GENERAL NAVIGATION

HANDBOOK

COMPILED BY: AKSHEY SOOD

 DIRECTION, LATITUDE & LONGITUDE
The Shape of the EARTH
1. Commonly described as an oblate spheroid, that is, a sphere
which is slightly flattened at its poles.
2. The flattening is called compression and in the case of the Earth
is approximately 0.3% (1/300th).
3. The Earth’s polar diameter is 27 Statute miles (or 23 nautical
miles or 43 km) less than its equatorial diameter.
4. Shape of the earth :- Geoid
5. ICAO has adopted world Geodetic System standard 1984.( WGS
84 )
6. For Calculation basis, we considered the earth a true sphere.
THE POLES
1. The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about which
the Earth spins.
2. The axis of the Poles is inclined to the axis of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun at an angle of 23½°.
BASIC DIRECTION ON THE EARTH
1. Cardinal Points :- North, South, East and West
2. Quadrantal directions :- NE, SE, SW,NW
3. When viewed from above the North Pole, the Earth appears to
rotate in an anticlockwise direction.
4. When viewed from above the South Pole, the Earth appears to
rotate in a clockwise direction.
 To achieve the required precision, air navigation terminology
retains the cardinal points as a reference but uses the
Sexagesimal system for measuring directions.
SEXAGESIMAL SYTEM/ TRUE DIRECTION
1. The Sexagesimal system utilizes the fact that a clockwise rotation
of direction from North through East, South and West and back to
North is a circle of 360 degrees.
2. the use of 000° or 360° for North is a personal choice (but a
northerly runway would be labeled ‘36’).
3. When the North datum is the direction of the North geographic
pole, it is referred to as True direction. The abbreviation (T) is
used,
4. A 3-figure group is always used - 000°(T), not 0°(T)
5. Runway Directions are normally given with reference to Magnetic North, not True North.

AKSHEY SOOD
Reciprocal directions :- The direction which is 180° opposite to the direction given.
060 (T) +180= 240 (T)
Position On the Earth /Position Reference System
1. Position Reference System which defines position accurately and unambiguously on the
Earth’s surface.
2. On a plane surface (such as graph paper), position can be defined accurately and
unambiguously using Cartesian co-ordinates ±x and ±y from 2 mutually perpendicular axes
3. The Cartesian system works well on a flat surface but must be modified to work on a
spherical surface, i.e. the Earth
4. The linear co-ordinates x and y are replaced by angular coordinates known as Longitude
and Latitude.
CIRCLES ON THE EARTH
Great Circle
1. A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius are those of the Earth itself is
called a Great Circle.
2. It is called ‘great’ because a disc cut through the Earth in the plane of the Great Circle
would have the largest area that can be achieved.
3. The shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is the shorter arc of the
Great Circle joining the two points.
4. Given two points on the Earth’s surface, there will be only one Great Circle joining them
(unless the points are diametrically opposed).

THE EQATOR
1. The Great Circle whose plane is at 90° to the axis of rotation of the Earth (the polar axis) is
called the Equator.
2. It lies in an East-West direction and divides the Earth equally into two hemispheres.
3. Equator is the datum for defining Latitude and is the equivalent of the X axis of the
Cartesian system.
The Meridians
1. Meridians are semi-Great Circles joining the North and South poles.

AKSHEY SOOD
2. All meridians indicate True North-South direction.
3. Every Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridian
and its Anti-meridian.
4. The meridians cross the Equator at 90°.
The Prime (or Greenwich) Meridian
1. The meridian passing through Greenwich is known the Prime
Meridian .
2. The Prime Meridian is the datum for defining Longitude and is
the equivalent of the Y axis of the Cartesian system.
Small Circle A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius are not those of the
Earth is called a Small Circle.

Parallels of Latitude
1. The parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the
Earth whose planes are parallel to the Equator.
2. They lie in an East-West direction.
3. Their function is to indicate position North or South of the
Equator.
GRATICULE
1. The network formed on a map or the surface of a globe
by the Prime Meridian, the meridians, the Equator and
the parallels of latitude is called the Graticule.
2. The graticule is an analogy on the Earth’s surface of the X
- Y grid on graph paper
3. Using the graticule the position of any point can be
accurately and unambiguously defined. however, position
is defined by angular measurement(degrees ,minutes &
seconds of arc), not by distance as on cartesian co-
ordinates.
4. This is the foundation of the latitude/longitude.
Angular Measurements
1. The fundamental unit of angular measurement is the degree (°).
2. Which is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle
by an arc equal to the 360th part of the circumference (hence
360° in a circle).
Latitude (Geocentric Latitude)
1. The latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) measured along the meridian
through the point from the Equator to the point.
2. Latitude is termed north if place is north of equator and south if place is south of equator.

AKSHEY SOOD
Geocentric and Geodetic Latitude
1. Geodetic (or Geographic) Latitude is the smaller angle between the normal (90°) to the
meridian at the point on the spheroid and the plane of the Equator.
2. This normal line does not necessarily pass through the centre of the spheroid.
3. The latitudes plotted on navigation charts are Geodetic Latitudes.
4. The maximum difference between Geocentric and Geodetic Latitudes occurs at approx
45°N/S and is about 11.6 minutes of arc.

LOGITUDE
1. The longitude of any point is the shorter distance in the arc
along the Equator between the Prime Meridian and the
meridian through the point.
2. Longitude is measured in degrees and minutes of arc and is
annotated East (E) or West (W) depending whether the point
lies East or West of the Prime Meridian (Greenwich).
3. Longitude can be measured up to 180°E or 180°W of the Prime
Meridian. These 2 meridians are coincident and are known as
the Greenwich Anti-Meridian, normally labeled 180°E or
180°W.
LONGITUDE & LATITUDE
1. Lines of latitude are all parallel to each other.
2. Lines of longitude, emanate from a point (the North Pole), reach a maximum separation at
the Equator, and then converge back to a point again, at the South Pole.
3. When giving a position in latitude and longitude, the latitude is always quoted first and the
longitude second.

AKSHEY SOOD
 Conversion of Latitude and Longitude to Distance on the Earth
1. The definition of a nautical mile has been chosen to make it relate
to angular arc on a Great Circle.
2. Mean radius of the Earth is approximately 20.9 million feet in
length. This means that on a Great Circle, 1 minute of arc
corresponds to a distance on the Earth’s surface of 6080 feet.
3. This distance of 6080 feet can be defined as 1 nautical mile.
4. Therefore you can relate angle along a Great Circle arc to
distance on the Earth.
a. all meridians (lines of longitude) are Great Circles, so the
distance up or down a meridian (which is change of latitude) has this relationship.
b. The difference in latitude between positions 5000N 00100W and 5005N 00100W is
exactly 5 minutes, so they are exactly 5 nautical miles apart.
c. This is true of differences in longitude only and at the Equator, because the Equator is
the only parallel of latitude which is also a Great Circle.
GREAT CIRCLE VERTIES
1. The northern vertex of a Great Circle is simply
the most northerly point on that Great Circle.
2. The southern vertex is the most southerly point
on the Great Circle.
3. The vertices are antipodal and the Great Circle
distance between them is 10,800 NM.
4. The vertices lie on meridian and anti-meridian
and have latitude values of equal value but of
opposite sign.
For e.g. if the southern vertex of a Great Circle is
63S 170W, its northern vertex will be 63N 010E.
5. Knowing the co-ordinates of either vertex
enables calculation of where and at what angle
the Great Circle crosses the Equator.
6. A Great Circle will cross the Equator at two points whose longitude is 90° change of
longitude from either of its vertices.
7. A Great circle will cross the Equator at an angle equal to the latitude of its vertices
Thus a Great Circle with vertices at 50 N/S will cross the equator at an angle of 50o
8. Two Special Case.
a. A great circle with vertices at 90 N/S (a meridian) crosses the equator at 90° in direction
180°(T) (090 + 90) or 000°(T) (090-90).
b. A great circle with vertices at 0 N/S crosses the Equator at 0°(T) (it is the Equator) and
has direction 090°(T) or 270°(T)

AKSHEY SOOD
 Great Circles, Rhumb Lines & Directions on the Earth
Great Circle
1. A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius are those of the Earth itself is
called a Great Circle.
2. The shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is the shorter arc of the
Great Circle joining the two points.
3. Given two points on the Earth’s surface, there will be only one Great Circle joining them
(unless the points are diametrically opposed).
4. It is called ‘great’ because a disc cut through the Earth in the plane of the Great Circle
would have the largest area that can be achieved.
5. Track direction Change
Rhumb Line
1. A Rhumb Line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the
Earth which cuts all meridians at the same angle - a line of
constant direction.
2. It does not give the shortest distance over the Earth between the
two points.
Comparing the Great Circle and the Rhumb Line together

Rhumb line Important Points

1. There is only one Rhumb Line that can be drawn between 2 points.
2. Parallels of Latitude (because they cut all meridians at 90°).
3. Equator (a special case because the Equator is also a Great Circle).
4. Meridians (are also Great Circles and the cut angle involved is 0°).
5. The Rhumb Line between 2 points will always lie nearer to the Equator than the
corresponding Great Circle. Conversely, the Great Circle between the 2 points will always
lie nearer the Pole than the Rhumb Line.

AKSHEY SOOD
6. The shape of the Rhumb Line may be stated as convex to the Equator or concave to the
nearer Pole.
Lines Which Are Both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines:-
1. The only lines which are both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines are the Equator and any
meridian (along with its associated anti-meridian).
2. There are no other lines that are both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines.
3. The parallels of latitude are Rhumb Lines because they cut all meridians at 90°, but they are
Small Circles as they do not have the same radius and centre as the Earth.
GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION

Distance on the Earth

The Kilometre (km) The definition of the kilometre is 1/10,000th of the average distance on
the Earth between the Equator and either Pole. Thus there are 10,000 km between the
Equator and either Pole, and the circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km.
1 kilometre (km) = 3280 feet (ft)
1 metre (m) = 3.28 ft
1 Statute Mile = 5280 ft

The Nautical mile:- can be related directly to the angular measurements of the Latitude/
Longitude graticule of the Earth.
The ICAO definition of the nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of 1852 metres.
The Standard Nautical Mile is defined as a length of 6080 feet.
One minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile (NM) One degree of latitude = 60 minutes = 60 NM
But
One minute of longitude = 1 NM AT THE EQUATOR ONLY.
The circumference of the Earth at the Equator is 360 × 60 = 21 600 NM
As there are 90° of latitude change between the Equator and the Poles, the distance between
the Equator and the Poles is 90 × 60 = 5400 NM

AKSHEY SOOD
VARIATIONS IN THE LENGTH OF A NAUTICAL MILE
1. The full definition of the length of a nautical mile is that length of arc of a Great Circle
which subtends an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature of the Earth’s surface.
2. the longer the Earth radius, the longer the nautical mile, and this would be true if we used
geocentric latitude. However, our system of latitude and longitude is based on geodetic,
not geocentric latitude.
3. the Earth is flattened at the Poles, the radius of curvature is increased and a greater arc is
required to subtend an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature, hence a nautical
mile is longer at the Poles, at about 6108 feet.
4. The amount of curvature is greatest at the Equator (the radius of curvature is decreased)
and therefore the length of arc required to generate an angle of one minute at the centre
of curvature is less. A nautical mile is shortest at the Equator and measures about 6048
feet.
5. The average value, 6076.1 feet, is known as the International Nautical Mile and it is
approximately 1852 metres.

Conversion Factors
5400 nautical miles (from the Equator to either pole) = 10,000 kilometres
21 600 nautical miles (circumference of the Earth) = 40,000 kilometres

AKSHEY SOOD
GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES
Same meridian, same hemisphere
What is the shortest (great circle) distance between A(5137N 00012W) and B(0648N 00012W)

51°37’ - 06°48’ = 44°49’

44°49’ = (44 × 60) + 49 = 2689

= 2689 NM

Same meridian, different hemispheres

What is the shortest distance between D (2930S 03030E) and E (5947N 03030E)

29°30’ + 59°47’ = 89°17’

(89 × 60) + 17 = 5357 NM

AKSHEY SOOD
Meridian and anti-meridian, same hemisphere

What is the shortest distance between

F(4155N 01110E)
G(2117N 16850W)

180° - ( 41°55’ + 21°17’ ) = 180° - 63°12’ = 116°48’

116° 48’ = (116 x 60) + 48 = 7008 nm.

Meridian and anti-meridian, different hemispheres

What is the shortest distance between J (3557N 13535E) and K (2210S 04425W)?

90°- 35°57’ = 54°03’ + 900 + 22°10’=166013'

(166 x 60) + 13 = 9973nms.

AKSHEY SOOD
Two points on the Equator
What is the shortest distance between L (0000N 01635W) and M(0000N 10355E)?

a minute of longitude equals one nautical mile but only at

the Equator

016°35’ + 103°55’ = 120°30’

(120° x 60) + 30 = 7230 nm

A Special Case
What is the shortest distance between N (5130N 00000E) and P (5130S 18000E)?

N and P are on meridian and anti-meridian and have equal

latitudes north and south of the Equator

They are diametrically opposite each other on the same

great circle and are said to be antipodal

The great circle distance between any point and its

antipodes is 180° in angular terms, 10,800nm in linear
measure, ie, the semi-circumference of the Earth.

AKSHEY SOOD
 Earth Magnetism
The North and South magnetic poles are not exactly opposite each
other on the Earth. In effect, it is like a bent bar magnet.
MAGNETIC NORTH
1. Magnetic North is the horizontal direction indicated by a freely
suspended magnet influenced only by the Earth’s magnetic field.
2. This direction is sometimes referred to as the ‘magnetic meridian’
at that point.
MAGNETIC DIRECTION
Magnetic Direction is measured from Magnetic North clockwise through 360°, and is suffixed
by the letter ‘M’, e.g. 043(M) and 270(M).
VARIATION
1. Variation is the angular difference between the directions of True and Magnetic North at
any point.
2. Variation is the angle between True and Magnetic North and is measured in degrees East
or West from True North.
3. Isogonal :- A line on the surface of the Earth joining points of equal magnetic variation.
4. Agonic line :- It is the line connecting points North & South poles of Zero variation.

CHANGE OF VARIATION (ACCORDING TO OBSERVER’S POSITION ON THE EARTH)

The amount and the direction of variation depends on the relative geometry of the observer,
the True Poles, and the Magnetic Poles.

AKSHEY SOOD
SITUATION AT THE POLES
1. For an aircraft flying between the North True Pole and the North Magnetic Pole, the
variation on that shorter arc of the Great Circle is not zero, it is 180°.
2. Therefore, the maximum possible value of variation is 180° and this occurs at both the
North and the South Poles.

Changes in Variation over Time

1. The value of variation at any point on the Earth changes over a period of time.
2. The reason for the change is that the position of the Magnetic North Pole is moving
westwards round the North True Pole thereby reducing the variation.
MAGNETIC DIP ANGLE

1. Imagine aircraft at positions A, B, and C.

2. The lines of force will make different
angles to the horizontal in each location.
3. This angle is known as the Angle of Dip.

AKSHEY SOOD
The Earth’s Magnetic field is along the total line of force,
shown as T. This can be resolved into a horizontal
component H and a vertical component Z.
VERTICAL COMPONENT
The vertical component Z is of no value in determining
horizontal direction.
It is undesirable for two reasons:
a. It causes the needle of a direct reading magnetic
compass to dip from the horizontal.
b. The vertical component of the Earth’s field induces vertical soft-iron magnetism in the
aircraft, thereby increasing the deviation.
HORIZONTAL COMPONENT
a. The horizontal component is the part which is
detected by the compass needle in order to
determine magnetic north and is known as the
directive force.
b. In the region of the magnetic equator the
strength of the directive force H approaches the
value of T, while Z approaches zero as does the
angle of dip.
c. When either of the Earth’s magnetic poles is
approached, this component approaches zero
strength, while the value of Z approaches that of
T.
d. The maximum possible dip angle is 90° and this occurs overhead the North and South
Magnetic Poles.
DEVIATION
1. There is a correction to be applied. This is for the difference between Magnetic North and
the direction that a compass needle points.
2. The reason is that the aircraft itself is full of magnetic influences (metal, electric currents,
etc.) and so acts partially as a magnet itself.
3. The compass needle is mainly attracted to the Magnetic North Pole, but partially attracted
to the magnetism within the aircraft.
4. This aircraft magnetism deflects the compass needle from Magnetic North to a new
direction, which we call Compass North.
5. The difference between Magnetic North and Compass North is called Deviation.
6. Deviation is defined as the angle measured at a point between the direction indicated by a
compass needle and the direction of Magnetic North.
7. It is termed East or West according to whether Compass North lies to the East or West of
Magnetic North.
AKSHEY SOOD
8. When deviations are quoted as plus or minus they are to be applied to the compass
heading in order to give magnetic heading.
APPLICATION OF VARIATION AND DEVIATION

The direction of the aircraft relative to The direction of the aircraft relative to
True north is 105o True north is 105o
The direction of the aircraft relative to The direction of the aircraft relative to
Magetic north is 122o Magnetic north is 088o
Magnetic north is to the west of True Magnetic north is to the east of true
north north
Variation is 17oW Variation is 17oE

Heading Magnetic Variation Heading True Heading Magnetic Variation Heading True
122o 17oW 105o 088o 17oE 105o

VARIATION WEST MAGNETIC BEST

VARIATION EAST MAGNETIC LEAST

DEVIATION EAST - COMPASS LEAST

DEVIATION WEST - COMPASS BEST
AKSHEY SOOD
 CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE
1. Meridians are great semi-circles joining the poles.
2. Meridians converge as they run towards the nearer
pole, and diverge as they run away from the nearer
pole.
a. it can be seen that the two meridians ‘x’ and ‘y’
diverge until they cross the Equator, where they
are parallel to each other. As they continue into the
Southern Hemisphere they begin to converge,
finally meeting at the South Pole.
b. At the Pole, however, they will converge at an
angle exactly equal to their difference in
longitude.
c. There will be an intermediate amount of convergence. The angle of inclination of the 2
meridians will be more than zero, but less than that of poles.
CONVERGENCY
1. Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination
between two selected meridians measured at a given
latitude.

Position Latitude Change of Convergency Convergency

Longitude Ch.long
Equator 0° 60° 0° 0
Pole 90° 60° 60° 1.0

The relationship between convergency and latitude is a function of the SINE of the latitude.
Convergency = Change in Longitude × Sine Mean Latitude
Convergency and the Great Circle Track
1. If you are flying a great circle track then your great circle
track will alter over a period of time with the respect to
True North by exactly the amount of convergency.
2. The track direction is defined by reference to the
meridians, and if the direction of the meridians changes,
then the track direction changes.
3. The change in great circle track direction is the angle of
inclination of the meridians at the 2 points where the
track is measured.
4. Convergency is equal to the difference between the
great circle directions measured at each meridian.

AKSHEY SOOD
Question 1
The initial great circle track from A (4000N 00200W) to B (5000N 01000E) is 060°(T). What is
the initial great circle track from B to A?

The mean latitude is 45N (halfway between 40N and convergency = change in Great Circle track between 2
50N). Sine 45° meridians, then the Great Circle track has changed 8.5
Convergency = Change in Longitude x Sine Mean degrees between A and B.
Latitude It left A on a track of 060°, so using the rules given by
= 12 x .7071 the D-I-I-D diagram Traveling eastwards in the
Convergency = 8.5 Northern hemisphere, the track will increase. The
track angle will be 068.5° as it passes through B. To
find the track from B to A, as it passes through B, take
the reciprocal, 248.5°

Conversion Angle:-
1. The difference between great circle direction and Rhumb Line direction joining two given
points is called conversion angle.
2. Conversion angle is always the same at each end of the 2 points connected by the great
circle and the Rhumb Line tracks.
3. Conversion angle is ½ convergency.
4. Conversion angle = ½ change of longitude × sin mean latitude.

AKSHEY SOOD
 DEPARTURE
1. Departure is the distance between two meridians along a
specified parallel of latitude, usually in nautical miles.
2. As meridians converge from the Equator to the Pole, the same
change of longitude does not represent the same East- West
distance in nautical miles.
3. If we take the Equator as our specified parallel of latitude, the
distance between 2 meridians will be greater than at some
higher latitude.
4. Departure is maximum at the Equator where 1° change of
longitude (ch.long) equals 60’ of arc of a Great Circle.
5. Departure is zero at both poles because the meridians
converge and meet at these two points.
6. Departure therefore varies as the cosine of the latitude.
7. Departure (NM) = ch.long ×60× cos lat

Since this distance is always along a parallel of latitude it represents a Rhumb Line distance.
Types of Departure Questions
There are 2 main types of question on departure
a. Variations on the basic departure formula
b. Given departure at one latitude, calculate it at another
Variations on the Basic Departure Formula
Example 1 An aircraft at position 6000N 00522W flies 165 km due East. What is the new
position?

Firstly, convert 165 km to NM. 165/1.852 = 89 NM.

Now substitute into the departure formula:

Departure (NM) = ch.long x 60 x cos(lat)

89 = ch.long x 60 x cos60
ch.long = 2o58'
Example 2 In which latitude is a difference of longitude of 44°11’ equivalent to a departure of
2000 NM?
ch.long = 44°11’

Departure (NM) = ch.long × 60 × cos lat

2000 = 44°11’ ×60 × cos lat
∴ Latitude is 41° North or South
Given Departure at One Latitude, Find It at Another
Example:- An aircraft leaves position ‘G’ in Latitude 40°S and flies the following Rhumb Line
tracks and distances:

G to H: 180°(T) 240 NM

H to J: 270°(T) 240 NM

J to K: 000°(T) 240 NM

What is the Rhumb Line bearing and distance of ‘K’ from ‘G’?
 1 IN 60 RULE

Application of the 1 in 60 rule

1. Calculation of the height on a glide slope.
2. Calculation of rate of descent to maintain a glide slope.
3. Calculation of shallow slopes, particularly runway slopes.
4. Calculation of distance off required track using radio aids such as VOR/DME.

AKSHEY SOOD
 SCALE
Scale is the relationship between the length of a line drawn between two positions on a
chart and the distance on the Earth between the same points.
3 METHODS OF EXPRESSING SCALE ARE COMMON.
Statements in Words :- “One inch to ten nautical miles” means that a line one inch long on the
chart represents a line ten nautical miles long on the Earth.
Graduated Scale Line :- Graduated scale lines are normally depicted at the bottom of the chart
& may be in nautical miles, statute miles or kilometers.
Representative Fraction(RF) :- This is a statement in words put into mathematical form and is
calculated from the equation:
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = & is dimensionless
𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

Therefore,
1:500000,1 cm on the chart represents 500,000 cm on the Earth
Or
1 inch on the chart represents 500000 inches on the Earth.
Ensure that you the same units for both the numerator and the denominator.
1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 1
Example :- = = =
10 𝑛𝑚 10 𝑥 6080 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 10 𝑥 6080 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑥 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 729600
Now, the representative fraction becomes frictionless

Conversion Factors
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet or 1852 meters
1 meter = 3.28 feet
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 12 inches
Example 1
On a particular chart, 5 cm represents 7 nautical miles. What is the scale?
Answer:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 5𝑐𝑚 5𝑐𝑚 1
Representative Fraction = = = =
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 7𝑛𝑚 7𝑛𝑚 𝑥 1852 𝑥 100 259280

Types of Scale Question

1. Sometimes you are given the Chart Length and the Earth Distance(ED) and asked to find
the RF.
2. Sometimes you are given the scale (the RF) and the ED and asked to find the CL.
3. Sometimes you are given the RF and the CL and asked to find the ED.

AKSHEY SOOD
 Apply any conversion factors necessary to get both CL and ED in the same units.
Example 2
On a chart of scale 1/5,000,000, how many nautical miles on the Earth are represented by 1.7
cm?

Solution:

Large and Small Scale

LARGE SCALE - LOTS OF DETAIL – 1/50,000
SMALL SCALE - LOTS OF AREA -1/5,000,000
LARGE SCALE - SMALLER DENOMINATOR
SMALL SCALE - LARGER DENOMINATOR

AKSHEY SOOD
 GENERAL CHART PROPERTIES
CHART PREOJECTION GENERAL
1. The transfer of information from a globe on to a flat paper chart is achieved by
‘projection’.
2. Originally, the technique involved using a light source within the globe to project the
latitude/longitude graticule on to a flat sheet of paper.
3. Understanding of the original projection techniques using light is more than adequate for
understanding the properties of charts.
PERSPECTIVE” AND “NON-PERSPECTIVE” CHARTS
1. Charts produced directly from a projection are called perspective or geometric projections.
2. Charts produced by mathematical methods are called non-perspective charts.
THE “REDUCED EARTH”
1. The term “Reduced Earth” (RE), means the scale model of the Earth on which the
projection of the chart is based.
TYPES OF PROJECTION
There are 3 general types of projection surfaces:
1. Azimuthal/Plane
2. Cylindrical
3. Conical
AZIMUTHAL/PLANE PROJECTIONS
1. An azimuthal (or ‘plane’) projection is produced by placing a flat sheet of paper against a
point on the Earth.
2. Common use is to provide charts of the North/South polar regions.
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
1. Cylinders of paper wrapped around the “Reduced Earth” and touching the RE at the
Equator.
2. Most of the world (except the Poles) has been projected and the user would only use a
section of the chart
Conical Projections
1. Conical projections involve placing a cone of paper over the Reduced Earth and projecting
the graticule onto the cone.
2. In this case, the chart will show the whole Northern hemisphere.
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL CHART AND REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE
1. Angles on the Earth’s surface should be represented by the same angles on the chart.
2. Scale should be constant and correct.

AKSHEY SOOD
3. Areas should be represented with their true shape on the chart.
4. Equal areas on the Earth’s surface should be shown as equal areas on the chart.

AKSHEY SOOD
NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS
1. Rhumb Lines should be straight lines.
2. Great Circles should be straight lines.
3. Latitudes/Longitudes should be easy to plot
4. Adjacent sheets should fit correctly.
5. Coverage should be worldwide.
Two of these properties can never be obtained, except on the globe
1. Scale can never be constant and correct. We can modify charts mathematically to give
nearly constant scale in small areas, but not over large areas.
2. The shapes of large areas cannot be represented perfectly. However, it is possible to
represent the shapes of small areas reasonably accurately.
ORTHOMORPHISM / CONFORMALITY
1. Of all the ideal properties, the only essential one is that navigation bearings must be
“correct” and the critical property is that angles on the Earth must be represented
correctly on the chart.
2. Charts that do have this property are known as orthomorphic or conformal charts.
3. If you draw a line joining 2 points on the chart and measure the angle but then find that
this does not correspond to the true direction on the Earth, the chart is useless for
navigation.
There are two fundamental conditions which must be met to achieve orthomorphism/
conformality.
Condition 1 The meridians and parallels on the chart must intersect at right angles (as they
do on the Earth).
Condition 2 The second condition relates to the scale at a point on the chart.

AKSHEY SOOD
 On an orthomorphic chart, scale at a point should be the same in all directions.
The condition 2 implies for Constant scale which we know is only true on a globe. On a chart,
scale will change.
The condition 2 is modified to be:
At any point on a chart, scale should be the same in all directions, or should change at the
same rate in all directions.

AKSHEY SOOD
 MERCATOR CHARTS – PROPERTIES
Introduction
1. A cylinder of paper was wrapped around the RE, touching the RE at the Equator.
2. Using a light source at the centre of the RE, the graticule was projected onto the cylinder.
3. Such Charts are perspective projection.
4. One significant advantage was- the meridians were equally spaced parallel lines.
a. Thus a straight line drawn on the chart would have a constant direction.
b. The straight line on the chart would be a rhumb line.
5. The projected graticule met one of the requirements for an orthomorphic/conformal chart
- the meridians and parallels crossed at right angles.
6. The shapes were clearly not correct and therefore angles on the chart were not correct.

failure to meet the second requirement of

orthomorphism/conformality that is - at any
point on a chart, scale should be the same in
all directions, or should change at the same
rate in all directions.

7. On the simple cylindrical projection, the N-S scale was changing at a different rate from
the E-W scale.
a. It was determined that the E-W scale was changing such that, at any latitude, the scale
was proportional to the secant of the latitude
b. N-S scale was changing such that, at any latitude, the scale was proportional to the
tangent of the latitude, resulting in the N-S stretching of shapes.
8. Mercator mathematically adjusted the positions of the parallels of latitude to make the
chart orthomorphic.
a. Mercator adjusted the parallels of latitude so that their separation increased only at a
rate proportional to the secant of latitude.
 Because the chart has been mathematically produced, it is a non-perspective chart.
9. Mercator projection is often called a normal or direct Mercator and geographic poles
cannot be projected.

AKSHEY SOOD
Scale Correct on the Equator. Elsewhere
increases as the secant of the
latitude. Within 1% up to 8° from
the Equator. Within ½% up to 6°
from the Equator
Orthomorphic Yes.
Graticule Meridians are straight parallel
lines, evenly spaced. Parallels are
straight parallel lines with the
space between them increasing
with the secant of the latitude.
Shapes Reasonably correct over small
areas. Distortion over large areas,
especially at high latitudes.
Chart Zero everywhere. Correct at the
Convergence Equator. Constant across the chart.

Rhumb lines Straight lines Always! Everywhere

Great Circles Equator and meridians are straight
lines (because they are also Rhumb
Lines). All other Great Circles - (or
concave to the Equator).

AKSHEY SOOD
MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS
The angle between the great circle and the rhumb line is conversion angle.
Conversion Angle = ½ Earth Convergency
SCALE NUMERICAL
Questions generally come in one of 4 basic types:
1. Given scale at the Equator, find Mercator scale at some other latitude.
2. Given Mercator scale at some latitude, find scale at the Equator.
3. Given Mercator scale at some latitude, find Mercator scale at some other latitude.
4. Given a fixed chart distance between meridians, find Mercator scale at a specific latitude.
1) Given Scale at the Equator, Find Mercator Scale at Some Other Latitude
Example 1 If the scale of a Mercator chart at the Equator is 1:1 000000, what is the scale at
60N (or S)?

2) Given Mercator Scale at Some Latitude, Find Scale at the Equator

Example 2 If the scale of a Mercator chart at 52S is 1:2000000, what is the scale at the
Equator?

3) Given Mercator Scale at Some Latitude, Find Scale at the Mercator Scale at some other
Latitude.
Example 3 On a Mercator chart, the scale at 54S is 1:2,000,000. What is the scale at 25N?

4) GIVEN A FIXED CHART DISTANCE BETWEEN MERIDIANS, FIND MERCATOR SCALE AT A

SPECIFIC LATITUDE
Example 4 On a Mercator chart, the chart length between two meridians, 160E and 160W, is
30 cms at 30S. What is the scale of the chart at 30S?

AKSHEY SOOD
 OBLIQUE MERCATOR

1. If the Great Circle route between two points is chosen

as the Great Circle of tangency, and the cylinder is
wrapped round this, an Oblique Mercator projection
results
2. his new Great Circle of tangency (which is often
referred to as the ‘False Equator’) will have correct
scale all along its length, and will be within 1% out to
480 nm either side of the centreline
3. The Great Circle is a straight line

Scale Expands as secant of Great Circle distance

from Great Circle of Tangency
Convergence Correct along Great Circle of Tangency, Poles
and Equator
Rhumb Lines Complex curves
Great Circles Complex curves, but may be taken as
straight lines close to Great Circle of
Tangency

AKSHEY SOOD
 TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

1. If we wrap the cylinder round the Reduced

Earth horizontally. This will now give us a
projection which contains a vertical band of
constant scale
2. The Transverse Mercator is a mathematical
projection and its projection
3. The cylinder is so positioned that it touches the Earth along a meridian (meridian of
tangency) called the Datum or central meridian
The light source is positioned in the Earth’s centre
USES OF A TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION
1. Mapping countries with a long N/S extent but a smaller E/W extent
2. Flying routes with a large N/S extent but a smaller E/W extent.
3. Polar charts. The TM is almost as good as a Polar Stereo for Polar flying. In fact, over the
right meridians, it gives a greater distance of constant scale.

AKSHEY SOOD
Scale Correct Along Datum Meridian. Elsewhere expands as sec (Great
Circle Distance E / W)
Orthomorphic Yes
Graticule Datum meridian, meridian perpendicular to it and the Equator are
straight lines. Other meridians are complex curves. Parallels are
ellipses (Equator is straight lines - limiting case of ellipse)

Shapes Distorted away from Datum Meridian

Chart Convergence Correct at the Pole and Equator
Rhumb lines Complex curves except Datum Meridian, meridian perpendicular to
it and the Equator
Great Circles Complex curves except Datum Meridian, meridian perpendicular to
it, Equator and Great Circles perpendicular to the Datum Meridian

AKSHEY SOOD
 LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL CHART

THE SIMPLE CONIC PROJECTION

1. The basis of the Lambert projection is the simple
conical and was not orthomorphic, after some
modification it was made orthomorphic.

2. It is possible to project the graticule of the Earth on

to the inside surface of a cone.
a. A cone is placed over a Reduced Earth, in such a
way that the cone is tangential with the Reduced
Earth along a parallel of latitude.
b. The apex of the cone will lie on the extended line of the
Earth’s axis.
c. A light source at the centre of the Reduced Earth casts
shadows of the graticule on the inside surface of the
cone.

3. On the simple conical projection, scale is correct on the

parallel of tangency, is called the ‘Standard Parallel’.
a. Scale expands on either side of the Standard Parallel.
b. in this example, Standard Parallel is 45°N.
c. if you take this parallel as the base of a triangle
formed by the cross-section of the cone, you get
an isosceles triangle, with the angle at the apex
being 90°.
d. if you take a parallel of tangency of 60N, the angle
at the apex would have been 120°.
e. The ultimate case is a parallel of tangency of 90N -
the North Pole. In this case we would get a flat
sheet of paper and the angle at the North Pole would be 180°.

The angle at the apex of the triangle is always twice the parallel of tangency.
f. The apex angle is also known as the angle of the cone. It is the angle of the cone which
determines the arc of the segment.
Arc of segment = change of longitude × sine of parallel of origin
= 360° × sine 45°
= 255°

What we are saying here is that 360° is represented by 255° of angle of inclination between
the meridians as drawn on the simple conic chart.

AKSHEY SOOD
 Angle of inclination of meridians = ch.long × sine of parallel of origin
The angle of inclination of the meridians is known as chart convergence. Therefore
Chart convergence = ch.long × sine of parallel of origin
The sine of the parallel of origin is called “the constant of the cone” and is represented by
the symbol “n”.

Lambert’s Conical Orthomorphic Projection

1. Lambert modified the simple conic in order to reduce
this rapid rate of scale change.
2. Lambert made the cone of his projection go inside
the Reduced Earth.
3. The scale is now correct at these 2 points, These are
now called the Standard Parallels.
4. This new projection has two standard parallels on
which the scale is correct.
5. The old parallel of tangency of the simple conic is
renamed the parallel of origin of the new projection,
and scale is least on this parallel.
6. Outside the standard parallels scale is greater (more expanded) than it is on the standard
parallels, whilst between them scale is less (contracted), being least of all on the parallel.

AKSHEY SOOD
Lambert Chart Convergence
1. In the simple conic the angle of the cone was twice the latitude of the parallel of tangency.
a) This fixed the chart convergence, making it the change of latitude times the sine of the
parallel of tangency.
2. The scale is correct at the standard parallels, but the convergence factor is defined by the
parallel of origin.
3. The Lambert projection is a non-perspective chart.

The advantages of a Lambert chart

Great circles can be treated as straight lines for all practical purposes.
The Disadvantages of the Lambert Chart
The graticule is not rectangular and the plotting of positions is not as simple as on a Mercator.
Lines Parallel at Mid-meridian:
If two positions are joined by a straight line, a great circle, and rhumb line on a Lambert chart,
they are all parallel to each other at the mid-meridian.

AKSHEY SOOD
Scale Correct on the standard parallels.
Contracted within the standard
parallels. (least at parallel of origin).
Expanded outside standard
parallels.
Orthomorphic Yes

Graticule Meridians are straight lines,

originating from the pole. Parallels
are arcs of circles, centred at the
pole. (The pole is always off the
map).
Parallel of Mathematical basis of projection.
Origin Assumed to be halfway between
the 2 standard parallels.

Chart Constant across the chart. Chart

Convergence convergence = ch long x sin parallel
of origin

Rhumb lines Meridians are straight lines. All

other Rhumb Lines are concave to
the pole (ie, parallels of latitude).

Great Circles Meridians are straight lines. At the

parallel of origin - near-straight line.
At any other latitude, a curve
concave to the parallel of origin.
AKSHEY SOOD
 THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC CHART

1. The polar stereographic projection is the only

geometric projection, i.e. true perspective
projection.
2. A flat surface is used, touching the North Pole (the
point of tangency).
a. The light source is positioned at the South Pole
(diametrically opposed), creating a graticule, by
geometrical projection.
POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC GRATICULE
1. The meridians are straight lines, radiating from the
Pole.
2. The parallels are concentric circles. However, they
are not evenly spaced.
a. Their spacing from the Pole depends on the scale
expansion from the Pole.
CONCEPT OF CO-LATITUDE
1. The co-latitude is simply (90° - the latitude).
If the latitude is 60°
the co-latitude will be 90°- 60° = 30°
2. Take the light which passes through the Equator.
The Equator’s latitude is 0°, so the co-latitude is 90°.
Half of the co-latitude is 45°.
In the triangle formed by the light path above, the opposite and the adjacent are both the
radius of the Earth, so we have a right-angled triangle with a bottom angle of 45°.

3. The scale expands away from the Pole at a rate of the secant squared of half the co-
latitude.
Scale expansion = sec2 (½ co-latitude)

Polar Stereographic Properties

1. The scale is correct at the Pole (where the paper touches the Reduced Earth).
a. Elsewhere it expands as the sec2 (½ co-latitude).

AKSHEY SOOD
THE EQUATION TO FIND SCALE AT ANY LATITUDE IS AS FOLLOWS
scale at any latitude = scale at Pole × sec2 (½ co-latitude)

2. Between latitudes 90° and 78° - scale within 1% of scale at Pole.

Between latitudes 78° to 70° - scale between 1% and 3% of scale at Pole.
a. This constancy of scale makes the polar stereographic projection an almost ideal map
for flying in polar regions.

ORTHOMORPHISM
1. Meridians are straight lines originating from the pole.
2. Parallels of latitude are arcs of circles centered at the pole.
3. The expansion is at the same rate in any direction from any point. Therefore the
projection is orthomorphic.
SHAPES
Because of scale expansion, shapes and areas will be distorted away from the pole.
CHART CONVERGENCE
1. The meridians converge at the pole at exactly the same rate as they do on the Earth’s
surface.
2. On the projection the convergency remains the same.
3. Whereas on Earth it decreases away from the Pole.
4. This gives the Polar stereographic chart a convergency factor, or ‘n’, of 1. The chart
convergence is always exactly equal to the change of longitude between 2 points,
whatever the latitude.

 Chart convergence is constant all over the chart.

Chart convergence is ‘correct’, i.e. same as the Earth only at the Pole.
RHUMP LINES & GREAT CIRCLES :-
1. Rhumb Lines are always concave to the pole of projection.
2. Great Circles are also concave to the pole of projection, but the amount of curvature is less
than the Rhumb Line.
3. The difference between a straight line and a Great Circle becomes smaller as the latitude
increases.
4. A straight line may be taken to be a Great Circle on a Polar Stereographic chart at latitudes
greater than 70°.
AKSHEY SOOD
Scale Correct at Pole. Elsewhere expands as sec2 (½ co-latitude) Within 1% from
latitudes 90° to 78°. Within 3% from latitudes 78° to 70°.
Orthomorphic Yes
Graticule Meridians are straight lines radiating from the Pole. Parallels are concentric
circles drawn from the Pole
Shapes Become more distorted as distance increases from the Pole
Chart Correct at the Pole. Constant across the chart. Convergence = change of
Convergence longitude ‘n’ = 1 Convergence Factor = 1
Rhumb Lines Curves concave to the pole of projection
Great Circles Curves concave to the pole of projection, but with less curvature than
Rhumb Lines in the same hemisphere. Can be taken as straight lines at
latitudes greater than 70°.

AKSHEY SOOD
 TIME

TIME BASICS
Our measures of time are based on the Earth’s rotation about its own axis.
SOLAR SYSTEM - PLANETARY ORBITS - KEPLER’S LAWS
1. The solar system consists of the Sun and major planets.
2. Planetary orbits are governed by Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
which are:
a) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the
foci.
b) The line joining the planet to the Sun, known as the radius vector,
sweeps out equal areas in equal time.
KEPLER’S FIRST LAW
1. The planet will be at its closest point known as
'perihelion'.(January)
2. the planet is at a point furthest from the Sun
known as ‘aphelion’.(July)

KEPLER’S SECOND LAW

1. The planet moves faster around its orbit near
perihelion than it travels around its orbit near aphelion.
2. The Earth’s orbital situation as viewed from the North Celestial Pole (NCP), i.e. the point in
the sky directly above geographic North Pole.
THE SEASONS
1. It is a common misconception that the changes of seasons are governed by the Earth’s
distance from the Sun. This is not true.
a. As the Sun’s heat is transmitted radially, the effect of the distance change between 91.4
million statute miles at perihelion and 94.6 million statute miles at aphelion would only
be to change the amount of heat received by the Earth by about 3%, not enough to
explain the marked changes between
the summer and winter.
2. The predominant cause of the Seasons is
the inclination (tilt) of the Earth. The
Earth’s axis is inclined (tilted) at an angle of
66.5° to its orbital plane and this is often
stated as 23.5° to the normal to the
orbital plane.
AKSHEY SOOD
3. The plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is
labeled the ‘Plane of the Ecliptic’.
4. The plane of the Equator is called the ‘Plane of
the Equinoctial'.
5. The Plane of the Ecliptic and the Plane of the
Equinoctial are inclined to each other at an
angle of 23.5°.
6. At a given time of year, the angle that the Sun is
above or below the Equator determines the
season and affects the length of daylight/night.
a. The angle is known as DECLINATION.
b. Declination is analogous in the sky to latitude
on the Earth.
7. The Sun’s declination changes annually between
23.5°N through 0° to 23.5°S and then back
through 0° to 23.5°N.
8. The declination of the Sun may be considered to
follow a sine wave with its peak amplitude being 23.5° and its cyclic period being one
‘year’.
9. The length of daylight/night at a given latitude varies with the declination of the Sun. The
rate of change of the length of daylight will therefore be greatest when the rate of change
of declination is greatest.

AKSHEY SOOD
MEASUREMENT OF DAYS AND YEARS
1. A ‘day’ may be defined as the length of time taken for the Earth to rotate once about its
axis measured against a celestial body, (the Sun or a star).
a. Measurements against a star are called ‘sidereal’ and against the Sun are called ‘solar’.
CIVIL DAY
1. Related to periods of light and darkness so that 1200 hrs is always about halfway between
sunrise and sunset. The civil day should therefore be based on the Sun.
2. And civil day is of a constant length.
SIDEREAL DAY
1. A sidereal day is measured against a distant star and is of nearly constant length. However,
it is not related to light and dark and is not suitable as a civil day.
2. It is approx 23 hours 56 minutes.
APPARENT SOLAR DAY
1. An apparent solar day is measured against the real or apparent Sun.
2. Using the apparent (real) Sun introduces the problem of the apparent solar day not being a
constant length.
3. An apparent solar day is longer than a sidereal day.
a. As the Earth’s orbital speed changes throughout the year.
Thus, an apparent solar day cannot be of constant length.
4. Length varies from 23 hours 44 minutes to 24 hours 14 minute.

MEAN SOLAR DAY

1. The mean solar day is the average length of an apparent solar day (averaged over the
year).
2. It is of constant length and related to light and darkness; it is used as the ‘civil’ day and is
divided into hours, minutes and seconds of ‘mean’ time.
AKSHEY SOOD
3. In the case of mean time, we consider the mean (average) Sun circling the Earth every 24
hours. This is the basis of Local Mean Time (LMT).
4. The maximum difference between mean time and apparent (real) Sun time is about 16
minutes and occurs in mid-November. A second maximum occurs in mid-February at
about 14 minutes difference.
In between these maxima, the difference reduces. The difference is known as the Equation
of Time.
In November, the real Sun crosses an observer’s meridian at 1144 whereas the mean Sun
crosses the meridian 16 minutes later at 1200 LMT (by definition).
In February, the real Sun crosses a meridian at 1214 whereas the mean Sun crosses 14
minutes earlier at 1200 LMT (by definition).
A SIDEREAL YEAR
A Sidereal Year is the time taken by the Earth to complete an orbit of the Sun measured
against a distant star. Its length is 365 days 6 hrs 09 minutes.
A TROPICAL YEAR (AN APPARENT SOLAR YEAR)
A Tropical Year (an apparent solar year) is the length of one cycle of the seasons. Its length is
365 days, 5 hrs and 48.75 minutes.( 20 minutes shorter than sidereal year)
A CALENDAR YEAR
A Calendar Year is normally 365 days. It is kept in step with the tropical year by adding a day
every 4th year, a ‘leap’ year.
HOUR ANGLE
1. The Declination of a celestial body has been shown to be similar to latitude. In the same
way, Hour Angle can be shown to be analogous to longitude.
2. The Earth spins in an easterly direction, 360° in every 24 hours.
3. The Hour Angle of a celestial body is defined as the arc of the Equator (equinoctial)
intercepted between the meridian of a datum and the meridian of the body, measured
westwards from 0° to 360°.
4. when a celestial body transits a given meridian, its Hour Angle is 000°. When the body
transits the anti-meridian, its Hour Angle is 180°.
5. If the given meridian is Greenwich, the Hour Angle is known as the Greenwich Hour Angle
(GHA) which is directly analogous to longitude
a. A body with a GHA of 050° will be transiting the 050W meridian
b. A body with a GHA of 180° will be transiting the 180W meridian
c. a body with a GHA of 270° will be transiting the 270W meridian, or the 090E meridian

AKSHEY SOOD
Conversion of Arc (Angle) to Time:-
To solve time problems we need to be able to convert angular arcs to time in hours and
minutes.
360° = 24 hrs
15° = 1 hour
1° = 4 minutes
15’ of a degree of arc = 1 minute of time
15”(seconds of arc) = 1 second of time
LOCAL MEAN TIME
1. The Earth rotates daily around its geographic axis, anticlockwise if observed from above the
North Pole.
2. When the mean Sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the Local Mean Time (LMT) at
all places on that meridian is 1200 hrs (midday, noon).
3. when the mean Sun transits the anti-meridian of a point, the LMT at the point is 0000hrs
(2400hrs) or midnight.
4. LMT changes with change of meridian.
GMT (UTC, ZULU)
1. Local mean time at Greenwich
Meridian is GMT
2. UTC and GMT are same.
3. Longitude East-GMT Least.
4. Longitude West- GMT Best.
5. UTC is the worldwide time datum for
aviation purposes.
STANDARD TIME
1. Every Longitude will have a different
LMT
2. A country is passed through many
longitude, Hence, a country will have to maintain different time for different cities, areas,
localities which is not feasible.
3. Hence, each country maintains same time irrespective of change of longitude and is called
Standard time.
4. India maintains LMT at 82o30'E as standard time and is termed INDIAN STANDARD
TIME(IST)
IST = GMT + 5 hours 30 minutes

AKSHEY SOOD
ZONE TIME
1. The datum for the Zone Time system was the Greenwich Meridian (0E/W)
2. Globe is divided into 24 zones and each zone comprises of 15o Longitude.
3. UTC = Zone Time + Zone Number (the zone number is applied to the Zone Time to give
UTC)
4. To calculate the Zone Number, divide the longitude given by 15 and round to the nearest
whole number with .5 rounding up
5. Easterly longitudes have negative (minus) zone numbers from -1 to -12. Westerly
longitudes have positive (plus) zone numbers from +1 to +12.
SUMMER TIME/DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME (DST)
1. Some countries may carry Summer Time or Daylight Saving Time (DST) (USA) in the summer
months
2. Summer time is normally 1 hour in advance of Standard Time
INTERNATIONAL DAY LINE

TRAVELING ON WESTERLY TRACK TRAVELING ON EASTERLY TRACK

Direction - East to West Direction - West to East
A day is lost A day is gained
Losing a day means, if you traveled on 13th, Gaining a day means, If you traveled on 13th
your new date will become 14th on the same your new date will become 12th on the same
day. i.e You lost 13th date. Hence, add 1 day day i.e you gained 12th date. Hence, subtract
to your date. 1 day to your date.

AKSHEY SOOD
TWILIGHT

1. Before sunrise, there is a period when it becomes light, and after sunset there is a period
when it remains light. These periods are called generally ‘twilight’.
2. Although the Sun is below the horizon, the Sun’s rays are being refracted in from the
atmosphere and result in an extended period of light.
3. the ‘visual’ horizon is below the ‘sensible’ horizon by about 34’ of arc
4. When the top ‘lip’ of the sun passes below the visual horizon, at sunset, the centre of the
Sun is another 16’ of arc
5. Thus the centre of the Sun is approximately 50 minutes of arc below the sensible horizon at
sunset. As 50’ of arc equates to 3 minutes of time, this means that at sunset, the centre of
the sun is already 3 minutes of time below the sensible horizon.
6. at sunrise, the centre of the Sun is 3 minutes of time below the sensible horizon
7. Twilight is that period before sunrise and after sunset when refracted light from the Earth’s
atmosphere gives an amount of illumination.
8. With increase in latitude the twilight period increases.

Civil Twilight
1. Civil twilight occurs when the Sun’s centre is between 0° 50’ and 6° below the sensible
horizon
2. Illumination is such that it is possible to carry out day time tasks without additional artificial
lighting
Nautical Twilight
The centre of the Sun is between 6° and 12° below the sensible horizon.
Astronomical Twilight
The centre of the Sun is between 12° and 18° below the sensible horizon.

AKSHEY SOOD
 POINT OF EQUAL TIME

1. The Point of Equal Time (PET), or sometimes referred to as Critical Point (CP) or Equal Time Point (ETP),
is that track position, in relation to two suitable airfields, from which it is the same time for an aircraft
to fly to either.
2. The PET allows the pilot to decide quickly which of the two diversion airfields is the closer in time if
there is a failure of an engine or a major system, or other event such as a serious illness on board.
3. The PET is a time problem.
4. To make the time HOME from the PET equal to the time ON from the PET the two distances will be
different, unless there is zero wind; in which case they are equal.
5. Routes over the oceans or remote parts of the world, where, in the event of an emergency, there is a
scarcity of suitable en route diversions within reasonable flying time from any point on the proposed
track, may necessitate the calculation of a PET between departure and destination airfields and those
en route that are adequate

DERIVATION OF FORMULA

THE EFFECT OF WIND ON THE POSITION OF THE PET

1. In still air the PET is HALFWAY
2. If there is a wind then the PET moves INTO WIND
3. The stronger the wind the greater the movement INTO WIND
4. A gross error check. If you have a headwind component outbound the PET has to be more than
halfway between departure and destination.

AKSHEY SOOD
 POINT OF SAFE RETURN

1. The POINT OF SAFE RETURN (PSR), previously referred to as the POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR), is the
furthest point along a planned route to which an aircraft can fly and return to the departure airfield, or
departure alternate, within the SAFE ENDURANCE of the aircraft.
2. SAFE ENDURANCE is the length of time an aircraft can fly without consuming the mandatory reserves of
fuel that are required overhead its departure airfield, or departure alternate, in the event of the
aircraft returning from the PSR
3. This SAFE ENDURANCE is used to calculate the PSR. It must not be confused with the TOTAL
ENDURANCE, the time an aircraft can remain airborne, at the end of which the tanks are empty.
4. f the state of the weather, runway, let-down aids or political situation at a destination airfield is likely
to deteriorate and the only recourse would be to return back to the departure airfield, or departure
alternate, it is prudent to calculate a PSR
5. Normally, the calculation of a PSR would only be necessary for flights to an “isolated destination and no
adequate destination alternate exists”.

THE EFFECT OF WIND ON THE LOCATION OF THE PSR

1. In still air the distance to the PSR is the greatest.
2. Any wind component reduces the distance to the PSR.
3. This distance is the same for a HEAD or TAIL wind of the same value.
4. The greater the wind component the greater the reduction in the distance to the PSR.

DERIVATION OF FORMULA

AKSHEY SOOD
 PERFORMANCE NOTES

1. CG- Center of gravity is a point at which weight of the airplane act vertically downward
and parallel to the force of gravity.
2. CG moves with the movement of passengers and usage of fuel.
3. Movement of CG is allowed within defined limit.
4. CG is computed along longitudinal axis.
5. Distance of CG is measured from the datum line given by the Manufacturer.
6. Datum Line is on the Longitudinal axis but not necessary between Nose and tail.
7. Distance between datum line and CG is called balance arm or moment arm
8. Stalling Speed will be Highest with higher mass and FWD CG.
9. Aircraft is Neutral stable when the CG is at Neutral Point
10. Neutral point is behind of AFT Limit.
11. Degree of stability depends upon distance CG is forward of Neutral point.

FWD CG AFT CG
Nose down tendency Nose up tendecy
TODR TODR
LDR LDR
AOC AOC
ROC ROC
Stalling Speed(VS) Stalling Speed
Stalling Angle Stalling Angle
Fuel Consumption Fuel Consumption
Max Range Max Range
Endurance Endurance
Power Required Power Required
Drag Drag
Controllability Controllability
Stick Force Stick Force
Maximum Ceiling Maximum Ceiling
Permissible TOW Permissible TOW
Tailplane Download Tailplane Upload
Longitudinal Stability Longitudinal Stability
Stall Recovery Stall Recovery
Difficult to enter Spin Easy to enter Spin

AKSHEY SOOD
FACTORS ROC AOC
Head Wind
Tailwind
Weight
High/Hot/Humid

AKSHEY SOOD
 2

V SPEEDS
V1 Decision Speed
V2 Take-Off Safety Speed
V2MIN Minimum take-off safety speed
V3 All-engines operating steady initial climb speed
V4 All-engines operating steady take-off climb speed
VA Design Maneuvering Speed
VEF The assumed speed of engine failure
VFE The maximum flap extended speed
VFTO Final take-off speed
VGO The lowest decision speed from which a continued take-off is possible with TODA
with one engine inoperative
VMD Velocity of Minimum Drag
VMP Velocity of Minimum Power
VLE The maximum speed with landing gear extended
VLO The maximum at which the landing gear may be lowered
VLOF Lift-off Speed
VMBE Maximum brake-energy speed
VMC Minimum control speed with the critical power unit inoperative
VMCA Air minimum control speed in the air (take-off climb)
VMCG Ground minimum control speed (at or near the ground
VMCL Landing minimum control speed (on the approach to land)
VMO The maximum operating speed
MMO Maximum Operating Mach number
VMU The minimum unstick speed
VNE Never exceed speed
VP Hydroplaning/Aquaplaning speed
VR Rotation Speed
VRA The turbulence speed or rough air speed
VREF The reference landing speed (Replaced VAT speed)
VS Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the aeroplane is
controllable
VSR Reference stalling speed. Assumed to be same as VS1G

AKSHEY SOOD
 3

VSR0 Reference stalling speed in the landing configuration

VSR1 Reference stalling speed in the specified configuration
VS1G Stalling speed at 1g or the one-g stall speed at which the aeroplane can develop a
lift force (normal to the flight path) equal to its weight. This is assumed to be the
same speed as VSR.
VS0 The stalling speed with the flaps at the landing setting or minimum steady flight
speed at which the aeroplane is controllable in the landing configuration
VS1 The stalling speed for the configuration under consideration
VSTOP The highest decision speed that an aeroplane can stop within ASDA
VTIRE Maximum tire speed
VX The speed for the best gradient or angle of climb
VY The speed for the best rate of climb
VZF The minimum safe maneuvering speed with zero flap
MCRT Critical Mach number
MMR Mach of Maximum Range

AKSHEY SOOD
 4

PERFORMANCE CLASSIFICATION

TAKE OFF
1. The take off part of the flight is the distance from the brake release point (BRP) to the
point at which the Aircraft reaches a defined height.
2. This defined height is termed as the “Screen Height”
3. The screen height varies from 35ft for Class A aeroplanes to 50ft for Class B aeroplanes.

AKSHEY SOOD
 5

VARIOUS TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE THE AVAILABLE DISTANCE AT AN AERODROME

AVAILABLE DISTANCE
Most large aerodrome have extra distance associated with the main Runway which are
used in variety of ways. These extra distances are clearways and stopways.
CLEAR WAYS OR CLEAR WAY PLANE
1. Clear ways are the area
beyond the runway
2. Not less than 152 m (500ft)
wide
3. Centrally located about the
extended Centre line of the
runway
4. Under the control of the airport authorities
5. Extending from the end of the Runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%
above which no object or terrain protrudes.
6. However, threshold lights may produce above the plane if their height above the end of
the Runway is 0.66 m (26 inches) or less.
7. Clear ways are not physical structures they are simply an area of define width and
length which are free of obstacles.
STOPWAYS
1. Stop ways are an area beyond
the take-off runway.
2. Not less wide then the
runway.
3. Centred upon the extended
Centre line of the runway.
4. Able to support the aeroplane
during an aborted take-off.
5. Stop ways are physical structures and are usually paved.
6. Stopways are not as strong as the main length of runway.
7. Stop ways are identified by large yellow chevron on either end of the main runway.
8. Designated by airport authorities.

AKSHEY SOOD
 6

There Are 4 Principle Published AD Distances, Although Only Three Will Apply to The
Take-Off.

TAKE OFF RUNWAY AVAILABLE (TORA)

1. At most aerodromes, the take-off runway available is the length of the runway from
threshold to threshold.

TAKE OFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA)

1. The take-off distance available is the take-off runway plus any clear way
TORA+CLEARWAY
2. If there is no clear way then TODA=TORA
3. The take-off distance available must be compared to the aeroplanes actual take-off
distance.
4. Although clearways can be of any length there is a limit to the amount of clear way that
can be used calculating TODA
5. In this case for calculating the maximum length of clearway cannot be more than half in
length of TORA.

ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE OR EMERGENCY DISTANCE AVAILABLE

(ASDA/EMDA)
1. The accelerate stop distance available is the length of take-off Run available plus any
stop way (TORA+STOPWAY)
2. If there is no stopway then ASDA=TORA.
3. The accelerate stop distance available must be compared to the aeroplanes actual
accelerate stop distance.
4. The requirements for take-off state that the aeroplanes accelerate stop distance must
not exceed the accelerate stop distance available.

AKSHEY SOOD
 9

TAKEOFF DISTANCE FORMULA

𝑽𝟐 𝑻 − 𝑫𝒂 − 𝝁(𝑾 − 𝑳)
𝑺= 𝒂=
𝟐𝒂 𝒎
𝑆 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝜇 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
The speed to be reached at the screen is determined by the regulations, and is required to
be safe margin above the stalling speed and the minimum control speed, a speed that
gives adequate climb performance.

EFFECT OF VARIABLE FACTORS ON TAKEOFF DISTANCE

AKSHEY SOOD
 41

TAKE-OFF CLIMB
1. The take-off climb or take-off flight path extends from 35ft above the take-off
surface.
2. With a contaminated runway Take-off, the Take-off climb begins at 15ft & not 35ft
3. Reference Zero:-The point on the ground directly below the 35ft screen is called
reference zero.
4. There are two main requirements that must be met within the Take-off climb and
these requirements are based upon an engine failure occurring at VEF.
a. The first requirement is that the aeroplane must be able to achieve the minimum
climb gradients
b. Secondly the aeroplane must be able to maintain sufficient obstacle clearance.
*The climb gradient requirement are air based gradient and the obstacle
clearance equirement use ground based gradients.
5. The manufacturer or operator may either use a continuous demonstrated Take-
off climb or a segmented Take-off Climb.
SEGMENTS OF THE TAKE-OFF CLIMB
1. The Take-off climb is generally split into 4 unique segments.
2. each segment is characteristic of a distinct change in aeroplane configuration,
speed and or thrust with various actions and climb gradient requirements.
SEGMENT 1
1. The 35 ft screen marks the start point of segment 1.
2. The Objective at this point is to climb, as expeditiously as possible which is difficult
because of the lack of excess thrust due to the large amount of drag created by the
gear and flaps and the fact that only one engine is in operation.
3. We are not retracting flaps in this segment as retracting flaps at low speeds close to
the ground is dangerous, the only option is to retract the gear.
4. Once the gear is up and locked than the first segment is finished.
5. During this segment the steady gradient of climb muse be positive.
SEGMENT 2
1. The second segment start at the end of the first segment i.e. when the gear is up.
2. The objective now is to retract the flaps.
3. However, flap retraction is not permitted below 400ft
4. Action by the pilot is simply to climb, at no less than V2, until 400ft is reached.
5. Once 400ft is reached and flap retract can commence, segment 2 ends.
6. The minimum gradient required 2.4%
SEGMENT 3
1. Segment 3 starts at or above 400ft and is the flap retraction and acceleration
segment.
2. However, retracting the flaps will increase the stall speed this reduces the aeroplane
safety margin.

AKSHEY SOOD
 42

3. Therefore, the aeroplane must accelerate during flap retraction from V2 to the
zero flap speed and then to final take-off speed.
4. The final Take-off speed is also called the final segment speed and is intended to
be the one engine inoperative best angle of climb speed.
5. Once this has happened, thrust can be reduced from maximum Take-off thrust,
TOGA, to maximum continuous Thrust, MCT.
6. Maximum Take-off thrust is limited to only 5 minutes, therefore, acceleration and
flap retraction must be complete by them.
7. The acceleration phase of this segment poses a climb problem. To climb, excess
thrust is needed. However, accelerating the aeroplane also required excess thrust.
Therefore, it is not possible to adequately accelerate and climb at the same time and
segment 3 can be flown level.
SEGMENT 4
1. The fourth segment starts when the flaps are retracted, the final segment speed is
achieved and the thrust is set to maximum continuous thrust.
2. From this point the aeroplane is climbed to above 1500ft where the take-off flight
path ends..
3. The climb gradient for this last stage must not be less than 1.2%

AKSHEY SOOD