{1, 11} (13) ¬(P (y) ∨ Q(y)) ∧ (P (y) ∨ Q(y)) Rule T, (10), (11), and I9

{1, 11} (14) F Rule T, and (13)

which is a contradiction.Hence, the statement is valid.

Example: Using predicate logic, prove the validity of the following

argument: ‖Every husband argues with his wife. x is a husband. Therefore, x
argues with his wife‖.

Solution: Let P (x): x is a husband.

Q(x): x argues with his wife.

Thus, we have to show that (x)[P (x) → Q(x)] ∧ P (x) ⇒ Q(y).

{1} (1) (x)(P (x) → Q(x)) Rule P

{1} (2) P (y) → Q(y) Rule US, (1)
{1} (3) P (y) Rule P
{1} (4) Q(y) Rule T, (2), (3), and I11
Example: Prove using rules of inference
Duke is a Labrador retriever.
All Labrador retriever like to swim.
Therefore Duke likes to swim.
Solution: We denote
L(x): x is a Labrador retriever.
S(x): x likes to swim.
d: Duke.

We need to show that L(d) ∧ (x)(L(x) → S(x)) ⇒ S(d).

{1} (1) (x)(L(x) → S(x)) Rule P
{1} (2) L(d) → S(d) Rule US, (1)
{2} (3) L(d) Rule P
{1, 2} (4) S(d) Rule T, (2), (3), and I11.

UNIT-2
SET THEORY
Set: A set is collection of well defined objects.

In the above definition the words set and collections for all practical purposes are
Synonymous. We have really used the word set to define itself.
Each of the objects in the set is called a member of an element of the set. The objects
themselves can be almost anything. Books, cities, numbers, animals, flowers, etc.

53
Elements of a set are usually denoted by lower-case letters, while sets are denoted by
capital letters of English language.
The symbol ∈ indicates the membership in a set.
If a is an element of the set A, then we write a ∈ A.
The symbol ∈ is read ―is a member of ‘or ―is an element of .
The symbol ∉ is used to indicate that an object is not in the given set.
The symbol∉ is read ―is not a member of or is not an element of .
If x is not an element of the set A then we write x∉ A.
Subset:
A set A is a subset of the set B if and only if every element of A is also an element of
B. We also say that A is contained in B, and use the notation A ⊆ B.

Proper Subset:
A set A is called proper subset of the set B. If (i) A is subset of B and (ii) B is not a subset
A i.e., A is said to be a proper subset of B if every element of A belongs to the set B, but
there is atl east one element of B, which is not in A. If A is a proper subset of B, then we
denote it by A ⊂ B.

Super set: If A is subset of B, then B is called a superset of A.

Null set: The set with no elements is called an empty set or null set. A Null set is
designated by the symbol Φ. The null set is a subset of every set, i.e., If A is any set then
Φ A.

Universal set:
In many discussions all the sets are considered to be subsets of one particular set. This
set is called the universal set for that discussion. The Universal set is often designated by
the script letter U. Universal set is not unique and it may change from one discussion to
another.

Power set:
The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A.
The power set of A is denoted by P (A). If A has n elements in it, then P (A) has 2n
elements:

Disjoint sets:
Two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common.

Union of two sets:

The union of two sets A and B is the set whose elements are all of the elements in A
or in B or in both. The union of sets A and B denoted by A U B is read as ―A union
B.

Intersection of two sets:

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set whose elements are all of the elements
common to both A and B.
The intersection of the sets of A and B is denoted by A ∩B and is read as A intersection B

Difference of sets:
If A and B are subsets of the universal set U, then the relative complement of B in Ais
the set of all elements in A which are not in A. It is denoted by A – B thus: A – B = {x | x
∈ A and x∉ B}
Complement of a set:
If U is a universal set containing the set A, then U – A is called the complement of A. It is
54
denoted by A1 . Thus
A1 = {x: x∉A}
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle:
The inclusion–exclusion principle is a counting technique which generalizes the
familiar method of obtaining the number of elements in the unionof two finite sets;
symbolically expressed as
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.

Fig. Venn diagram showing the union of sets A

and B
where A and B are two finite sets and |S| indicates the cardinality of a set S (which may
be considered as the number of elements of the set, if the set is finite). The formula
expresses the fact that the sum of the sizes of the two sets may be too large since some
elements may be counted twice. The double-counted elements are those in the
intersection of the two sets and the count is corrected by subtracting the size of the
intersection.
The principle is more clearly seen in the case of three sets, which for the sets A, B
and C is given by
|A ∪ B∪ BC| = |A| + |B|+ |C| − |A ∩ B|− |C ∩ B| − |A ∩ C|+|A ∩B∩C|.

Fig. Inclusion–exclusion illustrated by a Venn diagram for three sets

This formula can be verified by counting how many times each region in the Venn
diagram figure is included in the right-hand side of the formula. In this case, when
removing the contributions of over-counted elements, the number of elements in the
mutual intersection of the three sets has been subtracted too often, so must be added
back in to get the correct total.
In general, Let A1, · · · , Ap be finite subsets of a set U. Then,

Example: How many natural numbers n ≤ 1000 are not divisible by any of 2, 3?
Ans: Let A2 = {n ∈ N | n ≤ 1000, 2|n} and A3 = {n ∈ N | n ≤ 1000, 3|n}.
Then, |A2 ∪ A3| = |A2| + |A3| − |A2 ∩ A3| = 500 + 333 − 166 = 667.
So, the required answer is 1000 − 667 = 333.
55
Example: How many integers between 1 and 10000 are divisible by none of 2, 3, 5, 7?
Ans: For i ∈ {2, 3, 5, 7}, let Ai = {n ∈ N | n ≤ 10000, i|n}.
Therefore, the required answer is 10000 − |A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A5 ∪ A7| = 2285.
Relations

Definition: Any set of ordered pairs defines a binary relation.

We shall call a binary relation simply a relation. Binary relations represent

relationships between elements of two sets. If R is a relation, a particular ordered pair,
say (x, y) ∈ R can be written as xRy and can be read as ―x is in relation R to y‖.

Example: Give an example of a relation.

Solution: The relation ―greater than‖ for real numbers is denoted by ′ >′. If x and y are any two
real numbers such that x > y, then we say that (x, y) ∈>. Thus the relation > is { } >= (x, y) : x
and y are real numbers and x > y
Example: Define a relation between two sets A = {5, 6, 7} and B = {x, y}.

Solution: If A = {5, 6, 7} and B = {x, y}, then the subset R = {(5, x), (5, y), (6, x),
(6, y)} is a relation from A to B.

Definition: Let S be any relation. The domain of the relation S is defined as the set
of all first elements of the ordered pairs that belong to S and is denoted by D(S).
D(S) = { x : (x, y) ∈ S, for some y }
The range of the relation S is defined as the set of all second elements of the ordered
pairs that belong to S and is denoted by R(S).
R(S) = { y : (x, y) ∈ S, for some x}
Example: A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Define a relation from A to B by (a, b) ∈ R
if a divides b.
Solution: We obtain R = {(2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4)}.

Domain of R = {2, 3, 4} and range of R = {3, 4, 6}.

Properties of Binary Relations in a Set

A relation R on a set X is said to be

1. Reflexive relation: if xRx or (x, x) ∈ R, ∀x ∈ X
2. Symmetric relation: if xRy then yRx, ∀x, y ∈ X
3. Transitive relation: if xRy and yRz then xRz, ∀x, y, z ∈ X
4. Irreflexive relation: if (x, x) ∉ R, ∀x ∈ X
5. Antisymmetric relation: if for every x and y in X, whenever xRy and yRx, then x = y.

Examples: (i). If R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} be a relation on A = {1, 2, 3},
then R1 is a reflexive relation, since for every x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R1.

(ii). If R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} be a relation on A = {1, 2, 3}, then R2 is not a
56
reflexive relation, since for every 2 ∈ A, (2, 2) ∈ R2.
(iii). If R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)} be a relation on A = {1, 2, 3},
then R3 is a symmetric relation.

(iv). If R4 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3} is an antisymmetric.

Example: Given S = {1, 2, ..., 10} and a relation R on S, where R = {(x, y)| x + y = 10}.
What are the properties of the relation R?

Solution: Given that

S = {1, 2, ..., 10}
S= {(x, y)| x + y = 10}
S= {(1, 9), (9, 1), (2, 8), (8, 2), (3, 7), (7, 3), (4, 6), (6, 4), (5, 5)}.
(i). For any x ∈ S and (x, x) ∈ R. Here, 1 ∈ S but (1, 1) ∉R.

⇒ the relation R is not reflexive. It is also not irreflexive, since

(5, 5) ∈ R. (ii). (1, 9) ∈ R ⇒ (9, 1) ∈ R
(2, 8) ∈ R ⇒ (8, 2) ∈ R…..
⇒ the relation is symmetric, but it is not antisymmetric. (iii). (1, 9) ∈ R and (9, 1) ∈ R
⇒ (1, 1) ∈ R
⇒ The relation R is not transitive. Hence, R is symmetric.

Relation Matrix and the Graph of a Relation

Relation Matrix: A relation R from a finite set X to a finite set Y can be repre-sented by a
matrix is called the relation matrix of R.
Let X = {x1, x2, ..., xm} and Y = {y1, y2, ..., yn} be finite sets containing m and n elements,
respectively, and R be the relation from A to B. Then R can be represented by an m × n
matrix
MR = [rij ], which is defined as follows:
1, if (xi , y j ) ∈ R
rij =
0, if (xi , y j ) ∉ R
Example. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {b1, b2, b3}. Consider the relation R = {(1, b2), (1,
b3), (3, b2), (4, b1), (4, b3)}. Determine the matrix of the relation.
Solution: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {b1, b2, b3}.
Relation R = {(1, b2), (1, b3), (3, b2), (4, b1),(4, b3)}.
Matrix of the relation R is written as
Solution: The relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4)}.

Properties of a relation in a set:

(i) If a relation is reflexive, then all the diagonal entries must be 1.
(ii) If a relation is symmetric, then the relation matrix is symmetric, i.e., rij = rji for every
i and j. (iii). If a relation is antisymmetric, then its matrix is such that if rij = 1 then rji = 0
for i ≠j.

Graph of a Relation: A relation can also be represented pictorially by drawing its

graph. Let R be a relation in a set X = {x1, x2, ..., xm}. The elements of X are represented
57
by points or circles called nodes. These nodes are called vertices. If (xi, xj ) ∈ R, then we
connect the nodes xi and xj
by means of an arc and put an arrow on the arc in the direction from xi to xj . This is
called an edge. If all the nodes corresponding to the ordered pairs in R are connected by
arcs with proper arrows, then we get a graph of the relation R.
Note: (i). If xiRxj and xj Rxi, then we draw two arcs between xi and xj with arrows
pointing in both directions.
(ii). If xiRxi, then we get an arc which starts from node xi and returns to node xi. This arc
is called a loop.

Properties of relations:

(i). If a relation is reflexive, then there must be a loop at each node. On the other hand, if
the relation is irreflexive, then there is no loop at any node.
(ii). If a relation is symmetric and if one node is connected to another, then there must be
a return arc from the second node to the first.
(iii). For antisymmetric relations, no such direct return path
should exist. (iv). If a relation is transitive, the situation is not so
simple.

Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R={(x, y)| x > y}. Draw the graph of R and also give
its matrix. Solution: R = {(4, 1), (4, 3), (4, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2), (2, 1)}.
The graph of R and the matrix of R are
1
2

3 4
Graph of
R
Partition and Covering of a Set
Let S be a given set and A = {A1, A2, · · · , Am} where each Ai, i = 1, 2, · · · , m is a subset
of S.
Then the set A is called a covering of S, and the sets A1, A2, · · · , Am are said to cover S.
If, in addition, the elements of A, which are subsets of S, are mutually disjoint, then A is
called a
partition of S, and the sets A1, A2, · · · , Am are called the blocks of the partition.

Example: Let S = {a, b, c} and consider the following collections of subsets of S. A =

{{a, b}, {b, c}}, B = {{a}, {a, c}}, C = {{a}, {b, c}}, D = {{a, b, c}}, E = {{a}, {b}, {c}},
and F = {{a}, {a, b}, {a, c}}. Which of the above sets are covering?

Solution: The sets A, C, D, E, F are covering of S. But, the set B is not covering of S,
since their union is not S.

Example: Let S = {a, b, c} and consider the following collections of subsets of S. A =

{{a, b}, {b, c}}, B = {{a}, {b, c}}, C = {{a, b, c}}, D = {{a}, {b}, {c}}, and E= {{a}, {a,
c}}.
Which of the above sets are covering?

Solution: The sets B, C and D are partitions of S and also they are covering. Hence,
every partition is a covering.

58
The set A is a covering, but it is not a partition of a set, since the sets {a, b} and {b, c}
are not disjoint. Hence, every covering need not be a partition.

The set E is not partition, since the union of the subsets is not S. The partition C has one
block and the partition D has three blocks.

Example: List of all ordered partitions S = {a, b, c, d} of type (1, 2, 2).

Solution:
({a}, {b}, {c, d}), ({a}, {c}, {b, d}), ({a}, {d}, {b, c}), ({b}, {c}, {a, d}), ({b}, {d}, {a, c}),
({c}, {d}, {a, b}),
({b}, {a}, {c, d}) ({c}, {a}, {b, d}) ({d}, {a}, {b, c}) ({c}, {b}, {a, d}) ({d}, {b}, {a, c})
({d}, {c}, {a, b}).
Equivalence Relations
A relation R in a set X is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive. The following are some examples of equivalence relations:
1. Equality of numbers on a set of real numbers.
2. Equality of subsets of a universal set.

Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R == {(1, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3,
2), (3, 3)}. Prove that R is an equivalence relation.

The corresponding graph of R is shown in figure:

Clearly, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence
relation. Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3, ..., 7} and R =(x, y)| x − y is divisible by 3. Show that
R is an equivalence relation.
Solution: (i). For any x ∈ X, x − x = 0 is divisible by 3.
∴ xRx
⇒ R is reflexive.
(ii). For any x, y ∈ X, if xRy, then x − y is divisible by 3.
⇒ −(x − y) is divisible by 3.
⇒ y − x is divisible by 3.
⇒ yRx
Thus, the relation R is symmetric.
(iii). For any x, y, z ∈ X, let xRy and yRz.
⇒ (x − y) + (y − z) is divisible by 3
⇒ x − z is divisible by 3
⇒ xRz
Hence, the relation R is transitive.
Thus, the relation R is an equivalence relation.
59
Congruence Relation: Let I denote the set of all positive integers, and let m be apositive
integer. For x ∈ I and y ∈ I, define R as R = {(x, y)| x − y is divisible by m}
The statement ‖x − y is divisible by m‖ is equivalent to the statement that both x and y
have the same remainder when each is divided by m.
In this case, denote R by ≡ and to write xRy as x ≡ y (mod m), which is read as |x
equals to y modulo m|. The relation ≡ is called a congruence relation.
Example: 83 ≡ 13(mod 5), since 83-13=70 is divisible by 5.
Example: Prove that the relation ―congruence modulo m over the set of positive
integers is an equivalence relation.

Solution: Let N be the set of all positive integers and m be a positive integer. We
define the relation ‖congruence modulo m‖ on N as follows:
Let x, y ∈ N. x ≡ y (mod m) if and only if x − y is divisible by m.

Let x, y, z ∈ N. Then
(i). x − x = 0.m
⇒ x ≡ x (mod m) for all x ∈ N
(ii). Let x ≡ y (mod m). Then, x − y is divisible by m.
⇒ −(x − y) = y − x is divisible by m.
i.e., y ≡ x (mod m)
∴ The relation ≡ is symmetric.
⇒ x − y and y − z are divisible by m. Now (x − y) + (y − z) is divisible by m.
i.e., x − z is divisible by m.
⇒ x ≡ z (mod m)
∴ The relation ≡ is transitive.
Since the relation ≡ is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, the relation congruence
modulo m is an equivalence relation.

Example: Let R denote a relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that
(x,y)R(u, v) iff xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution: Let R denote a relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers.
Let x, y, u and v be positive integers. Given (x, y)R(u, v) if and only if xv = yu.
(i). Since xy = yx is true for all positive integers
⇒ (x, y)R(x, y), for all ordered pairs (x, y) of positive integers.
∴ The relation R is reflexive. (ii). Let (x, y)R(u, v)
⇒ xv = yu ⇒ yu
= xv ⇒ uy = vx
⇒ (u, v)R(x, y)
∴ The relation R is symmetric.
(iii). Let x, y, u, v, m and n be positive integers Let
(x, y)R(u, v) and (u, v)R(m, n)
⇒ xv = yu and un = vm

60
 ⇒ xvun = yuvm
⇒ xn = ym, by canceling uv
⇒ (x, y)R(m, n)
∴ The relation R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, hence the
relation R is an equivalence relation.

Compatibility Relations

Definition: A relation R in X is said to be a compatibility relation if it is reflexive and

symmetric. Clearly, all equivalence relations are compatibility relations. A compatibility
relation is sometimes denoted by ≈.

Example: Let X = {ball, bed, dog, let, egg}, and let the relation R be given by
R = {(x, y)| x, y ∈ X ∧ xRy if x and y contain some common letter}.
Then R is a compatibility relation, and x, y are called compatible if xRy. Note: ball≈bed,
bed≈egg. But ball≉egg. Thus ≈ is not transitive.
Denoting ‖ball‖ by x1, ‖bed‖ by x2, ‖dog‖ by x3, ‖let‖ by x4, and ‖egg‖ by x5, the graph of
≈ is given as follows:

Maximal Compatibility Block:

Let X be a set and ≈ a compatibility relation on X. A subset A ⊆ X is called a maximal
compatibility block if any element of A is compatible to every other element of A and
no element of X − A is compatible to all the elements of A.
Example: The subsets {x1, x2, x4}, {x2, x3, x5}, {x2, x4, x5}, {x1, x4, x5} are maximal
compatibility blocks.

Example: Let the compatibility relation on a set {x1, x2, ..., x6} be given by the matrix:
x2 1
x3 1 1
x4 0 0 1
x5 0 0 1 1
x6 1 0 1 0 1
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
Draw the graph and find the maximal compatibility blocks of the relation.
Solution:

61
The maximal compatibility blocks are {x1, x2, x3},{x1, x3, x6},{x3, x5, x6},{x3, x4, x5}.

Composition of Binary Relations

Let R be a relation from X to Y and S be a relation from Y to Z. Then a relation written
as R ◦ S is called a composite relation of R and S where R◦S = {(x, z)| x ∈ X, z ∈ Z, and
there exists y ∈ Y with (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ S }.

Theorem: If R is relation from A to B, S is a relation from B to C and T is a relation from

C to D then T◦ (S ◦ R) = (T ◦ S) ◦ R

Example: Let R = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 2)} and S = {(4, 2), (2, 5), (3, 1), (1, 3)}. Find R
◦ S, S ◦ R, R ◦ (S ◦ R), (R ◦ S) ◦ R, R ◦ R, S ◦ S, and (R ◦ R) ◦ R.
Solution: Given R = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 2)} and S = {(4, 2), (2, 5), (3, 1),
(1, 3)}. R ◦ S = {(1, 5), (3, 2), (2, 5)}
S ◦ R = {(4, 2), (3, 2), (1, 4)}
≠R ◦ S (R ◦ S) ◦ R = {(3, 2)}
R ◦ (S ◦ R) = {(3, 2)} = (R ◦
S) ◦ R R ◦ R = {(1, 2), (2,
2)}
R ◦ R ◦ S = {(4, 5), (3, 3), (1, 1)}

Example: Let A = {a, b, c}, and R and S be relations on A whose matrices are as given
below:
Find the composite relations R ◦ S, S ◦ R, R ◦ R, S ◦ S and their matrices.
Solution:
R = {(a, a), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, b)}
S= {(a, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, c)}. From these, we find that
R ◦ S = {(a, a), (a, c), b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c)}
S ◦ R = {(a, a), (a, c), (b, b), (b, a), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}
R ◦ R = R2 = {(a, a), (a, c), (a, b), (b, a), (b, c), (b, b), (c, a),
(c, b), (c, c)} S ◦ S = S2 = {(a, a), (b, b), (b, c), (b, a), (c, a),
(c, c)}.

Transitive Closure
Let X be any finite set and R be a relation in X. The relation R+ = R∪R2∪R3 ∪· · ·∪Rn
in X is called the transitive closure of R in X.
Example: Let the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on the set {1, 2, 3}. What is the
transitive closure of R?
Solution: Given that R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
The transitive closure of R is R+ = R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 ∪ · · · =
R= {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
R2 = R ◦ R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} ◦ {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} = {(1, 3),
(2,3 3), 2(3, 3)}
R = R ◦ R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
R4 = R3 ◦ R = {(1, 3), (2,
3), (3, 3)} R+ = R ∪ R2 ∪
R3 ∪ R4 ∪ ...

62
 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} ∪ {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)} ∪ {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
∪ ...
={(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
Therefore R+ = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}.
Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} be a relation on X. Find R+.
Solution: Given R =2{(1, 2), (2,
3), (3, 4)} R = {(1, 3),
(2,3 4)}
R4 = {(1, 4)}
R = {(1, 4)}
R+ = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4)}.
Partial Ordering
A binary relation R in a set P is called a partial order relation or a partial ordering
in P iff R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. i.e.,
aRa for all a ∈ P
aRb and bRa ⇒ a = b
aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc
A set P together with a partial ordering R is called a partial ordered set or poset. The
relation R is often denoted by the symbol ≤ which is diff erent from the usual less than
equal to symbol. Thus, if ≤ is a partial order in P , then the ordered pair (P, ≤) is called a
poset.

Example: Show that the relation ‖greater than or equal to‖ is a partial ordering on the set
of integers.
Solution: Let Z be the set of all integers and the relation R =′≥′
(i). Since a ≥ a for every integer a, the relation ′ ≥′ is reflexive.
(ii). Let a and b be any two integers.
Let aRb and bRa ⇒ a ≥ b and b ≥ a
⇒a=b
∴ The relation ‗≥‗ is antisymmetric.
(iii). Let a, b and c be any three integers.

Let aRb and bRc ⇒ a ≥ b and b ≥ c

⇒a ≥ c
∴ The relation ′ ≥′ is transitive.
Since the relation ′ ≥′ is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, ′ ≥′ is partial ordering on
the set of integers. Therefore, (Z, ≥) is a poset.

Example: Show that the inclusion ⊆ is a partial ordering on the set power set of a set S.
Solution: Since (i). A ⊆ A for all A ⊆ S, ⊆ is reflexive.

(ii). A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇒ A = B, ⊆ is
antisymmetric. (iii). A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C ⇒
A ⊆ C, ⊆ is transitive.
Thus, the relation ⊆ is a partial ordering on the power set of S.
Example: Show that the divisibility+
relation ′/′ is a partial ordering on the set of
positive integers. Solution: Let Z be the set of positive integers.
Since (i). a/a for all a ∈ Z+, / is reflexive.
(ii). a/b and b/a ⇒ a = b, / is
63
 antisymmetric. (iii). a/b and b/c
⇒ a/c, / is transitive.
It follows that / is a partial ordering on Z+ and (Z+, /) is a poset.

Note: On the set of all integers, the above relation is not a partial order as a and −a
both divide each other, but a = −a. i.e., the relation is not antisymmetric. Definition:
Let (P, ≤) be a partially
ordered set. If for every x, y ∈ P we have either x ≤ y ∨ y ≤ x, then ≤ is called a simple
ordering or
linear ordering on P , and (P, ≤) is called a totally ordered or simply ordered set or a
chain.
Note: It is not necessary to have x ≤ y or y ≤ x for every x and y in a poset P. In fact, x
may not be related to y, in which case we say that x and y are incomparable. Examples:
(i). The poset (Z, ≤) is a totally ordered.
Since a ≤ b or b ≤ a whenever a and b are integers.
(ii). The divisibility relation / is a partial ordering on the set of positive integers.
Therefore (Z+, /) is a poset and it is not a totally ordered, since it contain elements that
are incomparable, such as 5 and 7, 3 and 5.

Definition: In a poset (P, ≤), an element y ∈ P is said to cover an element x ∈ P if x < y

and if there does not exist any element z ∈ P such that x ≤ z and z ≤ y; that is, y covers x
⇔ (x < y ∧ (x ≤ z≤ y ⇒ x = z ∨ z = y)).

Hasse Diagrams
A partial order ≤ on a set P can be represented by means of a diagram known as Hasse
diagram of (P, ≤). In such a diagram,
(i) Each element is represented by a small circle or dot.
(ii) The circle for x ∈ P is drawn below the circle for y ∈ P if x < y, and a line is
drawn between x and y if y covers x.
(iii) If x < y but y does not cover x, then x and y are not connected directly by a
single line.

Note: For totally ordered set (P, ≤), the Hasse diagram consists of circles one below the
other. The poset is called a chain.

Example: Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and ≤ be the relation ‖less than or equal to‖ then the
Hasse diagram is:

It is a totally ordered set.

Example: Let X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36}, and the relation ≤ be such that x ≤ y if x divides
y. Draw the Hasse diagram of (X, ≤). Solution: The Hasse diagram is is shown below:
64
It is not a total order set.

Example: Draw the Hasse diagram for the relation R on A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} whose
relation matrix
Solution:
R= {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
(4, 4), (5.5)}.
Hasse diagram for MR is

4 5

1
2

Example: A partial order R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} is represented by the following

digraph. Draw the Hasse diagram for R.

Solution: By examining the given digraph , we find that

R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
We check that R is reflexive, transitive and antisymmetric. Therefore, R is partial order
relation on A.
The hasse diagram of R is shown below:

65
Example: Let A be a finite set and ρ(A) be its power set. Let ⊆ be the inclusion
relation on the elements of ρ(A). Draw the Hasse diagram of ρ(A), ⊆) for
A = {a}
A = {a, b}.
Solution: (i). Let A = {a}
ρ(A) = {ϕ, a}
Hasse diagram of (ρ(A), ⊆) is shown in Fig:

(ii). Let A = {a, b}. ρ(A) = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. The
Hasse diagram for (ρ(A), ⊆) is shown in fig:

Example: Draw the Hasse diagram for the partial ordering ⊆ on the power set P (S)
where S = {a,b, c}.
Solution: S = {a, b, c}.

P (S) = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
Hasse diagram for the partial ordered set is shown in fig:

Example: Draw the Hasse diagram representing the positive divisions of 36 (i.e., D36).
Solution: We have D36 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36} if and only a divides b. The Hasse
diagram for R is shown in Fig.

Minimal and Maximal elements(members): Let (P, ≤) denote a partially or-dered set.
An element y ∈ P is called a minimal member of P relative to ≤ if for no x ∈ P , is x < y.
66
Similarly an element y ∈ P is called a maximal member of P relative to the partial
ordering ≤ if for no x ∈ P , is y < x.
Note:
(i). The minimal and maximal members of a partially ordered set need not
unique.
ii). Maximal and minimal elements are easily calculated from the Hasse
diagram. They are the 'top' and 'bottom' elements in the diagram.
Example:
In the Hasse diagram, there are two maximal elements and two minimal elements.
The elements 3, 5 are maximal and the elements 1 and 6 are minimal.
Example: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and let
the partial order on A in the
natural way.
The element a is maximal.
The elements d and e are minimal.

Upper and Lower Bounds: Let (P, ≤) be a partially ordered set and let A ⊆ P . Any
element x ∈ P is called an upper bound for A if for all a ∈ A, a ≤ x. Similarly, any
element x ∈ P is called a
lower bound for A if for all a ∈ A, x ≤ a. Example: A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 6} be ordered as
pictured in figure.

If B = {4, 5} then the upper bounds of B are 1, 2, 3. The lower bound

of B is 6. Least Upper Bound and Greatest Lower Bound:
Let (P, ≤) be a partial ordered set and let A ⊆ P . An element x ∈ P is a least upper
bound or supremum for A if x is an upper bound for A and x ≤ y where y is any upper
bound for A. Similarly, the the greatest lower bound or in mum for A is an element x ∈ P
such that x is a lower
bound and y ≤ x for all lower bounds y.
Example: Find the great lower bound and the least upper bound of {b, d, g}, if they exist
in the poset shown in fig:

Solution: The upper bounds of {b, d, g} are g and h. Since g < h, g is the least upper
bound. The lower bounds of {b, d, g} are a and b. Since a < b, b is the greatest lower
bound.
Example: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h} denote a partially ordered set whose Hasse
diagram is shown in Fig:

67
If B = {c, d, e} then f, g, h are upper bounds of B.
The element f is least upper bound.

Example: Consider the poset A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} whose Hasse diagram is shown in

Fig and let B = {3, 4, 5}

The elements 1, 2, 3 are lower

bounds of B. 3 is greatest lower
bound.
Functions
A function is a special case of relation.
Definition: Let X and Y be any two sets. A relation f from X to Y is called a function if
for every x ∈ X, there is a unique element y ∈ Y such that (x, y) ∈ f. Note: The definition
of function requires
that a relation must satisfies two additional conditions in order to qualify as a function.
These conditions are as follows:
(i) For every x ∈ X must be related to some y ∈ Y , i.e., the domain of f must be X and
nor merely a subset of X.
(ii). Uniqueness, i.e., (x, y) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f ⇒ y = z.
The notation f : X → Y , means f is a function from X toY .
Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {p, q, r} and f = {(1, p), (2, q), (3, r)} then f(1) = p, f(2)
= q, f(3) = r. Clearly f is a function from X to Y .

Domain and Range of a Function: If f : X → Y is a function, then X is called the Domain

of f and the set Y is called the codomain of f. The range of f is defined as the set of all
images under f.
It is denoted by f(X) = {y| for some x in X, f(x) = y} and is called the image of X in Y .
The Range f is also denoted by Rf .

Example: If the function f is defined by f(x)=x2 + 1 on the set {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}, find the
range of f.
Solution: f(−2) = (−2)2 + 1 = 5
f(−1) = (−1)2 + 1 = 2
f(0) = 0 + 1 = 1

f(1) = 1 + 1 = 2

f(2) = 4 + 1 = 5

68
 Therefore, the range of f = {1, 2, 5}.

Types of Functions

One-to-one(Injection): A mapping f : X → Y is called one-to-one if distinct elements

of X are mapped into distinct elements of Y , i.e., f is one-to-one if
x1 ≠x2 ⇒
f(x1) ≠f(x2) or equivalently f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1
= x2 for x1, x2 ∈ X.

Example: f : R → R defined by f(x) = 3x, ∀x ∈ R is one-one, since

f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ 3x1 = 3x2 ⇒ x1 = x2, ∀x1, x2 ∈ R.
Example: Determine whether f : Z → Z given by f(x) = x2, x ∈ Z is a one-to-One
function.
Solution: The function f : Z → Z given by f(x) = x2, x ∈ Z is not a one-to-one function. This is
because both 3 and -3 have 9 as their image, which is against the definition of a one-to-one
function.

69
Onto(Surjection): A mapping f : X → Y is called onto if the range set Rf = Y .
If f : X → Y is onto, then each element of Y is f-image of atleast one element of
X. i.e., {f(x) : x ∈ X} = Y .
If f is not onto, then it is said to be into.

Surjective Not Surjective

Example: f : R → R, given by f(x) = 2x, ∀x ∈ R is onto.

Bijection or One-to-One, Onto: A mapping f : X → Y is called one-to-one, onto or bijective if it is

both one-to-one and onto. Such a mapping is also called a one-to-one correspondence between X
and Y .

Example: Show that a mapping f : R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 for x ∈ R is a bijective

map from R to R.
Solution: Let f : R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 for x ∈ R. We need to prove that f is a
bijective map, i.e., it is enough to prove that f is one-one and onto.
Proof of f being one-to-one
Let x and y be any two elements in R such that f(x) = f(y)
⇒ 2x + 1 = 2y + 1
⇒x = y
Thus, f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
This implies that f is one-to-one.

Proof of f being onto

Let y be any element in the codomain R
⇒ f(x) = y
⇒ 2x + 1 = y
⇒ x = (y-1)/2
Clearly, x = (y-1)/2∈ R
Thus, every element in the codomain has pre-image in the domain.
This implies that f is onto
Hence, f is a bijective map.
Identity function: Let X be any set and f be a function such that f : X → X is defined by f(x) = x
for all x ∈ X. Then, f is called the identity function or identity transformation on X. It can be
denoted by I or Ix.
70
Note: The identity function is both one-to-one and onto.
Let Ix(x) = Ix(y)
⇒x = y
⇒ Ix is one-to-one
Ix is onto since x = Ix(x) for all x.
Composition of Functions

Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. Then the composition of f and g denoted by g ◦ f,

is the function from X to Z defined as
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x)), for all x ∈ X.
Note. In the above definition it is assumed that the range of the function f is a subset of Y (the
Domain of g), i.e., Rf ⊆ Dg. g ◦ f is called the left composition g with f.
Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {p, q} and Z = {a, b}. Also let f : X → Y be f = {(1, p), (2, q), (3,
q)} and g : Y → Z be given by g = {(p, b), (q, b)}. Find g ◦ f. Solution: g ◦ f = {(1, b), (2, b), (3, b).

Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3} and f, g, h and s be the functions from X to X given

by
f = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)} g = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)}
h = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1)} s = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
Find f ◦ f; g ◦ f; f ◦ h ◦ g; s ◦ g; g ◦ s; s ◦ s; and f ◦ s.

Solution:
f ◦ g = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1)}
g ◦ f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)} ≠ f ◦ g
f ◦ h ◦ g = f ◦ (h ◦ g) = f ◦ {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)}
= {(1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 2)}
s ◦ g = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)} = g ◦ s =
{(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 3)}
∴s◦g=g◦s=g
s ◦ s = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} =
s f ◦ s = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
Thus, s ◦ s = s, f ◦ g ≠g ◦ f, s ◦ g = g ◦ s = g and h ◦ s = s ◦ h = h.

Example: Let f(x) = x + 2, g(x) = x − 2 and h(x) = 3x for x ∈ R, where R is the set of real
numbers. Find g ◦ f; f ◦ g; f ◦ f; g ◦ g; f ◦ h; h ◦ g; h ◦ f; and f ◦ h ◦ g.
Solution: f : R → R is defined by f(x) = x + 2
f: R → R is defined by g(x) = x − 2
h : R → R is defined by h(x) = 3x
g◦f:R→R
Let x ∈ R. Thus, we can write
(g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x + 2) = x + 2 − 2 = x
∴ (g ◦ f)(x) = {(x, x)| x ∈ R}
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x − 2) = (x − 2) + 2 = x
∴ f ◦ g = {(x, x)| x ∈ R}
(f ◦ f)(x) = f(f(x)) = f(x + 2) = x + 2 + 2 = x + 4
∴ f ◦ f = {(x, x + 4)| x ∈ R}
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g(x − 2) = x − 2 − 2 = x − 4
⇒ g ◦ g = {(x, x − 4)| x ∈ R}
(f ◦ h)(x) = f(h(x)) = f(3x) = 3x + 2
71
 ∴ f ◦ h = {(x, 3x + 2)| x ∈ R}
(h ◦ g)(x) = h(g(x)) = h(x − 2) = 3(x − 2) = 3x − 6
∴ h ◦ g = {(x, 3x − 6)| x ∈ R}
(h ◦ f)(x) = h(f(x)) = h(x + 2) = 3(x + 2) = 3x + 6 h ◦ f =
{(x, 3x + 6)| x ∈ R}
(f ◦ h ◦ g)(x) = [f ◦ (h ◦ g)](x)
f(h ◦ g(x)) = f(3x − 6) = 3x − 6 + 2 = 3x − 4
∴ f ◦ h ◦ g = {(x, 3x − 4)| x ∈ R}.

Example: What is composition of functions? Let f and g be functions from R to R, where R is a

set of real numbers defined by f(x) = x2 + 3x + 1 and g(x) = 2x − 3. Find the composition of
functions: i) f ◦ f ii) f ◦ g iii) g ◦ f.
Inverse Functions
A function f : X → Y is aid to be invertible of its inverse function f−1 is also function from the
range of f into X.
Theorem: A function f : X → Y is invertible ⇔ f is one-to-one and onto.
Example: Let X =−1{a, b, c, d} and Y = {(1, 2, 3, 4} and let f : X → Y be given by f = {(a, 1), (b, 2),
(c, 2), (d, 3)}. Is f a function?
Solution: f−1 = {(1, −1
a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, d)}. Here, 2 has two distinct images b and c.
Therefore, f is not a function.
Example: Let R be the set of real numbers and f : R → R be given by f = {(x, x2)| x ∈ R}. Is f−1
a function?
Solution: The inverse of the given function is defined as f−1 = {(x2, x)| x ∈ R}.
Therefore, it is not a function.
Theorem: If f : X → Y and g : Y → X be such that g ◦ f = Ix and f ◦ g = Iy, then f and g are both
invertible. Furthermore, f−1 = g and g−1 = f.
Example: Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f and g be functions from X to X given by f = {(1, 4), (2, 1),
(3, 2), (4, 3)} and g = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)}. Prove that f and g are inverses of each other.
Solution: We check that

(g ◦ f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(4) = 1 = Ix(1), (f ◦ g)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(2) = 1 = Ix(1).

(g ◦ f)(2) = g(f(2)) = g(1) = 2 = Ix(2), (f ◦ g)(2) = f(g(2)) = f(3) = 2 = Ix(2).

(g ◦ f)(3) = g(f(3)) = g(2) = 3 = Ix(3), (f ◦ g)(3) = f(g(3)) = f(4) = 3 = Ix(3).

(g ◦ f)(4) = g(f(4)) = g(3) = 4 = Ix(4), (f ◦ g)(4) = f(g(4)) = f(1) = 4 = Ix(4).

Thus, for all x ∈ X, (g ◦ f)(x) = Ix(x) and (f ◦ g)(x) = Ix(x). Therefore g is inverse of f and f is
inverse of g.
Example: Show that the functions f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x1/3 for x ∈ R are inverses of one another.
Solution: f : R → R is defined by f(x) = x3 ; f: R → R is defined by g(x) = x1/3
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x1/3) = x3(1/3) = x = Ix(x)
i.e., (f ◦ g)(x) = Ix(x)
and (g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x3) = x3(1/3) = x = Ix(x)
i.e., (g ◦ f)(x) = Ix(x)
Thus, f = g−1 or g = f−1
i.e., f and g are inverses of one other.
Example: f : R → R is defined by f(x) = ax + b, for a, b ∈ R and a ≠0. Show that f is
invertible and find the inverse of f.
(i) First we shall show that f is one-to-one
72
 Let x1, x2 ∈ R such that f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ ax1 + b = ax2 + b
⇒ ax1 = ax2
⇒ x1 = x2
f is one-to-one.
To show that f is onto.
Let y ∈ R(codomain) such that y = f(x) for some x ∈ R.
⇒ y = ax + b
⇒ ax = y − b
⇒ x = (y-b)/a
Given y ∈ R(codomain), there exists an element x = (y-b)/a ∈ R such that f(x) = y.
f is onto
−1
⇒ f is invertible and f (x)= (x-b)/a
Example: Let f : R → R be given by f(x) = x3 − 2. Find f−1.
(i) First we shall show that f is one-to-one
Let x1, x2 ∈ R such that f(x1) = f(x2)
⇒ x31 − 2 = x32 −
2 ⇒ x31 = x32
⇒ x1 = x2
f is one-to-one.
a) To show that f is onto.
⇒ y = x3 − 2
⇒ x3 = y+2
⇒ x= 3 y 2
Given y ∈ R(codomain), there exists an element x = 3 y 2 ∈ R such that f(x) = y.
f is onto
⇒ f is invertible and f−1(x) = 3 x 2

Floor and Ceiling functions:

Let x be a real number, then the least integer that is not less than x is called the CEILING of x.
The CEILING of x is denoted by x .
Examples: 2.15 = 3, √ 5 = 3, −7.4 = −7, −2 = −2
Let x be any real number, then the greatest integer that does not exceed x is called the Floor of x.
The FLOOR of x is denoted by x .
Examples: 5.14 = 5, √5 = 2, −7.6 = −8, 6 = 6, −3 = −3
Example: Let f and g abe functions from the positive real numbers to positive real numbers
defined by f(x) = 2x , g(x) = x2. Calculate f ◦ g and g ◦ f.
Solution: f ◦ g(x) = f(g(x)) =f(x2)= 2x2
g ◦ f(x) = g(f(x))=g( 2x )=( 2x )2

Recursive Function
73
Total function: Any function f : Nn → N is called total if it is defined for every n-tuple in Nn.
Example: f(x, y) = x + y, which is defined for all x, y ∈ N and hence it is a total function.

Partial function: If f : D → N where D ⊆ Nn, then f is called a partial function.

Example: g(x, y) = x − y, which is defined for only x, y ∈ N which satisfy x ≥ y.
Hence g(x, y) is partial.
Initial functions:
The initial functions over the set of natural numbers is given by
Zero function Z: Z(x) = 0, for all x.
Successor function S: S(x) = x + 1, for all x.
Projection function Uin: Uin(x1, x2, ..., xn) = xi for all n tuples (x1, x2, ..., xn), 1 ≤ i
≤ n.
Projection function is also called generalized identity function.
1
For example, U 1 (x) = x for every x ∈ N is the identity
function.1
2
U1 (x, y) = x, U 13 (2, 6, 9) = 2, U 32 (2, 6, 9) = 6, U 33 (2, 6, 9) = 9.
Composition of functions of more than one variable:
The operation of composition will be used to generate the other function.
Let f1(x, y), f2(x, y) and g(x, y) be any three functions. Then the composition of g with f1 and f2 is
defined as a function h(x, y) given by
h(x, y) = g(f1(x, y), f2(x, y)).
In general, let f1, f2, ..., fn each be partial function of m variables and g be a partial function of n
variables. Then the composition of g with f1, f2, ..., fn produces a partial function h given by
h(x1, x2, ..., xm) = g(f1(x1, x2, ..., xm), ..., fn(x1, x2, ...xm)).
Note: The function h is total iff f1, f2, ..., fn and g are total.
Example: Let f1(x, y) = x + y, f2(x, y) = xy + y2 and g(x, y) = xy. Then
h(x, y) = g(f1(x, y), f2(x, 2y))
= g(x + y, xy + y
= (x + y)(xy + y2)
Recursion: The following operation which defines a function f(x1, x2, ..., xn, y) of n + 1 variables
by using other functions g(x1, x2, .., xn) and h(x1, x2, ..., xn, y, z) of n and n + 2 variables,
respectively, is called recursion.
f(x1, x2, ..., xn, 0) = g(x1, x2, ..., xn)
f(x1, x2, ..., xn, y + 1) = h(x1, x2, ..., xn, y, f(x1, x2, ..., xn, y))
where y is the inductive variable.
Primitive Recursive: A function f is said to be Primitive recursive iff it can be obtained from the
initial functions by a finite number of operations of composition and recursion.

***Example: Show that the function f(x, y) = x + y is primitive recursive. Hence compute
the value of f(2, 4).
Solution: Given that f(x, y) = x + y.
Here, f(x, y) is a function of two variables. If we want f to be defined by recursion, we
need a function g of single variable and a function h of three variables. Now,

f(x, y + 1) = x + (y + 1)
= (x + y) + 1
= f(x, y) + 1.

Also, f(x, 0) = x.
We define f(x, 0) as
f(x, 0) = x =U 11 (x)
= S(f(x, y))
=S(U 33 (x, y, f(x, y)))
If we take g(x) = U11(x) and h(x, y, z) = S(U33(x, y, z)), we get f(x, 0) = g(x) and f(x, y + 1) =
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h(x, y, z).
Thus, f is obtained from the initial functions U11, U33, and S by applying composition once and
recursion once.
Hence f is primitive recursive.
Here,
f(2, 0) = 2
f(2, 4) = S(f(2, 3))
=S(S(f(2, 2)))
=S(S(S(f(2, 1))))
=S(S(S(S(f(2, 0)))))
=S(S(S(S(2)))))
=S(S(S(3)))
=S(S(4))
=S(5)
=6
Example: Show that f(x, y) = x ∗ y is primitive recursion.
Solution: Given that f(x, y) = x ∗ y.
Here, f(x, y) is a function of two variables. If we want f to be defined by recursion, we
need a function g of single variable and a function h of three variables. Now, f(x, 0) = 0
and
f(x, y + 1) = x ∗ (y + 1) = x ∗ y
f(x, y) + x
We can write
f(x, 0) = 0 =Z(x) and
f(x, y + 1) =f1(U33(x, y, f(x, y)), U13(x, y, f(x, y)))
where f1(x, y) = x3 + y, which 3is primitive recursive. By taking g(x) = Z(x) = 0 and h defined by
h(x, y, z) = f1(U3 (x, y, z), U1 (x, y, z)) = f(x, y + 1), we see that f defined by recursion. Since g
and h are primitive recursive, f is primitive recursive. Example: Show that f(x, y) = xy is primitive
recursive function. Solution: Note that x0 = 1 for x ≠0 and we put x0 = 0 for x = 0.
Also, xy+1 = xy ∗ x
Here f(x, y) = xy is defined as
f(x, 0) = 1 = S(0) = S(Z(x))

f(x, y + 1) = x ∗ f(x, y)
U13(x, y, f(x, y)) ∗ U33(x, y, f(x, y))
h(x, y, f(x, y) = f1(U13(x, y, f(x, y)), U33(x, y, f(x, y))) where f1(x, y) = x ∗ y, which is
primitive recursive.
∴ f(x, y) is a primitive recursive function.

Example: Consider the following recursive function definition: If x < y then f(x, y) = 0, if y ≤
x then f(x, y) = f(x − y, y) + 1. Find the value of f(4, 7), f(19, 6).
0;x < y
Solution: Given f(x, y) ={f(x -

f(4, 7) = 0 [∴ 4 < 7]
f(19, 6) = f(19 − 6, 6) +
1 = f(13, 6) + 1
f(13, 6) = f(13 − 6, 6) +
1 = f(7, 6) + 1

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 f(7, 6) = f(7 − 6, 6) +
1 = f(1, 6) +
1 =0 + 1 =1

f(13, 6) = f(7, 6) +
1 =1 + 1
=2
f(19, 6) = 2 +
1=3
Example: Consider the following recursive function definition: If x < y then f(x, y) = 0, if y ≤
x then f(x, y) = f(x − y, y) + 1. Find the value of f(86, 17)

Permutation Functions
Definition: A permutation is a one-one mapping of a non-empty set onto itself.
Let S = {a1, a2, ..., an} be a finite set and p is a permutation on S, we list the elements of S and the
corresponding functional values of p(a1), p(a2), ..., p(an) in the following form:
If p : S → S is a bijection, then the number of elements in the given set is called the degree of its
permutation.
Note: For a set with three elements, we have 3! permutations.
Identity Permutation: If each element of a permutation be replaced by itself, then such a
permutation is called the identity permutation.
Equality of Permutations: Two permutations f and g of degree n are said to be equal if and only
if f(a) = g(a) for all a ∈ S.
Example: Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Note: The product of two permutations of degree n need not be commutative.
Lattices
In this section, we introduce lattices which have important applications in the theory and
design of computers.
Definition: A lattice is a partially ordered set (L, ≤) in which every pair of elements a, b ∈ L
has a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound.
Example: Let Z+ denote the set of all positive integers and let R denote the relation ‗division‗ in
Z+, such that for any two elements a, b ∈ Z+, aRb, if a divides b. Then (Z+, R) is a lattice in
which the join of a and b is the least common multiple of a and b, i.e.
a ∨ b = a ⊕ b = LCM of a and b,

and the meet of a and b, i.e. a ∗ b is the greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b
i.e., a ∧ b = a ∗ b = GCD of a and b.

We can also write a+b = a∨b = a⊕b=LCM of a and b and a.b = a∧b = a∗b=GCD of a and b.
Example: Let n be a positive integer and Sn be the set of all divisors of n If n = 30, S30 = {1, 2,
3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}. Let R denote the relation division as defined in Example 1. Then (S30, R) is
a Lattice see Fig:

Example: Let A be any set and P (A) be its power set. The poset P (A), ⊆) is a lattice in which the
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 meet and join are the same as the operations ∩ and ∪ on sets respectively.
S = {a}, P (A) = {ϕ, {a}}

S = {a, b}, P (A) = {ϕ, {a}, {a}, S}.

Some Properties of Lattice

Let (L, ≤) be a lattice and ∗ and ⊕ denote the two binary operation meet and join on (L, ≤).
Then for any a, b, c ∈ L, we have
(L1): a∗a = a, (L1)′ : a⊕a = a (Idempotent laws)

(L2): b∗a = b∗a, (L2)′ : a ⊕b = b + a (Commutative laws)

(L3) : (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), (L3)′ : (a⊕b)⊕c = a⊕(b + c) (Associative laws)
(L4) : a∗(a + b) = a,(L4)′ : a⊕(a∗b) = a (Absorption laws).
The above properties (L1) to (L4) can be proved easily by using definitions of meet and
join. We can apply the principle of duality and obtain (L1)′ to (L4)′.
Theorem: Let (L, ≤) be a lattice in which ∗ and ⊕ denote the operations of meet and join
respectively. For any a, ∈ L, a ≤ b ⇔ a ∗ b = a ⇔ a ⊕ b = b.
Proof: We shall first prove that a ≤ b ⇔ a ∗ b = b.
In order to do this, let us assume that a ≤ b. Also, we know that a ≤
a. Therefore a ≤ a ∗ b. From the definition of a ∗ b, we have a ∗ b ≤
a. Hence a ≤ b ⇒ a ∗ b = a.

Next, assume that a ∗ b = a; but it is only possible if a ≤ b, that is, a ∗ b = a ⇒ a ≤

b. Combining these two results, we get the required equivalence.
It is possible to show that a ≤ b ⇔ a ⊕ b = b in a similar
manner. Alternatively, from a ∗ b = a, we have

b ⊕ (a ∗ b) = b ⊕ a = a ⊕
b but b ⊕ (a ∗ b) = b
Hence a ⊕ b = b follows from a ∗ b = a.

By repeating similar steps, we can show that a ∗ b = a follows from a ⊕ b =

b. Therefore a ≤ b ⇔ a ∗ b = a ⇔ a ⊕ b = b.
a*b a*c
Theorem: Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. Then b c

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Proof: By above theorem a ≤ b ⇔ a ∗ b = a ⇔ a ⊕ b = b.
To show that a ∗ b ≤ a ∗ c, we shall show that (a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ c) = a ∗ b
(a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ c) = a ∗ (b ∗ a) ∗ c
= a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ c

= (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗
c) = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
=a∗b
∴ If b ≤ c then a ∗ b ≤ a ∗ c.Next, let b ≤ c ⇒ b ⊕ c = c.
To show that a ⊕ b ≤ a ⊕ c. It sufficient to show that (a ⊕ b) ⊕ (a ⊕ c) = a ⊕ c.

Consider,(a ⊕ b) ⊕ (a ⊕ c) = a ⊕ (b ⊕ a) ⊕ c
= a ⊕ (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c
= (a ⊕ a) ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
= a ⊕ (b ⊕ c)
=a⊕b
∴ If b ≤ c then a ⊕ b ≤ a ⊕ c.
Note: The above properties of a Lattice are called properties of Isotonicity.
Lattice as an algebraic system:
We now define lattice as an algebraic system, so that we can apply many concepts
associated with algebraic systems to lattices.
Definition: A lattice is an algebraic system (L, ∗,⊕) with two binary operation ‗∗‘and ‗⊕‘ on L
which are both commutative and associative and satisfy absorption laws.
Bounded Lattice:
A bounded lattice is an algeb
the constants 0,1∈ L satisfy the following:
1. for all x∈
2. for all x∈
The element 1 is called the upper bound, or top of L and the element 0 is called the lower
bound or bottom of L.
Distributive lattice:
A lattice (L,∨,∧) is distributive if the following additional identity holds for all x, y, and z in
L: x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z)
Viewing lattices as partially ordered sets, this says that the meet peration preserves nonempty
finite joins. It is a basic fact of lattice theory that the above condition is equivalent to its dual
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z) for all x, y, and z in L.
Example: Show that the following simple but significant lattices are not distributive.

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Solution a) To see that the diamond lattice is not distributive, use the middle elements of the
lattice: a ∧ (b ∨ c) = a ∧ 1 = a, but (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) = 0 ∨ 0 = 0, and a ≠0.
Similarly, the other distributive law fails for these three elements.
b) The pentagon lattice is also not distributive
Example: Show that lattice is not a distributive lattice.

Sol. A lattice is distributive if all of its elements follow distributive property so let we verify
the distributive property between the elements n, l and m.
GLB(n, LUB(l, m)) = GLB(n, p) [∴ LUB(l, m) = p]
= n (LHS)
also LUB(GLB(n, l), GLB(n, m)) = LUB(o, n); [∴ GLB(n, l) = o and GLB(n, m) = n]
= n (RHS)
so LHS = RHS.
But GLB(m, LUB(l, n)) = GLB(m, p) [∴ LUB(l, n) = p]
= m (LHS)
also LUB(GLB(m, l), GLB(m, n)) = LUB(o, n); [∴ GLB(m, l) = o and GLB(m, n) = n]
= n (RHS)
Thus, LHS ≠ RHS hence distributive property doesn‗t hold by the lattice so lattice is not
distributive.
Example: Consider the poset (X, ≤ ) where X = {1, 2, 3, 5, 30} and the partial ordered relation ≤
is defined as i.e. if x and y ∈X then x ≤ y means ‗x divides y‗. Then show that poset (I+, ≤) is a
lattice.
Sol. Since GLB(x, y) = x ∧ y = lcm(x, y)
and LUB(x, y) = x ∨ y = gcd(x, y)
Now we can construct the operation table I and table II for GLB and LUB respectively and
the Hasse diagram is shown in Fig.

Test for distributive lattice, i.e.,

GLB(x, LUB(y, z)) = LUB(GLB(x, y), GLB(x, z))
Assume x = 2, y = 3 and z = 5, then
RHS:GLB(2, LUB(3, 5)) = GLB(2, 30) = 2
LHS: LUB(GLB(2, 3), GLB(2, 5)) = LUB(1, 1) = 1
SinceRHS ≠ LHS, hence lattice is not a distributive lattice.

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Complemented lattice:
A complemented lattice is a bounded lattice (with least element 0 and greatest element 1), in
which every element a has a complement, i.e. an element b satisfying a ∨ b = 1 and a ∧ b = 0.
Complements need not be unique.
Example: Lattices shown in Fig (a), (b) and (c) are complemented lattices.

Sol.
For the lattice (a) GLB(a, b) = 0 and LUB(x, y) = 1. So, the complement a is b and vise versa.
Hence, a complement lattice.

For the lattice (b) GLB(a, b) = 0 and GLB(c, b) = 0 and LUB(a, b) = 1 and LUB(c, b) = 1;
so both a and c are complement of b.
Hence, a complement lattice.

In the lattice (c) GLB(a, c) = 0 and LUB(a, c) = 1; GLB(a, b) = 0 and LUB(a, b) = 1. So,
complement of a are b and c.
Similarly complement of c are a and b also a and c are complement of
b. Hence lattice is a complement lattice.

UNIT-III
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

Algebraic Systems with One Binary Operation

Binary Operation
Let S be a non-empty set. If f : S × S → S is a mapping, then f is called a binary
operation or binary composition in S.
The symbols +, ·, ∗, ⊕ etc are used to denote binary operations on a set.
a. For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S ⇒ + is a binary operation in S.
b. For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a · b ∈ S ⇒ · is a binary operation in S.
c. For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S ⇒ ◦ is a binary operation in S.
d. For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S ⇒ ∗ is a binary operation in S.
This is said to be the closure property of the binary operation and the set S is said to be
closed with respect to the binary operation.
Properties of Binary Operations
Commutative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then ∗ is said to
be commutative in S. This is called commutative law.
Associative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), then ∗ is said
to be associative in S. This is called associative law.

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