THERMAL

REMOTE
SENSING
“Measures EMITTED RADIATION; which is the function
of TEMPERATURE of the object and EMISSIVITY”.
Any body above ABSOLUTE ZERO (0° K or -273° C)
degree kinetic temperature will emit thermal radiation.
What is Kinetic Temperature
and Radiant Temperature?
Internal temperature of an object determined by random
molecular motion within the body.

All objects above absolute zero temperature radiates thermal

energy as a function of its internal kinetic temperature
measured in calories and can be measured by thermometer.

The radiated thermal energy is the external manifestation of

the internal kinetic temperature of an object called radiant or
brightness temperature.

Remote sensor measures this radiant temperature.

• When these particles (have kinetic heat) collide they
change their energy state and emit electromagnetic
radiation called radiant flux (watts). The concentration of
the amount of radiant flux exiting (emitted from) an object
is its radiant temperature (Trad).

• There is usually a high positive correlation between the

true kinetic temperature of an object (Tkin) and the amount
of radiant flux radiated from the object (Trad). Therefore,
we can utilize radiometers placed some distance from the
object to measure its radiant temperature which hopefully
correlates well with the object’s true kinetic temperature.
This is the basis of thermal infrared remote sensing.
FACTORS AFFECTING RADIANT TEMPERATURE
Unfortunately, the relationship is not perfect, with the remote
measurement of the radiant temperature always being slightly
less than the true kinetic temperature of the object. This is due
to a thermal property called emissivity.
Tradiant = E1/4Tkinetic
Radiant temperature depends on:
1. Kinetic temperature
2. Emissivity
3. Thermal property of the object
1. Thermal conductivity
2. Thermal capacity
3. Thermal inertia
4. Rate of heating
Advantages of Thermal spectrum
• Can look through Haze and smoke but not clouds
Disadvantages
• absorption by atmospheric gases restricts uses of the mid
and far infrared spectrum to specific atmospheric windows
• Very expensive to acquire and process
as detector materials must be kept extremely cold during
use (because the emitted radiation being sensed is very
weak)
• Thermal infrared imaging systems are notoriously difficult
to calibrate - because temp differences can be very subtle
and interactions with atmospheric moisture are
unpredictable
• Thermal images of water measures only the very top layer
of the water surface - because those wavelengths are
attenuated/absorbed very rapidly, especially in water
Detectors: devices formed from substances known to respond
to energy over a defined wavelength interval, generating a
weak electrical signal with a strength related to the radiances
of the features in the field of view of the sensor.
The sensitivity of such materials increases to practical levels
when the substances are cooled to very low temperatures to
increase sensitivity and reduce noise.
Indium Antimonide (InSb)- peak sensitivity near 5 µm in the
mid-infrared spectrum
Mercury-doped Germanium (Ge:Hg)- peak sensitivity near
10 µm in the far infrared spectrum
Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)- sensitive over the range
8–14 µm.
To maintain maximum sensitivity, such detectors must be
cooled to very low temperatures (–196°C or –243°C) using
liquid nitrogen or liquid helium.
Why thermal sensors have small
spatial resolution?
• Amount of energy decreases as the wavelength increases
(Q=hv and λ=c/v = hc/hv
λ = hc/Q and Q = hc/ λ)
• Hence thermal sensors have higher IFOV compared to
optical sensors to allow higher amount of energy reaching
the detector for reliable measurement
• Increasing fineness of spatial resolution decreases the
energy incident on the detector, thereby decreasing the
strength of the signal.
• For many detectors, noise levels may remain constant
even though the level of incident radiation decreases; if
so, the increase in spatial resolution may be accompanied
by decreases in radiometric resolution
What does thermal infrared remote
sensors measure? What is the source
of these energy?
Remote Sensing in far infrared spectrum measures
differences in the abilities of objects and landscape features
to absorb shortwave visible and near infrared radiation,
then to emit this energy as longer wavelengths in the far
infrared region.

Thus, except for geothermal energy, man-made thermal

sources and forest fires, the immediate source of emitted
thermal infrared radiation is shortwave solar energy
What are the different methods of
heat transfer?
• CONDUCTION
• CONVECTION
• RADIATION
• Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (internal energy) by
microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons
within a body.
• The microscopically colliding objects, that include molecules,
atoms, and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and
potential energy, jointly known as internal energy.
• Conduction takes place in all phases of matter, such as solids,
liquids, gases and plasmas. The rate at which energy is conducted
as heat between two bodies is a function of the temperature
difference (temperature gradient) between the two bodies and the
properties of the conductive medium through which the heat is
transferred.
• Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. For
example, heat is conducted from the hotplate of an electric stove to
the bottom of a saucepan in contact with it. In the absence of
external drivers, within a body or between
bodies, temperature differences decay over time, and thermal
equilibrium is approached, temperature becoming more uniform.
• In conduction, the heat flow is within and through the body itself.
• Convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the
movement of fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form of
heat transfer (convection) in liquids and gases.
• Convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of
conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk
fluid flow).
• The term convection can sometimes refer to transfer of heat with
any fluid movement, but advection is the more precise term for the
transfer due only to bulk fluid flow. The process of transfer of heat
from a solid to a fluid, or the reverse, is not only transfer of heat by
bulk motion of the fluid, but diffusion and conduction of heat
through the still boundary layer next to the solid. Thus, this process
without a moving fluid requires both diffusion and advection of
heat, a process that is usually referred to as convection.
• Convection that occurs in the earth's mantle causes tectonic plates
to move.
SPECTRAL ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
RANGE

3.5 – 4.5 μm •Clearest atmospheric • Cloud cover

(Mid IR) window • Less energy than 8-
•Finest spatial 12 μm
resolution to measure • Mixed with solar
temperature due to radiation at day time
high S to N ratio
8 – 12 μm •Peak of energy • Cloud cover
(TIR) emitted from earth • Coarser spatial
•Most accurate resolution than Mid
temperatures IR
How the atmosphere (particles present)
effects Thermal Remote Sensing?
• ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERING makes signals appear
colder than they are
• ATMOSPHERIC EMISSION makes object appear warmer
(it is determined by (1) internal temperature and (2)
emissivity
• ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION: makes signals appear
colder than they area. None of the windows transmits 100
% because water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb some of
the energy across the spectrum and ozone absorbs energy
in the 10.5-12.5 micron
What is the relation between Kinetic
and Radiant Temperature?
Can be explained by the concept of blackbody.
A theoretical construct that absorbs all the radiation that falls
on it and emits energy at the maximum possible rate per unit
area at each wavelength for any given temperature.
It is not necessarily black in colour but so called because
black colour absorbs all the radiation incident on it.
No object in nature are true black body that absorbs all
incident energy, converts to internal heat and emits back
completely. Sun and Earth are hypothetically close to black
body.
The amount of energy an object radiates in per unit area
(considering all wavelengths) can be expressed by Stefan-
Boltzmann law:

MB = σT4 for black body

MB = εσT4 for real body
Where
MB = total radiant exitance from the surface of a material,
measured in Wm-2
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4
T = Temperature of the emitting body in Kelvin
ε = emissivity
Which means if absolute temperature of a body is doubled
would render 16 times more radiation
As the temperature of a body increases, total energy radiated
increases and wavelength at which the object emits most
energy decreases. The wavelength at which maximum
energy will be radiated or emitted (considering all
wavelengths) can be expressed by Weins displacement law:

λmax = b / T
λmax = 2898 μmK / T

Where
λmax = wavelength of maximum emitted energy, measured in μm
T = Temperature of emitting body measured in K
 PLANK’S LAW
Distribution of energy over all wavelength

E= Energy or total radiant exitance, W m-2

h = Plank’s constant
k = Boltzmann constant
c = speed of light (constant)
T = temperature (in K)
λ = Wavelength

Plank's Radiation Law for blackbodies gives the position of

the peak and total spectral radiance (area under the curve) of
an object as a function of its temperature
The peak of the Blackbody curve shifts to shorter wavelengths as
temperature increases. This peak represents the wavelength of maximum
emittance (λmax)
The area under the Planck curve represents the total energy emitted by
an object at a given temperature
 EMISSIVITY

Ratio of the emittance (radiant flux) from an object at a given

temperature to that of a blackbody

ε(λ)= radiant flux of an object at given temperature

radiant flux of a blackbody at same temperature

ε varies with wavelength and somewhat with temperature

SELECTIVE RADIANT: If the emissivity of an object varies

with wavelength

GRAYBODY has ε<1 but is constant at all wavelengths

The emissivity of an object may be influenced by a number factors, including:
COLOR -- darker coloured objects are usually better absorbers and emitters (i.e.
they have a higher emissivity) than lighter coloured objects which tend to
reflect more of the incident energy.
SURFACE ROUGHNESS -- the greater the surface roughness of an object
relative to the size of the incident wavelength, the greater the surface area
of the object and potential for absorption and re-emission of energy.
MOISTURE CONTENT -- the more moisture an object contains, the greater its
ability to absorb energy and become a good emitter. Wet soil particles have
a high emissivity similar to water.
COMPACTION -- the degree of soil compaction can effect emissivity.
FIELD-OF-VIEW -- the emissivity of a single leaf measured with a very high
resolution thermal radiometer will have a different emissivity than an entire
tree crown viewed using a coarse spatial resolution radiometer.
WAVELENGTH -- the emissivity of an object is generally considered to be
wavelength dependent. For example, while the emissivity of an object is
often considered to be constant throughout the 8 - 14 mm region, its
emissivity in the 3 -5 mm region may be different
 Spectral emissivity of a
blackbody, a grey body,
and a hypothetical
selective radiator

Spectral radiant exitance

distribution of the
blackbody, grey body, and
hypothetical selective
radiator
Radiant exitance is the radiant flux emitted by a
surface per unit area, and spectral exitance is
the radiant exitance of a surface per unit
wavelength
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AN OBJECT

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY K (cal.cm-1ּsec-1ּoC-1)

is a measure of the rate at which heat passes through a
material

NUMBER OF CALORIES THAT WILL PASS THROUGH A

1CM CUBE OF MATERIAL IN 1 SECOND WHEN TWO
OPPOSITE FACES ARE MANTAINED AT 1 °C
DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURE

• heat passes through metals much faster than through rocks

• It takes a longer time for water to transfer heat over a given
distance than many other materials
THERMAL CAPACITY C (cal/g-1oC-1)
determines how well a material stores heat.

NUMBER OF CALORIES REQUIRED TO RAISE

TEMPERATURE OF A GRAM OF MATERIAL BY 1 °C

• Water has a high thermal capacity compared to other

• material types
• It takes more energy for water to warm up to the same
temperature than many other materials do
• Rank of heat capacity
Water > forest > grass > land
• In other words, for a given amount of energy, water warms
up slower than many other materials
THERMAL INERTIA (P) – (cal.cm2.sec-1/2.°C-1)
Resistance of a material to temperature change.
P = (K x P x C) 1/2

THERMAL INERTIA = (THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY X

DENSITY X THERMAL CAPACITY)1/2

DENSITY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE

EQUATION AS THERMAL INERTIA INCREASES
LINERALY WITH DENSITY

• It increases with an increase in material conductivity,

capacity, and density
• In general, materials with high thermal inertia have more
uniform surface temperatures throughout the day and night
than materials of low thermal inertia
 APPARENT THERMAL INERTIA

• Thermal Inertia cannot be measured from satellite

image as Density, Conductivity and Capacity needs to be
measured in situ
• Satellite RS measures APPARENT THERMAL
INERTIA (ATI) over a pixel
• Day time & Night time images are acquired over an area
and subtracted to get ΔT

API = (1-A)/ΔT

Where A = Albedo (reflectance measured in a visible band of

a spectrum)
 DIURNAL TEMPERATURE CYCLE OF TYPICAL
MATERIALS
Measures how an object temperature changes in 24 hours
• From about 6:00 am to 8:00 pm, the terrain intercepts the incoming
short wavelength energy and reflects much of it back into the
atmosphere where we can use optical remote sensors to measure the
reflected energy
• Some of the incident short wavelength energy is absorbed by the terrain
and then re-radiated back into the atmosphere as thermal infrared long
wavelength radiation (3 -100 μm).
• The outgoing long wave radiation reaches its highest value during the
day when the surface temperature is highest. This peak usually lags two
to four hours after the midday peak of incoming shortwave radiation,
owing to the time, taken to heat the soil.
• The contribution of reflected short wavelength energy and the emitted
long wavelength energy causes an energy surplus to take place during
the day. Both incoming and outgoing shortwave radiation become zero
after sunset (except for light from the moon and stars), but outgoing
long wave long wave radiation continues all night.
Peak Period of Daily Outgoing
Long wave Radiation and the
Diurnal Radiant Temperature of
Soils and Rocks, Vegetation,
Water, Moist Soil and Metal
Objects Peak
At the thermal crossover times,
most of the materials have the
almost same radiant temperature,
it is not wise to do thermal remote
sensing.

Water and vegetation have

higher thermal capacity. In
different time of thermal images,
there are different performances
even the materials.
• TIROS (Television IR Operational Satellite), launched in 1960
• GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite), TIR
at 8 km spatial resolution, full-disk of Earth day and night
• HCMM (Heat Capacity Mapping Mission), launched in 1978-600
m spatial resolution, 10.5 –12.6 micron range
• CZCS (Coastal Zone Color Scanner) on Nimbus 7, launched in
1978, for SST
• AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer), 1.1 and 4
km
• TIR bands TIMS (Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner),
Airborne, 6 bands
• ATLAS (Airborne Terrestrial Applications Sensor)
• Landsat ETM+ Band 6-10.4 –12.5 micron range
• ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emmission and
Reflection Radiometer) on Terra, 5 bands :8.125-11.65 micron
range
• MODIS (Moderate Imaging Spectro Radiometer)