequence of their evolu-
tion from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more
complex, more recent and more advanced types in different
periods of th~ earth's history.
'"'" nON
UNITS OF CLASSIFICA
Species. By the term 'species' wt: mean a collection of indi-
viduals (plants or animals) which resemble one another in
almost all important morphological characteristics-both vege-
tative and reproductive-so closely that they may be regarded
as having been derived from the same parents. Thus all pea
plants constitute a species. Similarly all banyan plants, all
peepul plants, and all mango plants constitute different and
distinct species. Occasionally, owing to 'variations in climatic
or edaphic conditions, individuals of a species may show a
certain amount of variations in form, size, colour and other
minor characteristics. Such plants are said to form varieties.
A species may consist of one or more varieties or none at all.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Genus. A genus is a collection of species which bear a

close resemblance to one another in the morphological
characters of the floral or reproductive parts. For example,
banyan, peepul and fig are different species because they differ
from one another in their vegetative characters such as the
habit of the plant, the shape, size and surface of the leaf, etc.
But these three species are allied because they resemble one
another in their reproductive characters, namely, inflores-
cence, flower, fruit and seed. Therefore, banyan, peepul and
fig come under the same genus, and that is Ficus.
Binomial Nomenclature. As mentioned on p. ix, this is the
scientific method of naming species of plants or animals in
two parts: the first refers to the genus and the second to the
species. This system of naming plants or animals with a
binomial was first introduced by Linnaeus in 1735 and the
rules for its final adoption were drawn up by the International
Botanical Congress held at Vienna in the year 1905. The
name of the author whb first described a species is also written
in an abbreviated form after the name of the species, e.g.
Mangifera indica Linn. Here Linn. refers to the author,
Linnaeus, who first described the plant.
Family. A family is a group of genera which show general
structural resemblances with one another mainly in their
floral organs. Thus in the genera Gossypium (cotton), Hibis-
cus (China rose, lady's finger, etc.), Thespesia (Portia tree),
Sida (B. BERELA; H. BARIARA), Malva (mallow), Althaea (holly-
hock), etc., we find free lateral stipules, epicalyx, twisted aesti-
vation of corolla, monadelphous stamens, unilocular anthers,
axile placentation, etc. So all the above-mentioned genera
belong to the same family, and that is Malvaceae.
SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
There are two systems of classification-artificial and natural.
In the artificial system only one or at most a 'few charac-
ters are selected arbitrarily and plants are arranged into
groups according to such characters; as a result closely related
plants are often placed in different groups, while quite differ-
ent plants are often placed in the same group because of the
presence or absence of a particular character. This system
enables us to determine readily the names of plants .but does
not indicate the natural relationship that exists among the
 P R INC I P L E S 0 F C LAS S I FIe A T ION 3'25
individuals forming a group. It is like the manner of arrange-
ment of words in a dictionary in which, except for the alpha-
betical order, adjacent words do not necessarily have any
agreement with one another.
Linnaean System (1735). The best-known artificial system is
the one compiled by Linnaeus and published by him in 1735·
Linnaeus classified plants according to the characteristics of
their reproductive organs, viz. stamens and carpels. According
to this system plants are mainly divided into 24 classes:
23 of phanerogams and one of cryptogams. Phanerogams
were further sub-divided into groups and sub-groups according
.to the following characteristics: unisexual or bisexual flowers,
monoecious or dioecious plants, number of stamens, adhesion
or cohesion of stamens, number and length of stamens, num-
ber of carpels, apocarpous or syncarpous pistil, etc.
In the natural system all the important characteristics are
taken into consideration, and plants are classified according to
their related characteristics. Thus according to their simi-
larities and differences, mostly in their important morphologi-
cal characteristics, plants are first classified into a few big
groups. These are further divided and sub-divided into smaller
and smaller groups until the smallest division is reached and
that is a species. All modern systems of classification are
natural and they supersede the artificial ones by the fact that
they give us a true idea of the natural relationship existing
between different plants and also of the sequence of their
evolution from simpler to more complex types during differ-
ent periods in' the earth"s history.
According to the natural system the plant kingdom has
been divided into two divisions, viz. cryptogams or 'flowerless'
plants (see Part V), and phanerogams or 'flowering' plants.
Phanerogams have again been divided into two sub-dzvisions,
viz. gymnosperms or naked-seeded plants (see Part VI), and
angiosperms or closed-seeded plants. Angiosperms have
further been divided into two classes, viz. dicotyledons and
monocotyledons (see p. :3'27). The classes have been divided
into sub-classes, series and orders; the last named into
families; families again into genera and species; and some-
times species into varieties.
Bentham and Hooker's System (1862-83). The natural system
that is in practice in India IS that of Bentham and Hooker
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

and published by them during the above period. According

to these authors the dicotyledons have been divided into three
sub-classes, as follows:
I. Polypetalae. Both calyx and corolla present; petals
free; stamens and carpels also usually present; the former
often indefinite and the latter apocarpous or syncarpous.
Within the sub-class progress is indicated through poly-
sepalous calyx to gamosepalous calyx, through indefinite
number of stamens to definite number, and through hypogyny,
perigyny and epigyny.
2. Gamopetalae. Both calyx and corolla present; the
latter gamopetalous; stamens almost always definite and epi-
petalous; carpels usually two but sometimes more, free or
united; ovary inferior or superior. This sub-class is also
called Corolliflorae.
3. Monochlamydeae. Flowers incomplete; either calyx
or corolla absent, or sometimes both the whorls absent;
flowers generally unisexual. It usually includes the families
which do not fall under the above two sub-classes.
According to Bentham and Hooker the monocotyledons
are divided into seven series. A much simpler classification
has been put forward by Vines in England. According to this
author the monocotyledons are divided into three sub-classes,
as follows:
1. Petaloideae. The perianth is :usually petaloid.
2. Spadiciftorae. The inflorescence is a spadix, and IS
enclosed in one or more spathes.
3. Glumiftorae. The flower is enclosed in special brac~s,
called glumes (see p. 76).
Following the above scheme of classification any plant may
be referred to its systematic position. Let us take BANI cotton.
Division Phanerogam
Sub-division Angiosperm
Class Dicotyledon
Sub-class Polypctalae
Series Thalamiflorae
Order Malvales
Family Malvaceae
Genus G08sypium
Species indicum
A plant is always denominated by the generic and specific
name, with the name of the author at the end. Thus BANI
cotton is Gossypium indicum Linn.
 P R INC I P L E S OF C LAS S I FIe A T ION 327,
Differences between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.
Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
1. Embryo with 2 cotyledons with 1 cotyledon
2. Root tap root fibrous roots
3. Venation reticulate parallel
4. Flower mostly pentamerous trimerous
5. Vascular in stems collateral and in stems collateral and
bundles open, in a ring, wedge- closed, scattered, oval in
shaped, not very many; ahape, numerous; in root~
in roots radial, xylem radial, usually many
bundles usually 2 to 6.
6. Secondary present in both stem absent (with but few
growth and root exceptions).
Floral Diagram. The number of parts of a flower, their
general structure, arrangement, aestivation, adhesion, cohesion,
and position with respect to the mother axis may be represen-
ted by a diagram known as the floral diagram. The floral dia-
gram is ~ile ground plan of a flower. In the diagram the
calyx lies outermost, the corolla internal to the calyx, the
androeciu01 in the middle, and the gynoedium in the
centre. Adhesion and cohesion (see p. 95) of members of
•

A B
Floral Diagrams. FIG. 444. A, Papilionaceac; B, Gaesalpinicae;
0, Mimoseae.

floral whorls may also be shown by connecting the respective

parts with lines; as, for example. fig. 444A shows that there
are altogether ten stamens, of which nine are united into oI?-e
bundle (cohesion) and the remaining one is free, while fig.
468 shows that petals and stamens are united (adhesion). The
black dot on the top represents the position of the mother
axis (not the pedicel) which bears the flower. The axis lies
behind the flower and, therefore, the side of the flower nearest
the axis is called the posterior side, and the other side away
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

{porn;the axis, the anterior side. The floral characteristics of

a species may be well represented by a floral diagram, while
to represent a genus or a family more than one diagram may
be necessary.
Floral Formula. The different whorls of a flower, their
number, cohesion, adhesion and their relative position may
be represented by a formula known as the floral formula. In
the floral formula K stands for calyx, C for corolla, P for
perianth, A for androecium, and G for gynoecium. The figure&
following the letters K, C, P, A and G indicate the number of
parts of those whorls. Cohesion of a whorl is shown by en-
dosing the figure within brackets, and adhesion is shown
by a line drawn on the top of the two whorls concerned. In
the case of the gynoecium the position of the ovary is shown
by a line drawn above or bduw G or the figure. If the ovary
is superior the line should be below it, and if it is inferior the
line should be on the top. Thus all the parts of a flower
may be represented in a general way by the floral formula;
the floral characters of a family may also be represented by
one or more formulae, as follows:

Ranunculaceae : K5 C l)AcoQco Solanaceae : K(l) )C( 6)A5~(2)

(}ruciferae : K 2 +2 C4,A 2 +4 <2_ (~) Labiatae: K(5)C(5)A4~(2)

Malvaceae: K(6)C S A(co )g.(5-CO) Liliaceae : P 3+3A3+8~(3)

\

CHAPTER 2 Selected Families of Dicotyledons

Family l-Ranunculaceae (1,200 sP.-IS7 sp. in India)

Habit: mostly perennial herbs or clin:ibing shrubs. Leaves:

simple, often palmately divided, sometimes compound, alter-
nate (rarely opposite), often both radical and cauline, usually
with sheathing base. Inflorescence.: typically cymose (racemose
in larkspur and aconite). Flowers: mostly regular except in
larkspur and aconite, bisexual and hypogynous; sepals and
petals in whorls; stamens and carpels typically spiral on the
elongated thalamus. Calyx: sepals usually S' sometimes more,
·free. Corolla: petals S or more, free, sometimes absent,
 S E LEe TED FA MIL I E S 0 F DIe 0 T Y LED 0 N S 329
often with nectaries, imbricate; perianth leaves (when calyx
and corolla not distinguishable) free and petaloid. Androe-
dum: stamens numerous, free,
spiral. Gynoecium : carpels' •
usually numerous, sometimes ~
;Zf:~
few, free (apocarpous), spiral,
with one or more ovules in
each. Fruit: an ctaerio of
achenes or follicles, rarely a
berry or capsule. Seeds: al- ,.:~e~'.
II,
"i.·'a
<fit
buminous. Floral formula--
KsCsAco Ceo ,
Examples., Useful p I ant s:
monk's hood or aconite (Aco-
'nitum ferox ; H. BIsH)-medici-
~
nal, tuberous roots containing a FIG. 445. Floral diagram of
very poisonous alkaloid, black Ranunculaceae.
cumin . (Nigella sativa; ·R.·

DI
"H

Ranunculaceae. FIG. 446. Ranunculus sceleratus. A, basal portion of the

plant with leaves and roots; fl, upper portion of the same with inflores-
cence; U, a flower; D, flower cut longitudinally; E, a sepal; F, a petal;
G, a stamen; H, a carpel; and I, ~ fruit (achene).
33 0 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
KALA-JIRA)-seeds used as a condiment; ornamental: larkspur
(Delphinium), wind flower (Anemone)-a small tuberous plant
with woolly achenes for wind-dispersal, virgin's bower (Cle-
matis)-a climbing shrub, buttercup (Ranztnculus), etc.;
other common plants: some species of Ranunculus, e.g.
Indian buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus) usually growing on
river- and marsh-banks, water crowfoot (R. aqzlatilis) growing
in water and showing heterophylly, etc., traveller's joy
(Naravelia)-a climbing shrub, etc.
Family 2- Cruciferae (2,000 sP.-I74 sp. in India)
Habit: herbs. Leaves: radical and cauline, sirJ1ple, alternate" --
often lobed. Inflorescence: a raceme. Flowe~: regular and
cruciform, bisexual and complete, hypogynous, Calyx: sepals.
2 + 2, free, in two whorls. Corolla:
• petals 4, free, in one whorl, valvate,.
cruciform, with distiJ1ct limb and
daw. Amlroedum: stamens 6, in
two whorls, 2 outer short and 4 inner
long (tetradynamous). Gynoecium:
carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary supe-
rior; at first I-celled, later 2-ceIIed
owing to the development of a false'
septum, called the replum, with
often many ovules in each cell;
placentation parietal. Fruit: a sili-
FIG. 447_ Floral diagram of qua. Seeds: exalbuminous. Floral'
CTllcifeTa~. f I
ormu a-K2+2G C 4 A 2+4_(2)'

Examples. Useful plants: oils and condiments: mustard

(Brassica campestris; H. SARSON) and B. juncea (H. RAI) , rape
(B. riapus; H. TORlO), white mustard (B. alba), black mustard
(B. nigra), etc.; vegetables: radish (Raphanus sativus), cab-
bage (Brassica oleracea val'. capitata), cauliflower (B. olera-
cea vaL botrytis), turnip (B. rapa) , kohl-rabi or knol-kohl
(B. caulorapa), B. rugosa (H. I:AI) , garden cress (Lepzdium
sativum; H. HALIM) , etc.; ornamental: canciytuft (Iberis;
H. CHANDNI), wallflower (Cheiranthus), etc.; other common
plants: Nasturtium indicum, N. officinale, Eruca sativa,
shepherd's purse (Capsella), etc.
Description of Mustard Plant (Brassica campestris; fig. 448). A culti-
vated winter herb. Leaves: simple, alternate, radical and cauline, lyrate.
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS

Inflorescence: ar~ceme. Flowers: regular, bisexual, hypogynous, cruciform,

and bright yellow in colour. Calyx: sepals 2+2, free, imbricate. Corolla:

Cruci/erae. FIG. 448. Mustard (Brassica campestris) flower. A, a flower

-cruciform; fl, calyx; C, corolla opened out; D, androecium showing
tetradynamous stamens; E, gynoecium dlOwing two carpels uuited; P, ovary
in transection showing parietal placentation and replum; and G, a' fruit-
siliqua. [See also fig. 20].

petals 4, free, cruciform, valvate, with distinct claw and limb. Androecium:
stamens 6, free, 4 inner long and 2 outer short (tetradynamous). Gynoe-
cium: carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary divided into 2 chambers by the
placental replum; placentation parietal. Fruit: a narrow, pod-like siliqua
opening into 2 valves from base upwards. Seeds: many, small, globose and
exalbuminous.

Family 3- Malvaceae~I ,000 sp.

,.---105 sp. in India)

Habit: herbs, shrubs and trees. -

Leaves: simple, alternate and
palmately-veined; stipules 2,
free lateral. Flowers: regular,
polypetalous, bisexual, hypogy-
nous, copiously 'uucilaginous.
Calyx: sepals (5), united, with
- epicalyx (a whorl of brae-
FIG. 449. Floral diagram of
teoles.
) Corolla: petals 5, free; ill aZvaceae.
aestivation twisted. Androe-
dum: stamens co , monadcIphous. i.e. united into one bundle
called staminal column or tube, epipeta19us (staminal tube
.33 2 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

adnate to the petals at the base); anthers unilocular. Gynoe-

cium: carpels (5 to co), usually (5), syncarpous; ovary supe-
rior, multilocular, with I to many oyules in each loculus;
placentation axile; style passes through the staminal -tube;
stigmas free, as many as the carpels. Fruit: a capsule or
sometimes a schizocarp. Floral formula:- -K(5)C 5 A (co)-(5--::o'
G )

L1falvaceae. FIG. 450. China rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) flower. A, an

entire flower; B, the same split open longitudinally showing the four whorls,
more particularly the staminal column with the style passing through it;
C, calyx with epicalyx; D, corolla opened out; E, twisted aestivation of
corolla; F', androecium showing monadelphous stamens; G, one-celled
anthers-young and mature (dehiscing); H, gynoecium showing five carpels
united; and I, 'ovary in transection showing axile placentation.

Examples. Useful plants: Gossypium yields cotton of com-

merce, rozelle (Hibiscus sabdaritfa; H. PATWA) and Deccan
hemp (H. cannabmus; H. AMBARI or NAUTA) are sources of
strong fibres, lady's finger (Hibiscus esculentus)-green fruits
used as a vegetable, mallow (Malva)-green leaves used as a
vegetable, red or silk cotton tree (Bombaxy and white cotton
tree (Eriodendron)2-cotton used for stuffing pillows and
cushions and wood used for making tea chests, match boxes
and match sticks, etc.; ornamental: several species of Hibis-
cus, e.g. shoe-flower or China rose (H. rosa-sinensis; H.
GURHAL), H. mutabilis (H. CULIAJAIB), etc., and hollyhock
(Althaea); !)hade tree: Portia tree (Thespesia); other com-
1 and 2 have now been separated into a new family Bombacaceae.
1
SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS ~3

moo plants: Sida cordifolia (H. BARIARA), Urena lobata (H.

BACHATA), Hibiscus vitifolius (H. BAN-KAPAS), Indian mallow
(Abutilon ind'icum; H. KANGHI), Malachra capitata (H. BAN-
BHINDl), Malvastrum-a weed of waste places.

Description of China Rose Plant (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; fig. 4£0. A

much-branched shrub. Leaves: simple, alternate, palmately 3-veined at the
base, 8-10 cm. long, margin serrate, petiole long. Flowers: solitary and
axillary on a long peduncle articulated to the pedicel, large and showy,
red in colour, regular, bisexual, hypogynous; bracteoles 5 or more in the
form of a whorl known as epicalyx. Calyx: 5-lobed. Corolla: petals 5,
free; aestivation twisted clockwise or anticlockwise. Androecium: stamens
numerous, united into a bundle (monadelphous), epipetalous, adnate to the
petals at the base; anthers free, reniform, 1-lobed. Glynoecium: carpels
(5), connate; style passing through the staminal column; stigmas 5; ovary
5-locular; . placentation axile. Fruit: not formed; in other species of
Hibiscus a loculicidal capsule.

Family 4-Rutaceae (1,200 sp.-66 sp. in India).

Habit: shrubs and trees (rarely herbs). Leaves: simple or com-
pound, a~ternate or rarely opposite, gland-dotted. Flowers:
regular, bisexual and hypogyn6us; disc below the ovary pro-
minent. Calyx: sepals 4 or 5, free or slightly connate.
Corolla: petals 4 or 5, free, imbricate. Aodroecium: stamens
variable in number, generally twice as many as petals or
sometimes as many as petals or numerous in Citrus and

Rutaceae. FIG. 451. Sour lime (Oitrus aurantifolia). A, a leaf; E, a

flower; 0, stamens (polyadelphous); D, pistil (on a disc) and calyx; and
E, section of ovary showing axile placentation.

Aegie, free or united in irregular bundles (polyadelphous).

Gynoecium: carpels generally (4) or (5) or (co ) in Citrus, syn-
carpous, or free at the base and united above, either sessile or
seated on the disc; ovary usually 4- or S-locular; multilocular
 ,34 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

til Citrus, with axile placentation; ovules 2-00 (rarely I) in

each loculus. Fruit: a berry, capsule or hesperidium (see fig.
225). Seeds: with or without endosperm. Floral formllla-
K4_5C4_5As, 10 or 00 ~ (4, 5 or 00 ),

Examples. Useful Plants: Citrus (e.g. lime, lemon, oranrse,

citron, pummelo or shaddock and grape fruit), wood-ap~le
(Aegle marmelos; H. SIRIPHAL), elephant-apple (Limonia aci-
dissima; H. KAITH), Chinese box (Murraya exotica; H. MAR-
cHuLA)--timber useful, curry lear plant (M. koenigii; H. BAR-
SUNGA)-leaves used for flavouring curries, Peganllm harmala
(H. HARMAL)-seeds yield Turkey-red, etc.: other COmmon
plants: Glycosmis arborea (H. BANNIMBU), Clausen a penta-
phylla (H. PANKARPUR), etc.
Common species of Oit1"Us: sour lime (0. aurantijolia) , sweet lime (0.
limetta), lemon (C. limon), citron (C. medica), pummelo or shaddock (C.
grandis), Mandarin orange (C. reticulata; H. SANGTRA), sweet orange
(C. sinensis), grape fruit (C. paradisi) , etc.

Family 5-Legllminosae (12,000 SP'-95 I sp. in India).

Habit: herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers. Roots of many
species, particularly of Papilionaceae, have tubercles (see fig.
322). Leaves: alternate, pinnately compound, rarely simple,
with a swollen leaf-base known as the pulvinus.Flowers:
bisexual and complete, regular or zygomorphic, hypogynous
or slightly perigynous. Calyx.: sepals usually (5), sometimes
(4). Corolla: petals usually 5, with the odd one posterior
(towards the axis), sometimes 4, free or united, Androcium :
stamens usually 10 or numerous, sometimes less than 10, ftee
or united. Gynoecium: carpel I; ovary I-celled, with I to
many ovules; placentation marginal. Fruit: a legume or pod.
This is the second biggest family among the dicotyledons
(being only second to Compo~itae), and from economic stand-
point this is probably the second most important family
(ranking second to Graminaceae), because the pulses which
are rich in proteins belong to it. Besides, the leguminous
plants with root-nodules are natural fertilizers of the soil.
Primarily based on the characters of the corolla and the
androecium Leguminosae has been divided into the following
three sub-families.
(I) Papilionaceae (754 sp. in India). Herbs, shrubs, trees and
climbers. Leaves: unipinnate, rarely simple. InHorescence:
 ·S E LEe TED F A MIL I E S 0 F DIe 0 T Y LED 0 N S 33.5
usually a raceme. Flowers: zygomorphic, polypetalous and
;papilionaceous. Calyx: sepals usually (5), gamosepalous.
Corolla: petals usually S, free, the posterior one largest;
aestivati~m vexillary (see fig. 172). Androecium: stamens ten,
-diadelphous-(9) + I, rarely free or monadelphous, as in coral
tree (Erythrina). Floral /ormula--K(5)C(liJA(9)+,Q,. For floral
diagram see p. 327.

Papilionaceae. FIG. 452. Pea (Pisum sati'vurn). A, a branch; E, a flower-

papilionaceous (see also fig. 172); C, calyx; D, corolla-petals opened out
(a, vexillum; b, wing; c, keel); E, stamens-(9)+1, and pistil; F, pistil-
1 carpel (note the ovary, style and stigma); G, ovary in section showing
marginal placmtation; and Ii, a fruit-legume.

Examples. Useful plants: puls_es (rich in proteins): pea

(Pisum sativum; fig. 452), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), gram
(Cicer arietinum), green gram (Phaseolus .aureus), black gram
(P. mungo), Lathyrus sativus (H. KHESARI), broad bean (Vicia
faba), etc.; vegetables: country bean (Dolichos lablab), sword
bean (Canavalia gladiata), cow pea (Vigna sinensis), French .
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), etc.; natural fertilizers: Sesbania
cannabina, S. sesban, lucerne or alfalfa (Medicago sativa)-
also an excellent fodder, Tephrosia candida, etc. ; timber trees:
Indian redwood (Dalbergia sissoo) and Indian rosewood (D.
lati/olia); ornamental: sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus), lupin
(Lupinus), rattlewort (Crotaiaria sericea), etc.; butterfly pea
(Clitoria ternatea), coral tree (Erythrina indica), etc. ; other use-
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
ful plants: groundnut (Arachis hypogaea; see fig. 353), Indian
hemp (Crotalaria juncea), etc.; other comlllon plants: Indian
telegraph plant (Desmodium gyrans; see fig. 351), in-
digo (Indigofera tinctoria), cowage (Mucuna prurie~s; R.
KAWNACH), etc. (For description of pea flower see p. !O3)'
(2) Caesalpinieae (110 sp. in India). Shrubs and trees, rarely
climbers or herbs. Leaves: unipinnate or bipinnate, rarely.
simple, as in camel's foot tree (Bauhinia). Inftoresce~:
commonly a raceme. Flowers: zygomorphic and polypetalous.
Calyx: sepals usually 5, polysepalous (sometimes gamosepal-
ous). Corolla: petals usually 5, free, imbricate, the upper
smallest one always innermost. Androecimn: stamens ten or
fewer, free. Floral formula-K5C5AloGl' For floral diagram:
see p. 327.

Cae~a(pinieae. lCIG. 453. Dwarf gold mohur (Caesalpinia pulcher-rima). A,

a pmnately _compound leaf; E, a flower; C, calyx; D, corolla-petals dis-
sected out; E,_ aestivation (imbricate); F, stamens; G, pistil (one carpel);,
H, ovary In transection showing marginal placentation; I, a fruit.
Examples. Useful plants: tamarind (Tarnarindus indica)-
fruits widely used for sour preparations, Indian laburnum
(Cassia fistula; H. AMALTAsH)-heartwood very hard and dur~
able, and flowers ornamental, etc.; medicinal: Indian senna
(Cassia angustifolia ; R. SANAKKAPAT), Saraca indica (R. SEETA-
ASOK) , fever nut (Caesalpinia bonduceIla; (R. KAT-KARANGA),
etc.; dye: sappan or Brazil wood (Caesalpinia sappan;
H. BAKAM)-wood yields a valuable red dye extensively used
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS ~l

for dyeing silk and wool, starch coloured with this dye forms
'ABIR' used in 'HOLl' festival, and pods yield a high percentage
of tannin; ornamental: camel's foot tree (Bauhinia purpurea
and B. variegata; H. KACHNAR), gold mohur (Delonix regia;
H. GULMOHR), dwarf gold mohur (Caesalpinia pulcherrima;
H. GULETuRA-fig. 453), etc.; other common plants: Cassia
sophera (H. KASUNDA), C. occidentalis (H. BARA-KASUNDA), ring-
worm shrub (C. alata; H. DAD-MARDAN), C. tora (H. CHAKUNDA).
etc.
Description of Dwarf Gold MOhur Plant (fig. <;153). A much·branched
shrub. Leaves: bipinnately compound, leaflets many. Inflorescence: a.
raceme. Flower: zygomorphic, bisexual and hypogynous. Calyx: sepals 5,
free, odd one outermost. Corolla: petals 5, free, spotted, odd one inner·
most and smallest, imbricate. Androecium: stamens 10, free; filaments
slender and long. Gynoecium: carpel 1; ovary snperior, l·celled and many·
ovuled. Fruit: fiat pod, with many seeds.

(3) lV/imoseae (87 sp. in India). Shrubs and trees, sometimes

herbs or woody climbers. Leaves: commonly bipinnate. In-
floresc~nce : a head or a spike. :Flowers: regular, often small and

Mimoseae. Fro. 454. Gum tree (Acacia araoica). A, a branch with bipin.
nate compound leaves; B, an inflorescence (head); 0, a flower; D, pistil
(one carpel); and E, a fruit (lomentum).

aggregated in spherical heads. CalyX: sepals (5) or (4), gene-

rally gamosepalous, valvale. Corolla: petals (5) or (4), mostly
garnopetalous; aestivation valvate. Androedum: stamens
mostly numerous, sometimes 10, 8 or 4, free, sometimes united
22
 A CLASS"BOOK OF BOTANY

at the base; pollen often united in small masses. Floral

jormula-K(4_s)C(4_5)Aco orfewGl' For floral diagram see p. 327.
Description of Accacia aTaibica (fig. 454). A tree. Leaves: alternate,_liliJin-
nately compound, leafl€ts very small. Stipules modified into spines_
Inflorescence: a globose head. Flowers: regular, bisexual and hypogynous,
yellow in colour. Calyx: sepals (5) or (4), gamosepalous. Corolla: petals
(5) or (4), gamopetalous; aestivation valvate. Androecium: stamens many,
exserted, free or slightly connate at the base; pollen masses 2-4 in each
cell. Gynoecium: carpel 1; ovary 1-celled and many ovuled. Fruit: a pod,
septate,. 10-15 cm. long.
Examples, Useful plants: catechu (Acacia catechu; H. KAITH)
yields a kind of tannin called catechu which is obtained by
boiling chips of heartwood, A. arabica (H. BABUL) and A.
senegal yield gums, many species of AcaCia are sources of
tannin and fuel, Albizzia lebbek (H. SIRlsH)-a timber tree,
A. procera-wood suitable for tea chests, many species of
Albizzia are sources of fuel, rain tree (Enterolobium sam an)
-planted as a shade tree, Parkia-a handsome avenue tree,
etc.; other common plants: sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica;
H. LAJWANTI or CHUIMUI), Pithecolobium dulce (H. DEKANI-
BABUL), nicker been (Entada scan dens ,. H. GILA) and Prosopis
spicigera (H. SHOMI).
Family 6-Rosaceae (2,000 sp.-244 sp. in India)
Habit: herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers. Leaves: simple or compound,
alternate; stipules 2, often adnate to the petiole. Inflorescence: flowers
solitary or in terminal cymes or racemes. Flowers ('see fig. 1910) : regular,
• bisexual, rosaceouil, typically perigynous
with the receptacle hollowed and cup-
shaped, rarely epigynous (as in apple
and pear). Disc often present in the form
of a ring. Calyx: sepals 5, adnate to
the receptacle, lobes free, sometimes with
epicalyx. Corolla: petals 5 (many in
cultivated roses), free, usually imbri-
cate, alternating with the sepals, usually
white or pink. Androecium: stamens
numerous, incurved in the bud, rarely
few. Gynoecium: carpels usually numer-
ous, free (as in rose) or sometimes (5),
united (as in apple and pear) or only 1
(as in plum and peaeh); ovary unilocular
FIG. 455. Floral diagram of
Rosaceae. or 5-locular in syncarpous_ pistil, with
1, 2 or 3 ovules in each loculus;
,ovules anatropous and pendulous. Fruit: varying-drupe, follicle, berry,
achene or pome (see fig. 224). Seeds: exalbuminous. Floral formula-
K505Acc~oo,(5) Or 1.
 S E LEe TED F A MIL I E S 0 F DIe 0 T Y LED 0 N S 3'39
Economically this is an important family. Otto of rose is mostly
obtained from Bosa damascena and B .. centifoZia; there are many fleshy
edible fruits, e.g. plum, peach, prune, apricot, strawberry, apple, pear, etc.,
and several va~s of rose are ornamental garden plants.
Examples. Rose (Bosa) with 150 species, e.g. dog rose (B. invoZucrata)
with five petals, wild rose (B. gigantea), Damask or Bussora rose (B.
damascena and B. centifolia), musk rose (B. moschata), R. indica, B. alba,
etc., loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), plum (Prunus communis), peach (P.
persica), almond (P. amJlfJdalus), strawberry (Fragaria vesca), wild straw-
berry (F. indica), apple.f(11Ialus sylvestris), pear (Pyrus communis and P.
pyrifolia) , silverweed (Potentilla fulgens) , raspberry (Bubus idaeus), wild
raspberry (B. moluccanusl. etc.
Family 7-Cucurbitaceae (800 sp.-84 sp. in India)
Habit: tendril climbers; tendrils simple or branched. Leaves :
simple, alternate, broad and palmately veined. Flowers: regular,
unisexual, epigynous and monoecious or dioecious. Calyx:
sepals (5), united, often deeply 5-10bed. Corolla: petals (5),
united, often deeply 5-10bed, imbricate; inserted on the calyx-
tube.
Male Flgwers: androecium: stamens usually 3, united in a
pair, or 5, united in 2 pairs, the odd one remaining free; the
stamens may ~nite by their whole length or by their anthers
only; each anther 1- or 2-lobed; paired ones 2- or 4-lobed ;
anther-lobes sinUDus, i.e. twisted like S. Floral formula-
K(5)C(5)AS or 5'
Female Flowers: gynoecium : carpels (3), syncarpous; ovary
inferior, unilocular and placentation parietal but often the

• .'
..-....~..-....
FIG. 456.
Floral diagrams
,of Oucurbitaceae.
A, male flower;
B, female flower.

plancentae intrude far into the chamber of the ovary making

the latter falsely trilocular; ovules many; style I ; stigmas 3
which are often forked, Fruit: a pepo. Floral formula-
K(5)C(:;)G{3) •
Plants of this family are mostly used as vegetables, a few
yield delicious summer fruits, and a few are medicinal.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

FIG. 457 FIG. 458

Cucurbitaceae. FIG. 457. Gourd (Cucurbita pepo). Portion of a branch
with a leaf and a tendril. FIG. 458. Male flower of the same. A, one
stamen; B, two stamens united together.
Examples. Vegetables: sweet gourd or musk melon (Cucur-
bita moschata), pumpkin or vegetable marrow (C. pepo), snake
gourd (Trichosanthes anguina), T. dioica (H. PARWAL), bitter
gourds (Momordica charantia; H. KAREU) and M. cochin-
chinensis; H. CRATTRAI), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria),
ash or wax gourd (Benincasa cerifera; H. PETRA), ribbed gourd
(Luffa acutangula), bath sponge or loofah (L. cylindrica), etc.;
fruits: water melon (Cltrullus vulgaris), -melon (Cucumis
mero) and cucumber (C. sativus); medicinal: colocynth
(Citrullus colocynthis; H. INDRAYAN), Coccinia cordifolia (H.
BRIMBA) and Bryonia.
Description of Gourd Plant
(Cucurbita pepo / figs. 457-9). A
large climbing herb, hairy' all
over; tendril opposite leaf, 2- to
4-fid. Leaves: broad, long-petioled,
palmately veined. Flowers: solitary,
large, yellow in colour, regular,
unisexual (monoecious). Calyx:
sepals (5), counate; lobes linear or
leafy. Corolla: petals (5), connate,
.

•
campanulate. In male flowers:
. androecium: stamens 3, united in
a pair, the odd one remaining free;
A
anthers united, one I-celled and
FlO. 459. Female flower of gourd two 2-celled, sinuous. In female
(Cucurbita p,epo). A, ovary in trans-
verse section showing placentation. flowers: gynoecium: carpels (3),
syncarpous; ovary inferior, I-celled;
placentation parietal; ovules many; stigmas 3, each forked. Fruit: a larg~
fleshy pepo. Seeds: many, exalbuminous, compressed.
...
SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS MI
Family 8- UmbelliJeroc (2,700 sP.-I76 sp. in India)
Habit: herbs (rarely shrubs); stem usually fistular. Leaves:
alternate, simple, entire, lobed or much dissected, or some-
times decompound; petiole usually sheathing at the base.
Inflorescence: an umbel, usually compound, sometimes simple,
with an involucre of braps. Flowers: regular (actinomorphic)
or sometimes zygomoqfuic, epigynous, bisexual or poly-
gamous, outer flowers sometimes rayed. Calyx: sepals 5, free,
adnate to the oyary, often considerably reduced in size.
Corolla: petals 5, free adnate to the ovary, sometimes un-
equal, margin often in curved, valvate or imbricate. Androe-
cium: stamens 5, free, alternating with the petals, epigyri-

Vmbelliferae. FIG. 460. Coriander (Ooriand7um). A, a branch with leaf

and compound umbels; B, a lower leaf; 0, a flower; D, a fruit; and E,
a fruit split into two mericarps, and the carpophore.
ous; filaments bent inwards in the bud, anthers introrse.
Gynoecium: carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary inferior, 2-celled,
crowned by a 2-lobed epigynous disc with. two free styles
arising from it; qvules 2, solitary in each cell, pendulous.
Fruit: a cremocarp consisting of two indehiscent carpels
laterally or dorsally compressed, breaking up into two parts,
called mericarps, each attached to a slender, often forked axis
(carpophore); each mericarp usually shows five longitudinal
ridges and oil-canals (vittae) in the furrows. Seeds: 2, solitary
in each carpel, albuminous. Floral formula-KsCsA/1(2\.
34:2 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Examples. Condiments and spices: coriander (Coriandrum

sativum), anise or fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), Carum copti-
cum (H. AJOWAN), caraway (C. curvi; H. SHIAJIRA), cumin
(Cuminum cymmum; H. SAFEDJIRA), dill (Peucedanum
graveolens; H. SOWA), etc.; vegetables: carrot (Daucus
carota), parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), celery (Apium graveolens),

A B c D
Umbelli/erae (contd.). FIG. 461. A, calyx with inferior ovary; E, petals
dissected out; C, stamens dissected out; D, pistil with calyx and 2-lobed
disc.; and E, ovary in longitudinal section.
etc.; medicinal: asafoetida (Ferula foetida)-commercial RING
is obtained from the roots (also used as a condiment), Indian
pennywort (Centella asiatica), Carum copticurn (also used as
a condiment), etc.; other common .plants: wild coriander
(Eryngium foetidum), Centella Totundifolia-a cornman weed
among grasses, etc.
Family 9-Rubiaceae (5,500 sp.-489 sp. in India)
Habit: herbs, shruhs, trees and twiners, sometimes thorny. Leaves:
simple, opposite (decussate) or whorled with interpetiolar (sometimes
intrapetiolar) stipules. Inflorescence: typically ·cymose. Flowers: regular,
bisexual, epigynous. Calyx: sepals usually (4), sometimes (5), gamosepalous.
Corolla: p'etals usually (4), sometimes (5), gamopetalous, generally rotate.
Androecium : stamens as many as petals, inserted on the tube or mouth
of the corolla, epipetalous, alternating with the corolla-lobes. Gynoecium :
carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary inferior, usually 2-locular, with 1- co
ovules in each loculus; disc present, often annular. Fruit: a berry or
drupe or capsule. Floral /ormula-K(4_5) C (4-5) A 4 _ 5 G(2) •
Examples. Useful plants: medicinal: Cinchona yields quinine, ipecac
yields emetine, Paederia foetida (H. GANDHALI), etc.; ornamental: Ixora
coccinea, Gardenia florida (H. GANDHARAJ), AnthocephaZus cadamba (H.
KADAM), Adina cordi/olia (H. KELIKADAM), Mussaenda (see fig. 162), etc.;
dye: madder (RUbia cordi/olia; H. MANJISTHA); beverage: coffee (Coffea
arabica and C. robusta); other common plants: Ooftea bengalensis, Olde1'l-
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS ~3

landia eorymbosa (H. KHETPAPRA), O. diffuSCl, Dentella repens-all growing.

as weeds, Vangueria spinosa (H. MOINA)-a thorny shrub, etc.

Family lO-Compositae (14,100 sp.-674 in India)

Habit: herbs and shrubs. Leaves: simple, alternate or opposite,
rarely compound. lnJIorescence : a head (or capitulum), with an
involucre of bract&. Flowers (florets) are of two kinds-the
central ones (called disc floret.s) are tubular, and the marginal
ones (called ray florets) are ligulate; sometimes all florets are
of one kind, either tubular or ligulate. .
Disc Florets: regular, tu'Dular, bisexual and epigynous, each
usually in the axil of a bracteole. •
Calyx: often modified into pap-
pus, or into scales, or absent.
Corolla: petals {5), gamopetalous,
tubular. An<1toecium: stamens
5, epipetalous, filaments free but
anthers united (syngenesious).
Gynoe~ium.: carpels (2), syncar-
pous, ovary inferior, I-celled,
with one basal ovule; style I;
stigmas 2. Fruit: a cypsela. Flo-
ral formula-
FIG. 462. Floral diagram of
K pappus or °C(5) A(S) G(2)' Compositae (disc floret).

DiSC
FLORET O'ompositae.
FIG. 463.
Sunflower
(H elianthus annuus).
______c__-'"_,r/j Branch with two heads,
disc floret (bisexual) ;
anthers (syngenesious) ;
and ray floret (neuter
or female).
344 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Ray Florets: zygomorphic, ligulate, unisexual (fem!!e) or

sometimes neuter, .as in sunflower, and epigynous, each usually
in the axil of a bracteole. Calyx: as in disc floret. Corolla:
petals (5), gamopetalous, ligulate (strap-shaped). Gynoecium:
as in the disc floret. Fruit: the same. Floral. formula-
K pappus or 0 C(5) A OG(2)'
Examples. Useful plants: ornamental: sunflower (Helianthus
annus), marigold (Tagetes patula), Chrysanthemum, Dahlia,
Zinnia, Cosmos, etc.; vegetables: chicory (H. KASNI), endive,
lettuce (Lactuca sativa), Enhydra fiuctuans (I-I. HARUCH), etc. ;
oils: safflower (Carthamus tinctorius; I-I. KUSAM), etc.; medi-
cinal: Indian wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris; I-I. NAGDUNA),
santonin (A. crna), Eupatorium ayapana, Wedelia calen-
dulacea (I-I. BHANGRA), etc.; insecticides: a few species of
Chrysanthemum (Pyrethrum); other common plants- Tridax
procumbens (fig. 464), Eclipta alba (I-I. SAFED BHANGRA), Eupa-
torium odoratum, Blumea lacera (I-I. KOKRONDA), etc.
Description of Sunflower Plant (HelianthU8 annuus; fig. 463). Sunflower
is an annual garden herb. Leaves: simple, opposite, often the upper ones

Oompositae. FIG. 464. Tridax procumbens. A, a branch with a head;

B, a disc floret with a bracteole; 0, corolla (split open) and epipetalous
stamens; D, syngenesious stamens (split, open); E, a ray floret; F, pistil
and pappus; and G, a fruit (cypsela) with pappus (parachute mechanism).
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS 345
~
.alternate. Inflorescence: head or capitulum (large in some cases), with an
involucre of bracts, usually 3·seriate Flowers: central florets, called disc
florets, are tubular and bisexual, and marginal florets, called ray florets,
are zygomorphic, ligulate and neuter. Disc jlorets~regular, tubular, bi-
sexual and epigynous. Calyx: IJ.lodified into two scales. Corolla: gamopetal-
-ous, 5-lobed. Androecium: stamens 5, epipetalous and syngenesious,
forming a tube around the style. Gynoecium: carpels (2), syncarpous;
ovary inferior, 1-celled, with O:J.C basal ovule; style 1, but stigmas 2.
Fruit: a cypsela. Ray jlorets-zygomorphic, ligulate, neuter or female
and epigynous. Calyx: as in disc florets or absellt. Corolla: ligulate,
5-lobed. Stamens: absent. Gynoecium: as in disc B.orets, but style and
stigmas often absent making the flower neuter.
Family ll-Apocynaceae (1,400 sp.--{)7 in India)
Habit: ~bs: shrubs, trees, twiners and lianes; with latex; bicollateral
,bundles. ---~ves: simple, opposite or •
whorled, rarely alternate. Flowers: regular,
bisexual and hypogynous, in cymes.
Calyx: sepals (5), rarely (4), gamosepalous,
imbricate. Corolla: petals (5), rarely (4),
,g.aJzlDpeiaJDlJ$ hlli$ien. AudFDt'cium: stame_D$
5, rarely 4, epipetalous, included within
the corolla-t~be;· anthers usually connate
around the stigma. Disc present, ring-like
.or glandular. Gynoecium: carpels 2 or (2),
apocarpous or syncarpous; ovary· superior,
1- or 2-locular, with 2-0:> ovules in each.
Fruit: a pair of follicles, or berry or drupe. FIG. 465. Floral diagram
'Seeds: often with a crown of long silky hairs, of Apocynaceae.
,mostly cndospermic. Floral jormula-K(5) 0(5) A5Q2 'lr (2).

B, a
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Examples. Useful plants: medicinal: Rauwolfia serpentina (H. SARP-

GAND), Holarrhcna antidysenterica (H. KARCHI), yellow oleander (Thevet.ia,
peTuviana; H. PILA-KANER)-seeds very poisonous, devil tree (Alstonia,
8cholaria; H. CHATIUM), etc.; fruits: Oarissa carandas (H. KARONDAJ-a.
'thorny shrub; oranmental: periwinkle (Vinca Tasea; H. SADABAHAR-fig.
466B), oleander (Nerium odorum; H. KANER-fig. 466A) , Ervatamia divari-
cata (H. CHANDNI), pagoda or life. tree (Plurneria rubra; H. GOLAINCHI),.
Aganasma caryaphyZZata (H. MALTI), Allmnanda, etc.

Apocynaceae. FIG. 46AB_ Periwinkle (Vinca rosea). A, a branch; B, calyx;.

0, a flower split longitudinally; D, a stamen; E, pistil; 1', ovaries with
disc; G, ovaries with d.isc (of two glands) in section; H, one ovary in
section; and I, a pair oi follicles.

Description of Periwinkle Plant (Vinca rasea; fig. 466B). An erect or

procumbent herb or undershrub containing latex. Leaves: opposite, 4-5·
cm. long, oval or oblong in shape. Flowers: axillary, solitary, white or
rosy, regular, bisexual, hypogynous, rotate with distinct tube and limb.
Calyx: sepals (5), connate. Corolla: petals (5), connate, S-lobed, with
twisted aestivation. Androecium: stamens 5, inserted within the corolla-
tube and adnate to it; filaments very short or absent. Disc of 2 large
glands. Gynoecium: carpels 2, with 2 free ovaries b~t 1 style and 1
stigma, annulated. Fruits of 2 slender, erect follicles.
Family 12-0onvolvulaceae (1,100 sp.-157 sp. in India)
Habit: mostly twiners. Leaves; simple, alternate and exstipulate. Inftores-
cence: cymose. Flowers: regular, bisexual, hypogynous, often large and
showy. Sepals: 5, usually free, imbricate and persistent. Petals: (5), united,
funnel-shaped, twisted in bud, sometimes imbricate. Stamens: 5, epipetalous,
alternating with the petals. Carpels: (2), rarely more, connate; ovary'
superior, with a disc at the base, 2-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell, or
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS M1
sometimes 4·celled with 1 ovule in each cell; placentation axile. Fruit: a.
berry or a capsule. Floral formula-K5 0(5) A5 Q(2r
Examples. Useful plants: vegetables: sweet potato (Batatas edulis; IlL.
SHAKARKAND), and water bindweed (Ipomoea reptans; H. KALMI·SAK);
medicinal: Ipomoea paniculata (H. BHUI'KUMRA), and Indian jalap (Oper-
culina turpetlwm; H. TARBUD); ornamental: morning glory (1. purpurea),
railway creeper (I. palmata), moon flower (1. grandiflora) , Quamoclit pin-
nata (H. KAMLATA), Convolvulus, etc.; other common plants: dodder (CU8'
cuta reflexa; H. AKASH'BEL-see fig. 13). Evolvulu8 alsinoides-a very
common prostrate weed with white flowers in grassy places, etc.

Uonvolvulaceae. FIG. 467.. Railway creeper (Ipomoea palmata). A, a..

branch; E, corolla with epipetalous stamens (opened out); C, pistil; and
D, section of ovary showing axile placentation.

Family 13- Solanaceae (2,000 SP.-58 sp. in India)

Habit: herbs and shrubs. Leaves: simple, sometimes pinnate·
as in tomato, alternate. Flowers: regular, bisexual hypogynous.
Calyx: sepals (5), ~nited, per-
sistent. Corolla: petals (.5), •
united, usually funnel- or cUF-
shaped, valvate or twisted in
bud. Androecium: stamens 5,
lepipetalous, altc;rnating with
the corolla-lobes; anthers appa-
rently connate. Gyuoecium :
carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary
superior; 2-celled or some-
times 4-celled owing to the
development of false septa, FIG. 468. Floral diagram of
Solanaceae.
as in tomato and thorn-apple,
with many ovules in each; placentation axile. Fruit: a berr)':-
or capsule with ID<Jny seeds. Floral formula-K(5) C(5) A5 G (2) •
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

rExamples. Solanum with 1,200 species is the largest genus of

the family. Useful plants: vegetables: potato (Solanum tube-
.rosum), brinjal (S. melongena), tomato (Lycopersicum escu-

"

tHe D

.Solanaceae. FIG. %9. Thorn-apple (Datura fastuosa). A, a leafy bra.nc~

with a flower; B, corolla (opened out) with epipetalou9 ~tamens; C, pIstil
·and persistent calyx; D, pistil; E, section of ovary showmg fo,!-r chambers
(varying from 3 to 5); [1', a young fruit; and G, a mature frUlt (capsule).

Solanaceae. FIG. 470. Black nightshade (Solanum nigr'lJm). A, a branch;

B, a flower; 0, a flower Cllt longitudinally; D, calyx; E, corolla with
·epipetalous stamens; P, pistil; G, ovary in transverse section showing axile
placentation; and H, a fruit (berry).
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS 349,
lentum), etc.'; medicinal: deadly nightshade (Atropa bella-
donna), thorn-apple (Datura fastuosa; fig. 469)-seeds very
poisonous, bittersweet (Solanum dulcamara; H. MITHABISH),
S: xanthocarpum (H. KATITA), S. indzcum (H. BIRHATTA), Witha.
nia somnifera (H. ASGAND), etc.; narcotic: tobacco (Nico-
tiana tabacum)-tobacco of commerce and also a source of
nicotine-an insecticide, and henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)-
narcotic and medicinal; fruits: gooseberry (Physal£s peru-
viana; H. RAsimARI) and tomato; ornamental: Petunia and
queen of the night (Cestrum nocturnum; H. RAT-KI-RANI),
etc.,; other common plants: black nightshade (Solanum
nigrum; H. GURKAMAI-fig. 470), wild gooseberry (Physalis
minima) and wild tobacco (Nicotiana plum baginifo lia).
Family 14-Labiatae (3,000 sP.-391 s!'- in India)

Habit: herbs and' undershrubs, with square stem. Leaves;

simple, opposite or whorled, with oil-glands. Flowers: zygo-
morphic, bilabiate, hypogynous and bisexual. Inflorescence:
vertici'Ilaster (see p. 79), sometimes reduced to true cyme.
Calyx: sepals (S), gamosepalous, unequally s-lobed, persistent.
Corolla: petals (S), g;;tmopetalous, bilabiate, i.e. 2-lipped;
aestivation imbricate. Androecium: stamens 4, didynamous,
sometimes only 2, epipetalous. Gynoecium: carpels (2), syn-
carpous; disc prominent; ovary 4-lobed and 4-celled, with

• •

FIG. 471. Floral diagram

of Laqiatae.

one ovule in each cell; style gynoba~ic, .i.e. develops from the
depressed centre of the lobed ovary; stigma bifid. Fruit: a
group of four nutlets, each with one seed. Floral formula
-K (5) C (5) A4 Q(2)·
350 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
Labiatae abounds in volatile, aromatic oils which are used
m perfumery and also as stimulants .

.~
F

Labiatae. FIG. 472A. Basil (Ocimum bQ~ilicum). A, a branch with inflores·

cences. fl, a flower-bilabiate (note the didynamous, stamens); 0, calyx; D,
corolla split open with epipetalous stamens; E, pistil (note the gynobasic
style); l!', ovary with the disc in longitudinal section; and G, fruit of four
nutlets enclosed in the persistent calyx.

EXllmples. Useful plants: medicinal: sacred basil (Ocimum

san~um; H. TULSI), mint (Jl.lentha viridis; H. PODlNA), pepper-
mint' (1\,1. piperita)-source of peppermint oil and menthol,
thyme (Thymus)-source of thyme oil and thymol, rosemary
(Rosmarinus)-yields oil of rosemary, lavender (Lavandula)-
yields lavender oil, etc. ; ornamental: sage (Salvia; see fig. 202),
Coleus (see fig. 40), marjoram (Origanum)-cultivated for its
scented leaves, etc.; other common plants: basil (Ocimum
basilicum), wild basil (0. canum), Leonurus sibiricus; H.
HALKUSHA-fig. 4pB), Leucas linifolia and L. aspera (H. CHOTA-
HALKUSHA), etc.
Description of Leonurus sibiricus (fig. 472B). An erect annual weed. Stem:
quadrangular. Leaves: simple, opposite·decussate, deeply lobes. Inftores-
 SELECTED FAMILIES OF DICOTYLEDONS ~I

-cence: verticillaster. Flowers: bilabiate, bisexual, hypogynous, reddish;

·bracts subulate. Calyx: sepals (5), connate, 5-toothed, unequal, teeth spines-

Labiatae. FIG. 472B. Leonurus sibiricus. A, a branch with opposite .leaves

and inflorescences; B, a flower (bilabiate); G, calyx; D, stamens-didyna-
mous and epipetalous; E, pistil (note the gynoba~ic styl~ and 4-lobed ovary) ;
and F, fruit of four nutlets enclosed III persIstent calyx.
cent, 5-nerved. Cor.olla: petals (5), connate, 2-lipped, upper lip entire and
lower lip 3-fid. Androecium: ~tamens 4, didynamous; conniving. Gynoe-
cium: carpels (2), syncarpous; ovary 4-lobed; style gynobasic; stigma 2-fid.
Fruit of 4 dry nutlets.

CHAPTER 3 Selected Families of

Monocotyledons
Family l-Liliaceae (2,600 sp.)
Habit: herbs and climbers, rarely shrubs, with bulb or corm
or creeping rootstock. Leaves: simple, radical or cauline or
both. Flowers: regular, bisexual and hypogynous, solitary or
in spike, raceme or panicle. Perianth: petaloid, usually 6 seg-
ments in two whorls, usually free (polyphyllous), sometimes
united (gamophyllous). Androecium: stamens 6, III two
352 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

whorls, rarely 3, hypogynous, free, or united with the perianth

(epiphyllous). Gynoecium: carpels (3), syncarpous; ovary·
superior, 3-celled; ovule usually 00 placentation axile. Fruit: a
berry or capsule. Seeds: albuminous. Floral formula-
P3+3A3+3G(3) or P(3+3)A3+8~(3)'
Example. Useful plants: vegetables: onion (Allium cepa;
fig. 474), garlic (A. sUotivum),
• leek (A. tuberosum), shallot
(A. ascalonicum), etc.; medi-·
cinal: Asparagus racenwsus
(H. SATWAR), sarsaparilla
(Smilax macrophylla; H.
cHOBcHlNI-see fig. 88), In-
dian aloe (Aloe vera; H.
GHlKAVAR), etc.; ornamen-
tal: lily (Lilium), glory lily
(Gloriosa superba; see fig.
I IS)' day lily (Hemerocallis),
FIG. 473. Floral diagram of
Liliaceae. dagger plant or Adam's
needle ~ucca gloriosa; see
fig. 136), Cordy line, etc.; fibre-yieldin~: bowstring hemp (San-
sevieria roxburghiana; H. MARUL), etc.

Liliaceae. FIG. 474. Onion (Allium cepa).

Left, an onion plant; A, an inflorescence;
B, a flower; 0, ovary in transverse section
showing axile placentation; and D, pistil.
 S E LEe TED FA MIL I E S 0 F M 0 N 0 COT Y LED 0 N S 353
Description of Onion Plant (Allium cepa; fig. 474). A cultivated herb
with tunicated bulb. Bulb surrounded by inner fleshy and outer dry scales.
Leaves: radical, cylindrical, hollow, sheathing. Inflorescence: a terminal
umbel au the leafless flowering stem or scape. Bracts 2, sometimes 3, memo
branous, enclosing the young umbel. Flowers: small, white, regular, bisexual,
hypogynous, sometimes replaced by bulbils. Perianth: of 6 lobes, connate;}
below, campanulate. Androecium' stamens 6, free; filaments narrow or
dilated at the base. Gynoecium: carpels (3), syncarpous; ovary 3-10bed
and 3-celled; style short, filiform; stigma minute; ovules usually 2 in each
cell. Frnit a. membraneous ca]3sule.

Family 2- Amaryllidaceae (950 sp.)

It has the same general characters as Liliaceae, but it
differs from the latter in its ovary being inferior.
Examples. Easter lily (AmarylliS), pin-cushi~n lily (Haeman-
thus), spider lily (Pancratium; fig. 475), zephyr lily (Zephy-
ranthes), eucharis lily (Eucharis), Crinum asiaticum, C. lati~
folium, American aloe or century plant (Agave americana).
tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), daffodil (NarciSSUS), etc .

.• 111

Amaryllidaceae. FIG. 475. Spider lily (Pancratium). A, inflorescence;

and B, ovary in transverse section showing axile <placentation.
Family 3-Palmaceae (1,500 sp.)
Habit: shrubs or trees, except cane (Oalamus) which is a climber.
Stem: erect, unbranched and <woody, rarely branched. Leaves: usually
forming a crown, plaited in bud, sometimes very large, either palmately
cut or divided (fan palms) or pinnately cut or divided (feather palms);
petiole often with sheathing base. Flowers: sessile, often produced iJi
immense numbers, regular; hypogynoUs, unisexual or bisexual, in simple
 A CLASS~BOOK OF BOTANY
354
or compound spadix enclosed in one or more sheathing spathes; either
monoecious or dioecious. Perianth in two series, 3+3, the outer persistent
in the female flower. Androecium: stamens usually in two series, 3+3;
filaments free or connate; anthers versatile, 2-celled. Gynoecium:
carpels (3) or 3, syncarpous or apocarpou5; ovary superior, 1- or 3-10cular,
with 1 or 3 ovules. Fruit: a drupe or berry. Seed: albuminous. Floral
formula-male flower: P.+.A 3+.G., and jemrile flower: P3+3 A• G (S) or 3'
Economically it is one of the most important families. Many palms
such as the palmyra-palm, toddy-palm, date-palm, coconut-palm, etc., are
tapped for toddy (fermented country liquor) or for sweet juice from which
jaggery or sugar is made, and they also (except the toddy-palm) yield edible
fruit. Coir fibres of coconut-palms are used for making mats, mattresses
,and brushes, and also for stuffing cushions. Leaves of many palms are
-;woven into mats, hats and baskets and also used for thatching. Some
;Plllms yield oil, e.g. coconut-palm, oil-palm, etc. Sago-palms yield sago,
which is obtained by crushing the pith. Betel-nut is used for chewing
with betel leaf. Cane is used for making chairs, sofas, tables and baskets
:and also for a_variety of other purposes, Many palms are ornamental.
Examples. Fan-palms: palmyra-palm (Borassus jiabelliJer); talipot-palm
(Uorypha umbraculijera) bears a huge inflorescence once only after about
150 years and then dies; oil-palm (Elaeis quinensis), Hyphaene shows
,dichotomous branching; double coconut-palm (Lodoicea s€chellarum) , a
native of the Seychelles Islands, bears the largest seed and fruit (see fig.
238), etc. Feather-paJIris: Indian sago-palm or toddy-palm (Caryota urens),
coconut-palm (Cocos nucijera), date-palm (Phoenix sylvestris), betel-nut-palm
(Areca catechu), sago-palm (Metroxylon rumphii), cane (Calarmu8), etc.

Family 4-Graminaceae
Habit: herbs, rarely woods, as bamboos. Stem: cylindrical with
.distinct nodes and internodes (sometimes hollow). Leaves:
simple, alternate, distichous, with sheathing leaf-base which is
split open on _ one side opposite to the leaf-blade; a hairy
structure called the ligule is present at the base of the le.af~
blade. Inflorescence: usually a spike or panicle of spikelets (see
fig. 141) ; each spikelet consists of one or few flowers, and bears
at the base two empty glumes, a little higher up a flowering
glume called lemma, and opposite to the lemma a somewhat
smaller glume known as the palea (s,ee fig. 4760). The flower
remains enclosed by the lemma and the pal ea. Flowers: usually
bisexual, sometimes unisexual and monoecious. Perianth:
;represented by two minute scales called the Iodicules. Androe-
dum: stamens 3, sometimes 6, as in rice and bamboo; anthers
versatile and pendulous. Gynoecium: carpel 1; ovary sup~
riol', l-celled, with I ovule; stigmas 2, feathery. Fruit: caryop-
,sis. Seed: albuminous Floral formula Pjodicules (2) As or 6 G j •
From an economic standpoint Graminaceae is regarded as
 S E LEe TED F A MIL I E S 0 F M 0 N 0 COT Y LED 0 N S 355
the most important family, as cereals and millets, which con~
stitute the chief food of mankind, belong to this family.
Most of the fodder crops which are equally important to
domestic animals also belong to this family. The importance
of bamboo, thatch grass and reed as building materials, and of
sugarcane as a source o£ sugar and jaggery is well known. The
importance of sabai grass and bamboo as a source of paper
pulp cannot be over-emphasized.
Examples. Useful plants: cereals such as rice (Oryza sativa;
fig. 476), wheat (Triticum sativum), maize or Indian corn
(Zea mays; fig. 477), barley (Hordeum vulgare), etc., millets
such as Sorghum vulgare (R. JUAR), Pennisetum typhoides (R.
BAJRA), Eleusine coracana (R. MARUA), etc.; sugarcane (Saccha-
rum officinarum), thatch -grass (S. spontaneum), bamboo
(Bambusa), reed (Phragmites), lemon grass (Cympopogon),
saboi gass (Ischaemum), etc.; other common plants: various
grasses such as dog grass (Cynodon dactylon; R. DOOB), love
thorn (Chr~sopogon aciculatus), Imperata. Panicum, etc.

D
Gramir:aceae. FIG. 476. Rice (Oryza sativa). A, portion of a branch with
.sheathmg leaves and ligules; E, a panicle of spikelets; C, I-flowered spikelet
{note the glumes and stam€lls); D, spikelet dissected out-G I, first empty
glume; G II, second empty gume; PG, flowering glume; P, palea; L,
lodicules; S S, stamens; and G, gynoecium.
I(b) Description of Maize Plant (Zea mays/ fig. 477). This is a tall,
lltout, annual grass cultivated during th3 rainy season. The plant is
monoecious, bearing male and female spikelets in separate inflorescences.
Roots are adventitious in nature, developing from the lower nodes; while
the stem is solid and p~ovided with distinct nodes and internodes.
Leaves are long, broad and flat, with a distinct sheathing base enclosing
the stem; they are simple, alternate and distichous; a lignle is present
at the base of the leaf-blade. Inflorescence] aloe of two kinds: male
..
 A CLASS~BOOK OF BOTANY

spikelats in a terminal panicle, while femalo spikelets in axillary spadices

borne lower down, each enclosed by a number of spathes.
Male Spikelets occur in pairs- one sessile and the other stalked; each
spikEllet is 2-ffowered. Glumes I and II distinctly nerved and empty;
glume III (flowering glume) and glume IV (palea), which are hyaline,
enclose a flower. Perianth is represented by two small fleshy cup-shaped
lodicules. Androecium: stamens 3; anthers linear and pendulous.
Female Spilcelets are densely crowded in several vertical rows on the
fleshy rachis and afe ses~ile. Each spikelet with a lower barren (extremely
reduced) floret and an upper fertile (normal) one. Glume!! I and II
membranous, broad and empty; glume III (flowering glume) and glume
IV (palea) hyaline and enclose a flower. Lodicules absent or very feebly
developed. Gynoecium : carpel 1; ovary obliquely ovoid and plano-convex;
style 1 (really 2 fused into 1), very long and hi-fid at the tip; styles and
stigmas papillose and hang out in a tuft from the top of the spadix_
Fruit or maize grain is a caryopsis. It is albuminous with distinct
scutellum (see fig_ 26B)_ Flowers are' anemophiloUB, i.e. pollination is
brought about by wind (see fig. 2(3) and after fertilization the female
spadix develops into the maize cob.

Graminaceae. FIG. 477. Maize or Indian corn (Zea mays). A, adveutitious

roots; B, female.spadix in the axil of a leaf; 0, female spikelet; D, ripe
cob; E, a panicle of male spikelets; F, two pairs of male spikelets; and
G, a male spikelet diSi!ected out-G I, first empty glume; G II, second
empty glume; pI, palea of the lower flower; FG, flowering glume; P, palea
of the upper flower; L, lodicules; and S, three stamens of the upper flower.
 PART VIII EVOLUTION AND
GENETICS

CHAPTER.I Organic Evolution

Evolution means the descent of a new form of plant or
animal from the pre-existing one. Biologists have been
finally led to believe in the doctrine of evolution by the epoch-
making deductions of Charles Darwin in 1859, as opposed
to that of creation believed earlier particularly by the theo-
sophists. It is now universally accepted that all higher and
more complex forms of life-plants and animals-have evolved
from lower and simpler forms. Even the minute organisms
~ike bacteria are not newly formed, as proved by Louis Pas-
teur, a French scientist and founder of the science of Bacterio-
~ogy, in th.e year 1864. Once life came into existence it has
become continuous, progressing and changing through suc-
cessive generations and finally giving rise to the present forms
of plants and animals through many millions of years. Evolu~
tion is proceeding even now. .
Life originated in water (in the sea) and· it is generally
thought that the first organisms were some forms of aquatic
Ibacteria. They could manufacture organic substances from
inorganic materials. The next phase in evolution was possibly
the appearance of blue-green algae. Primitive unicellular
animals might have orig'tbated at this stage, and they formed
another line of evolution. Later, with the appearance of green
algae which could utilize sunlighf as a source of energy the
trend of evolution leading to higher plants became estab-
lished. Life remained confined to water for many millions
of years, later it invaded land and became more and more
complex.
Evidence of Organic Evolution
1. Geological Evidence. The remains of ancient plants
and animals preserved in rocks are called fossils. Rocks formed
in successive layers in different geological ages and periods
of the earth have been found to bear fossils of particular
types of plants and animals (others being non-existent then).
From fossils we thus know about the life of the past, and
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

therefore, the history of the appearance of. new species and

the disappearance of old species in successive stages, and their
habit and habitat. Thus, based on fossil records it has been
possible to trace the gradual changes in the types of plants
and animals through the successive periods of the earth. It can
be asserted, therefore, that fossils bear sound evidence regard-
ing the trend of evolution from the simpler. to the more
complex forms. Fossils are, therefore, of special interest and
importance in this respect. Fossils, however, show wide gaps
in the evolutionary history of plants and animals.
z. Taxonomic Evidence. According to resemblances and
differences we classify plants and animals into certain weIl-
marked groups, the members of each group resembling one
another more closely. It is difficult to conceive of the similarities
in forms without having recourse to evolution. Besides, it is
seen that between two or more species of a particular genus
there are intermediate forms linking such species (intergrading
species). If species were constant the occurrence of such forms
could not be accounted for.
3. Morphological and Anatomical Evidence. Similarities
in morphological and anatomical characters among certain
group$ of plants, and among certain groups of animals, are
very characteristic from the standpoint of evolution. The
development of different organs, tissues, advance of sporo-
phyte, reduction of gametophyte, stele. vascular tissue, etc.,
among plants, and similarly the development of different
organs and tissues, nerves, bones, brain, etc., among animals,
all in successive stages, show evolutionary tendencies among
plants and animals, and lend support to the theory of evo-
lution.
4. Embryological Evidence. The study of the nature and
development of the embryo shows a great resemblance among
certain groups of plants and of animals. For example, the
embryos of dicotyledons (in general) look alike; those of
mammals also look alike. Similar is the case with other groups
of plants and animals. The striking resemblance in structure
and development of the embryos in them can only be explained
on the basis of evolution, i.e. descent of forms from a common
ancestry. Besides, in all cases one fact at least is common,
i.c. the embryo develops from the egg-cell or ovum. Some-
 ORGANIC EVOLUTION 359
times some organs of plants or animals show a striking
resemblance to certain forms from which they have possibly
been derived. Thus when a fern spore germinates it resem-
bles a filamentous alga; it then assumes a thalloid form
resembling a liverwort; and finally it grows into a fern plant.
Seedlings sometimes show their resemblance to plants which
:may be their ancestors. Thus the seedling of the Australian
Acacia shows a bipinnate compound leaf like other species of
Acacia, although the adult Australian Acacia has only the
'Winged petiole or rachis (phyllode) without the compound leaf.
Likewise the frog passes through a tadpole stage resembling a.
fish which is supposed to be its ancestor.
5. Evidence from Geographical Distribntion. It has been
seen that many allied species of plants in their wild state
remain confined to a particular area. The explanation is that
they sprang up from a common ancestor in that region and
could not migrate owing to some barriers such as high moun-
tains, seas and deserts. Thus we find that double coconut-
palm (Lo'dOicl!a) originated in Seychelles, the traveller's tree
(Ravenala) in Madagascar, Eucalyptus in Australia, cacti in
the dry regions of tropical America, cactus-like spurges
(Euphorbia) in the deserts of Africa, etc., often with allied
species close together, showing thereby that all the allied'
species have evolved from the same ancestral species.
Mechanism of Organic Evolution
Variation. Variation is the rule in nature. No two forms,
belonging even to the__same species, are exactly alike. The
differences between them are spoken of as variations. Varia-
tions are the basis on which evolution works. Variations may
take place in different organs of plants and animals and may
be continued or discontinued in subs,equent generations.
According to Darwin, a slow but continuous variation from
generation to generation is the basis of organic evolution. In
this type of variation a continuity or gradation is maintained
between the individuals of the species. Discontinuous variation
or mutation, on the other hand, means sudden and sharp varia-
tion shown by one or more individuals of a species in any
one generation. The individuals show no gradations, as
in the previous case. This is De Vries' view. As mutation
occurs suddenly and spontaneously there is no knowing when
a new form will appear by this process.
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

Heredity. Heredity means transmission of characteristics

and qualities of parent forms to their offspring. This is
evident from the fact that a particular species of plant on
reproduction gives rise to the same species and to no other.
Although no two forms are exactly alike, still offspring bear the
dosest resemblance to their ancestral forms, and they also
resemble one another most closely with, of course, individual
differences. Heredity tends to keep the individuals of a species
within specific limits, while variation tends to separate them.
Variation no doubt is responsible for evolution, while heredity
is a check on uncontrolled variation.
Chromosome Mechanism in Heredity. The question arises: What is the
physical basis of heredity, or in other words, the mechanism of inheri-
tance of parental characters by the offspring? About the year 1884
it became known, primarily due to the work of Strasburger, that
the male gamete of the pollen-tube l'nd the egg-cell' of the embryo-sac
;tTe directly involved in fertilization and reproduction. About the same
year Strasburger and Hertwig revealed' the fact that it is through the
chromosomes of the two gametes (i.e. reproductive nuclei) that the
characters of the parent forms J1lass to the next generation and so on to
the successive generations. The conception of transmission of characters
throngh the media of chromosomes is spoken of as chromosome mechrmism
oj heredity. It is obvious that any particular character of the. parent
(e.g. colour of flower) cannot be found in the chromosome; but it may
be safely assumed that something representing that particular character
must be present in it. That 'something', obscure though it is, is called
the jador or determiner or gene for that particular character. The
theory of genes in the chromosomes was first introduced by Morgan in
1926. According to the theory of Morgan and his colleagues the
chromosomes are the bearers of hereditary characters, and the genes
Iocated in them are responsible for all the characteristics of the parent
forms and their transmission to the offspring generation after generation·.
Genes are nltra-microscopic particles occurring in pairs (one paternal
and one maternal) in linear series in the chromosomes. The behaviour
of genes in transmission of characters is, however, very complicated.
Another important fact to be noted in this connexion is that all gametes
-itlways have haPloid (or n) chromosomes and when they fuse in the
proceRS of fertilization the diploid (or 2n) number is restored in the
:zygote-n+n=2n.
Theories of Organic Evolution
Lamarck's Theory: Inheritance of Acquired Characters. A
theory to explain the cause of evolution was put forward by
the French biologist Lamarck in 1809. His theory resolves
itself into three factors, viz. (a) influence of the environment,
(b) use and disuse of parts, and (c) inheritance of acquired
characters. Lamarck held the view that environment plays

.~
 ORGANIC EVOLUTION

the principal part in the evolution of living organisms. He

noted many instances of plants where individuals of the same
species grown under different environmental conditions showed
marked differences between them. From such observations
Lamarck held the view that plants react to external conditions,
and that as a result of cumulative effects produced by the
<:hanged conditions through successive generations new species
make their appearance. In the case of animals the changes
are brought about by the use and disuse of parts. The use
or exercise of certain parts results in the development of those
parts; while disuse or want of exercise results in the degenera-
tion of the parts. He believed that new characters, however
minute, acquired in each generation are preserved and trans-
mitted to the offspring (inheritance of acquired characters).
The classic example cited in this connection is that of the
giraffe. Lamarck's view was that horse-like ancestors of these
animals living in the arid region in the interior of Africa had
to feed on the leaves of trees. They had necessarily to stretch
their limbs to reach up to the leaves. This use or exercise
resulted in the lengthening of the neck and the front legs,
and thus a new type of animal made its appearance from a
horse-like ancesor. His theory is open to certain objections:
one objection is that adaptati®s due to the influence of the
environment are very slight and superficial; another objection
is that the inheritance of
acquired characters has not
yet been proved. In fact if
seeds are taken back...!o the
original habitat even after
many years the plants return
to their original form.
Lamarck was a self-taught man.
Re worked hard throughout his
life but always remained poor.
.After his father's death Lamarck
joined the French army in the
Seven Years' War with the
Germans. While at Toulon during
the war he developed a taste for
the study of flowers. After the
war he joined a bank in Paris.
N ow he seriously took to his FIG. 478. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
favourite study of flowers and soon (1744-1829), French biologist and
propounder of the first theory of
wrote a French Flora. He left the evolution in 1809.

)
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

bank in pursuit of his study, and travelled in Holland, Germany and:

Hungary. On his return to Paris he became known as a famous botanist.
He used to write on a variety of science subjects, sometimes erratically,
and contributed several articles to the French Encyclopaedias, then in:
preparation. After the French revolution (1789), when science was
officially recognized, Lamarck was appointed Professor of Zoology at the
Museum of Natural History in 1794 at the age of 50 although he knew
aimost nothing of the subject, However, he seriously and assiduously,
took to the classification of the Invertebrates. Soon he became a.
full-fledged biologist. It was Lamarck who first held the view that a
species was not constant but changed under the influence of environment,
and gave rise to new species. Thus he propounded the first theory of
evolution by inheritance of acquired characters in 1809. Between 1816
and 1822 Lamarck wrote his important work Natural History of In.vertebrate,
Animals in seven volumes. Owing to heavy ,strain on his eyes he became
quite blind for the last ten years of his life. The last two volumes of
his work were written out for him by one of his daughters.

Darwin's Theory: Natural Selection. The next theory to>

solve the problem of evolution was put forward in 1859 by
Charles Darwin and published in his Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection. His theory based on a mass of
accurate observations, intensive and extensive studies and: ,
prolonged experiments for over 20 years led the whole·
scientific world to believe in the doctrine of evolution. His;
theory, called the theory of natural selection, is based on three
important factors: (a) over-production of offspring and a conse-
quent struggle for existence, (b) variations and their inheri-
tance, and (c) elimination of unfavourable variations (survival
of the fittest). ,', \' '
Struggle for Existence. If all the seeds of any particular' .
plant were to germinate and all seedlings to grow up into full"
sized plants, a very wide area would soon be covered by them
in course of a few years. If other plants (and also animals)
were to increase at this rate, a keen competition, called the
struggle for existence, would be set up at once among them
because supply of food, water and space would fall far short
of the demand. A struggle would soon ensue, resulting in
the destruction of huge numbers of individuals.
Variations and their Inheritarlce. It is known to all that
no two individuals, even coming out of the same parent stalk,
are exactly alike. There are always some variations, however
minute they may be, from one individual to another. Somet
variations are suited to the conditions of the environment,
while others are not. According to Darwin these minute
 ORGANIC EVOLUTION

variations are preserved and transmitted to the offspring, al~

though no cause for these variations was assigned by him.
Survival of the Fittest. Ill' the struggle for existence the indi~
viduals showing variations in the right direction survive, and
these variations are transmitted to the offspring; others with
unfavourable variations perish. This is what is called by him
, survival of the fittest '. The survivors gradually and steadily
change from one generation to another, and ultimately give
rise to new forms. These new forms are better adapted to the
surrounding conditions.
Natural Selectwn. Darwin's observations on the variations
of domestic animals and cultivated plants served him as a clue
to the elucidation of his theory of natural selection. His expla~
nation of natural selection is this: animals and plants are
multiplying at an enormous rate. As we know, no two indivi-
duals are exactly alike, the new forms naturally show certain
variations. Some variations are favourable or advantageous
so far a& their adaptation to the conditions of the environment
is concerned: and others are not so. Owing to an excessive
number crowding together a keen struggle for existence ensues.
And in this struggle those that have favourable variations and
are, therefore, hetter fitted naturally, survive; the rest
perish. Through thi(> survival of the fittest the species change
steadily owing to preservation and transmission of minute
variations, and gradually give rise to newer forms. Darwin
called this process 'natural selection' from analogy to artificial
selection. ~,t is the environment that selects and preserves the
better types and des'rroys the unsuitable forms. Although
Darwin receives the fullest credit for bringing about the final
acceptance of the doctrine of evolution, his theory is open to
certain doubts.
Darwin as a mere boy used to take special delight in collecting birds' eggs,
insects and rocks and studying habits of birds, He was rather dull in his
academic study at school. He was sent to Cambridge to becom~ a.
minister of religion before entering a church. But during his three years'
stay there he used to mix with the Cambridge naturalists. He became
a keen beetle-hunter and captured many new species. Now came a definite
turning point in Darwin's whole life. He was entertained as a naturalist
on board the Admiralty vessel, II.M.S. Beagle, which sailed from the
shores ~f England on a long five-year voyage of survey (1831-36) in the South
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This voyage was of immense value to Darwin'
and to the whole world. His extensive collections of animals (including tiny
sea-animals) and strauge plants, corals and fossils, and his observations
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

'()fl ,strange desert plants, rich tropical forests, different kinds of birds,
huge tortoises, large lizards, etc., at St Jago Island, Brazil, certain parts
<If South America, New Zealand and Australia, opened a new avenue
of study for Darwin. The
Beagle returned to England
late in 1836 via the Cape of
Good Hope, with Darwin's
shipload of specimens. Dar-
win now settled down to write
a long scientific report in five
volumes which took him about
twenty years to complete. His
intensive work for this pro-
longed period, his keen obser-
vations on domestic animals
and cultivated plants, his
wide study of all connected
scientific papers published till
then, and his clear thinking
finally led him to formulate
the theory of evolution. But
unfortunately for Darwin, while
FIG. 479. Charles Darwin (1809-1882), he was giving final and con-
famous English biologist and founder of crete shape to his ideas of
the theory of evolution in 1859. evolution by natural selection
be received an essay from a young naturalist, rather an explorer, Alfred
Russell Wallace (1823-1913) working independently far away in the Malay
Archipelago. Darwin was struck by the ideas expressed in that essay, which
tallied almost word for WOld with his own. 'Vithout ei~her claiming priority
a joint paper was published on the above subject in 1858 under
both their names. Wallace, however, recognized Darwin's superiority as
.a naturalist and yielded leadership to him. The following year,
1859, Darwin published his epoch-making book Origin of Species-the
fruit of many years' of hard labour and study. The book caused a
tremendous stir all over the world. It, however, met with bitter attack
from a large section of the people for his daring act against God and
religion. But his theory survived, and Darwin came to be recognized as the
founder of the theory of evolution.

De Vries' Theory: Mutation. Another theory to explain the

cause of evolution was advanced by the Dutch botanist Hugo
De Vries in I90I-3. He held that small variations, which
Darwin regarded as most important from the standpoint of
evolution, are only fluctuations around the specific type. These
variations are not inheritable. De Vries held that large varia-
tions appearing suddenly and spontaneously in the offspring
in one generation are the cause of evolution. These variations
De Vries called 'mutations', He observed an evening prim-
rose (Oenothera lamarckiana), introduced from America, grow-
 QRGANIC EVOLUTION

ing in a field in Holland. Among numerous plants he found

two types quite distinct from the rest. These new types had not
been described before, and having bred true he. regarded them
as distinct species. Oenothera lamarckiana and the new species
were removed to his garden at Amsterdam, and cultivated
through many generations. It was found that among thou-
sands of seedlings raised a few appeared that were different
from the rest. These when raised, generation after generation,.
always came true to type. These new forms are known as
mutants. He concluded that his mutation theory explained the
cause of evolution. While De Vries agreed with Darwin's
view regarding natural selection weeding out unsuitable forms~
he held the view that new species are not formed, as Darwin
said, by the slow process of continuous variations.
De Vries was educated at Leyden, Heidelberg and Wurzburg. Later ·h&
became a professor (1877·1918) at the University of Amsterdam. Once whi~
on a field trip he was struck by
the appearance of some new forms
growing. among a mass of evening
primrose (Oenotnera). This attract-
ed him to the study of botany
and €volution. His experimental
methods of work, specially on
Oenothera, led him to the
rediscovery in 1900 of Mendel's
laws of heredity, and to the
€lucidation of the theory or'
evolution by sudden and discon-
tinuous variations which he call-
ed mutatiops. His mutation
theory (1901-3), as distl!Tct from·
Darwin's slow and continuous
. variations by natural selection,
explains the cause of evolution,
and is regarded as the greatest
contribution to the history of FIG. 480. Hugo De Vries (1848-1935),
evolution. He also went to Dutch botanist and founder of th~
America to study Oenothera in its mutation theory of evolution in
1901-3.
natural habitat. Plant Breeding
(1907) is another of his best known works. After his retirement from
the University he established an experimental garden at Hiversum and
continued his experimental work in producing new forms through many
generations of cultures.
·~66 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

CHAPTER 2 Genetics
Genetics is the modern experimental study of the laws of
inheritance (variation and heredity). The first scientific study
on genetics was carried out by Gregor Mendel. He entered a
. monastery in Brunn, Austria, where he carried on his scientific
investigations on hybridization of plants. The results of his
eight years' breeding experiments were read before the Natural
History Society of Burnn in [865, and the following year
were published in the transactions of that Society. But
his work remained unnoticed until [900, when three distin-
guished botanists, Hugo De Vries in Holland, Tschermak in
Austria and Correns in Germany, discovered its significance.
Since then Mendel's work has formed the basis of the study
of genetics. Mendel died in [884 before he could see his work
accepted and appreciated.
Mendel's Experiments. Mendel selected for his work the
common garden pea. In the pea he found a number of contrast-
ing characters-flowers purple, red or white; plants tall or
awarf; and seeds yellow or green, smooth or wrinkled. He
concentrated his attention on only one pair of characters at
a time, and traced them carefully t!)fough many succes-
sive generations. In one series of experiments he selected
tallness and dwarfness of plants. The results he achieved in
these experiments were the same in all cases. It did not matter
whether he took the dwarf plant as the male and the tall
plant as the female, or vice versa.
Monohybrid Cross. For monohybrid cross only one pair
of contrasting characters is taken into consideration at a time.
Mendel selected a pea plant, 2 metres in height, and another,
0.5 metres in height. He brought about artificial crossings
between the two. The progeny that resulted from these
crossings were all tall. This generation, known as the first
filial generation or Fl generation, was inbred. Seeds were
collected and sown next year. They gave rise to a mixed
generation of taIls and dwarfs (but no intermediate) in the
ratio of 3 : I, i.e. three-fourths talls and one-fourth dwarfs.
This generation is known as the second filial generation or F 2
generation. All dwarfs in subsequent generations bred true,
producing dwarfs only. Seeds were collected separately from
each tall plant and sown separately, '~ It was seen that one-
 GENETICS

.third of the taIls bred true to type, while the other two-thirds
.again split up in the same ratio of 3 : I. The F 2 ratio is,
therefore, I : 2 : I, i.e. one-fourth pure talls, half mixed taIls,
.and one-fourth pure whites.
The above scheme of inheritance may be represented as
follows. Here T represents the factor for tallness, and t the
factor for dwarfness.

MENDEL'S MONOHYBRID RATIO

<~
Parents TT tt • , ,

.j. ~
Parental gametes T X t
.j- "
F 1 generation Tt
(hybrit!_) I
i- .} .j. i-
F, gametes T (male) t T (female) t
X -
I
.j, .j, .j- .j,
F2 generation TT Tt Tt tt
I I I
Fs generation
.j.
TT
.j,
TT
.j. t
T't Tt tt
oj.
TT Tt T't tt tt
.j, .j. 1
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. From the results of his
experiments on carefully selected crossings Mendel formulated
certain laws to explain the inheritance of characters, as
follows.
I. Law of Unit Characters. This means that all characters
·of the plant are units by themselves, being independent of
Qne an-other. so far as their inheritance is concerned. There
'-
are certain factors or determiners (now called genes) of unit
characters, which control the t:_xpression of these characters
during the development of the plants.
2. Law of Dominance. The characters, as stated above, are
controlled by factors or genes. These occur in pairs (arranged
in a linear fashion in the chromosome, as now known) and
are responsible for tallness and dwarfness separately. One
, factor may mask the' expression of the other. Thus in the F 1
generation all the individuals are tall, the other character
remaining suppressed. The character that expresses itself in
the Fl generation is said to be dominant, and the character
that does not 'appear in the F 1 generation is said to be recessive.
The factor for the recessive character is, however,- always
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

present in the Fl individuals. In the above experiment tall-

ness is the dominant character and the suppressed dwarfnes&
is the recessive character. The contrasting pairs of character&
are called allelomorphs. Thus tallness and dwarfness are
allelomorphs.
3. Law of Segregation. The factors for the contrasting
characters remain associated in pairs in the somatic cells of
each plant throughout its whole life. Later in its life-history
when spores (and subsequently gametes) are formed as a result
of reduction division, the factors located in homologous chro-
mosomes become separated out, and each of the four spores
(and gametes) will have only one factor (tailness or dwarf-
ness) of the pair but not both, i.e. a gamete becomes pure
for a particular character. This law is also otherwise called
the law of purity of gametes.
Mendel also experimented on other pairs of alternative
characters, and he found that in every case the characters
followed the same scheme of inheritance. Thus in the garden
pea he discovered that coloured flower was wominant over
white flower; yellow seed over green seed; and smooth seed
over wrinkled seed.
Dihybrid Cross. For the dihybrid cross two pairs of con-
trasting characters are taken into consideration at a time.
Mendel selected a tall plant with red flowers and a dwarf
one with white flowers. Four. unit characters are, therefore.
concerned in the dihybrid ratio. Factors for tallness or dwarf-
ness and red flowers or white are independently inherited.
and may be considered to be located in separate chromosome
pairs. Artificial crossing was brought about between these
two plants. In the F 1 generation all individuals were tall with
red flowers; for tallness is dominant over dwarfness, and
coloured flowers dominant over white. When the seeds from
the F 1 generation were grown, a segregation of characters
showing all possible combinations, took place in the following
proportions: 9 red talIs, 3 white taIls, 3 red dwarfs, and 1
white dwarf. This 9: 3: 3: I is the dihybrid ratio.
Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13 are tall-red i= 9·
Nos. 6, 8, 14 ........ ·.· .. · ...... · .......... tall-white =3
Nos. I I, 12, 15· .... ··· .................. dwarf-red ,= 3
Nos. 16 ...................................... dwarf-white = I
 GENETICS

It will further be noticed that Nos. I, 6, I I and 16 are

homozygous (i.e. they have two similar gametes), breeding
true; while the rest are heterozygous (i.e. they have two
dissimilar gametes), segregating in the next generation.
No. I (TRTR) will breed true for tall-red
No. 6 (TrTr) ............................... tall-white
No. I I (tRtR) .............................. dwarf-red
No. 16 (trtr) ................................. dwarf-white

MENDEL'S DIHYBRID RATIO

Parents TRTR trtr
.j, .j,
Parental gametes T'R X tr
.j.
F, generation TRtr
(hybrid) I
I
.j. .j. .j, .j.
F, gametes TR Tr tR tr
(See belo:v for the next generation) "

Male gametes of F,
,
TR Tr tR tr

TR TRTR TRTr TRtE TRtr

(tall-red) (tall-red) (tall-red) (tall-reef)
[1] [2] [3] [4]
t:::<~ -----
'-H
0 Tr TrTR TrTr TrtR Trtr
~
(tall-red) (tall-white) (tall-red) (tall-white)
U1
.~
'"
+' [5] J:6] ~7] [8] oj
(l)
------ ....
S
oj
I mtr
:g
bJl
OJ
tR tRTR
(tall-red)
tRTr
(tall-red)
tRtR
(dwarf-red) (dwarf-red)
'"
bn

';;J t:::<~
S
[9] [10] [11] [12]
C) ----
t:::<
tr trTR
(tall-red)
trTr
(tall-white)
trtR
(dwarf-red)
trtr
(dwarf-white)
'.
[13J [14] [15] [16]
Mendel developed a love for gardening, while still a mere" boy. H(l
was a good student at school. Soon after his father met with ,an accident
from a falling tree and became invalid, Mendel had to struggle hard
for want of money, and finally left school in 1840 at the age of 18.
Through the generous help of his sister Mendel took a two-year course
in Philosophy, and at the advice of Prof Frl1nz of Brunn Mendel
entered the Monastery at Brunn, and lived there, with a short break,
for about 41 years till his death in 1884. While at Brunn he took a
course in Theology and became a High School teacher. Without much
24
 A CLASS -BOOK OF BOTANY

llcientific- background he was unsuccessful as a scieuce teacher.

Abbe Napp, then in charge of the Monastery, sent Mendel to the
University of Vienna to study scienca
for two years. On completion of
the course Mendel returned to the
Monastery and joined Brunn High
School opened just then (1852) as a
science teacher. The Monastery had
spacious grounds, and Mendel carried
out most of his experiments on
heredity there during the period of
1856-1864. He established the laws
of heredity for the first time and
put genetics (later also called Mende-
lism in his honour) on a sound
scientific basis (read text). In 1864
Mendel became the Abbe of the
Monastery. He could hardly then,
owing to heavy official duties, pursue
his own scientific work. He became
FIG. 481. Gregor Johann Mendel rich and was very generous to others.
(1822-84), Austrian monk, biologist He never forgot his benevolent sister
Qnd famous geneticist. He esta- and was fond of his nephews.
blished the laws of inheritance of Plant Breeding. The subject of plant
characters in 1865-66.
breeding, although developed in recent
times on modern scientific lines after Mendel's discoveries, was known in
early times to the Egyptians and Assyrians. Later during the 18th and
19th centuries several artificial crossings were made by many workers and
interesting results obtained in the form of new varieties. But it was Mendel
who first laid the foundations of plant breeding on a scientific basis and
formulated the laws of inheritance of characters. Plant breeding consists
in producing new types of offspring by artificial pollination brought about
between the flowers of two different species, varieties or even genera. By
this process, also called crossing or hybridization, it has been possible to.
combine in the offspring certain desired characters of both the parents. In
actnal practice the stamens of a flower (bisexual) are removed before its
anthers mature, and the flower then with the gynoecium intact covered with
a paper or muslin bag to prevent natural pollination. 'When the stigma of
this flo_r matures, pollen from another selected parent is applied to it.
The offspring resulting from such a cross are new types, called hybrids,
which- are often more vigorous than the parent forms. This phenomenon is
spoken of as hybrid vigour or heterosis. The economic importance of cross-
breeding is manifold and almost unlimited, and already much has been
achieved in various agricultural and industrial crops regarding their yield,
quality and other useful characters (see pp. 371-2).
 PART IX ECONOMIC BOTANY

CHAPTER I General Description

Economic Botany deals with the various uses of plants and
plant products as applied to the well-being of mankind. It
also .includes various practical methods that may be adopted
for their improvement in one or more directions as needed
by man. The economic uses of plants are varied and, there-
fore, the scope for improvement is immense to meet man's
ever-increasing needs. The primary needs of mankind are, of
course, food, clothing and shelter, which originally the gifts
vf nature, were subsequently improved by m~n through the
application of his scientific knowledge. The gifts of nature
are almost unlimited, and thus a variety of useful products
are obtained from the plant kingdom.
Methods of Improvement. The methods commonly employed
for the improvement of crops in terms of yield, quality, etc.,
are (I) selection, (2) breeding, (3) improved methods of culti-
vation, (4) proper use of ,chemical fertilizers and manures,
(5) selection and use of 'quality' seeds, (6) judicious selection
of crops for a particular locality, (7) protection against dis-
eases and pests, and (8) proper irrigation by suitable methods.
Selection consists of picking out the best individuals. among:
a field crop in respect of one or more desired economic
characters, an,d collecting the seeds from them for the next
sowing. Second and tlurd selections are made in the same
way. Finally the promising ones are used for field trials,
always keeping the best and rejecting the rest. By this
method an advancement of quality and quantity has been
achieved in India in a number of crops, e.g. rice, cotton,
millets, e.g. Sorghum (Jl]AR or CHOLAM), Pennisetum (BAJRA),
Eleusine (RAGI), etc.

Plant Breeding consists in combining into the offspring cer-

tain desirable charactns met with in two separate parent
plants belonging to two different but allied species, or varie-
ties or sometimes. even genera (~ee p. 370). The economic
importance of this method is immense, and achievements in
this direction in various agricultural and industrial crops
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

regarding their yield, quality and other useful characters have

already been considerable. Thus in America new types of
wheat, maize, tomato and potato-all high-yielding and dis-
ease-resistant-have been evolved by following the practical
method of plant breeding. In RussiSJ. new varieties of summer
and winter wheat (wheat X couch grass, and wheat X Elymus),
and of barley (barley X Elymus) are some of the outstand-
ing achievements. In India also a considerable amount of
work has been done in this direction with desired results in
many cases. Thus improved strains of rice, wheat, millets,
maize, sugarcane, pulses, oil-seeds, cotton, tobacco, jute, flax,
hemp, etc., combining higher yield, better quality and resis-
tance to pests and diseases, have been evolved by cross-breed-
ing selected varieties. The results have been spectacular in
some cases. Thus several superior strains of rice have been
evolved in different rice-growing States. New improved vari-
eties of wheat have been similarly produced. A new wheat,
New Pusa 4 (or NP 4), evolved by the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute at Pusa (shifted to New Delhi in 1936 after
the great Bihar earthquake in 1934) was awarded the first
prize many times at International Exhibitions held in Ame-
rica, Australia and Africa. Recently some new strains of
wheat have been evolved by this Institute to suit different
climatic regions of India. Besides, new millets and maize
(see p. 374) have been evolved, which yield 50% more than the
common varieties. A recent success of the Institute is the
production of a sweet-flavoured tomato with high vitamin
content, evolved by crossing a cultivated variety with a wild
South American variety. New types of sugarcane evolved lit
Coimbatore have already become world-famous. They are
now widely grown, materially contributing to the growth and
expansion of the sugar industry in India. There is still ample
scope for improvement of several crops for food and industry.

CHAP TER 2 Economic Plants

Economic plants are numerous and have a variety of uses.
Many of them occur in nature, particularly in hills and
forests, while a good number of them are cultivated for food
and industry. From the economic standpoint such plants may
be classified under the following heads: (A) food-( r) cereals,
 ECONOMIC PLANTS 373
(2) millets, (3) pulses, (4) vegetables, (5) vegetable oils, (6)
sugar, (7) fruits and (8) fodder for cattle; (B) timber; (C)
fuel; (D) fibres; (E) medicinal plants; (F) beverages; (G)
spices; and (H) rubber. It may be noted that India is the
largest producer of tea, groundnut and sugarcane.
A. Food. Plants and parts of plants to be used as food must
contain sufficiently high percentages of carbohydrates, pro-
teins and fats and oils together with one or more vitamins
and essential minerals. Food contributes to the nourishment
of the body and enhances the power of resistance to diseases
and environmental changes.

I. Cereals. All cereals and millets are rich in starch, and

generally contain vitamins A, Band C. They belong to
Graminaceae, and are cultivated as annual crops. Cereals
form the main food of mankind, and in India they occupy
about 60% of the total area under cultivation. Even
then ths: supply is far short of the demand, and a huge
quantity (3.5 to 4.5 million tonnes) is imported from outside
every year. The major cereals are rice, wheat and maize, and
major millets are Sorghum (JUAR or CHOLAM), Eleusine (RAGI)
and Pennisetum (BAJRA).

(1) Rice (Oryza sativa) is the major agricultural crop in

India occupying about 30% of the total cropped area. It is
the staple food of the majority o~ people in India and South
East Asian ~ountries, and 95% of the world's rice is produced!
in these areas. There me s'everal (may be about 4,000) varieties
of rice in India alone. Rice is widely cultivated except in
north-west India. The plant thrives under conditions of
moderately high temperature, plenty of rainfall or irrigation,
and heavy manuring. Although some new varieties of rice
-finer, disease-resistant and high-yidding-have been evolved
in India by selection and breeding, the average yield of the
cornman varieties is very poor, being more or less 1,450 kg.
per hectare per year (of course, much more under the Japanese
method of cultivation and also under special conditions)
as against 3,117 kg. in Egypt, 3,406 kg. in Japan, 3472
kg. in Italy and 3,718 kg. in Spain, where fields are heavily
manured. There is usually a double or even triple cropping
of paddy in India (summer and winter). The latter (AMAN)
is far better than the former (AUS) in respect of yield and
374 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

quality. The average chemical composition of rice is starch

70-80%, proteins 7% and oils 1.5%. Paddy straw is all'
important fodder.
(2) Wheat (Triticum sativum) is the second staple food of
people in India. It does, howev<er, form the principal diet
in Western countries. There are several varieties of wheat,
and these may be broadly classified into hard and soft. The
former varieties are adopted for making SUJI and ATTA,
while the latter varieties are used for bread-making. Wheat
is cultivated mainly .in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Punjab. Grains are sown in October-December
and the crop harvested in March-May. Wheat is a universal
crop, i.e. it can be successfully grown in both temperate and
tropical countries. The average yield of wheat in India is
poor; it is only about 677 kg. per hectare per year, as against
1,396 kg. in Canada, I,708 kg. in Japan, and 2,468 kg. in
Great Britain. Se,'eral new varieties of wheat-hardy, dis-
ease-resistan.t, high-yielding, with better milling and bread-
making qualities-have been evolved in India (see p. 372).
Some of the best wheats are grown in Australia, America and
Russia. The average chemical composition is starch 66-70%,
proteins 12% and oils 1.5%. Wheat straw is a fodder.
(3) Maize (Zea mays) is an important cereal food for poorer
classes of people. It is cultivated both' in the hil15 and the
plains, and it does well both in hot and cold climates. The
usual sowing season is April-Ivlay, and the harvesting season
July-August. Each plant commonly bears one cob, sometimf!s
two. The average yield is very low, being about 986 kg. per
hectare per year, going l!P to 1,570 kg. with good varieties
grown under favourable conditions. .Maize cobs may be 15-25
cm. in length, and the grains golden yellow, dull yellow, red,
white, etc., in colour. There are several varieties and hybrids.
Some new hybrids of m,aize have been. evolved in,India, which
are high-yielding, disease-resistant and nutritious. A hybrid
maize (Texas 26) evolved by the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute at New Delhi yields over 2,800 kg. per hectare per
year. Maize grains are wken as a substitute for other cereal
grains in many rural areas. Commonly these are ground into ~
flour called cornflour. Leaves and stems form a good fodder,
and the grains a nutritious food for farm animals. The average
chemical composition is starch 68-70%, proteins 10% and
 ECONOMIC PLANTS 375
oils 3.6-5%. In addition the grains contain an appreciable
quantity of calcium and iron.
2. Millets. Smaller grained cereals are commonly called
millets, and there are various kinds. (I) Sorghum vulgare!
(JUAR or CHOLAM) is the best of aU millets. It affords nutritious
food, nearly as good as wheat. It is extensively cultivated'
in . South India, and also in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Three crappings a year are generally practised. The average
yield per hectare per year is 785-896 kg., often double this
quantity is black soil properly irrigated. The average chemi-
cal composition is starch 72%, proteins 9% and oils 2%.
Sorghum is a good fodder crop. (2) Eleusine coracana
(RAGI) is an important food crop of Mysore State, and is
extensively cultivated in Mysore and Madras. Three crop-
pings are generally practised. The average yield per hectare
per year is 785-1,120 kg., sometimes going up to 2,200 kg. in
red soil properly irrigated. Average chemical composition is
starch 73%" proteins 7 % and oils I '5%. The straw is nutri-
tious fodder' for cattle. (3) Pennisetum typhoides (BAJRA)
is another important millet. It is cultivated almost through-
out India. The average yield per hectare per year is 560-670
kg. or a little more. Average chemical composition is starch
71%', proteins 10% and oils 3%. It is not commonly used
as a fodder.
3. Pulse9. As food grains pulses stand next to cereals.
They are widely cultivated in India. as winter crops in rota-
tion with cereals, occupying about 18% of the total area
under cultivation. TRey belong to Papilionaceae. They are
valued as food because of their high protein contents averag-
ing 22-25%' (in soybean 42-47%)"; starch content is about 58%'
and oil content 2%; in gram the oil content may be as high
as 5%. They contain vitamins A, Band C (particularly whe!1
sprouted). Pulses commonly used in India are gram (Cicer
arietenum), black gram (Phaseolus mungo), green gram (P.
aureus), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), and lentil (Lens cul-inaris).
Pulses are widely used in various culinary preparations, parti-
cularly DAL. The plants form good fodder (with the excep-
tion of gram), and having root-nodules for nitrogen fixation
(see p. 2 I I), they form excellent green manure. In habit the
pigeon pea plant is a shrub ; the rest are annual herbs.
4. Vegetables. (a) Leafy vegetables like cabbage, lettuce,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

spinach, etc., are rich in vitamins, usually A, B, C and E, and

should be included in the daily diet. (b) Tuber crops are
fleshy underground roots or stems laden with a heavy deposit
of food material. Some of the common tuber crops are as
follows .
. (1) Potato is the underground stem-tuber of Solanum tube-
rosum, a herbaceous plant. It is a native of South America,
and was first introduced into India by the' Portuguese in the
early part of the 17th century. The potato holds a unique posi-
tion among the cultivated crops in many respects. It may be
grown in the hills as well as in the plains, and during summer
and the cold months. It is a universal article of diet all over
the world, and is used in a large variety of culinary prepara-
tions. Its yield is very much higher than other cultivated food
crops (except tapioca which is mainly confined to Kerala), being
about 7-8 tonnes per hectare per year, often much higher
under favourable conditions. It is extensively cultivated all
over India, both in the hills and in the plains but the yield is
low compared to that of other countries. Sandy loam is the
best soil for cultivation of potato. Water-logging is very in-
jurious, while irrigation with proper drainage is very necessary.
Potato requires about three months to mature, and when the
leaves have completely withered it is ready to be lifted. Gene-
rally the yield is tenfold of the potato sown. The several
varieties may he broadly classified into two-waxy and mealy.
Average chemical composition is starch 18-20%, proteins 2%
and oils o. I %'. Potato is, a good source of starch which has a
variety of uses. (2) Sweet potato is the underground tuberou~
1'oot of Batatas edulis. There are two common varieties-one
with white skin and the other with red skin. Sweet potato is
tasty and nutritious, and may be taken raw, boiled or fried,
or commonly in curries. The average chemical composition is
starch and sugar 29%, proteins 2% and oils 0·7%. (3) Tapioca
is the large fleshy root oil ManihoP utilissirna, a perennial shrub,
mainly cultivated in Kerala. The two varieties of tapioca-
bitter and sweet-contain some amount of hydrocyanic acid
which, - however, disappears on boiling or roasting. Tapioca
makes tasty curries and is nutritious. Tapioca flour is
used in making CHAPATIS, HALWA, pudding and biscuits.
Granulated tapioca is sold in the market as a substitute for (
sago. Tapioca is a good anti-famine food. The plant is pro-
.pagated by stem-cuttings. The yield may be over I I tonnes
 E CON 0 M I C P LAN T S '/, 377
per hectare per year. (4) Yam is the large underground
tuber of different species of Dioscorea, particularly D. alata.
Good varieties, when cooked, are palatable and' nutritious.
5. Vegetable Oils. There are several species' of plants yield-
ing oils, edible and industrial, in high percentages. In oil-
seeds India holds a prominent position in the world market
.with her huge export. Oil-yielding plants occupy about 8%
of 'the total cropped area in India. Some of the edible oils
used in India are as foHows. The oil-cakes are used as valu-
able fertilizers and as nutritive food for C:'lttlc. (I) Gingelly oil
is obtained from the seeds of Sesamum indicuin, mostly grown
in Uttar Pradesh and Madras, and to some extent only in
other States. The seeds yield 45-50% of edible oil used for
cookmg. Lighting, soap-making, toilet-oil, etc., are its other
uses. The average yield of seeds per hectare per year is 450-
560 kg. (2) Coconut oil is obtained from the dry kernel
(copra) of the seed of Cocos nucifera, the yield of oil being
about 50%. It is a valuable oil used for cooking, lighting,
soap-making. and several toilet preparations. Coconut trees
grow luxuriantly along sea-coasts, and a healthy tree bears
60-80 (sometimes even 100) coconuts a year; fruiting all the
year round. (3) Groundnut oil is obtained from the seeds of
Arachis hypogaea (see fig. 353), the yield of oil being about
43-46%. Groundnut cultivation is now a major agricultural
operation in India and occupies the largest area in the world.
Madras, Andhra, Gujarat and Maharashtra are the principal
areas of its cultivation. The average yield per hectare per
year is 900-I,loo kg.,,,,,,pr more with good varieties. The oil
is extensively used for cooking and also for soap-making. It
is the principal commercial oil of the Vanaspati industry. In
Europe 'margarine'-an imitation butter-is manufactured
from this oil. There is a big export of groundnuts, oil and
oil-cake to France, England and Germany. (4) Mustard oil
.obtained from the seeds of Brassica campestris and other
species is another important vegetable oil widely used in
north-eastern India for cooking and anointing the body.
Mustard is grown practically all over northern India. The
maximum quantity is produced in Uttar Pradesh and Raja~
sthan .
. 6. Sugars. Of the different kinds of sugars obtained from
plants it is cane-sugar (sucrose) that is universally used as
, a commercial sugar for sweetening various food preparations.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Cane-wgar is. obtained from the juicy pith of sugarcane

(Saccharum 0ffiC£narum), the yield being usually 10-15%
(18-20% in rich varieties) with an average of 13%. 9.5 tonnes
of sugarcane yield about I tonne of sugar. There are several
varieties of sugarcane. Some improved varieties of sugar-
cane evolved at Coimbatore by breeding are now being widely
cultivated in India to feed her numerous sugar mills. Nearly
55% of the sugarcane is used for making GDR Gaggery) and
KHANDSARI as products of cottage industry, while approxi-I
tmately 25% goes to the sugar mills fOf manufacture into
white sugar. .A small percentage is used for chewing.
Sugarcane is grown on a commercial scale in Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar and also in Punjab, Madras and Maharashtra.
India is the largest cane-growing country in the world but
her yield is the poorest, being only about 35-37 tonnes per
hectare per year, which is about one-fourth of the yield in
other cane-producing countries. The plant is propagated by
stem-cuttings. . There are about 179 sugar mills in India,
mostly located in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The total
annual production of sugar in India is now about 3 million
tonnes. Beet-root is the source of cane-sugar (sucrose) in some
cold countries. The root contains 10-20% of sugar, with an
average of 13-14%. The plant i~ cultivated in EurtJpe, Russia
and America for the purpose of sugar manufacture. Russia
is the biggest producer of sugar-beet.
7. Fruit. India abounds in excellent fruits. Apart from
their food, value they are rich sources of vitamins. Many of
them are available out of season in the form of varioll~
preserves, either .as slices or as jam, jelley, pickle, marmalade,
CHUTNEY (sweet or sour), etc. Of the many edible, nutri-
tious and palatable fruits the following may be specially
mentioned. (I) Mango is the fruit (drupe) of Mangifera
'indica, and its edible part is the mesocarp. It is a mid-summer
fruit having over 1,000 varieties. The superior ones range in
weight from 200 to 600 gm. or sometimes even more. Mango.
regarded as .the best of all Indian fruits is often called the
'king of· fruits'. It is notable for its very agreeable taste and
flavour; besides, it is appetizing, digestive and nutritious; it
contains vitamins A, C and a little B. There are over 500
famous· yarieties of mango in India. Some of them are
LANGRA, GULABEi.HAS and SEPIA of Bihar; LANGRA and DASHERI
of :Uttar Pr<l:desh; ALFONSO and PAIRI of Maharashtra; KESAR

/
 ECONOMIC PLANTS 379
of Gujarat; FERNANDIX of Goa; SIROLl of Punjab; BANGALORA
(or TOTAPURI), SUBARNAREKHA, BANGANPALLE and JEHANGIR of
South India; and MALDA, FAZLI, HIMSAGAR, KOHINOOR, MOHAN-
BHOG, GOPALBHOG (possibly the best variety) and KISHEN-
BHOG of West Bengal. Uttar Pradesh is the biggest
mango-producing State in India, while Bihar ranks
'second. The mango plant is propagated by grafting
(see fig. 368). (2) Pineapple is the fruit (sor05is) of Ananas
sativus. It is extensively cultivated both in the hills and in
the plains. Cornman good varieties of pineapple weigh I-2
kg.; specially large varieties may weigh up to 6 kg. or even
more. It is propagated by suckers and crowns (see fig. 365').
The fruit is fleshy, juicy, sweet, tasty and with an agreeable
flavour. (3) Banana is the fruit (berry) of Musa paradisiaca.
There are several edible varieties, eClch having its own charac-
teristic flavour. The banana is palatable, nutritious and easily
digestible. Assam, West Bengal~ Kerala and Madras produce
some excellent varieties of banana. The plant is propagated
by suck~rs. .Ripe fruit contains about 20% of sugar (but no
starch) and about 4.7% of proteins. It contains vitamins A,
B, C and also D and E. Further it is a source of K, P, Ca
and Fe. (4) Papaw is the fruit (berry) of Carica papaya. Some
good varieti~s may bear fruit weighing up to 3-4 kg., parti-
cularly when some of the young green ones are removed.
The green fruits are used as a vegetabl,e, while ripe ones are ex-
cellent dessert fruits-palatable, refreshing, easily digestible
and laxative. The latex contains a digestive enzyme called
pap'ain. Rip'e fruits c-o.ntain vitamins A and C. Each plant
may bear 40-60 fruits. The plant is propagated by seeds.
(5) Orange is the fruit (hesperiilium) of Citrus reticulata and
a few other species. It is a winter fruit, very juicy and tasty.
The plant is a large, much branched shrub, often bearing 300-
400 fruits, sometimes more. The keeping quality of the fruit
is very poor, and a good quantity sheds and is wasted. Assam,
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Madras, Coorg
and Hyderabad are centres of orange cultivation in India.
Orange juice contains vitamin C. There are several varieties.
Cornman ones are Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata)-loose-
skinned commercial orange, sweet orange (C. sinensis)-tight-
skinned (Malta, Mosarnbi or Mosambique and Valentia are
varieties of it), sour or bitter orange (C. aurantium)-used for
making marmalade.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

8. Fodder. Fodder is the food for cattle. The importance of

feeding the cattle on nutritious fodder to ensure best service
from them cannot be over-emphasized. The common fodder of
India consists of (a) several green wild grasses and other
green plants growing on pasture lands; (b) several grasses
cultivated for the purpose, e.g. guinea grass, buffalo grass,
Sorghum (JUAR or CHOLAM), Eleusine (RAGI), etc., (4) many
straws, e.g. rice straw, wheat straw, Sorghum straw, etc.;
(d) hay-grasses and straws cut and dried; (e) many legu-
minous plants, e.g. lucerne or alfafa, cow-pea, several pulses
including soybean; and (f) soft green leaves of many shrubs
and trees. Besides, several oil-cakes left after the extraction of
oil from the seeds, e.g. groundnut; cotton, gingelly, coconut,
mustard, etc., form nutritive fattening food for cattle.

B. Timber. Timber is the wood (heart-wood) used for vari-

ous building purpo'ses: houses, boats, bridges, ships, etc., for
making furniture, packing boxes, tea-chests, matchsticks and
boxes, plywood, etc., and for railway sleepers. Timber and fire-
wood (fuel) together with many other important forest pro-
ducts constitute the forest wealth of a country. To be self-
sufficient in them a country should normally have about one-
third of the total land area under forest. In this respect
India lags behind, having only 22.2%,. In India Madhya
Pradesh has now the largest forest area, while Assam occupies
second place. The useful timber trees of Indian forests
number over 75 species. The quality of timber depends on its
hardness, strength, weight, presence of natural preservativ~s
such as tannin, resin, etc., durability against heat, moisture,
and insect attack, workability, grains, colour, porosity, and
capacity for taking polish and varnish.
(r) Teak (Tectona grandis) is the famous timber tree of the
Deccan plateau, and also of Madras, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Teak yields a very valuable timber
with straight grains and light golden brown colour. The wood
is hard, strong, light to moderately heavy and extremely dur-
able, being immune to insect and fungal attacks. It does not
warp, shrink or expand. The timber is largely used for making
handsome furniture of various designs. It is also extensively
used for doors, windows, beams, rafters, etc. Teak is a very
co~tly wood. While Burma teak is the best, the Deccan
plateau produces the best Indian teak. (2) Indian redwood or
 ECONOMIC PLANTS

SHISHAM (Dalbergla sissoo) is a tree of the sub-Himalayan

forests extending from Assam to Punjab. h yields a valuable
timber with fine to medium grains and golden-brown to
dark-brown colour. It is hard (harder than teak), strong, very
durable and moderately heavy. It makes handsome furniture
for which it is largely used. It is easy to work and takes good
polish, and is least susceptible to white ants and borers. The
timber is also used for posts, rafters and boards. It makes
durable carts, coaches and boats. The wood is also widely used
for carving. (3) NEE;'d (Azadlrachta indica) is found all over
India, often planted as a roadside tree or in villages; it is also
commonly self-sown. The wood is moderately good, dull-red
in colour, hard, durable and moderately heavy. It is commer-
cially not an important timber but in villages it is used as
posts, beams and rafters in house-building; it is also used in
making ploughs, carts and cart-wheels. It has only a limited
use as timber. The wood is also med for carving.
There is also a good number of other very valuable timbers
such as 8,AL, mahogany, JARUL, CARJAN or wood-oil tree, rose-
wood, toon, chaplash, etc. In the hills common timber trees
are pine, fir, deodar, cypress, etc.
C. Fuel. A good fuel is that which produces sufficient heat,
burns slowly and is not smoky. The total consumption of fuel
required for domestic purposes and for boilers of small engines
is enormous. Our forests can maintain a steady supply but
transport difficulties often stand in the way. There is a good
number of trees yielding fuel, e.g. BABUL (Acacia a:ablca
and other species), JHAu-(Casuarina), tamarind, Cassia siamea,
CHAMPAK (MicheZia) and many species of Albizzia. The
rejected sap-wood chips of SAL, -SHISHAM and some other
timber trees make excellent fuel. Bamboo IS also extensively
used as a fuel.
D. Fibres. Commercial vegetable fibres may be classified as
(a) floss fibres or lint, e.g. cotton and silk cotton; (b) bast
fibres, e.g. jute, hemp and ramie; (c) coir fibres, e.g. coconut
fibres, and (d) leaf fibres, e.g. bowstring hemp and American
aloe (Agave). (I) Cotton is the most important textile fibre of
commerce. The fibres are spun into yarn and woven into vari-
ous kinds of garments, screens, sheets, canopies, sails and a
variety of other things. The qualities of cotton fibres are length,
strength, fineness, silkiness, etc. Indian cottons are in these
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

respects poor in quality, having short staples (12.7 to 25.4 mm.),

while Egyptian cottons have staple lengths of 31.7 to 38 mm.
and American cottons 38 to 50.8 mm. The cultivation of
foreign cottons in Indian soil has not proved to be a success
yet. Of all the Indian cottons the Broach cotton of Gujarat
is the finest. Although the area under cotton in India is the
largest in the world her total Output is much less than that of
other cotton-producing countries. The average annual yield of
cotton lint in India is only about 97 kg. per hectare; while
-in the U.S.A. it is 177 kg., in Japan 203 kg., in u.S.S.R. over 272
kg., and in Egypt about 416 kg. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Andhra, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and
Rajasthan are the important cotton-growing areas in India.
Black soil is most suitable for cotton cultivation. (2) Jute is
the bast fibre of Corchorus capcSularis and C. olitorius. Jute is
widely cultivated in the low-lying areas of Assam, West Bengal
and Tripura, and to some extent only in Bihar, Orissa and
U.P. It is essentially a rainy season crop thriving under condi-
tions of flooding at a later stage. Fibres mature with thE' for-
mation of the fruits. After harvesting, the jute plants are retted
in water for about 10 to IS days, sometimes more. The fibres
are then stripped off the stalks' by hand. They are then
washed, dried in the sun and finally baled. The annual yield
usually varies from 823 to 1,646 kg. per hectare. With the ex-
tension of cultivation the annual jute production in India has
gone well over 5.8 million bdes. Jute fibres are extensively used
for making gunny bags, cheap rugs, carpets, cordage, hessian
(coarse cloth), etc. (3) Coir is the husk fibre of dry coconut
fruits. The fibres are largely used for making mats, matiings,
mattresses, etc., of exquisitely beautiful design. and size, and
also for making ropes, cords and coarse brushes. They are also
used for stufIing sofas and carriage seats. Kerala leads in the
production of coconuts and in the manufacture of coir goods
in India.

E. Medicinal plants. Our forests 3 bound in medicinal herbs,

shrubs and trees. It is estimated that they number over 4,000
species. Of them about 2,500 to 3,000 species are in general use
in some form or other. The Eastern Himalayas and the Nil-
giri Hills are known to be the natural abodes of many such
plants. A good number of them are now being cultivated in
differeIit States on experimental and commercial bases. The
 ECONOMIC PLANTS

Central Drug Research Institute at Lucknow is carrying on

research on indigenous medicinal plants. (1) Quinine, an alka-
loid, is extracted from the thick bark (stem. or root) of several
species of Cinchona, the yield being 2-5%. Cinchona is a South
American plant introduced into India from Peru by Markham
about the year 1858. Cinchona is cultivated in the Darjeeling
district and in the Nilgiri Hills. Quinine is the most effective
remedy for malaria, the disease being responsible for an annual
death toll of about 3,00,000 in India. The total production of
quinine in India falls far short of her demand. (2) Sandalwood
is the monopoly of Mysore and Kerala. The heart-wood yields
5 to 7% of a yellow aromatic volatile oil-the sandalwood oil.
The oil has many medicinal properties: it is cooling, astrin-
gent and useful in biliousness, vomitting, fever, thirst and
heat of the body. The seed-oil is used in skin diseases. (3)
Garlic is a strong-smelling, ·whitish bulb, the smell being due
to a volatile oil contained in it. In addition to its use as a
condiment it has certain medicinal properties. It is an effec·
tive remedy _for rheumatic and mmcular pain, and for giddi-
ness and sore eyes. It heals intestinal and ~tomach ulcers. It is
digestive and relieves flatulence and pain in the bowels. It is
highly efficacious in torpid liver and dyspepsia. (4) Penicillin
is the secretory product of a soil fungus called green mould
(Penicillium notatum). It is a wonder drug of modern
times. It is most effective in a variety of infectious diseases
(see p. 302).
F. Beverages. They are agreeable liquors Ineant for drinking.
Tea, coffee and cocoa a.re common such beverages.
(I) Tea is now a universal drink. From the tea garden to the
tea cup there is, however, a long history. There are different
grades of tea. The terminal bud with two leaves forms fine
tea; the same with three leaves forms medium tea; and the
same with four leaves forms coarse tea. The average yield of
manufactured tea varies usually from 450 to 1,120 kg. per
hectare per year, and 1.8 kg. of green leaves usually make 0.45
kg. of cured tea. The yield of green leaves per plant is more
<>r less 0.9 kg. India is the largest producer of tea in the world.
India produces nearly half of world's total output. Roughly
half of India's total output is produced in Upper Assam. There
are about 780 tea gardens in Assam (mostly in Upper Assam)
and about 240 in North Bengal. Tea is also grown in Kerala,
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Madras and Mysore. Tea a'ccounts for 25% of India's total

export. The internal consumption of tea has now gone weU
over 140 million kg. Tea grows in the plains and in the hills
up- to an altitude of 1,800 metres or even higher, and flourishes
in areas with abundant rainfall. Darjeeling tea is noted for
its very agreeable flavour, and sells at high rates in
both foreign and inland markets. Annual pruning even from
the second year is a very important practice helping the plant
to 'flush' profusely. Tea bushes require proper irrigation and
adequate manuring for increased yield; chemical fertilizers
such as sulphate,of ammonia are very beneficial to them. Manu-
factured tea contains 4-5% of tannins (catechins), which are
responsible for colour and strength of the infusion, 3,5-5% of
caffeine, which is a stimulant for the heart, and a little volatile
oil to which the- aroma of the tea is due.
Manufacturing Process. After plucking) the leaves are spread
on bamboo racks for about 18 hours for witheringl i.e. soften-
ing the leaves. The withered leaves are then passed through
the rolling machine for half an hour. Rolling gives a twist to
the leaves and also major chemical changes take place here.
Sifting is the next operation separating the finer meal which
is then removed to tne fermentation room for 3 to 4 hours.
During fermentation the flavour and colour develop. The next
is firing at a temperature of 93°C. and then to 82°C. until the
moisture content is reduced to 3-4'Yo. The manufactured tea
leaves are then sorted) graded and finally packed into plywood
chests for marketing.
(2) Coffee is- a favourite drink in South India. Seeds. of
Coffea arabica and C. robustal particu1arly the former, are the
sources of coffee. The aroma of the coffee powder develops on
proper and skilful roasting. Ce'rtain chemicals are also added
for this purpose. A coffee bush usually yields 0.45-0.9 kg. of
cured coffee. Coffee contains several vitamins and also caffeine
(an alkaloid). The main coffee plantations are in the low hills
of South India-:-Mysore, Madras and Kerala. Coffee is also
cultivated in Orissa. .
(3) Cocoa prepared from the seeds of Tkeobroma cacao,
a small tree. Each tree commonly bears 70-80 fruits, each mea-
suring 15-22 x 7-10 cm. Each fruit contains numerous seeds.
The fruits are cut or broken open, 2nd the seeds dried, roasted
and powdered. Cocoa powder makes a refreshing and nourish-
 ECONOMIC PLANTS

ing drink. With the addition of certain ingredients chocolate

is made out of this powder. On an average 50 pods, each having
about 30 good seeds, yield over I kg. of cured cocoa. Cocoa-
butter is used in medicine. Cocoa i'S extensively cultivated in
tropical hmerica, the West Indies, Brazil, Ghana and Kenya.
It is als(J cultivated in Java and Ceylon. The world's supply
comes mainly from Brazil, Kenya and Ghana (Ghana supply-
ing the largest quantity).
G. Spices. Spices ,are certain aromatic and pungent products
used for seasoning and flavouring food and various fruit and
vegetable preserves. They are extensively used in cookery and
confectionary, hot or sweet CHUTNEY, beverages, etc., 01'
chewing by themselves or with betel leaf. They are also used
in medicines. Some of the common spices are as follows. (I)
Cardamom is the seed of Elettaria cardamomum, a peren-
nial herb, cultivated in the Western Ghats, Mysore and the
Cardamom Hills of Travancore. The fruit has a yellowish
skin, and the seeds contain an aromatic volatile oil '(usually
4-6%). The seeds form an important spice. The greater carda-
mom, whose fruit has a dark-brown skin and is larger in size,
comes to the market from ,Darjee1ing and Nepal. They are
the products of Amomum subulatum, a perennial herb. (2)
Pepper is the dried berry of the pepper vine (Piper nigrum), a
rootlet climber. The dried berry forms the black pepper of.
commerce. Kerala is the principal centre for the cultivation of
pepper. It is also grown in Mysore, Madras, Maharashtra.
West Bengal and Assam. It is propagated by stem-cuttings.
Each pepper vine yields...more or less I kg. of cured pepper.
(3) Ginger is the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, a perennial
herb. It is extensively used in - curries, CHUTNEY, pickles
and various fruit and vegetable preserves. It enhances taste
and flavour, and is digestive. It is cultivated in nearly all
States of India but Kerala is a big source of supply. (4)
Cloves are the dried flower-buds of Syzygium aromaticum;
the green colour of the buds changes to dark-brown on drying.
Cloves are used extensively in curries, preserves and medicines.
Clov-e-oil is extracted from leaves and unripe fruits. Cloves
are grown in the Western Ghats and in Kerala but the total
output is far short of the demand. The main source of
supply is the island of Zanzibar, popularly called the 'Island
of Cloves'.
25
 A CLASS-BOOK" OF BOTANY

H. Rubber. This is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasi-

liensis] a big tree. The latex is collected by tapping the barlc
It is then allowed to coagulate with the addition of water and
a little acetic acid. The coagulated mass (rubber) is then
separated from the liquid portion, washed and dried in a
smoke-house. It is then passed through rollers and pressed
into blocks, sheets, crepe, etc. The Use of rubber for tyres ancL
tubes of various kinds of vehicles, crepe soles, rubber shoes
and garments, rubber sheets, tubings, beltings, and various
other goods is well known. Indian rubber is mostly con-
sumed internally within the country. The majority of rubber
plantations are in Travancore; the rest are in Cochin, Mala-
bar and Coorg. The average yield of rubber in India is rather
low, being only 336 kg. per hectare. It may be noted that
~synthetic rubber is gradually coming into use.
•

;APPENDIX I Questions
INTRODUCTION
1. What is protoplasm? Give an account of its physical and chemical
Illature. 2. Enumerate the important differences between the living and the
non-living. 3. What are the main characteristics of plants by which
they can be distinguished from animals? 4. Classify plants into their
main groups. Give the main characteristics of each group. Illustrate your
answer with sketches and examples.

PART 1. MORPHOLOGY

Chapters 1-2. 1. Classify plants according to their habit, and give a

,detailed account of various modes of climbing. 2. What are autotrophic and
heterotrophic plants? Describe the types of heterotrophic plants that you
.have studied. 3. Draw a labelled sketch showing the parts of a 'flower-
ing' plant, and briefly mention the functions of these parts.
Chapter 3. 1. Describe the parts of an ex albuminous seed, and the
mode of its germination. Give necessary sketches. 2. Describe with the
aid of sketches the parts of castor seed or maize grain, and the mode
-of its germination. 3. What do you understand by epigeal germination ~
Describe the process with reference to a typical seed. 4. 'What are the
·essential conditions necessary for the germination of a seed? Devise an
experiment to prove them. 5. Write short notes on endosperm, scutellum,
-coleoptile, epicoty! and vivipary.
Chapter 4. 1. What a:re the characteristics of the root by which it
,can. be' distinguished from the stem? 2. Gi vo an account of the modified
forms of roots. Describe them with sketches and examples. 3. What
'3re adventitious roots? Describe with sketches and examples at least five
types of such roots. 4. What are the normal functions of the root?
Point out how this organ adapts itself to meet certain specialized func-
tions. 5. Write short notes on endogenous, fusiform root, haustoria,
,epiphytic root, root-hair and fasciculated roots.
Chapter' 5. 1. Dem:ribe a vegetative bud as seen in alongi-section.
Of what use is it to the plant? Describe the various types. 2. Name
:and describe the various kinds of-underground stems. Why are they not
Tegarded as roots? What are their functions? 3. Describe a potato
tuber, and give reasons in support of its morphological nature. How do
.you distinguish between a stem-tuber and a root-tuber? 4. Describe,
with sketches and examples, the various modifications of stems for vegeta-
tive propagation. 5. Write short notes on decumbent, caudex, rhizome,
'bulb, bulbil, tendril, thorn, phylloclade and cladode.
Chapters 6-7. 1. Describe the parts of a typical leaf, and give an account
·of the various modifications it undergoes. 2. What is venation? Give
the principal types. :Mention the functions of the system of veins.
-3. Distinguish between a simple leaf and a compound leaf, a compound
leaf and a short branch. What are the main types of compound leaves?
·4. Give a short. account of phyllotaxy, and explain what is meant by
,odhostichy and genetic spiral. 5. What are the normal functions of the
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

leaf? For what other purposes may it be utilized? 6. How do plants

protect themselves against injury by animals? 7. Note any points of mor-
phological interest connected with the following plants: pea, Smilax, glory
lily, Polygonum, rose, Naravelia, pitcher plant, Cardenthera, Australian
Acacia, nettle, H em iphragm a and snake plant.
Chapters 8-9. 1. What is an inflorescence? Describe the simple race-
mose types. Give sketches and examples. 2. What kind of inflorescence
'do you find in gold mohur, aroid, banana, sunflower, coriander, Ocimum
and grass? Describe any four of them with sketches. 3. Describe the
parts of a typical flower, and indicate the functions of these parts.
4. Describe, with sketches and examples, the structure of hypogynous,
perigynous and epigynous flowers. Describe the thalamus of Gynandropsis
and passion-flower. 5. Discuss: 'A flower is a modified shoot'. 6. Explain
and cite instances of adhesion and cohesion in flowers. 7. What is a
pollen grain? Describe a mature pollen grain and a mature embryo-sac.
What happens when a pollen grain germinates? 8. What is a placenta,
and where do you find it? Describe the different types with sketches
and examples. 9. Draw a neat diagram of an anatropous or orthotropous
ovule, and label the parts. 10. Describe, with sketches, the common
forms of ovules. 11. Write notes on any five of the following: panicle,
helicoid, verticillastel', hypanthodium, hermaphrodite, gynophore, spathe,
involucre, bilabiate, corona, epicalyx, pollinium, didynamous and apocarpous..
Chapters 10-11. 1. What is cross-pollination? How is it effected?
2. What are the characteristics of entomophilous and anemophilous flowers?
3. Describe the mode of pollination in sunflower, Salvia, maize and
Vallisneria_ 4. What are the contrivances met with in flowers to prevent
self-pollination? 5. Give a detailed description of the process of fertili-
zation in an angiosperm. What is double fertilization? 6. Write notes on,
cleistogamy, spur, anemophily, monoecious, dichogamy, protandry, egg-cell
and synergids. .
Chapters. 12-14. 1. Describe the changes that take place in the ovule
leading to its conversion into the seed. 2. '. How do you classify fruits?
Describe the principal types. 3. Describe the fruits of pea, mustard,
cotton, mango, tomato, apple, gourd and pineapple. 4. Describe in
botanical terms the edible parts of the following fruits: apple, cash~w-nut,
cucumber, litchi, fig, pineapple, mango, coconut, jack and orange. 5. Give
a concise account of how seeds and fruits are dispersed by wind.
Of what importance is the distribution to the species? 6. Write notes
on aril, perisperm, mesocarp, legume, capsule, berry, siliqua, pepo, sorosia.
and censor mechanism.
PART II HISTOLOGY
Chapter 1. 1. What is protoplasm? Where is it found in plants?
What are the different kinds of movements exhibited by it? 2.
Describe the structure of the nucleus, and state the main functions
performed by it. 3. Describe the parts of a typical plant cell, and
give a short account of their functions. 4. Describe the microscopic,
structure of starch grains and aleurone grains. How would you
demonstrate their presence in the plant tissue? What kind of food do'
they represent? 5. What is cellulose? What modifications may it
 APPENDIX r: QUESTIONS

undergo? How would you distinguish between cellulose and lignin?

6. 'Enumerate and describe the most important reserve materials in
plants. 7. Give an account of the occurrence of mineral crystals in
plants. 8. Write short notes on middle lamella, vacuole, bordered pits,
cystolith, cytoplasm, chromosome and raphides. 9. Give an account of
'somatic cell division', and indicate the importance of the process.
Chapters 2-3. 1. What is a tissue? What are the principal kinds of
. tissues found in plants? 2. Where do you find a sieve-tube? Draw
and describe its structure. 3. Describe the apical meristem of a stem
or a root, as seen in alongi-section. 4. What are mechanical tissues?
Describe (heir structure and distribution, as seen in transections of (a)
sunflower stem and (b) maize stem. 5. What are stomata? Describe
their structure and functions. How do they behave when the atmosphere
is dry? 6. Describe the tissue-elements of a typical vascular bundk
What are the different types of vascular bundles? 7. Write notes on
tracheid, trachea, latex cell, sclerenchyma, collenchyma, endodermis and
pericycle.

Chapters 4-6. 1. Describe the anatomical structure of a dicotyledonous

stem. 2. Give a detailed description of the internal structure of a
monocotyledonous stem. 3. D~scribe the structure of a monocotyledonous
root, 'as seen in a transverse section, and compare it with that of a
dicotyledonous root. 4. Describe the anatomical structure of a
dorsi ventral leaf, and state the functions of the different tissues met
with in it. 5. Write notes on hard bast, bicollateral bundle, conjunctive
tissue, protoxylem, epiblema, mesophyll and palisade parenchyma.
Chapter 7. 1. How does a dicotyledonous stem grow in thicl>ness?
2. Describe with neat sketches the origin and activity of cambium in
a dicotyledonous root. 3. What are annual rings? How are they
formed? Describe their anatomical structure. 4. How are cork and
lenticel formed? Describe, with neat diagrams, their anatomical structure.
State their functions.
'"PART
" III. PHYSIOLOGY
Chapters 1-4. 1. What are the common types of soils? How are
they formed? Give an account of their physical and chemical properties.
2. What is humus? What is its utility in plant growth? How do you
estimate the humus content of a soil? 4. Enumerate the essential
chemical elements that enter into the composition of a green plant.
What are the methods usually followed to determine them? 5. How
does an ordinary green plant get its supply of carbon and nitrogen?
What special means of nitrogen supply are found in/ Leguminosae?
6. What is 'osmosis? What role does it play in plan~ physiology?
Devise an experiment to demonstrate it_ 7. Write notes on turgidity,
plasmolysis, hydroponics, nitrification and nodule bacteria.
Chapter 5. 1. What is root pressure? How do you dem~nstrate and
measure it? Explain the significance of the process. 2. What is
transpiration? Devise an experiment to show the rate of transpiration
f,rom a twig. 3. Devise an experiment to prove unequal transpiration
from the two surfaces of a leaf. What is the significance of this
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

difference? 4. Devise a simple experiment to show that a transpiring

twig produces suction. Comment on the processes concerned. S. What
do you understand by 'ascent of sap'? Discuss the main forces concerned
in the process. 6. Explain clearly how water enters, passes through
and leaves a plant. 7. What is the importance of transpiration in plant
life? S. Write notes on manometer, ble€ding, leaf-clasp, potometer, and
exudation.
Chapters 6-9. 1. Give a concise account of carbon-assiniilation by
green plants. 2. How would you prove experimentally that submerged
green plants assimilate carbon? 3. How would you prove experimentally
that light and carbon dioxide are indispensable for the formation of
starch in photosynthesis? 4. Wha.t are the external conditions necessary
for photosynthesis? Clearly explain the influence of these conditions on
the process. S. How would you prove experimeutally that non-green
parts of plants cannot photosynthesize? 6. What are autotrophic and
heterotrophic plants? Give a short account of various modes of nutrition
of the latter. 7. What special modes of nutrition are found in carnivorous
plants? Describe a few common types, S. Describe the various orgau1'!
and tissues which lay up stores of reserve food. 'What are the common
forms of reserve food stored up in the seed? How are they utilized?'
9. Give a clear account of digestion and- assimilation of food in green
plants.
Chapters 10-11. 1. What do you understand by respiration? How
would you prove experimentally that plants respire? 2. Describe the
behaviour of plants deprived of oxygen, and demonstrate it by an
experiment. 3. Describe the natu!'e of exchange of gases between the
green 'plant and the atmosphere. 4. Distinguish between respiration and
photosynthesis. S. Write notes on the following: anaerobic respiration,
fermentation, metabolism, respiroscope and ~ymase.
Chapters 12-14. 1. What is growth? What is the influence of
external conditions on growth? 2. How would you measure growth in
length of the stem? 3. What is meant by irritability in plants? Give
instances? 4. Describe heliotropism, geotropism and hydrotropism, 'and
demonstrate experimentally anyone of these processes. S. Give a short
account of hormones and vitamins occurring in plants. 6. 'Write notes
on heliotropic chamber, clinostat, auxanometer, and grand period of
\ \LL_ growth. 7. Describe the methods by which the 'flowering' plants
~7' reproduce themselves vegetatively.

P ART' IV. ECOLOGY

Ohaptors 1-2. 1. Define ecology. Enumerate the factors which influence

ecological grouping of plants. Give examples. 2. 'What are the
characteristic features of hydrophytes? Cite familiar examples. 3. What
are halophytes? State what you know of their special characteristics.
Give examples. 4. Describe the characteristic features of xerophytes.
Give examples. S. What is mangrove vegetation? Where do you find
it in India? Describe, with examples, the main features of such a
vegetation.
 APPENDIX I: QUESTIONS 39 1
PART V. CRYPTOGAMS
Chapters 1-2. 1. How do you classify cryptogams? State the
differences between (a) Algae and Fungi, and (b) Bryophyta and
Pteridophyta. 2. Give a brief account of the structure and mode of
reproduction in Oscillatoria and ClLlamydomonas. 3. Describe the life-
history of Ulothrix or Spirogyra. 4. Describe the life-history of
Oedogonium. 5. Write notes on zygospore, antherozoid, oog~nium,
coenocyte, isogamy, hormogonia and dwarf male.
Chapters 3-4. 1. Give a brief account of bacteria, and state what you
know of their harmful and beneficial effects. 2. Give the life-history
of any saprophytic fungus that you have studied. 3. Compare the life.
history of Spirogyra with that of Mucor. 4. Some yeast cells are put
into sugar solution. State and describe the changes that you may expect
in (a) yeast cells and (b) sugar solution. 5. Give a brief account of the
life-history of Agaricus. 6. Briefly describe some of the antibiotics that
you have studied.
Chapter 5-6. 1. Describe the life-history of Riccia or Marclwrntia,
and traCe the alternation of generations in it. 2. What do you under-
stand by alternation of generations? Illustrate your answer by reference
to a moss plant or a fern plant. 3. Describe the gametophytic generation
of moss, or the sporophytic generation of fern. 4. Describe the prothallus
of fern. What- phase does it represent in the life-history of the plant?

PART' VI. GYMNOSPERMS

Chapter 1. 1. Describe tl;e life-history of Cycas. 2. Describe the

megasporophyU and microsporophyll of Cycas. 3. Describe the ovule of
Cycas as seen in a longitudinal section. 4. Describe the mode of pollina-
tion and fertilization in Cycas.·

P ART VII. ANGIOSPERMS

Chapters 1-2. 1. Define species, genus, family, variety and nomenclature,
and illustrate" them by ~itable examples. 2. Give diagnostic characters
of the following families: Crucijeme, Malvaceae, Papilionaceae and
Cucurbitaceae. Mention at least three economic plants belonging to each
family. 3. Give the outline of any~modern system of classification of
'flowering' plants. 4. Enumerate and explain the differences between
dicotyledons and monocotyledons. 5. Describe (a) the inflorescence and
(b) the androecium of the following families: Crucijerae, Compositae and
Labiatae. 6. Mention the respective families where you find the following
morphological characters: monadelphous, syngenesious, epipetalous,
didynamous, apocarpous and inferior ovary. Give the main characteristics
of anyone of these families. 7. Describe the family Cucurbitaceae or
Solanaceae with necessary sketches and mention at least three examples of
economic importance. 8. Refer any five of the following plants to their
respective families: Ranunculus, Brassica, Hibiscus,' Pisum, Rosa,
Cucurbita, Solanum and Ociml1m, and give the characterIstics of anyone
of these families.
Chapter 3. 1. Give the main characteristics of the family Palmaceae,
and mention at least three plants of economic importance belonging to it.
39 2 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

2. Describe Liliace(JJe with sketches and examples. How do you

distinguish Amaryllidaceae from Liliaceae? 3. What is the economic
importance of Graminaceae? Cite at least five examples. Give the
important morphological characteristics of the family.

PART VIII. EVOLUTION AND GENETICS

Chapters 1-2. 1. What evidence can yon cite in support of the theory
'of evolution? Clearly explain any two such evidences. 2. State briefly
Darwin's contribution towards the idea of organic evolution. 3. Give a
concise idea of some of the important theories advanced from time to
time to explain organic evolution. 4. Explain Mendel's monohybrid cross?
Tabulate the results up to F2 generation. 5. Briefly explain Menders
laws of inheritance. 6. Give in a tabulated form the results of Mendel's
dihybrid cross. 7. What is the practical importance of Mendel's experi-
ments? 8. How would you proceed to determine whether a plant
possessing a particular dominant character is homozygous or heterozygous?
P ART IX. ECONOMIC BOTANY
Chapters 1-2. 1. Describe the methods commonly employed for
improvement of field crops. 2. What are cereals? Of what importance
are they to human beings? Give a short account of at least two important
cereals widely cultivated in India. 3. Give a short accoup.t of wheat,
maize and Sorglwm. Where are they cultivated in India? 4. Enumerate
the important vegetable oils of India. What are the sources of these
oils? Give a brief account of their uses. 5. Describe some important
dessert fruits of India, and mention the edible parts in them. 6. What
are the common timber trees of India? State their uses. 7. Write notes
on the uses of the following plants: guinea grass, cardamom, cloves,
ginger, garlic, pulses, potato, sugarcane and rubber. 8. What are the
commOn beverages used in India? Where are they cultivated in India?
Give a brief account of their manufacture and u\e.
APPENDIX I I Glossary of Names of Plants
Botanical name in italics _. English name in Roman; Indian name in
CAPITALS-A. for Assamese, B. for Bengali, G. for Gujarati, H. 'for Hindi,
K. for Kannada, M. for Malayalam, M'. for Marathi, O. for Oriya,
P. for Punjabi, T. for Tamil, and T'. for Telugu.

A lirus precatorius (crab's eye or Agave americana (American aloe or

Indian liquorice) =A. LATUM-MONI; century plant)=B. & H. KANTALA;
B. KUNCH; H. & P. RATrI; K. G. JANGLI-KANVAR; K. KATTALE;
GULAGANJI; M. KUNNI; M'. GUNJ; M. NATTUKAIrA; M', GHAYPAT; O.
O. KAINCHA, GUNJA; T. KUNDOO- BARABARASIA; P. WILAYATI KAN-
MONY; T'. GURUGINJA TALA; T. ANAKUTTILAI; T'. BON-
Abutilon indicU1n=A. JAPA-PETARI; THARAKASI
B. PETAUI; G. DABALI; H. KANGHI; Albizzia lebbek (siris trcc)=A., B.,
K. 'THURUBI GIDA, SHREE-MUDRE H., M'. & P. SIRISH; K. SHIRI-
GIDA, KISANGI; M. & T. PERIN- SHA BAGE, HOMBAGE; G. PITO-
THOTrY; M'. MUDRA; O. PEDI- SARSHIO; M. VAGA; O. SIRISA; T_
PEDIKA; P. PILI-BUTI; T'. THUTT- VAGAl; T'. DIRlSANA
RIBENDA Allium, cepa (onion) = A. PONORU;
Acacia arabica (gum tree) =A. B., H. & P. PIYAZ; G. DUNGARI;
TORUA-KADAM; B. BABLA; G. KALOA- K. NEERULLI, ULLAGADDI; M. ULLI;
,BAVAL; H. BABUL; K. KARl JALI; M'. KANDA; O. PIAJA; T. VEN-
M. & T. KARUVELAM; M'. BABHUL; GAYAM; T". YERRAGADDA
O. BABUm; P. KIKAR; T'. NALLA- Allium 8ativum (garlic) = A..
NAHAIm;
TUMMA B. RASUN; G. LASAN; H. & P.
Acacia catechu (catech~=A., B. & LASHUN; K. BELLULLI; M. VELU-
M'. KHAIR; G. KHER; H. & P. ~'HULLl; M'. LASUN; O. RASUNA;
KATHA, KHAlil. ; K. KAGGALI, T. VELLAIPOONDU; T'. TELLAGADDA
KACHU; M. KADARAM; O. KHAIRA; Alocasio indica = A. & B. MAN-
T. KADIRAM; T'. KHADIRAMU KACRU; G. ALAVU; H. MAN'-
Acalypha indica =B. lIIUKTO-JHURI; KANDA; K. MANAKA; M'. ALU; O.
G. VANCHI KANTO; H. KUPPI; K. MANASARU; P. ARVI
~UPPI GIDA, TUPPAKEERE; M. & Aloe vera (Indian aloe) = A. CRAL-
T. KUPPAMANI; M'. KHOKALI; O. KUNWARI; B. GHRITAKUMARI; G.
INDRAMARISHA; P. KOKALI KUPPA- KUNVAR; H. GHIKAVAR; K. LOLE-
MANI SARA; M. KATTARVAZHA; M'. KOR-
AcMyanthes aspera (chaff-flower)= PHAD; O. GHEEKUANRI; P. KAWAR-
A. UBTISATH; B. APMJlG; G. GANDAL, OHIKUAR; T. KUTTILAI
SAFED AGHEDO; H. LATJIRA; K. Alstonia scholaris (devil tree) = A.
UTTARANI; M. KATALADY; M'. CHATIAN; B. CHHATIM; H. CHA-
AGHADA; O. APAMARANGA; P. PUTH - TlUlI!; K. SAPTA PARNA, MADDALE,
KANDA, KUTRI; T. NAHIROORVY; KODALE; M. EZHILAII1PALA; M'.
T'. ATrARENI SATVIN; O. CHHATIANA, CHHAN-
Acorus calamus (sweet flag) =A., B. CHANIA; P. SATONA; T. ELILAI-
& H. BOCH; G. GODAVAJ; K. PILLA!; T'. EDAKULAPALA
BAJE; M. VAYAMBU; M'. WEK- Amarantu8 spinosus (amaranth) =
HAND; O. BACHA; P. WARCH, BOJ, A. KATA-KHUTURA; B. KANTA-NATE;
BARI; T. VASAMBOO; T'. VASA G. TANJALJO; H. & P. CHULAI; K.
Adhatoda vasica=A. BANHAKA; B. MULLU KEERE (or HAltIVE) sOPPu;
BASAK; G. ADULSO; H. ADALSA; M. MULLANCHEERA; M'. KATE
K. ADUSOGE; KURCHI GIDA., ADDA- MATH; O. KANTANEDTIA, KANTA-
LASA; M. ADALODAKAM; M'. MARISHA; T. MULLUKKERAI; T'.
ADULSA ; O. BASANGA; P. BANSA MUNDLA THOTAKURA
SUBJ, BASUTI; T. ADATODAY; T'. A morpkophallu8 campanuZatu8 = A.
ATARUSHAMMU & B. OL; G_ & M'. SURAN; H.
AegLe marmelo8 (wood-apple) = A. KANDA; K. SUVARNA (or CHUltNA)
& B. BAEL; G. BILIVA-PHAL; H. GEDDE; M. CHAENA; O. OLUA;
SIRIPHAL; K. BILVA PATRE; M_ P. ZAMIN KANDA; T. KARUNA-
KOOVALAM; M'. DEL; O. BELA; P. KILA.NOU; T'. THIYA KANDHA
1UL; T. VIL V Al\:fAnAM; T·. BILAMBU A. nacardiu7n occidentale (cashew.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
394
nut)=A. KAJU-BADAM; B. HIJLI- M'. & T. SATHAVARI; T'. SAD}-.·
BADAM; G., H., M'. & P. KAJU; VARI.
K. GODA~iBl,
GERUPAl'PU; M. Averrhoa carambola (carambola) =
KASHUlIfAVU; O.
LANKA BADAM; A. KORDOI-TENGA; B. KAMRANGA;
'T. MUNDIRI; T'. JIDIMAMIDI G. KAl\iARAKHA; H. & P. KAl\l-
Andrographis paniculata=A. KALPA- RAKH; K. KAMARAXI, KAMARAK ;
TITA; B. & H. KALMEGH, MAlIA- M. IRIMPANPULI; M'. CAMARANGA;
TITA; G. KIRYATO; K. NELA BEVU, O. KAR~IANGA; T. KAMARANKAI;
KALA MEGHA; M. KIRIYATHTHU; T'. TAMARTA
M'. PALEKIRAIET; O. BHUINIMBA; Azadirachta indica (margosa) = A.
P. CHAR.UTA; T. NELA VEMBU J\WHA-NDI; B., H. & P. NIlII,
Annona reticulata (bullock' s heart) NIMBA; G. LIMBA; K. OLLE BEVU;
=A. ATLAS; B. NONA; G., H., M'. M. VEl'pU; M'. KADU LIMB; O.
& P. RAlIiPHAL; K. RAMA PHALA; NIMBA; T. VEl\1BU; T'. VEpPAI
M. ATIIA; O. NEUA, BADHIALA; T.
& T". RAMSITA Baccaurca sapida=A. LETEKU; E."
Annona squamosa (custard-apple) = LATKAN; H. LUTKO; K. KOLl
A. ATLAS; B. ATA; G. & M. SITA- KUKKE; P. KALA BOGATI
l'lIAL; H. & P. SHARIFA, SITA- Bambusa tulda (bamboo)=A. BANH;
PHAL ; K. SEETHA PHALA ; M. B., H. & P. BANS; G. KApURA;"
SEElIIA-ATHA; T. & T'. SEETIL' K. HEIlBlDIRU, UNDE BIDIRU; ~L
AntAocepAalus cadamba=A., B., H. MULAH; M', BAMBOO; O. BAUNSA;
& P. KADAM; G. & O. KADAMIlA; T. MULAI
K. KADAlIfBBA MARA, KADAVALA; Basella rllbra (Indian spinach) =A."
M. KADAMBU; M'. XADAMB PURAI; B. PUIN; H. O. & P.
Arachis hypogaea (peanut or ground' POI; K. KEMpU BAY! BAS ALE ; M.
nut) =A., B. & O. CHINA-BADAM; SAMpARCHEERA; M'. VELBONDI; T~
G. MAFFALl; H. & p. MUNG- SAMBARKEERAl
PHALl; K. NELAGADALE, SHENGA, Batatas edulis (sweet potato) = A.
KALLEKAI; M. & T. NII,AKKADALAI; & B. MITHA-ALOO; G. SHAKKARIA;:
M'. BHUI-MUG; Too. VERU SANAGA H. & P. SHAKARKAND; K. GENASU;
Areca catechu (areca- or betel-nut) M. MADHURAKI ZHANGU; M'.
=A. TAlIfBUL; B., G., M'. & P. BATALA; O. CHINI-ALOO, KANDA-
SUPARl; H. KASAILl; K. ADIKE; MULA; 'TOO. GENuSU
M. ADAKKA; O. GUA; T. PAKKU; Bauhinia variegata (camel's foot
T'. pOKA tree)=A., B. & M'. RANCHAN; G.
Argemone mexican a (prickly poppy) KOVIDARA; H. & P. KACHNAR; K.
=A. KUHUM-KATA; B. SHEALKANTA; ULIPE, BILl MANDARA; M. MAN-
G. DARUDI; H. PILA-DHUTURA; DARUM; O. KANCHANA; T. TrRU-
K. DATTURADA GlDA, ARISINA UM- VATTI; T'. ADAVIMANDARA
MATTI; M. SWARNAKSHEERI; ~t[' Benincasa cerifera (ash gourd) = A.
PIWALA DHOTRA; O. AGARA ; P. ROMORA; B. CHAL-KUMRA; G,
KANDIARl; T. BRAHMADANDU; T". KOHWLA; H. & P. pETHA; K.
DATTURl - BOODU GUMBALA; M. KUMpALAM;
Aristolochia gigas (pelican flower) M'. KOHALA; O. PANI-KAKHARU;
=A., B. & O. HANSHA-LATA; K. T. KUMPALY; T'. pULLA GUMMUDI
Kum GIDA; M. GARUDAKKODI; Beta vulgaris (beet) = A. BEET-
M'. POpAT VEL; P. BATKH PHUL; PALENG; B. PALANG-SAK; G. & M'.
T. ADATHINA-PALAI BEET; H. & P. CHUKANDAR; K.
Artabot,·ys odoratissimus=A. K'O- BEET ROOT; O. pALANGA SAGA,
TllALI-CHHiPA; B., G. & H. BEET
KANTALl-CHAlIIPA; K. MANORANJINI, Jh-ytophytllm senstttvurn (sensitive·
KANDALA SAMPIGE; M. & T. MANO- wood-sorrel) =A. & B. BAN-NAH-
RANJINl; M'. IIIRWA CHAPllA; O. ANGA; G. JAnARERA; H. LAJALU;
CHINI-CHAMP_' ; P. CHAMPA; T'. K. HORA MUNI; M. MUKKUTTI,
MANORANJITHAM THINDANAZHI; M'. LAJARI
A rtocarpu8 integrifolia (jack tree) = Bll/mea lacera = A. KUKUR-SHUTA;
A. KOTHAL; B. KANTHAL; G. MAN- B. KUKUR-SONGA; G. KALARA; H.
PHANASA; H. KATAHAR; K. HALA- & P. KOKRONDA; K. GANDllARl'
SU; M. & T. PILA; M'. PHANAS; GInA; M'. BURANDO; O. pOKA-
O. PANASA; P. KATAR SUNGA; T. KATU3fULLANGl
Asparagus racernOSllS = A. SHAT~fUL; Boe1'haa~'ia diffWJOJ (hogwced) =A.
B. SATA"MULI; H. & P. SATAWAR; pONONUA; B. & M'. pUNARNAVA;
K. SHATAVARl; O. CIIHATUARI; M., G. GIIETULl; H. THIKRI, GADHA-
 APPENDIX II; GLOSSARY 395
l'UltvA; K, BALAVADIKE, GONAJALI, H. & P.
KUSAM; K. KUSUBI,
RAKTA PUNARNAVA; lVi.
THAZHU- KUSUME,' M. SINDOORAM/ M'.
l'HAMA; O. GHO];)APURUNI; P. KARDAl/ O. KUSU':\IA; T. & T'.
BISKHAPRA, ITSIT; T. MUKKA- KUSU~[BA

RATAl; T". PUNARNABA Carum copticu1l1=A. JONI-GUTI; B.

BOTaS8US flabellifer (palmyra·palm) JOWAN; G. AJAMO; H. & P.
=A. & B. TAL; G. & M'. TAD; AJOWAN; K. OllW, AJAWANA; M.
H. & P. TAR; K. TALE MARA, TATI AYAMODAKAM; M'. OWA; O.
NUNGU; M. KARIMPANA; O. TALA; JUANI/ T'. OJ\rAM/ T'. OMAMU
T:. PANAI; T'. THADI Cassia fistula (Indian laburnum) =
Bra8sica campestris (mustard) i= A. A. SONARU; B. SHONDAL; G. GAR-
SARIAH; B. SARISHA; G. SAFED- MALA/ H. & P. AMALTASH,' K.
RAI; H. & P. SARSON; K. SABrVE; KARKE GIDA, HONNAVARIRE; M.
M. KATUKU; M'. lIWHORI; O. & T. KONNAI,' 1'.1'. BAHAWA,' O.
SOROSIIA; T. KARUPPUKKADUGU SUNAIU
Bryophyllu.m pinnatum (sprout-leaf Cassia sophera=A. MEDELUA/ B.
plant)=A .. pATEGAZA, DUPORTENGA; KALKASUNDA; G. KASUNDARI/ H.
B. PATHun,KucHl; H. ZAKHM-I' & P. KASUNDA; "K. KASAMARDA,'
HAYAT; K. KADU BASAL]!;; M'. M. PONNARAN or PONNAM-THAKARA;
PANPlIUTI; O. AMARPOI; P. M'. KALA-KASBINDA,' O. KUSUNDA,'
PATHUR-CHAT; T. RANAKALLI; 'T'. T. rONNAVEERAN
SnrAJAMUDU Cassytha filiformis=B. AKASH-BEL/
Caesalpinia pulcherrirna (dwarf gold H. AMARBELI/ K. ARASHA BALLI,.
mohur lOr peacock flower) = A. MANGANA UDIDARA; M. AKASA·
SWARNAKANTI; B. RADHACHURA; VALLI; M'. AKASHVALLI; '0.
G. SANDHESHARO; H. GULETURA; AKASHA BELA,' P. AMIL, AMARBELI
.K. KENJIGE GIDA, RATNA GANDHI; Ca81larina equisetifolia (beef-wood'
M. RAJ:IoIALLI"; M'. SHANKASUR; O. lree)=A., B., H. & P. JHAU/ G.
KRUSHNACHUDA, GODJBANA; P. VILAYATI SARU / K. SARVE MARA"
KRlSHANACHURA; T'. MAYIRKONRAI;
GALl MARA,' M. CHOOLAMARUM,
T'. TURAYI KA1'TADIMARUM; M'. KHADSHERANI;
Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) = A. O. JHAUN; T. SAVUKKU; T' ..
RAHAR-MAH; B. ARAHAR; G. SARAVU
TUVARE; H. RAHAR; K. THOGI Celosia. cristata (cock's comb)=A.
KAL; M. THUVARA; M'. 'fUR; O.
HARADA; T. THOVARAY; T'. KAN-
RUKURA-JOA-PHUL; B. MORAG-
PHUL,' G. LAPADI; H. JATADHARI;~
DULU
Calotropis gigantea (madar) = A. K. MAYURA SHlKHI; M. Kozin-
PULLU; M'. KOMBADA; O. GANJA-
iKON-GOCH/ B. AKANDA/ G. AKADO/ CHULIA/ P. KUKUR-PHUL
H. & P. AK,' K. EKKADA GIDA/
M. & T. ERUKKU,' M'. RUI/ O. Cent ella asiatica! (Indian penny,.
ARKA/ T'. JlLLEUU "-
wort)=A. MANIMUNI; B. THUL'
KURI/ G.KARBRAHMI/ H. & P.
Cannabis sati""a (hemp) =A .. B., H.
& P. BHANG, GANJA/ G., P. & T. BRAHMl-BOOTT,' K. ONDELAGA,~

GANJA/ K. GANJA GIDA, BHANGI/

BRAHM! SOPPu; ]1,1. KODANGAL,
KOTAK.\N; M'. BRAHJ\II/ O. THAL·
M. KANCHAVU/ M'. BHANG/ O.
KUDI/ 'r. VULLARAI
BHANGA, GANJEI/ T'. GANJA CHE.TTU
C01'diospennum lwlieacabum (bal- Ce8tru1Ttnocturnll1l1 (queen of the
loon vine) = A. KOPALPHOTA/ B. night)=A. & B. HAS-NA-HANA;
KAPALPHUTKI, SHIBJHUL,' G. KARO- H. RAT-Kl-RANI,' K. RATR! RANI'
DIO / K. BEKKINA BUDDE GIDA, HOOVU
ERUMBALLI," M. VALLlYUZHINJA/ Chrysopogon aciculatus (love thorn)
M'. KAPALPHODI,' O. PHUTPHUTKIA/ =A. BON-GUn; B. CHOR-KANTA;
P. HAB-UL-KULKUL; T. MODAKA- K. GANJIGARIKE HULLU / O.
THAN / T'. BUDDAKAKKIRA, KASA- GUGUCHIA; P. CHOR-KANDA
RITIGE • Giecr arietenum (gram) = A. BOOT·
Carissa earandas=A. KORJA'TENGA; MAH; B. CHHOLA; G., H. & P.
B. KARANJA/ H. & P. KARONDA," CHANA>' K. KADALE, CHANA,' M.
K. KAVALI GIDA, KARANDA; M. & T. KADALAI/ 'M'. HARABHARA;
ELIMULLU; lH'. KARVANDA; O. 0, BUTA; T". SANIKALU
KHlRAKOLI; T. KALAKKAI,' T'. CinnilmO'Jnll1n camplwra (camphor)
I{ALIVI =A. & B. KARPUR; G., H. &
Carthamus tinctoriu8 (safflower) = A. M'. KAPUR; K. KARPURADA GIDA;
& B. KUSUl\[-PHUL; G. KUSUMBO; M. RARPPURAVRIKSHAM,' O.
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

KARPURA/ P. KAFUR/ T. KARUP- M. & '1". KOTTAMALLI/ M'. KOTHIM'

<
PURAM/ T'. KAPPURAMU BIR; T'. DHANIYALU
Oinnamomum taU/ala (bay leaf)=A. Crotalaria juncea (Indian or sunn
TEJPAT, MAHPAT,' B. TEZPATA,' G. hemp)=A. SHON,' B. SHONE; G.,
& H. TEZPAT/ K. KADU DAL- H. & p. SAN,' K. APSENA-BU, SANNA
CHINNI,' M'. TAMAL/ O. & P. SENABU; M. THANTHALAKOTTI/
TEJPATRA/ T. TALISHAPPATTIRI,' T'. M'. KHULKHULA/ O. CHHANAl'ATA,'
TALLISHAPATRI T. SANAPPAI,' T'. JANNAMU
(Jinnamomum zeylanicum (cinna- Crotalaria sericea (rattlewort) = A.
mon)=A., B., G., M'., O. & P. GHANTA-KORNA/ B. ATASHI/ H.
DALCHINI/ H. DARCHINI/ K. JHUNJHUNIA/ K. GIJIGIJI GIDA,'
DALCHINNI, LAVANGA CHAKKE,' 1\,[. M. THANTHALAKOTTI,' M'. GHAGRl/
& T. ILLAVANGAM/ T'. LAVANGAMU O. JUNKA; P. JHANJHANlAN
(Jissus quadrangularis=A., B. & H. Cucumis melo (melon) = A. BANGl;
HARHJORA/ K. MANGARA VALLI, B. PHUTl,' G. TARBUCH,' H. & P.
SANDU BALLI/ M. l'IRANTA,' M'. KHARBUZA, PHUTl & KAKRI,' K.
KANDAWEL/ O. HADAVANGA/ P. KARABUJA, KEKKARIKE/ M. & T'.
GIDAR-DAK, DRURRI/ T. PIRANDAI/ THANNIMATHAI,' M'. KHARBUJ/ O.
T'. NALLERU KHARBUJA
Oitrullus vulgaris (water melon) = Cucumis sativus (cucumber) = A.
A. KHORMUJA/ B. TARMUJ / G. TIANH; B. SASHA; G. KAKRI; H.,
KARIGU / H. & P. TARBUZA,' K. M., & P. KHIRA,' K. SOUTHE
KALLANGADI BALLI,' M. & T. KAYl,' M. MULLENVELLARI,' O.
KUMMATTIKKAI,' M'. KALINGAD/ O. KAKUDl/ T. IIWLLUVELLARI
TARABIIUJA Cucurbita moschata (sweet gourd) =
(Jitrus aurantifolia (sour lime) =A. A. RONGA-LAU / B. MITHA-KUMRA,'
NEMU-TENGA,' B. KAGJI-NEBU / G. H. MlTHA-KADDU " K. SEEGUM-
LIMBU / H. NI]liBOO / K. NIMBE " BALA; M. MATHANGAI; M'. KALA
M. CHERUNARAKAM/ ]',1'. KAGADI BHOPALA; O. MITHA KOKHARU "
LIMBU / O. LEJ\IBU / P. GALGAL/ T. P. HALWA-KADDU,' T. POOSANIKAI
ELIMICHCHAM/ T' NIMMAPANDU Curcuma domestic(JJ (turmeric) = A.
Citrus grandis (pummelo or shad- HOLODHI/ B. HALOOD; B. & M'.
dock) =A. REBAB-TENGA,' B. BATABI- HALAD; H. & P. HALDI; K.
NEBU / G. OBAKOTRU / H. & P. ARISINA; M. KUVA/ O. HALADI/
CHAKOTRA/ K. CHAKKOTHA/ M. T. MANJAL; T'. PASUPU
BAMBLEENARAKAM,' M'. PAPANAS; Cuscuta reflexa (dodder) A.
O. BATAPI; T. BAMBALMAS AKASHI-LOTA, RAVANAR-NARI,' B.
Oitrus reticulata (orange) = A. SWARNA-LATA/ G. AKASWEL/ H.
KAMALA-TENGA/ B. & O. KAMALA; AKASH-BEL,' K. BADANIKE, BANDA-
G. SUNTRA,' H. NARANGI/ K. LIKE, MUDITALE,' M'. AMAR VEL;
KITTALE/' 1\1:, NARAKAM,' M'. O. NIRMULI; P. AMARBEL 0'
SANTRA; P. SANGTRA,' T. NARAN- Cynodon dactylon (dog grass) = A.
GAM/ '1". NARANJI DUBORI-BON: B. DURBA-GHAS/ G.
(Jlitoria ternatea (butterfly pea) = A., DURVA,' Ii. & P. DOOB; K.
B. & O. APARAJITA/ G. GARANI,' GARIKE HULLU, KUDIGARlKE,' M.
H. APARAJIT; K. GIRl KARNIKE, & T. ARUGAMPULLU; M'. HARALI;
SATUGADA GIDA/ M. SANKHU-PUSH- O. DUBA GHASA,' T'. GERICHA
PAM/ 1\1'. GOKARNA/ P. APARAJIT, GADDl
NILI LOEL/ T. KAKKATAN/ T'. Dalbergia sissoo (Indian redwood)
SANGA-PUSHPAM
=A. SHISHOO; B. 8ISSOO; G.
Voccinia cordifolia=A. BELIPOKA/ B. SHISHAM; H. & P. SHISHAM,
TELAKUCHA; H. BHIMBA " K. TAHLI; K. BIRADI, BINDI, SHISSU;
THONDE KAYI, KAGE DONDE,' M.
M. VEETI; M'. SHISAVI; O. SISU
ROVEL/ M'. TONDALE,' O. KUN-
DURI, KAINCHIKAKUDI; P. GHOL/ Datura fastuosa (thorn-apple) = A.
T. KOVARAI: T". KAKIDONDA DHOTURA; R DHUTRA; G. DHA-
Colocasia esculenta (taro) =A. & B. TOORA; H. & P. DHUTURA; K.
KACHU; H. & P. KACHALU " K. DATTURA, UMMATTI; M. UMMAM;
KESAVINA GEDDE, SAVE GEDDE; ]\'[. M'. DHOTRA; O. DUDURA; T.
CHEMpU/ M'. KASALU/ O. SARU/ OOMMATHAI; '1". UMMATHA
T. SAMAKILANGOO " '1". CHEMA Delonix regia (gold mohur/=A. &
'Corian.drum, sativum (coriander) = B. KRISHNACHURA; G., H., M'.
A., B., H., O. & P. DHANIA/ G. & P. GULMOHR; K. SEEME SAN-
DHANE; K. KOTHAMBARI, HAVEEJA,' KESWARA, KE!l[pU TURAI; M. MARA-
 APPENDIX II: GLOSSARY 397
MANDARAM; O. RADHACHUDA; T. RAKKALLI; M'. CHAUDHARI NIW-
MAYILKONNAI DUNG; O. DOKANA SIJU; P. DANDA
Dillenia indica = A. OU'TENGA; B., THOR, TIDHARA SEHUD; T. SHAD-
H. & P. CHALTA; G. CARAMBAL; RAIKALLI; T' . BONTHAKALI
K. MUCHH:q,U, KALTEGA; M. VAL- Euphorbia nel'ii/olia A. SIJU; B.
LAPUNNA; M'. KARAMAL; O. OU; l\[ANSHA-SIJ; G. THOR; H. SIJ; K.
T. UVATTEKU; T". UVVA ELE GALLI; M. & T. ILAKKALLI;
Dioscorea bulbi/era (wild yam) =A. M'. CHAUDHARI NIWDUNG; O.
GOCH-ALOO; B. GACHH-ALOO; G. PATARA snu; P. G;\NGICHU; T'.
SAURIYA; H. & _P. ZAMINKHAND; AKUJEMUDU
K. HEGGENASU, KANTA GENASU; M. Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia}
KATTUKACHIL; M'. KADU KAR- =A. LAL-PAT; B., M'. & P. LAL-
ANDA; O. DESHI-ALOO, PITA-ALOO; PATA; K. POINSETTIA GIDA; O.
T. KATTUKKILANGU; T'. CHEDU- PANCHUTIA; P. LAL-PATTI; T.
PADDUDUMPA MAYILKUNNI
Doliclws lablab (country bean) =A. Ferula /oetida (asafoetida) ==A., B.,
UROHl; B. SHlM; G. AVRI; H. & G., H., M'. & P. H!NG; K. INGU,
P. SEM; K. AVARE BALLI; M. HINGU; M. KAYAM; O. HENGU
SIMA-PAYARU; 11'. PAVATA, VAL; Ficus bengalensis (banyan) =A. BOR-
O. SIMA; T. AVARAI; T'. CHIK- GOCH; B. BOT; H. & P. BARH; G.
KUDI & M'. WAD; K. AALADA MARA; M.
Duranta plumieri = A. JEORA-GOCH; PEERALU ; O. BARA ; T. AALU-
B. DURANTA-KANTA; H. & p. NIL- MARAM; T'. MARRI
IrANTA; K. DURANTHA KANTI; M'. Ficus glomerata (fig.) =A. DIMORU;
DURANTA; O. BILATI KANTA, BEN- B. DUMUR; G. UMBARO; H. & P.
JUATI GULAR; K. ATHI; M. & T. ATH-
Eclipta alba= A. KEHOR"-JI; B. KESA- THYMARAM; M' . UMBAR; O.
RAJ; G., H. & P. BHANGRA; K. DIMURI; T" • BODDA
GARUGADA GIDA, GARUGALU; M. & Ficus religiosa (peepul) =A. ANHOT;
T. KAyy'ANYAM, KAITHONNI; M'. B. ASWATTHA; G. JAR!; H. & P.
MAKA; O. KESHDURA PIPAL; K. ARALI, ASWATHA; M.
Eleusine coracana=B. & H. MAR- ARAYALU; M'. PIMPAL; O. ASWA-.
HUA; G. NAVTO; K. RAGI;. M. THA; T. ARASU; T'. ASWATHAM
PANJAPPULLU; M'. NACHANI; O. Foeniculum vulgare (anise or fennel}
MANnIA; p. KonRA, MANDWA; 'T. =A. GUA-MOORI; B. PAN-MOURI;
KOLVARAKU; T'. RAGI G. WARIARI; H. & P. SAUNF; K.
Enhydra fluctuans ==A. HELACHI-SAK, DODDA JEERIGE, DODDA SOMPU;
MONOA-SAK; B. & P. HALENCHA; M'. BADISHEP; O. PAN MOHURI
H. HARUCH; M'. HARKUCH; O. :G&denia florida (cape .iasmine) =A.
HIDlMICHI, PANl SAGA TOGOR; B., H. & P. GANDHA-
Entada scamdens (nicker bean) = A. RAJ; G. DIRAMALI; K. SUVASANl!l
GHILA; B., H., O. & P. GILA; G. MALLE; M'. GANDHRAJ; O. SUGAN-
SUV ALI-AMLI; J{. GARDALA HALLE- DHARAJ
L
KAYl BALLI; M. KAKKUVALn; M'. Gloriosa superba (glory lily) = A. &
GARBl; T. CHlLLU; T'. GILLATIGAI B. ULAT-CHANDAL; G. & M'.
Enterolobium saman (rain tree) =A. _ KHADYANAG ; H. KALIARI, KUL-
SIRISH GOCH; K. MALE MARA; M. HARI; K. SHIVASHAKTI, LANGU-
URAKKAM-THOONGIMARAM; M'. SA- LIRA; M. MANTHONNI, PARAYAN-
MAN; O. BADA GACHHA CHAKUNDA, POOVA; O. PANCHAANGULIA; P.
BANA SlRISHA GURHPATNI, KULHARI; T. KALAPAI-
Ervatamia divaricata=A. KOTHONA- KILANGU; T'. AGNISIRA
PHUL; B. & M'. TAGAR; H. & P. Gyanandropsis gynandra=A. BHUT-
CHANDNI: K. NANDI BATLU, NANJA MULA; B. HURHURE; G. ADIYA-
BATLU; M. & T. NANTHIAR VAT- KHARAM; H. HURHUR; K. NARAM-
TAM; O. TAGARA BE~E SOPPU; M. KATTUKATUKU;
Erythrina indica (coral tree) = A. M. TILVAN; O. ANASORISIA, SAD...
MODAR; B. MANDAR; G. PANA- HURHURJA; P. HULHUL; T'. NAIRA-
RAWAS; H. PANJIItA; K. HARIVANA, DUGU; T'. VAMINTA
VARJIPE; M. & T. MURUKKU; M'. Helianthus annullS (sunflower) = A.
PANGARA; O. PALDHUA; P. DAR- BELI-PHUL; B. & O. SURJYAMUKHI'
AKHT FARID, PANGRA G. SURYAMUKHI; H. & P. SURAJ~
Euphorbia antiquorum = B. BAJ- MUKHI; K. SURYAKANTHI; M., T.
BARAN; G. TAND,JIARI; K. BONTE & T'. SURIYAKANTI; M'. SURYA-
GALLI, CHADARA G;\LLI; M. CHATHI- PHUL
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Hibiscus esculentus (lady's finger) = KESSRA; K. NEERU DANTU, KAVA-

A., O. & M'. BHEND!; B., H. & KULA; M. NIRGRAMpU; M'. PAN
P. BHINDI; G. BHINDA; K. BHENDE LA WANG ; T. NIRKJRAMPU; T'.
KAYI; M. & T. VENDAKKA; T'. NIRUYAGNIVENDRAMU
BENDA Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd)=
Hibiscus mutabilis =A. & B. STHAL' A. JATI·LAU; B. & O. LAU; H.
PADlIIA; G. UPALASARI; H. GULL· LAUKI; K. EESUGAYI BALLI, HALU
AJAIB; K. BETTA DAVARE, KEMPU GUl\1BALA; M. & T'. CHORAKKAI;
SURYAKANTHI; M. CHINAPPARATTI; M'. DUDHYA BHOpALA; p. GHIYA
M'. GULABI BHENDI; O. THALA· Lagerstroernia fios·reginae =A. AJAR;
PADMA; P. GUL-I-AJAIB; T. SE2\{' B., H. &' P. JARUL; K. HOLE
BARATTA! DASAVALA, CHELLA, BENDEKA; !VI.
.Hibiscu8 rosa·sinensis (China rcse NIRVENTEKKU; M'. TAMAN; O.
or shoe· flower) ""A. JOBA; B. pATOLI; T. PUMARUTHu
JABA; G. JASUNT; H. GURHAL, Lantana indica, (lantana) =G. GHANI'
JASUM; K. KEMPU DASAVALA; JIlL DALIA; K. LAN TAVANA GIDA,
CHElIfPARATHY; M'. JASWAND; O. lIESIGE lIOOVA; !VI. pUCHEDI; M'.
MANDARA; P. GURHAL, JIA PUSHPA; GHANERI; O. NAGA-AIRI; P. DESI
T. SAlIfBATHOOCHEDI; T'. DASAN! LANTANA; T. ARIppU; 'T'. LANTANA
Hibiscus sabdarifla (rozelle) "" A. Latkyrus sativu8 = A. KOLA· MAlI ;
MESEKA·TENGA; B. J\IESTA; H. & B. H. & O. KHESARI; G. MATER;
P. PATWA; K. KEMPU l'UNDRIKE; K. CHIKKA TOGARI, VISHA TOGARI,
M. pULleHI; M'. LAL'AMBADI; O. KESARI BELE ; JIll' . LAKH ; P.
KHATA KAUNRIA KISARI DAL
Hiptage maldablota "" A. MADHOI' Lens culinaris (lentil) =A. MOSOOR·
LOTA; B. & O. MADHABI·LATA; G. MAlI; B. MASURI; G. MASURIDAL;
MADHAvr; R. MADHU·LATA; K. R., M'. & P. lIfASUR; K. MASURU
MADHAVI LATHE; M. SITApU; JIll'. BELE, LENTEL GIDA; O. MASURA
MADHtJMALATI; P. MADULATA, BAN· Leormrus sibiricus = A. RON GA·
KAR; T. KURUKKATTI, MADAVI DORON; B. DRONA; H. HALKUSHA,
Holarrhena antidysenterica=A. DUD' GUMA; O. BHUTA'AIlU, KOILIKlIIA
KHORl; B. KURCHI; G'. INDRA· Leucas linifolia=A. DORON, DURUM·
JAV1)NU; H. KARCHI; K. KODA' pHUL; B. SWET'DRONA; G. JHINA·
CHAGA, KODAMURUKA, KORJU; M. PANNI KUBO; H. CHOTA-HALKUSA;
KODA1{Apl'ALA; 1\1'. 1{UDA; O. PITA K. GANTU THUl\IBE, KARJALI GIDA;
KORUA; P. lNDER JAU, KAWAR J\I. THUMPA; M'. DRONApUSHpI,
Impatiens balsamina (balsam) =A'. GUMA; O. GAISA; P. GULDODA; T.
DAMDEU1{A; B. DOpATI; H. GUL· THUMBAI; T'. TAMMA CHETTU
MENDI; K. GO URI HOOVA, BASA· Lirnonia, acidissima (elephant·apple)
VANA pADA; M. & T. BALSAM; :M'. =A. & B. KATH'BAEL; G. KOTHA;
'['ERADA; O. HARAGOURA; P. MA· H. & P. KAITHA; K. KADU BILVA
JITI, BANTIL, PALLU PATRE, NAYI BEL~~; M. BLANKA;
,Ipomoea Teptans (water bindweed) M'. KAWATH; O. KAINTHA; T.
=A. KALMAU; B. & H. KALMI· VELAMARUM; T". VELANGA •
SAl{; G. NALJNlBHAJI; K. BILl Linum usita,tissiml17n (linseed) =A.
HAMBU ; M. KALAMBI, NAL; O. TICHI; B. TIsnI; G. JAVA; H. &
KALAMA SAGA; P. NALI, KALMI SAG P. ALSHI; K. SEEME AGASE BEEJA;
1xora coccinea""A. & B. RANG AN ; M'. JAWAS; O. pES1; T. AALI·
H. GOTAGANDHAL; K. l\I[ALE HOO VIRAl
GIDA, KEPALE; ]\1[, & T. CHETH· Loranthu.~ longiflorus = A. ROGHU'
THY, THETTY; M'. MAKADI; O. MALA; B. MANDA; G. VANDO; H.
KHADIKA PHULA, RANG ANI ; P BANDA; K.. SIGARE BADANTKE; M.
RUNGAN ITHTHIL; M'. BANDGUL; O.
1asminum sambac (jasmine) = A. MALANGA, lIiADANGA; P. pAND; T.
JtJTI'PHUL; B. & H. BELA; G. BAT· PULLURUV1; T'. BAJINNIKI, BADA'
MOGRI; K. GUNDU MALLIGE; M. NIKA
MULLA; M'. MOGARA; O. MALL! Lufla (JJcutanqula (ribbed gourd) =
Jatropha gossypifolia = A. PHOTo A. JIKA; B. JHINGA; G. smOLA;
ERA; B., H. & P. LAL-BHARENDA; H. & P. KALI-TORI; K. HEERE
K. CHIKKA KADU HARALU, HATHI BALLI; M. pEECHIL, pEECHINGAI;
YELE HARALU; 1\1'. VILAYATI ERAND; M'. DODARA; O. JAHNI; T. PEE·
O. NALI BAIGABA. VERENDA; T. GHANKA
ADALAI; T'. NEpALEMU Lulfa cylindrica (bath sponge or
·Ju8siaea repens=A. TALJURIA; B. loofah) =A. BHOL; B, DHUNDUL;
 APPENDIX II: GLOSSARY 399
H. & P. GHIYA-TORI; M'. GHO- Musa paradisiaca (banana)=A.
SALE; O. PITA TARADA KOL,' B. KALA,' G. & H. KELA;
.Martynia diandra (tiger's nail) =A. K. BALE GIDA, BALE H.\NNU; M.
& B. BAGH-NAKHI; G. VICH- VAZHA; l'vI'. KADALI, KEL; O.
CHIDA ; II. SHERNUI ; K. HULl KODOLI, ROMBHA,' T. VAZHAI;
NAKHA, GARUDA MOOGU; J\-1. & T'. T'. ARATI, KADALI
KAKKACHUNDU, PULINAGAM; M'. Nelumbium speciosum (lotus) = A.
WINCHAURI; O. BAGHA NAKHI; P. PODUM; B. & O. PADMA,' G. & M'.
HATHAJORI; T'. GARUDA MUJ{KU KAMAL; H. & P. KANWAL,' K.
champac(}J = A. & P.
.lIfichelia KAMALA, TAVARE; M. THAMARA;
CHA~1'PA-PHUL; B. SWARNACHA~{PA; T. THAMARAI; T'. DAMARA
G. RAID CHAMPAC; H. CHAMPAK; N eriurn odorum (oleander) = A.
K. SA1I1PIGE; M. & T'. CHEMPA- KORBI-PHUL; B. KARAVI,' G. &
KAM; M'. SONCHAPHA; O. CHAMPA; M'. KANHER; H. & P. KANER;
T'. SAMPAKA K. KANIGALU; M. & T. ARALY,'
Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant) = O. KARABI; T'. GANNERU
A. LAJUKI-LOTA; B. LAJJABATI- Nyctanthes arbor-tl'istis (night jas-
LATA; G. LAJJAWANTI; H. & P. mine)=A. SEWALI-PIIUL; B.
LAJWAN1'l; K. MUTTIDARE MUNI, SHEWLI, SHEPHALI; G. RATRANE;
MUDUGU DAVARE; M. THOTTAL- H. HARSHINGAR; K. PARIJATA; M.
VADI; M'. LAJALU; O. LAJAKULI, PAVIZHAMULLA; M'. l'ARIJATAK;
LAJKURI; T. THOTTASINIGI; T'. O. SINGADAHARA; P. HARSAN-
l'EDDA NIDRAKANTHA GHAR; T. PAVELAl\1; 'r'. PARIJA-
JJlirabilis jalapa (four o'clock THAM
plant or marvel of Peru)=A. Nyrnphaea lotus (water lily) =A.
GODHULI-GOPAL; B. K:RISHNA- BHET,' B. SHALOOK; G. NILOPAL,;
KOLI; H. GULABBAS,' K. SANJJiJ H. & P. NILOFAR; K. KENDAVARE,
:!ALLIGE, GULBAKSHI, BHADRAKSHI; KANNAIDIL]l,/ M. & T'. AMPAL/ M'.
M. NALUMANICHEDI; ]\;'['. GUL- LAL-KAMAL,' O. KAIN, KUMUDA
BAKSH; O. RANGANI, BADHULI; P. Ocimum sanctum (sacred basil)=A.
GUL-E-ABBASI; T. ANDIMANDARAI; TULASHI,' B., G., H. & P. TULSI,'
T'. CHANDRAKANTA K. SREE TULSI, VISHNU TULSI,'
JJ1 omordica charantia (bitter ~ourd) M. & T. THULASI/ M'. TULAS/ O.
=A. TITA-KERALA,' B. KARALA & TULASI/ T'. ODDHI
UCHCHE; G., H. & P. KARELA,' Oldenlandia corymbosa=B. & P.
K. HAGALA KAYI; M. & T. PAVAL" KHETPAPRA/ G. PARPAT,' H. DA::'~AN­
PAVAKKAI; l'vI'. KARLE,' O. PAPPAR/ K. HUCHHU NELA BEVU,
KALARA,' T'. J{AJ{ARA KALLU SABBASIGE,/ JIll'. PITPAPADA/
lIIoringa oleifera (drumstick or O. GHARPODIA
horse rndish) = A. & O. SAJAN A; Opuntia dillenii (prickly pear) =A.
B. SAJlNA; G. SARAGAMA,' H. SAGOR-PRENA,' B. PHANI-MANSHA:
SAINJY:;-' K. NUGGE MARA, G. NAG-NEVAL,' H. NAGPHANI/ K.
MOCHAKA MARA; M. ,_wURINGA; PAPAS KALLI, CHAPPATE KALLI; 1{'
M'. SHEVAGA; P. SAONJNA,' T. ELAKKALLI/ M'. PHADYA NIW-
MURUNGAI; T'. MUNAGA DUNG/ O. NAGAPHENI/ P. CHITAR-
i11 01'118 indica (mulberry) A. THOR/ T. SAPPATHTHIKKALLI; T'.
NOONI; B. TOONT,' G. TUTRI,' H. NAGADALI
& P. SHAH·TOOT; K. KAMBAI,I Oroxylon indic1Jm=A. BHAT-GHIL,\/
GIDA, RESHME HIPPALr GIDA,' M. B. SONA/ G. PODVAL,' H. ARLU /
'MALBERRY; ]\;1'. TUTI; O. TUTA- K. PATAGANI, SONE,PATTA, TIGUDU "
KOLI M. PATHIRI/ ]\;1'. TETU/ O. PHAN-
Mucuna 'pruriens (cowage) = A. PHANIA, PHAPANI/ P. SANNA/ T.
BANDAR-KEKOA,' B. ALKUSHI; G. . l'AYYALANTHA/ T'. PAMPINI
KIVANCH; H. & P. KAWANCH; K. Oryza satil)a (paddy) =A., B. & H.
NASAGUNNI, NAYI SONKU BALLI,' DHAN,' G. CHOKHA/ K. BHATHA,
,'II:. NAI'KORUNA; M'. KHAJ KUIRA; NELLU/ M. ARI; M'. BHAT,' O.
O. BAIDANKA DHANA/ P. CHAWAL/ T. ARISHI/_
]JJ1Jrra"a ~x()tica, (Chinese box)~A. T'. URLU
KAJIlINI'PHUL; B. & 0, KAMINI; Oxalis repens (wood-sorrel) = A.
H. MARCHULA; K, KADU KARl SENGAI-TENGA, TBNGECHI/ B. AM.
BEVU, ANGARAKANA GIDA; M. RUL-SAK,' H. CHUKA-TRIPATI, KHAT-
MARAJIlULLA; ]\;'['. PANDHARI KUNTl; TI-PATTI/ K. PUTTAM PURALE/ M.
P. MARUA; T. KATTUKARUVEPPI- PULIYARILA/ M'. AMBOSHI; O.
LA!,' T'. NAGAGOLUGI • AlIlBILITI,_ A-MLITI / P. KHATTI -BUTI
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Paederia /oetida=A. BHEDAI-LOTA,' T. AGASATIIAMAItAI,' T'. AKASATA-

B. GANDHAL/ G. GANDHANA/ H. MARA
GANDHALI/ M. TALANILI; M'. Plumbago zeylanica=A. AGYACHIT_':
Pl\ASARUM; O. PASARUNI; P. B. CHITA; G. CHITRAMULA; E.) M'.
GUNDALI,' T'. SAVIRELA & P. CHIT:&AK,' K. BILl CHITItA
Pandanus odo'ratissimus (screw- MOOLA/ M. & T'. KODUVELI/ O.
pine)=A. KETAKI-PHUL; B. & G. DHALACHITA
KETAKY; H. & P. KEORA; K. Plumeria rubra (pagoda tree) =A.
TALE HOOVU " KEDIGE,' .M. KAITHA,' GULANCHI,' B.
KAT-GOLAP,' G. ItHAD-
M'. KEWADA,' O. KIA,' T. THAZHAI; CHAlIIPO; B. & P. GOLAINCHI/ K.
T'. MOGIL HALU SAMPIGE; M. EEZHAVA-CHEM-

Pa8sijlor(JJ /oetida (passion-flower) = PAKAM " M' . KHUIt CHAPHA " O.

KATIlA CHAMPA,' P. GULCHIN
A. JUNUKA/ B., E. & P. JHUMKA- Polianthes tuberosa (tuberose) = A.
LATA; K. KUKKI BALLI; M. B. & O. RAJANI-GANDHA; E. & P.
KRISTHUPAZHAM,' M'. KRISHNA
GULSHADO __ K. SUGANDHA ItAJA.
KAMAL,' O. JHUMUKALATA; T. NELA SAMPIGE, SANDHYA RAGA,' ]\'['.
SIRUPPUNAIKKALI; T' . TELLAJU-
GULCHHADI_- T. NILASAMPANGI,' T'.
MIKI SUKANDARAJl
Penni€etum typhoides (pearl millet) Polyalthia longi/olia (mast tree)-=
=B., E., O. & P. BAJRA; K. A. & O. DABADARU " B. DEBDARU "
SAME, KAMBU / ]\1. & T. I{AMPU, G. ASHOPALO; B. & M.' ASHOK/
BAJItA / ]\1' • BAJARI; T'. SAJ J A K. PUTRAJEEVI, KAMBADA MARA __
Phaseolus aureu8 (green gram) = A. M. ARANAMAItAM,' P. DEVIDARI/ T.
MOGU-MAH,' B. & E. MOONG; G. NETTILINGAM
MlTG.!/ K. HESARU~' M. CHERU- Polygon_um sp.=A. BIHLONGONI; B.
PAYAItU; M'. HIRAVE MUG; O. PANI-MARICH; M. MOTHALA-MOOKA;
JHAIN-MUGA,' P. MUNG,' T. PACHA- O. MUTHI SAGA; P. NAItRI; T.
PAYARU " T'. PESALU AATALARIE
Phase Ius mungo (black gram)=A. Portulaca oleracea (purslane) = A.
MA 1- [AH; B. MASH, KALAl; G. HANIlTHENGIA/ B. NUNIA-SAG/ G.
U AD; E. UItID,' K. UDDU; M. LONI/ H. & P. KULFA-SAG/ K.
U HUNNU; 1\<1'. UDID; O. MUGA;
MASH; T. ULUNNU/ T'. ~~~~:A; G~? G~o;:,~~. ~~LBA~~~I,:
DDULU T'. KAIUKEE~AI,' T'. PEDDAPAVILI-
Pl~. lanthus emblica (emhlic myro- KUItA
alan)=A. AMLOKI; B. AMLA, Pothos 8candens=A. HATI'LOTA,' G.
A LAKI/ G. AMEALA,' E. AMLIKA; MOTa PIPAR,' K. ADKE BEELU BALLI,
\ NELLI-BETTADA NELL~, NELLI- AGACHOP1'U _- M. ANAPPARUVA_- M'.
IS~ELLI; M. & T'. NELLmKAI; M'. ANJAN VEL/ O. GAJA PIPALI/ P.
AW~A; O. ANLA/ P. AMLA/ T". GAZPIPAL
USlRI, Prosopis spicigem=A. SOMlDH,' B.)
Piper tibk1e (betel)=A., B., G., H. B., M'. & O. SHOMI_- G. KANDO,'
& P. PAN; K. VEELe DeLE, yeLe K. VUNNE, PERUMBE/ M. PARAMPtt;
BALLI; ]\1. ',& T. VETHILA; M'. P. JAND _- T, PERUMBAI' T'. JAMB!
NAGWELI,' O. PANA,' T'. TAMALA- Psidium gUQyava (gu~va) = A.
PAKU ., MODHURI-AM.. B. PAYARA,' G.
Piper longum t~ong pepper) = A JAlIfFAL_- B. &- P. AMRUD; K. SElEBe,
PIPOLI; B. PIPOOD; G. PIPARA,' H. CHEPE, PEItAtA/ M. PERAKKA; M'.
PIPLI,' K. HIPPALI; M. THIPPALl,' PERU_- O. PUULI,' T. KOYYA/ T'.
M'. PIMPALI; O. PIPALI,' P. DAR- JAMA
FILFIL, MAGHAN Pterospermum aceri/olium A.
Pipe." nigrum (black pepper)=A. KONOK-CHAMJ>A; B. MOOCH-KANDA;
JALUK; B. GOL-MARICH; G. KALO- H. KANAK-CHAMPA,' K. MUCHU-
MInICH; H. GOLlIURCH; K. KARl KUNDA GIDA; M'. MUCHKUND,' O.
MENASU; M. KURUMULAGU; M'. 1I100CHKUNDA,' T'. VENNANGU
KALI MIRI; O. GOLA MARICHA; P. Quamoclit pinnata=A. KUNJA-LOTA;
KALI MARCH,' T. MILAGOO; T'. B. KUNJALActA, TORULATA,' E. &
SAVYAMU P. KAMLATA,' K. KAMALATHE; M'.
Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) = A. GANESH PUSlrPA' O. KUNJALATA
BORPUNI; B. PANA; G. JALAKUM- Quisqualis indica' (Rangoon creeper)
BIH/ H. & P. JAL-KHUMBI; K. =A. MADHAllI-LOTA; B. SANDHYA-
ANTARA GANGE,; M. MUITAPPAYAL; MALATI,' G. BARMA SINIVEL; B. &
M'. GANGAVATI; O. BORA JllANJl; P. LAL-MALTI,' K. RANGOON KEMPU-

(,
 APPENDIX II: GLOSSARY

MALLE,' M'. LAL CHAMELI,' O. KANGANI; O. NUNNUNIA; P. MARO;.

MODHU·MALATl; T. RANGOON MALL! T. MANATHAKKALI; T'. KAMANCHI-
Raphanus sativus (radish) =A., B., CHETTU
M'. & O. MULA,' H. & P. MULl,' Sorghum vulgare (great millet)=A.
K. l\100LANGI; M. MULLANKI; T'. JOU-DHAN; B. & G. JUAR; H. &
& T'. MULLANGI P. JOWAR; K. BILl JOLA; M. & T.
Rauwolfia serpentina=A. CHANDO; CHOLAM; M'. JAWAR; O. BAJARA
B. CHANDRA, SARPAGANDHA; G. Tamarindus indica (tamarind) = A.
SARPAGANDHA,' H. & P. SARPGAND, TETELI; B. TENTUL; G. A~nL; H.
CHOTA CHAND,' K. SARPAGANDHI, & P. I::I1BLI; K. HUNISE MARA; M.
SHIVANABHI BALLI, SUTRANABHI; & T. PULL; M'. CHINCH; O.
M: AMALPORIYAN; 1\,['. SARPA· KAlNYA. TENTULl; T'. CHlNTHA
GANDH; O. PAULA GARUDA Tmnarix dioica=A. JHAU-BON; B. &
Ricinus communis (castor) =A. ERI- H. BON-JHAU; K. SERoRE GIDA; M'.
GOCH; B. & P. ARANDA; G. JAO; O. DISHI-JHAUN, THARTHAR!;.
ERANDI; H. RENDI; K. HARALU,' P. PILCHI
M & T. AVANAKKU; ]1,1'. ERAND; Tectona grandis (teak) = A. & B.•
0.' JADA; P. RENDI, ARANDA; T'. SHEGOON; G. & H. SHAGWAN; K.
AlIUDAMU TEGADA MARA, SAGUVANI; M. & T.
Saccharum o(ficinarum (sugarcane) = TIIEI{KU; M'. SAG; O. SAGUAN; P.
A. KUNHIAR; B. & H. AKH; G. SAGWAN; T'. TEKU
SHERDE; K. KABBU,' M. & T. Tltespesia populnea (portia tree) =
KARIMPU; M'. USA,' O. AKHU; P. B. PARAS; G. PARUSA-PIPALO; H.
GUNNA; T'. CHERUKU & P. PARAS-PIPAL; K. BUGURr,
Saraca indica==A., B. & P. ASOlr; HOOVARISI, JOGIYARALE; M. & T.
G. ASUPALA; H. SEETA-ASOK; K. POOVARASU; M'. BENDICHA JHAR;
ASHOKADA MARA, KENKALI, ACHANGE; O. HASALI; T'. GANGARAVI
M. & T. ASOKAM,' M'. SITEClHA Thevetia neriifolia (yellow oleander)
ASHOK; 6.
ASOKA = A. l{ARABI; ]3. KALKE-PHULj..
Sesamu11I indicum (gingelly) = A. G., H. & P. PILA-KANER; K. KADU-
TISI; B., H., M'. & P. TIL; G. KASI KANAGALU; M. & T. SIVAN-
MITHO-TEL; K. YELLU,' 1\L &.T. ARALI ; M' . PIWALA KANHER; O.
ELLU; O. KHASA, RASHI; T'. KANIARA, RONYAR PHULA; T'.
NUVVULU PACHCUAGANPERU
Sesbania grandiflora=A. & B. BAK- Tinosp01'a cordi/alia = A. AMOR-LOTA,
PHUL; G. AGATHIa; H. & P. AMOI-LOTA; B. GULANCHA; G. GADO;;
AGAST; K. AGASE, CHOGACHI; M. H. GVRCHA ; K. AMRUTA BALLI,
AGATHI; M'. AGASTA; O. AGASTI; llfADHU PARNI; M. AMRITHU __ ]\.f'
T. AGATllYKIIJIERAI,' T'. AVISI GULVEL; O. GULUCHI; P. GALO;
8esbania sesban = A. JOYANTI; B T. SINDHILKODI; T'. TIPPATIGE
JAINTI; G. RAYSANGANI; H. & P. Tragia involucrata (nettle) = A.
JAINT; M. SHmllfPA; M'. SEVARlj CHORAT; B. BlCHUTI; H. & P.
O. JAYANTl; T. SITHAGATHr BARHANTA; K. TURACHI BALLI, CUE·
Slto1'ea robusta = A., B., H. & P. LURI GIDA; M. CUORIYANAM; M'.
SAL; G. RAL,' K. BILE BHOGE, _KHAJAKOLTl; O. BICHHUATI; T.
AASINA MARA, ASCHA KARNA; 1\1. KANJURI; T'. DULAGONDI
lIfARAMARAM; M'. SHALA, RALVRIK- Trapa bispino8a (water chestnut) ='
SHA,' O. SALA,' T. SHALAM A. SHINGORI; B. PANI-PHAL; G.
Sido cordi/alia = A. MRTALA; B. SHENGODA; H. & P. SINGARHA; K.
BERELA; G. JANGLI-METHI; H. MULLU KOMBU BEEJA; M. KARIM·
BARIARA; K. HETHUTHI; M. POLA; 1\'['. SHIN GADA ; O. SINGADA;
KURUMTHOTTI; M'. CHIKANA; O. T. SINGARAKOTTAI; T'. KUBYAKAM
BISIRIPI; P. KHARENTI,' T. KARUM- Tribul11s terrestris = B. GOKHRr-
TROTTER; T'. CHIRUBENDA RANTA; G. GOKHARU; H. GOKH~U;
Smilax macrophylla (Indian sarsa- K. SANNA NEGGILU; M. NERUNJIL;
parilla) =A. RASTIKARNA-LOTA; B. M'. KATE GOKHRU; O. GOKHARA;
KU::\{ARIKA; H. CHOBCHINI; M'. P. BHAKHRA; T. NERINJI; T'.
GHOT VEL,' O. KUMBHATUA, KUMA- PALLERU
RIKA; P. USHBA Trichosantl!es anguina (snake ponrd)
80lan11m niqr11T11 (black nightshade) =A. DHUNDUI,I; B. CHICT{INGA; G.
= A. POK·~[QU; B. GURKI; G. PADAVALI; H. -CH~CHINDA; K.
PILUDU; H. GURKAMAI; K, KARL PADAVALA; M. PADAVALAM; M'_
KACHr Gln~, KEMPU KACHI, KAKA PADVAL; O. CRHACHINDRA'; P.
MUNCH!; 1\L MULAGUTHAKKALI; M'. PAROL; T. PUDALA!; T', POT'L\<.

26
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Prichosanthes dioica = A. & B. Vis cum monoicum (mistletoe) = A.

PATAL; G. & M', PARWAR; H. & ROGHUMALA; B. BANDA; H. & P.
P. PARWAL; K. l!:ADU PADAVALA; BHANGRA, BANDA; K. HASARU BADA'
M. PATOLAM; O. PATALA; T. ROM- NIKE; M. ITHTHIL; M'. JALUNDAR;
BUPP1!"DALAI; T'. KOMMUPOTLA O. MAT.ANGA; T. OTTU
.Triticum sativum (wheat) A. Vitis trifolia (wild vine) =B. AMAL-
GHENHU; B. GOM; G. GAHUN; H. LATA; G. KHAT-KHATUMBO; H. &
& P. GEBUN; K. GOD HI; M. P. AMAL-BEL; K. NEERGUNDI,
.KOTHAMPU; M'. GAHU; O. GAHAMA; NOCHH!, NEERLAKKI j M. SORI·
T. GHODUMAI; T'. GOTHI, GODU- VALLI; M'.AMBATVEL; O. AMAR'
MULU LATA
'3.'yphonium trilobatum = A. SAMA- Wedelia calendulacea=A. BHIMRAJ;
KACHU; B. GHET-KACHU; K. KANDA
GEDDE; M. CHENA; T. KARUN-
B. BHlMRAJ, BHRINGARAJ; G., H. &
KARUNAI, ANAIKKORAI; T'. JAM- P. BHANGRA ; K. KESHARAJA,
GARGARI; M. PEE-KAYYANNYAM;
MUGADDI
M' _ PIV ALA-BHANGRA; O. BHRUNGA-
,urena tobata = A. BON-AGARA; B. RAJA
BAN-OKRA; H. & P. BACIIATA; K.
lDODDA BENDE, KADU TRUTHI; M. Withania somnifera=A. LAKHANA;
·OORPUM; M'. VAN-BHENDl; O. B. ASWAGANDHA; G. ASUNDHA; H.
.JATJATIA; T. OTTATTI & P. ASGANDH; K. ASW AGANDHI,
Vtricularia 8p. B. JHANJI; K. PENNERU, HrRE MAD DINA GIDA; M.
NEERU GULLE GIIlA, SEETHASRU & T. AMUl{KIRAM; M'. ASKANDH;
BEEJA; M. MULLANPAYAL, KALAK- O. AJAGANDHA; T". ASVAGANDHI
KANNAN; M'. GELYACHI VANASPATI; Xanthium strumarium (cockle-bur}
O. BHATUDIA DALA =A. AGARA; H. & P. OKRA; G.
iVanda roxburghi (orchid) A. GADIYAN; K. MARALU UMMATHI;
KOPOU-PHUL; B., H. & P. RASNA; M'. SHANKESHVAI\; O. CHOTA GO-
G. RASNA-NAI; K. VANDAKA GIDA; GBURU; P. GOKHRU KALAN; T.
M. MARAVAZHA; M'. BANDE; O. MARLUMUTTA; T'. MARULAMA-
RASHNA, MADANGA THANGI
Vangueria spino8OJ = A. KomORA, Zea mays (Indian corn or maize) =
MOYEN-TENGA; B. MOYENA; H. A. MAKOI-JOHA; B. BHUTTA; G.,
MOINA; K. CHEGU GADDE, ACHHU- H. & P. MAKAI; K. MUSUKINA
RA MULLU; M'. ALU; O. GURBELI; JOLA, GOVINA JOLA; M., M'. & T.
T. MANAKKARAI; T'. SEGAGADDA MAKKACHOLAMj O. MAKI{A; T'.
Vigna sinensi8=A. NESERA-MAH; B. MOKKAJONNA
BARBAT!; H. BORA; K. ALASANDI, Zingiber officinale (ginger) = A., B.
TADAGANI; M'. CIIAVLI; O. BAR- & O. ADA; G. ADHU; H. ADRAK;
GADA; P. RAUNG; T. THATTA- K. SHUNTI, ALLA; M. INCHI; M'.
PAYERU; T'. ALACIIANDALU ALE; P. AnARAK; T. INJI; T'.
Vinca rosea (periwinkle)=A. & B. ALLAM
NAYANTARA; H. SADA-BAHAR; K. Zizyphus jujuba (Indian plum) =A.
KEMPUKASI-KANIGALU, TURUKU MAL- BAGARI; B. KUL; G. BOI\ADl; H.
L1GE; M. KASITHUMPA; M'. SADA- & P. BER; K. ELACHI, BORE HANNU;
PHULI; O. SADABIHA1U; P. RATTAN M. & T. ELAN THAI ; M'. BOR; O.
~OT BARKOLI; T'. REaU
 Index
Absorption, 213-7 Anabolism, 247-8
A butilon indicum, 333 Analogy, 70·1
A Inus (A. precatorius), 38 Anall(1s sativus, see pineapple
Acacia, 60, 146, 3.53, *454; Austra· Anatropous, 103, *195A
lian., 63, *119; ·spp., 338 Androecium, 80, 92-7
Acalypha, 68, *131, 84 Androgmphis, 73, 124
Acantf~us ilicijolius, 271 Androphore, 82, *157A
Achene, 118, *218 Androspore, 285, *390A
Achyranthes. 76 Anemone, 330
Acicular, 54 Anemophily (-lous), 107
Aconite (Aconitum jerox), 329 Angiosperms, xxii, 323-56
Acorus, 175 Angular divergence, 67
Acropetal, 26, 28 Anise, 61, 77, 342
Actinomorphic, 87 Annual rings, 192·3, *315
Acuminate, 53 Annuals, 3; ·nular, 137, *255
Adam's needle, see dagger plant .f..nllulated roots, 32, *53B
Adhatoda, 76, 84, 91 Annulus, 312, *428, 315, *433
Adhesion, 95, 96 Anther, 80, 93, *178-9
Adiantum caudatum, 259, *358 Antheridiophore, 306, *411
Adnate, 94; ·stipnles, 52, *86 Antheridium, 303, 310, *420·1, 315,
Adventitious roots, 27, 31·5 *435
Aegle mormelos, 334 Antherozoid, 265, 284, 303, 311,
Aerenchyma, 157, *283·4 315
Aesti vation, .91-2, *177 Anthoceplwlus, 77, 108, 342
Aganosma caryophyllata, 346 Anthocyanins, 135
Agaricus, 299·301, *403-4 Antibiotics, 302
Agave, 261, *363, 353 Antigonon, 44, *71
Alae, 90, *172 . Antipodal cells, 101
Albuminous (and exalbuminous), Apocarpous, 98, *191
]9-20 Apocynaceae, 345·6, *465-6
Albizzia spp., 338 Apophysis, 312, *428
Albugo, 295-7, *398·9 Apple, 84, 116, *209, 120, *224,339
Alburnum, 193 Arachis hypogaea, see groundnut
Aldrovanda, 236, *341-2 Archegoniophore, 306, *410
Aleurone ,grains, 143-4, *268 Archegonium, 303, 311, *422-3 313,
Alfalfa, 335 *436 '
Alga (-ae), xix, 273, 275·86 Arc indicator, 248, *348
Allamanda, 346 ' Areca catechu, 354
Allelomorphs, 368 Ar!!ernolle, see poppy, prickly.
Allium spp. 352, 353 Ar11, 114, 124
Alkaloids, 73, 149 ,Arisaema, 74 *138
Allogamy, 104, 105·11 A ristoloeMo 'gigas, 122·3, *234-5
Almond, 339; Country·, 119 Armature, 71
Alocasia, 40 Aroids, 73, 75, 76, 84
Aloe, American. 46, 71, 170, *301A, Arrowhead, 70, *135
261. *363, 270, 353; Indian., 69, Arrowroot, 32, 40
139, 270, 352 Artabotrys, 3 *4, 92, 119
'Alstonia (A. sclLolaris) , 66, 346 A rtocw'pus eAaplahsa 70 *133
Alternation of generations, 274-5, Asafoetida, 342 ' ,
313, 317·8 Ascent of sap, 224-5
Amaranth, 76 Ascospores (-cus), 298
Amaryllidaceae, 353, *475 Asparagus, 32, 46, *75 270 352
A marylli8 , 353 As*s~ilation, 241; -to~y r~ot8, 34,
Amino·compounds. 144
Amitosis, 153, *276 Autogamy, 104
Ammonification, 210 Atropa bellarlrmna 349
Amoeboid movement, 131 "249 Autonomic, 253 '
Amorphophallu8, 42, *65B, 73, 106, Autophytes (-totrophic), 6, 234
*201, 148 Autumn wood, 193
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Auxanometer, Lever-, 248, *348 JJrassica campestris, 330, *448; spp.,

Axile, 100, *192B 330
Azotobacter, 211 Brinj aI, 348
Azygospore, 233, 294 Bristles, 72
Broomrape, 7, *15
Bacca, 119, *222 JJryophy/tum, see sprout leaf plant
Baccaurea, 114 Bryophyta, xxi, 273, 303-13
Bacillus, Hay-, 288-9, *392 Buckwheat, 111, 118
Bacteria, xx, 286-91, *391 Bud, 36-8, "59-61; -scale, 37, 52
JJalanophom, 7, *16 Budding, 154, *273, 259, 298, *400B
Balloon vine, 45, *72 Bulb, 40-1, *64
Balsam, 125, 148 Bulbil, 38, 46, 261, '361-4
Bamboo (JJombusa), 27, 107, 355 Buttercup, 330
Ban.ana, 57, 76, 84, 105, 119, 157, Butterfly pea, 90, 92, 50, *81, 335
379
Banyan, 32, *54, 37, 73, 79, 120, Cabbage, 38, 330
147 Cactus (-til, 46, 72, 270
Barberry, 63, *117 Caducous, 51
Bark, 195; Functions of-, 199 Cacsalpinia spp., 336, 337
IJa r lel'ia, 126 Caesalpinieae, 336-7, *453
Barley, 19, 143, 355 Cajanus cajan, 335
Basella, 271 Caladium, 74
Basidium (-diospore), 300, 301, *404 Callose (-Ius), 161
Basil, 350, *472A; Sacrecj.-, 65, 90, Calyptra, 312, *425-6
96, 350; Wild-, 350 Calpytrogen, 166, *'296
Bast, see pholeom; Ha.rd-, 171, 173 Calyx, 80, 87-8
Batatas edulis, 347, 376 Cambium, 174, 178; -ring, 191, *314-
Bath sponge, 122, 340 Camel's foot climber, 126, *240;
Bauhinza, 336; IJ. vaMii, 126, - -tree, 337
*240; -spp., 3"37 Camphor, 57
Bay leaf, 57, *97 Campylotropous, 103, *195D
Beaded roots, 32, *53A Candy tuft, 76, 88, 330
Bean, 90, 92, 96 ; Broad-, 335· Cane (Calamus), 3, *5, 71, 354
Country-, 14-5, *23, *27, 335; Cane-sugar, 140, 377-8
French-,Soy-,Sword-, 335 Canna, 40, 57, 157; -stem, 183-5,
Beet, 31, 141, 378 *308
Be.qonia, 37, *61, 260 Capitulum, 77, *148, 343
IJenincasa cerifera, 340 Gapparis, 82, *158A .
Bentham & Hooker's system, 325-6 Capsella, 330 .
Berry, 119, *222 Capsule, 117, *216-7, 312, 315
Betel, 27, 32, *56A, 55; -nut, 354 Carambola, 258
Betula, 195 _ ' Caraway, 342
BicollateraI, 175, 180 Carbohydrates, 140-3
Biennials, 3 Carbon, 209; -assimilation, 226;
Bilabiate, 90, *173, 349 -cycle, 209
Bindweed, 'Vater-, 89, 347 Cardamoms, 385
Biophytum sensitivum, 258, *356 Cardenthera triflora, 70, *132
Birch, 76 Cardiosper11lu.m, 45 *72
Bisexual, 81 Carica papaya, 379'
Bittersweet, 349 Carina, 90, *172
Bladder (-wort), 65, "122, 237-8, Carissa, 45 *73B, 48. 71, 346
*344 Carnivorous plants, 234-8
Bleeding, 219 Carotene. 134. 135
Blood flower, 117 Oarpel, 80, 97
Blumea lacera, 73, 344 Carpophore, 341
Boerhaavia. 38. 73, 127, 163 Oarrot, 31, *49, 61, 77, 342
Bora8S1ls flabellifer, 354 Carthamus tinctorius, 344
Border parenchyma, 190 Caru.m spp., 342
Bougainvillea, see glory of the Caruncle, 114
garden Caryophyllaceous, 89, *166
Bowstring hemp. 74, 352 Caryopsis, 118
Bract. (-teole). 84-5. *160 Caryota urens. 354
Branching, 47-8, *76-9 Oashew-nut, 116, *210
 INDEX

Cassia, 60, 92; -spp., 336, 337 Coconut, 124, 354; -oil, 377 ;
Oassytha, B Double-, 124, *238, 354
Castor, 15-6, *24, *"28, 57, 96, 125 Coenocyte (-tic), 292
Casuarina, 2, 46, 47, 63 ColIee (Coffea), 342, 384
Catabolism, 247-8 Cohesion, 95-6; -theory, 225
Catechu, 146, 338 Coil', 382
Catkin, 76, *142 Coleoptile, 17, 19, 23
Caudex, 38 Coleorhiza, 18, 19, 22
Cauliflower, 88, 330 Coleus, 27, *40, 79, 350
Cell, xii, *1, 128-55; -sap, 130 Collenchyma, 157, *281-2
Cellulose, xviii, 139 Colocasia, 42, *67, 148
Censer mechanism, 122 Colocynth, 340
Centella" see pennywort, Indian- Columella, 293, *394, 312, *428
Central body, 276, *377C Commelina bengalensis, 104, *196;
Centric leaf, 51 C. obliqlla, 132
Centromere, 150 Companion cell, 161
Centrosome, xix Compositae, 343-5, *462-4
Century plant, 353 Compression balance, 222, *332
Cereals, 19, 355, 373 Concentric bundle, 175, *303D
Ceriops, 272 Conical root, 31, *49
Cestrum, 349 Oonjugation, 264, 282, 293
Chalaza, 101 Conjunctive tissue, 186, 187
Chestnut, 118; Water-, 35, *58 Connective, 80, 93
Chicory, 344 Oonvolvulaceae, 346-7, *467
China rose, 57, 68, 92, 95-6, 139, Conv_f!.lv1l11ls, 347
332, *450, 333 Ooral tree, 71, 96, 335
Chinese box, 334 Cordate, 55
Chitin, 140 _ Cordyline, 352
Chlamydomonas, 276-88, *378-80 Qoriander (Coriandrum), 61, 77,
Chlorenchyma, 157 342, *460-1
Chlorophyll, xviii, 134, 231-2 Cork, 195, 198-9; -cambium, 194,
Chloroplasts, xii, 134 198
Chlorotic. 232 Cork tree, Indian-, 55
Chromatid, 150; -tin, 133 Corm, 41-2, *65
Chromoplasm, 276, *377C Corn, Indian-, see maize
Chromoplasts, 135 Oorolla, 80, 88-92
Chromosomes, 150 Corona, 91, *176
Chrysanthemum, 44, *69, 344 Corymb, 76, *145
Chrysopogon, 355 Corypha, 354
Cieer arietinum 335 Cosmos, 61, 77, 85, 344
Cilia" 263 ' Cotton, 21, 177, 124, ?i32, 381-2
Cinchona, 122, 124 149 34!Z.. Cotyledons, 13, 14, 15; Functions
Cinnamon, 57 ' , of-. 25-6
Circinate, 313 Cowage, 72, 336
Circulation, 132, *251 Crenate, 54
Gissus quadrangularis, 48 Crepe tree, 122
Citron, 334 Crinum spp., 353
Citrullus spp., 340 Crotalari(JJ spp., 335, 336
Citrus, 334; spP., 334, 379 Croton, Garden-, 2 27 262
Cladode, 46, *75 Crowfoot, Water- ' 70'
Clallsena pentapltylla, 334 Crucijerae, 300-1,' *447-8
Claw. 88, 330 Cruciform, 88, *165, 330
Cleistogamy (-mou~), 104, *196 Cryptogams, xix, 273
Clematis, 118, 124 *2~7A 330 Crystalloid, 144, *268
Clerodendron, 110: *205 ' Crystals, Mineral-, 147-8
Clinostat, 256. *354 Cucumber, 57, 84, 119 *223
Clitoria, 38, SO, *81 335 Cucllmis spp., 340 '
Clostridillm, 211 ' C""curb~ta, see gourd; -spp., ,040
Cloves, 385 Cucurbltaceae, 339-40, *456-if
Coeci~ea cordi/oli(JJ, 340 C~m, 38 .
Cock s comb, 217, *212C Cumin (Cuminum), 77 342' Black-
Coeoa, 384-5 239 ""'
Cocoloba, 46, *74B Curry leaf plant, 334
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANy

Guscuta, see dodder Dorsiventral, 51

Custard-apple, 92, 120 Drosera, 234-5, *339
Cuticle, -tin, 139, 167 Drumstick, 60, 122, *229, 26Z
Cycad (Gycas), 319-22, *439-43 Drupe, 119, *221
Cyclosis, 130 Duckweed, 29, *39, 46, 269
Cyme (-mose), 47-8, 77-8 Duramen, 193
Cymbopogon, 355 Duranta, 45, *73A, 71, 262
Cypsela, 118, 343 Dwarf male, 286, *390B
Cystolith, 148, *269
Cytokinesis, 150, 151-2 Eclipta alba, 344
Cytoplasm, 129-30 Ectoplasm, 130
Egg-apparatus, 101; -cell, 101, 113,
Daffodil, 91, 353 265
Dagger plant, 71, *136, 352 Elaters, 308, *416-7
Dahlia, 32, "51, 141, 344 Elephant ear plant, see Begonia',:
Dalbergia, see redwood; -spp., 335 -apJ,lle, 334
Darwin, 363-4, "479; -'s theory, JiJleusme corocana, 355, 375
362-3 Embryo, 13, 14, 15; Develop. of-,
Date-palm, 71, 354; -seed, 23, *34 113-4, *208; -sac, 81, 101, 102, *1841
Datura (D. jastuosa), 89, 117, 349, Endive, 344
"469 Endocarp, 115
Daueas carota, 342 Endodermis, 170, 176
Deciduous, 51, 87 Endogenous, 29, 188, *311
Decompound leaf, 61, *100 Endoplasm, 130
Decumbent, 38 Endosperm, 15, 17, 18, 19; Develop.
Decussate, 65 of-, 114
Defensive mechanisms 71-4 Enl,ydra jlllctuans, 344
Definitive nucleus. 10'1 Entada (E. scandens), 118, 338:
D~his~ence, 116. *212 /I}nterolobium soman, 338
Delontx, see gold mohur Entomophily (-lous), 105-7
Delphinium, 330 Enzymes, 145, 240-1
Dentella repens, 343 Epiblema, 168, 185. 186
Dermatogen, 164-5, 166 Epicalyx, 85, *160E , 331, 338
Desmodillm gyrans, 253 *351, 336 Epicarp, 115
Devil ~ettle, 72; -tree,' 66. 346 Epicotyl, 22. *29-30
De VrIes, 365 *480' os' theory, Epidermis, 167, 176
364-5 ' , Epigeal, 21, *27-8
Diadelphous, 96, *185 Epi~yny, 83, *159C
Diantl'lls, see pink Epinetalous. 96: -phyllous, 352
Dip~stase, 227 Epiphytes, 9, 34, *51
Dichogamy, 109-10; -tomy, 48 Epithelium, 17, 18, 19
Dicliny (-nous), 109 Ervatamia divaricata. 346
Dicotyledons, xxii, 19, 20; -and JiJrythrina indica, 335
monocotyledons, 327 Etaerio, 120
Didynamous. 97, *188A, 349 Etiolated, 231, 250, *349
Digestion, 240-1 Eucal!fP~1t8, 2. 146
Dihybrid cross, 368-9 JiJllpatorwm 8pp., 344
Dill, 342 JiJupllOrbia. 46, 73, 149, 163, 270
Dillenia, 88, 116 JiJuryale, 269
Dimorphic, 110 Evolution, 357-65
Dioecious, 109, 339 Evolvlllll,' al8inoides, 347
Dionaea, 2'5, *340 Exine, 94
Dioscorea. 122. *2W; D. alata, 377; JiJxoecaria, 272
D. blllbifera, 261 *362 Exogenous. 30
Diploid, 151 ' Exu'dation, 224
Diptero~arlnts. 118. *219, 122. *231
Disc, 333, 345. 349: -floret 77, 343 Family, 324
Diseases, Plant-. 301-2 ' Fasciculated roots. 32. "51
Distichous, 66, *128 Fats (and oils). 145, 213
Dixon and .Tollv's theory, 225 Fennel (li'oenic1l11lm). 77, 342
D('dder, 7. *13-4, 91 *176B, 347 Fermentation. 247. 299
Doliclws lahlob 335' Fern. xvii, 40. 313-8. *431-8;
Dominant, 367' Walking-, 259, *358
 INDEX

Fertilization, 111-2, *207, 264; Gold mohur, 81, *156, 92, 337;.
Double, 112 Dwarf- -, 75, 92, 337, *453
Fertilizers, 204-5 Gonidia (-dangium), 292
[I'erula joetida, 342 Gooseberry, 89, 119, 349
Fever nut, 75, 336 Gossypiurn, 332
Fibres, 158, 381-2; brous roots, 27, Gourds, 57, 84, 340; -seed, 21, *27;.
*37 -stem, 178-81, *305
Fig (Ficus), 70, 73, 79, *153, 120 Grafting, 262-3, *366-72
Filament, 80, 93 Gram, 60, 90, 335; -seed, 12-3, *21,.
Flax, 158 *29; Black-, Green-, 335
Fleurya, 72 Graminaceae, 354-6, *476-7
Floral' diagram & formula, 327-8 Grand period of growth, 251
Flower, 80-103; -a modified shoot, Grape, 119, 141, 239; -fruit, 334
85-6 Grass, 27, 66, 76, 95, 107, 118, 355;:
Flowering plant, 10-2, *20 Dog-, 38, 355; Lemon-, 146, 355;.
Fluorescence, 135 Saboi-, 355; Spear-, 127; Thatch-..
Follicle, 117, *214 355
Food, xviii, 140, 226-33 Groundnut, 21, 117, 255, *353, 336;.
Four o'clock plant, 48, 103 -oil, 377
Fragaria spp., 339 Ground tissue, 182
Free cell formation, 153-4, *277 Growth, xv, 248-51
Fructification, 300 Guava, 65, 84, 119
Fruit, 115-21; -dispersal, 121-7 Gum, 147; -tree, 53, 60
Fungus (-gil, xx, 273, 291-301 Gymnosperms, xxii, 319-22
Funicle, 100 Gynandrophore, 83, *157 A
Fusiform root, 30, *47 Gynandropsis, 61, *110, 73, 83"
*157A
Gametangium, 293, *3950 Gvnandrous, 96
Gametes, 94, '264, 282, 293 Gynoecium, 80, 97-9
Gametophyte, 303, 306, 310, 315 Gynophore, 83
Gamopetalous, 88
Gamoppyllous, 351 Habit (-tat), 1
Gamosepalous, 87 Hairs, 29, *46, 72; Stinging-, 72;.
Gardema florida, 342 *137
Garlic, 41, 352, 383 Halophytes, 271-2, *375-6
Gemma (-cup), 2"59, 306, *412 Haploid, 152
Gemmation, see budding Haptotropism, 255
Gene, 360, 367 Hastate, 55
Generative nucleus, 94, *180B Haustorium (-ria), 7, *14, 34
Genetics, 366-70 Head, see capitulum
Genetic spiral, 66 Heart-wood, 193
Genus (-nera), xv, 324 Helianthus annuu8, 344, *463
Geotropism, 255-7'- *353-4 "" Helicoid, 48, *78B, 78, *151
Germination, 20-5, *27-35 Heliotropic (-ism) chamber, 255,
Germ plant, 280; -pore, 94; -tube, *352
296, 305 Hemiphraqma, 70, *134
Gills, 300, *403-4 Hemp, 158; Bowstring-, 74, 352';:
Gingely oil, 377 Deccan-, 332; Indian-, 158, 33&
Ginger, 40, *62, 66, 385; Mango-, Herbs, 2
32, *52 Heredity, 360
Glabrous, 54 H er"itiera, 24, 273
Gladiolus, 42, *65A Herkogamy, 111 '.
Glands, 163, *294; Oil-, 146 Hermaphrodite, 81
Globba buZhijera. 46, 261, *361 Hesperidium, 120, *225
GIoboid, 144, *268 Hetero!Jhylly, 69-70, *132-5
Glory of the garden, 4, *2, 84, Heterophytes (-l'otrophic), 7, 234
*1600, 105 Heterostyly, 110. *206
Glory lily (Gloriosa), 6, *11, 62, Heterozygous, 369
*115, 352 Hibiscus, see Ohina rose; -spp., 333';,
Glucose, 140 333
Glumes, 76. 85, *l60F, 354 H~lum, 13, 14. 15. 100
Glycogen, 143 Hlpta'le, 6, 118. *220. 122, *232
Glycosmis arborea, 334 H olm'rhena antidysenterica, 346.
Gnaplwlium, 72, 270 Holdfast, 3, 278
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Hollyhock, 332 Labiatae, 349-51, *471-2

Homogamy, 104; -ology, 70-1 Laburnum, Indian-, 336
Homozygous, 369 Lactuca sativa, 344
H ordeurn vulgare, 355 Lady's finger, 117, 139, 332
Hormogonia, 276, *377B Lagenaria cicerm'ia, 340
Hormone, 251-2 Lamarck, 361-2, *478; -'s theory,
Hornwort, 269 360-1
Humus, 203-4 Lamellae, see gills
Hybrid, 370; -vigour, 370 Laportea, 72
Bydrilla, 107, 267 Larkspur, 85, 117, 330
Hydrophily (-lous), 107-8 Latex, 73, 149, 162; -cells, 162-3,
Hydtophytes, 267-9, *374 *292; -vessels, 162, *293
Hydroponics, 207-8 Lathyrus spp., 335
Hydrostatic, 214 Lavender (Latvandula), 350
Hydrotropism, 257, *355 Leaf, 49-70, i89-91; -clasp, 220,
. Hymenium, 301, *404 *329; Functions of-, 68-9
Hypanthodium, 79, *153 Legume, 117, *213
liyphaene, 354 Legumillosae, 334-8
Hypha (-ae), 274, 292 Lemma, 46, 76, 354
Hypocotyl, 21, *27·8 Lemon, 45, 61, 71, 96, 146, 334
Hypodermis, 170, 176 Lenticel, 195, *317
Hypogeal, 21-2, *29-32 Leonuru8, 79, 90-1, 96, 350, *472B
Hypogyny, 83, *159A Lettuce, 344
Hypop,hysis cell, 114 Leu'cas, 96; -81Yp., 350
Leucoplasts, 134
Liapes, 2, 6
Imbibition theory, 225 Lichens, 9
Imbricate, 92, *1770 . Life tree, 346
lmperata, 355 Light screen, 230, *337
Indian pipe, 9, *19 Lignin (-nification) 139
India-rubber plant, 32, 147 Ligule, 354 '
Indusium, 315, *432 Ligulate, 91, *175
. Inflorescence; 74-9 Lilac, Persian- 55
Inheritance, 360-1; Laws of-, 367-8 Liliaceae, 351-3; *473-4
Integuments, 101, 114 Lily, 41, 352; Day-, , 352; Easter-,
Interfascicular cambium, 191 353; Eucharis-, 353; Glory-, 6,
Interpetiolar stipules 52 *85 342 *11, 62, *115, 352; Pin-cuchion-,
Intine, 94 '" 353; Spider-, 353, *475; Zephyr·,
Inulin, 141, "264 353
Involucre, 84, *160D, 307
Ipecac, 32, *53B Limb, 88, 330
ipomoea spp., 347 Limnophila heterophylla, 70
iris, 111 Limonia acidissima, 334
Jrrital)ility, xvi, 254 Lindenbergia, 91
Isobilateral, 51, 190-1, *313 Linnaean system, 325
Isogametes, 277,. 280, 282 L!nseed (Linu7JL), 111, 139
:lvy, 3, 33; Indlan-, 3, *1, 33 LIpase, 145
lxora (I. coccinea), 78, 96, 342 Litchi, 21, 114
Liverworts, xxi, 273
Living and non· living xvii
Jack, 21, 37; -fruit, 120 Lodicules, 354 '
Jaculator, 126, *239 Lodoicea, 124, *238
Jalap, Indian- 347 Loofah, see bath sponge
Jasmine (Ja;minum), 78, 106; Loquat. 339
Nigh~-, 89, 125
Lomnth u 8, 8
Jatropha, 73
Jussiaea, 34, *56B Love thorn, 127, 355
Jute, 158, 382 Lotus, 83, *1580, 98, 124, 269
Lucerne, 335
Lu!fa spp. , 340
-lfalanchoe, 260, *360
Karyokinesis, see' mitosis Lupin '(Lupinus), 52, 61, 224, 335
Keel; 90, *172 Lycopersicum esculentum, 348
Knop's nor. cuI. sol., 206 Lyrate, 55, *91
Kohl·rabi (or knolckohl)', 330 Lysigenous cavities, 155

I
 INDEX

Madar, 73, 94, 96, 163 Mucilage, 139

Madder, 342 l11uco'r, 291-5, *393-7
31agnolia, 83, 98, 110 11fucuna (11f. pruriens), 72, 336
Maize, 27, 107, *203, 355-6, *477, Mul~erry, 76, *142, 109, 120
374-5; -cob, 84; -grain, 18-9, *26, MUl'l'aya exotica, 334
22, *32; -stem, 181-3, *306-7 Musa paradisiaca, 379
Mallow (11:Jalva), 332; Indian-, 333 Mushroom, see Agaricus
iJ1 alvaceae, 331-3, *449-50 MU88aenda, 85, *162, 105, 342
Mango (JYfangijera) , 21, 119, *221, Mustard, 88, 97, 117,330; -oil, 377
378-9; -ginger, 32, *52 Mutatiou, 359, 364
Mangosteen, 89, 114 Mycelium, 291
]dangrove, 271, *375 Myrobalans, 146
Mant/wt utili88ima, 376
Manometer, 218, *328, 222, *333 Napiform root, 30, *48
Manuring, 204, 205 LV aravelia, 62, *116, 118 *218, 124,
M archantia, 305-9, *410-8 330
Margosa, 55, 73 Nasties (-tic movements), 257-8
Marigold, 77, 85, 344 Nasturtium, Garden-, 55, "90G,
Marjoram, 350 106, *198
Marking nut, 116, '-211 N asturtiurn indicum, 330
Marsilea, 52, 61 Natural selection, 362, 363
Ma'rtynia, see tiger's nail Nectar (-y), 105, 146
Mast tree, 47, 120 Nepenthes, see pitcher plant
Mechanical tissues, 163-4 N cptunia, 258
ill edicago sativa, 335 N el'iU1n, see oleander
~ Medulla (-ary rays), 171, 177 Nettles, 72
Meiosis, 152-3, *275 Nicker bean, 118, 338
Melon, ).19, 340; Water-, 119, 340 Nigella sativa, 329
Mendel, 369-10, *481; -'s experi- Nightshade, -Black-, 349, *470
ments, 366-9 Nitrification, 210
Mentha spp., 350 Nitrobacter & Nitrosomonas, 210
Mericarps, 341 Nitrogen, 209-12; -cycle, 212
Meristem (-matic), 155, 164-7 Nodes, Inter-, 10, 30, 36
Mesocarp, 115; -sophyll, 189 Nodules, 211, *322
Mesophytes, 269 Nodulose roots, 32, *52
Metabolism, xv, 247-8 Nomenclature, Binomial-, xix, 324
Metamorphoses, 44, 61 Noon flower, 94
Metaxylem, 173, 178 N ucellus, 101
Michelia, 83, 98, *191B Nuclein, -cleolus, -cleoplasm, 132,
Micropyle, 13, 14, 15, 101 133
MiddJe lamella, 136, *254 Nucleus, xii, 132-3, *252-3
Millets, 19, 141, 355, 3'Z,2 Nut, 118; -meg, 114
Mimicry, 74 N yctinasty, 258
Mimosa pudica. see sensitive plant
Mimoseae, 337-8, *454 Oak, 76, 118
Mint, 44, 73, 79, 35{) - Ochreate stipules, 52, *84
Mistletoe, 7, *17 Ocimum, 65, 90, 350, *472A; -spp.,
Mitosis, 149-52, *274 350
Moll's experiment, 230, *338 Oedogonium, 284-6, *388-90
jllo1t!ordica spp., 340 Oenothera (0_ lamarclciana), 364,
Monadelphous, 95, *184, 331 365
Moniliform roots, 32, *53A Offset, 43, *68
Monk's hood, 329 Oils, see fats; Essential-, 146-7;
Monocotyledons, xxii, 19, 20, 327 Vegetable-, 377
Monoecious, 109, 339 Oleander, 66, 91, *176C, 170, "301B,
Monohybrid cross, 366-7 346, *466A; Yellow-, 89, 346
111 ortotropa, see Indian pipe Oldenlandia spp., 342-3
Moon flower, 347 Onion, 41, *64, 148, 352, *474, 353
1I1oringa, 60, 262 Oogonium, 284, *339B, 297, *399A
Morning glory, 89, 347 Oosphere, see egg-cell
Mosaic, Leaf-, 68, *131 Oospore, 112, 113, 264 .
Moss, xxi, 309-13, *419-30 Operculina turpethum., ,347 , I
Movements, xvi, 253-8 Operculum, 312, "427-8
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Orange, 50, 61, 100, 120, *225, 334, Pepper, Black-, 32, 385; Long-, 3"
379 32
Orchids, 9, 34, *57, 94, 96 Peppermint, 350
Oraxylon, 50, 122, *226 Pepsin hydrochloric acw., 235
Orthostichy, 66 Perennation, 39; -nnials, 3
Orthotropous, 102, *195B Perianth, 81, 329; -riblem, 165, 16&.
Oryza satiza, 355, *476, 373-4 Pericarp, 115; -chaetium, 307
Oscillatoria, 275-6 *377 Pericycle, 171, 177
Osmosis, 214-5, ~324; Importance Perigynium, 307, 309
of-, 214 Perigyny, 83, *159B
Ostiole, 307 Perisperm, 114; -istome, 312, *427-8'
Ovary, 80, 98, *189-90 Periwinkle, 89, 117, 346, *466B
Ovule, 81, 98, 100-1, *193; Forms Personate, 91, *174
of-, 102-3, *195 Petal, 80, 88; -loid bracts, 84, *1600'
Ovum, see egg-cell Petiole, SO, *80
Oxalis, see wood-sorrel Petunia, 349
Phanerogams, xxii, 325
Paddy, 22, *31, 76 Phoseolus spp., 335
Paederia joetida, 73, 342 Phellogen, 194, 198
Pagoda tree, 48, 346 Phloem (or bast), 160-2, 173-4, 178:
Palea, 76, 354 Phlox, 126
Palisade parenchyma, 190, *312 Phoenix sylvestris, 354
Palmaceae, 353-4 Phototropism, 254-5, *352
Palmate, 57, 61 Photosynthesis, 226-31
Palmella stage, 277, *378D Phragmites, 355
Palms, 38, 76, 84, 95, 107, 354 Phylloclade, 45-6, *74
Pancratium, 353, *475 Phyllode, 63, *119
Panicle, 75, *143 Phyno~axy, 65-8, *123-30
Panicum, 355 Physalts spp., 349
Pansy, 111 Pilens, 300, *403
Papaw, 57, 73, 119, 379 Piliferous layer, 168, 185, 186
Papilionaceae, 334-6, *452 Pineapple, 86, 120, 261, *365, 379'
Papilionaceous, 90, *172, 335 Pink, 78. 89, *166, 100
Pappus, 122, *236A, 343 Pinna, 313; -nate; 59-61
Parachute mechanism, 122 Pistia, .see water lettnce
Paraphysis (-ses). 301, *404, 310 Pistil, 97, *189-91; -lIode, 98
Parasites, 7-8. *13-8 Pisum s(lJtivum, see pea
Paratonic, 253 Pit, 137-8, *261-3: -th, 171, 177
Parenchyma. 156-7. *280 Pitcher (-plant), 6, *12, 63, *120-1;
Parietal, 100, *192D 236-7, *343
Parl.·ia, 3::>;8 Pithecolobium dulce, 338
Parsnip, 342 Placenta (-tation), 99-100, *192
Parthenocarpy (-ogenesis). 115. 265 Plantago, 139
Passion-flower, 5, *7, 45 *70 82 Plant breeding, 370; Economic im- .
*157B, 91 " , portance of-, 371-2
Pea. 5. *8, 62. *113, 90, *172, 92, Plants and animals, xviii
96. 335, *452; -seed, 12-4 *22, Plasmolysis, 216-7, *326
",VI: Cow-. 3'5; Pigeon-,' 335; Plastids, 134-5
Wild-, 5, *9, 62, *114 Plerome, 165, 167
Peach, 83, 339 Plum, 83, 119, 339; Indian-, 53, *8T,
Pear, 116. 120. 339 57
Pedate. 55, *92 Plumbago, 73, 163
Pedicel, 75. 80; -duncle, 75 Plume ria ruora, 346
Peepnl, 79, 120 Plumule, 13, 14, IS, 96
Pelican flower, 122 *234-5 Pneumatophore, 271, *375
Penicillin, 302 ' Pod, 117, *213
Pennisetum typhoidM, 355, 375 Poinsettia, 84. 105
POlianthes tubrrosa, see tuberose
Pennywort, Indian-, 42, 77, 111 Pollen grain, 80, 93, *180; -sac, 8(),
260, *359, 342 ' 93, *179; -tube, 94, *181
Pentastichons, 67, *130 Pollination, 104-11; onium, 94, *182:
Peperomia, 224 Po]yade!phons, 96, *186, 334
Pepo, 119, *223, 339 Polyalthia, 120
 INDEX

Polycarpellary, 98 Raphe, 13, 14, 15, 97, 100

Polycarp<Jn, 100, 103 R:whides, 148, *270-2
Polygonum, 52, *84, 103 Raspberry, 120, 339
Polypetalous, 88; -phyllous, 351 Hattlewort, 92, 96, 335
Polysepalous, 87 Rauwolfia serpentina, 346
Pome, 120, *224; -granate, 71 Ravenala, 66, *127
Poppy, 100, 117, 162; Garden-, 162; Receptacle, 76, 306
Opium-, 73, 149, 162; Prickly-, Recessive, 367
62, *118, 100, 162 Reduction division, 152-3, *275
Portia tree, 329 Redwood, Indian-, 29, 335, 380-1
Portulaca, 69, 239 Reed, 355
Potato, 40, *63, 96, 348, 376; Sweet-, Rejuvenescence, 264, *373, 284
29, 31, *50, 347, 376 Replum, 100, 117, 330
Potentilla /1Ilgens, 339 Reproduction, 259-65
Pathos, 3, 32 Resin (-duct), 147
Potometer, 220. *330 Respiration, xv, 242-7; -and photo-
Prickles, 3-4, *5-6, 71 synthesis, 246-7
Prickly pear, 46, *74A, 62, 72; Respiratory cavity, 169, *299, 189 >
-poppy, 62, *118. 100, 162 -roots, 34, *56B
Primrose, 111, *206 Respiroscope, 243, *345
Procambium, 165; -cumbent, 38 Reticulate, 56-7, 137, *258
Promeristem. 164; -mycelium, 294 Rhea, 158
ProT' roots, 32, *54-5 Rhizoid, 303, 306, 310, 315
Prosopis (P. spicigera), 71, 338 Rhizobium rodicicola, 211
Protandry (-rous), 110 Rhizome, 39-40, *62
Proteins, 143-4, 2;;2-3 Rhizoplwro, 24, 32
Prothallus, 315, *434 Riccia, 303-5, *405-9
Protococcus, 280-1, *382 Rice, 107, 141, 355, 373-4; -grain,
Protoderm, 16-7; -togyny, 109 16-7, *25, 22, *31
Protonema, 313. *429 Root, 26-36, 185-8; -apex, 166-7,
Protophloem, 174 *296; -cap, 27, *41, 29, *42, 166;.
Protoplasm, xiii-xv. 128, 129-32 -hair, 28, 29; -pocket, 29, *39;
Protoxylem, 172, 178 . pressure, 217-9, *328, 225; -stock,
Prune (Pr1lnl1S) , 89; -spp., 339 40
Pteridophyta, xxi, 273. 313 ltosaseae, 338, *455
Ptero8perm 11m, 83. *1570 Rosaceous, 89, *167
Pulsation theory, 225 Rose (Rosa), 4, *6, 83, *l58B, 89.
Pulses, 117, 144, 240, 335, 375 98, *1910; -spp., 339
Pulvinus. 50. *81, 37;4 Rosemary (Rosmarinus), 350
Pummelo, SO. 61 *112, 334 Rotate, 89, *171
Pumpkin, 340 ' Rotation of crops, 212; -of proto-
Pupalia, 127. *244 plasm, 131-2, *239
Purslame, 239' '- Rozelle, 332
Pyrenoids, 277. 281 Rubber, 386
pyru8 spp., 339 Rubioceae, 342,3
-Rubia' cordi/olio, 342
Quamoclit pinnata, 347 Rubus spp., 339
Queen of the night, 106, 349 Ruellia, 32, 125, *239
Quinine. 149, 383 Runner, 42, *66
Quisquali8, see Rangoon creeper
Saccharomyces, see yeast
Raceme (-mose), 47, 74-7, *139 S accharurn officina rum , 355, 378
Rachis, 59 Safflower, 77, 344
Radicle, 13, 14, 15 Saffron, 42
Radish, 30, *47. 88, 97, 117 330 Sage (Salvia), 95, 106-7, *2Q2, 350,
Raff/esia, 8. *18 ' Sogittario, 70
Railway creepr, 89, 347, *467 Samara, 118, *219-20
Rain tree, 60. 338 Sandalwood tree, 8, 383
Ramenta, 313 Sandwich Island climber, 45 *71_
Rangoon creeper, 66. 106
ROnunc111aceae. 3?8-30. *445-6
Sansevieria, 74 352
Santonin, 344 '
'
\
Ranunculu8, 70, 330, *446 Sappan, 336
Raphanu8 8ati~'u8, 330 Sapria, 8
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY

Saprophytes, 9, *19 Spices, 385

,Sap-wood, 193 Spiderwort, 132
Saraca (S. indica), 48, 60, 336 Spike, 76, *140; -let, 76, *141
Sarsaparilla, see Smilax Spinach, Indian-, 32
Ecalariform, 137, 159, 282, *384 Spindle, N uclear-, 150
Scale, 63 Spine, 62, '117-8, 71
Scape, 38 Spirogyra, 281-4, *383·7
.schizocarp, 118 Spongy parenchvma, 190, *312
Schizogenous, 154, *279 Sporangiophore,' 294
.schizomycetes, sec bacteria ~porangiUln (-gia), 315
Sc1erenchyma, 157-60, *285 Spore, 263, 292, 311, 315
Sclerotic cells 158 *286 Sporogonium, 308, *415-6, 311, *428
Scorpio~d, 48,' *78A, 78, *150 Sporophyll, 315
Screwpme, 29, *38, 32, *55, 120 Spol'ophyte, 304, 308, 311, 314
Scutellum, 17, 25B, 18, *26B, 19 Sprmg-wood, 193
'Secondary growth, 191-9 Sprout-leaf plant,- 36, *60, 69, 260
Secretory tissues 162-3 Spur, 105, *197-200
:Sedges, 67 ' Spurges, 270
Squash, 119
Seed, 12-2&; 113-5: -dispersal, 121-7;
Functions of-, 114-5 Stamen, 80, 90; -minode, 94
Seismonasty, 257-8, *356-7 Starch, 141-3, *265-7; -print, 229,
Self-sterility, 109 *336; -sheath, 170, 177
:Senna, Indian-, 336 Stele, 172
Sensitive plant, 60, 257, *357, 3;:8; Stem, 3&-49, 175-85; -apex, 1&4-6,
-wood-sorrel, 257, *356 *295
Sepals, 80, 87; -loid, 87 Sterigma (-ata), 301, *404
Serrste, 54 Stigma, 80, 98
'iesamum illdicum, 377 Stilt .roots, 32, *54-5, 271
Seta, 311, *424, *428 Stmgmg hairs, 72 *137
Shaddock, see pummelo Stipe, 300, *403 '
Shallot, 352 Stipel, 51; -pules, 50, 51-3, *84-8
Shepherd's purse, 330 Stolon, 43, *67
Slwrea, 118, 122, *233 Stoma (-ata) 167 168-70 *297
S~da cordi/alia, 333
Stomium, 315, *433 '
SIeve-plate, 160; -tube 160-1, *290 Stone cells, 158; -crop, 98, *191D
Siliqua, 117, *215, 330 Strawberry, 42, 52 120 339· Wild-
339, ""
Silk cotton tree, 61 *111 71 96 332
Siiverweed, 339 ' ", Storage, 238-40
'Sinuous, 339 Struggle for existence, 362
Sleep movement, 258 Style, 80, 98
Smilax (S. macrophylla) 53 *88, 62, Suberin (-ization), 139
3~ , , Sucker, 44, *69
Sucking roots, 7, *14, 34
Snake plant, 74 ,*138 Sucrose, 140, 377
'Snapdragon, 91, *174
Sugarcane, 27, 107, 140, 372, 378
Boils, 2D1-5 Sugars, 140-1, 377-8
Solanaceae, 347-9, *468-70 Sunflower, 77, 85 344 *463' -stem,
Solanum, 348; S. nigrum, 349, *470; 175-8, *304 ' , ,
S. tuber08um, 376; S. xantltocar- Survi val of the fittest, 363
pum, 270; -spp." 348, 349 Suspensor, 114, 293
Somatic cell-division 149-50 *274 Suture, 99
Sonne1'C(tia, 24, 272 ' ,
Sweet flag, 175
Sorghum vulgare, 355 375 Syconus, 120
:Sorosis, 120 '
Sorrel, 103; Sensitive wood-, 257, Symb!or:ts (-biosis), 9., 212
SymbIOtIC bacteria, 211
*356; Wood-, 42. *66 111 125 Symmetry, 87
Sorus (-ri), 315, *432 ' ,
Syncarpous, 98 *190
Soybean, 144, 240
Spadix (-athe), 76, *144, 84, *160A-B Synergids, 101: 111
, Species, xix, 323 Syngenesious, 96, *187, 343
Spermatophytes, xxii Systems of classification, 324-6
Spermatozoid, see antherozoid
Sphaero-crystals, 148, *272 Tamarind (Tamarindus), 21, 60, 336
 INDEX

Tannins, 146 Ulothrix, 278-80, *122

Tapioca, 262, 376 Umbel, 76-7, *146-7, 341
Tap root, 26, *36 Umbellifcrae, 341-2, *460-1
Taro, 43, *67, 148 Uncaria, 3, *4
Taxis (-xes), 254 Urena (U. lobata), 126, *242 333
Taxonomy, xxiii, 323 U triculaTia, 65, *122, 237-8, '*344
Tea, 89, 109, 146, 383
Vac~ole, xiii, *1, 129, *247
Teak, 3, 78, 380
Tegmen, 12, 14, 114 Vallzsnem, 108, *204, 132
Telegraph plant, Indian-, 253, *351, Valvate, 91-2, *177A
336 Vanda, 34, *57, 66
Tendril, 4, *7-9, 44-5, *70-2, 61-2, Vanf1u~Tia (V. dpinosa), 71, 343
*113-6 VanatlOns, 359
Vascular bundles, 172-4, *302; Types
Tentacles, 234 of- -, 174-5, *303
Testa, 12, 14, 114 Vallcheria, 264, *373
Tetradynamous, 97, *l88B, 330 Velamen, 9, 34
Thalamus, 80, 82-4 Velum, 300, *403
Thallophyta, xix, 273 Venation, 55-8, *93-100
Thespesia, 332 Venus' fly-trap, 235, *340
'l'hevetia, 346 Venter, 311, 316
Thistle, 72; Globe-, 270 Verticillaster, 79, *152, 349
Thorn, 45, *73, ~1; -apple, 349 Vessels, 159-60, *302, 172
Three bean experIment 24-5 *35 Yexillary, 92 *177D' -lum 90 *In
Thyme ('l'hymus), 350' , V ~ctoTia 7egi~, 268, ;374 ' ,
Tiger's nail, 127, *245 Vmca, see periwinkle
Timber, 380-1 Vine (Vitis), 5, 45, 48· Wild- 32
Tinospora, 34 48 " >
Tissue, xiii, 155-67; -system, 167-75 Virgin's bower see Clematis
Tobacco, 65, 73, 96-, 349; Wild-, 349 Viruses, 291 ' '
Tomato, 119, *222, 348, 349 Vitalistic theory 225
Tonoplasm, 130 Vitamins, 252-3 '
Torus, 138, *263B-C Vivipary, 23-4, *33, 272, *376
T'rabecula (-lae), 312
Trace elements 205-6 Wallflower, 76, 330
Trachea (-eae): 159-60 *302 172 Wall-pressure, 216
Tracheid, 159 *287-8' 172 '
Tractile fibre;, 150 ' Water culture expts., 206-7, *321
Water hyacinth 43 50 *82 148
Tmde8cantia, 132 269 "" >
'l'mgia, 72 Water lettuce, 43 *68 148 269
Trama, 300, ~ 404
Water lily, 85-6' *163.4 100 269;
Translocation, 238 , Giant- - 269. ';374 ' ,
Transpiration. 219-24; -current, 224 TV p,d elia dalendulacea 344
Trapa, 35, *58' '""
Traveller's joy, see Naravelia' -tree VV~eat, 19, 76, 143, '355, 374
66, *127 ' , Wmd flower, 330
Wit~ania somnifera, 349
Tr~blllus ten'estris, 270-1
~ood, see xylem; -fibres, 160, 178
Tr~{'1~a8antl~e8 (T. dioica) , 29, 340
V\ ood-ap.ple, 29, 45, 71; -oil-tree,
Tr::,: (T. procumbens), 38, 344, see Dzpterorarplls
Wo.o?-sorrel. 42. *66, 111 125· SeI}<
Tr~ll!erous, 87; -istichous, 67, *129 slhve-, 257. *356 ' ,
T,TztZ?'Um sativum, 355, 374 Wormwood, Indian-, 334
TropIsms, 254-7
Tube-mJ-,leus, 94, *181 Xanthium, 126. *241
Tuber, 40, *6~ -cles, 211, *322 Xanthophyll. 134, 135
Tuberose, 38, 41. 76, 353 Xerophytes, 269-71
Tuberous roots, 31. *50 Xylem, 158-60, 172-3, 178
Turgid (-dity) 215-6
Turgor pressu~e 216 Yam, 122. *230. 261, *362 377
Turmeric. 40 ' Yeast, 297-9, *400-2 '
Turnip, 31, *48 97 330 Yucca, see dagger plant
Twiners, 2 " 'Zea mays, 355 374-5
Typhonium, 76, *144 Zephyrantl~es, '353
 A CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY
Zinnia, 77, 344 Zygomorphic, 87, 88
Zizyphus, see plum, Indian- Zygospore, 264, 283, 294
Zoogloea, 288 Zygote, 264
.Zoophily (-lous), 108 Zymase, 247, 299
.Zoospore, 263, 277, 279 Zymogen, 241
! Other books by A. C. Dutta
~ pu.blished by Oxford University Press

Vanaspati Sbastra (in Hindi) 336 illustrations Rs 10

. by A. C. Dutta and N. S. Parihar (Lecturer in Botany,
f Allahabad University) 1965

This book has been specially written for the henefit of

.students who are preparing for the Pre-University, Interme-
diate and Higher Secondary examinations through the
medium of Hindi. The book has been largely based on the
1956 and 1959 editions of the universally known A Class-book
,-of Botany, and also the latest 1965 edition. It includes the
latest material required for these syllabuses and courses, and
the latest ~l...tcJ.'ms as laid down by the Government of
India. TWis i7 ·tl~"j.'t>nfy;ll~di·::yersion Slf Professor A. C.
Dutta's A Class-bfo;~ :g1.:BP,tanY '~~hrSively, authorized by
him. The text .,h~s beeb:- written ...in ~i?lplei language, and
profusely illus~:ated sb .,l:pat the young learners may easily
,comprehend the· topics dealt w.ith.

Botany for Degree Students 583 illustrations Rs 16

This book, as the name implies, has been designed to meet

the needs of students preparing for the two-year and three-
year Degree examinations ~ass course). Its wide circulation
within the few months of publication has amply justified its
usefulness and popularity. Further -high opinions on the
merit of the book h'aye been expressed by several teachers
from most parts of India and out8ide. A long-felt need for
a suitable text-book for Degree students, covering a wide range
Qf topics as required by the syllabuses, is thus fulfilled.