Edexcel IAL Physics

AS-level
Topic 1.3: Mechanics
Notes

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 1.3 - Mechanics

1.3.1 - Equations of motion

When an object is moving at ​uniform acceleration​, you can use the following formulas:
at2
v = u + at s = ( u+v
2 )t s = ut + 2 v 2 = u2 + 2as
Where ​s​ = displacement, ​u​ = initial velocity, ​v​ = final velocity, ​a​ = acceleration, ​t​ ​= time.

When approaching questions which require the use of these formulas, it is useful to write out the
values you know, and the ones you want to find out in order to more easily choose the correct
formula to use.

For example:
A stone is ​dropped​ from a bridge 50 m above the water below. What will be its final velocity (v)
and for how long does it fall (t)?

Note that in this example, the stone is dropped therefore we can assume initial velocity is zero.
Also because the stone is dropped we know its acceleration will be g (9.81 ​m/s​2​), which is the
acceleration due to gravity.

s = 50 m u = 0 ​m/s v=? a = 9.81 ​m/s2​ t=?

Using v 2 = u2 + 2as , you can find v.

v 2 = 02 + 2 × 9.81 × 50 v 2 = 981 v = 31.3 m/s

at2
Using s = ut + 2
,​ you can find t.
2 2
50 = 4.905t t = 10.19 t = 3.19 s

1.3.2-3 - Displacement, velocity and acceleration-time graphs and their properties

Distance ​- ​The distance travelled by an object is a scalar quantity and describes the amount of
ground the object has covered.
Displacement (s)​ - ​The overall distance travelled from the starting position (includes a direction
and so it is a vector quantity).
Speed​ -​ This is a scalar quantity which describes the distance travelled per unit time.
Δs
Velocity (v)​ - ​rate of change of displacement -
Δt
Δv
Acceleration (a)​ -​ rate of change of velocity -
Δt

Uniform acceleration​ is where the acceleration of an

object is constant.

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 Acceleration-time graphs​ represent the change in velocity over time. Therefore, the ​area ​under
the graph is the change in velocity​.

Velocity-time graphs​ represent the change in velocity over time. Therefore, the ​gradient ​of a
velocity-time graph is acceleration​, and the ​area ​under the graph is displacement​.

Displacement-time graphs​ show change in displacement over time, and so their ​gradient
represents velocity​.

Instantaneous ​velocity​ is the velocity of an object at a ​specific ​point in time. It can be found from
a ​displacement-time graph​ by drawing a tangent to the graph at the specific time and calculating
the ​gradient​.

Average ​velocity​ is the velocity of an object ​over a specified time frame​. It can be found by
dividing the final displacement by the time taken.

1.3.4 - Scalars and vectors

Scalars and vectors are physical quantities, ​scalars​ describe ​only a magnitude​ while ​vectors
describe ​magnitude and direction​. Below are some examples:

Scalars Vectors

Distance, speed, mass, Displacement, velocity, force/weight,

temperature acceleration

As vectors describe a magnitude and a direction, you ​must always specify a direction​ when
giving a vector as a solution to a problem. There are many ways to do this, for example you may
wish to give an absolute direction (e.g. North, East, etc), a direction relative to an object (e.g. Left,
Right, etc) or give the angle that the vector makes with the horizontal (as defined by you or in the
problem).

If a value is a vector named a, it may be represented as a bold letter (​a​), an underlined letter (​a​), or
a letter with an arrow above it. The first representation mentioned is usually used when typing,
while the next 2 are usually used in written algebra.

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 1.3.5 - Resolving vectors
Resolving a vector​ is where you split a vector into two parts which are perpendicular to each
other, these are its ​vertical ​and ​horizontal ​components.

This can be done in two ways:

● Calculation -
For this method, you use trigonometry to split a vector ​V​ into its components ​x​ and ​y​, as
shown below:
x = V cos θ y= V sin θ
However, if you struggle with remembering formulas a good hint to remember is:
If you are moving from the original vector through the angle ​θ to get to your component
(either horizontal or vertical), use cos.
If you are moving away from the angle θ to get to your component, use sin.

For example, a ball has been fired at a velocity of 10

m/s, at an angle of 30° from the horizontal, find the
vertical and horizontal components of velocity.
x= 10 cos 30° y= 10 sin 30°
= 8.7 m/s = 5 m/s

● Scale drawing -
First, you must choose an ​appropriate scale​ for your drawing and make sure to make a
note of this somewhere on your page.

Next, using a ​ruler and a protractor​, draw the vector V (as described by the question).
Then, draw the vector’s horizontal and vertical components, making sure that they meet up
at a right angle.

Finally, measure the length of the components (that you have drawn), and find their value
using the scale you used to initially draw V.

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 1.3.6 - Adding vectors
There are two methods you can use to add vectors:
● Calculation - ​this should be used when the two vectors are ​perpendicular​ ​to each other.
In this method you use ​Pythagoras’ theorem​ to find the magnitude of the vector and
trigonometry​ to find its direction.

For example, two forces are acting perpendicular to each other and have magnitudes of 5
N and 12 N. Find the resultant force, and its direction from the horizontal.

To find the resultant magnitude (R) you can use ​Pythagoras’

theorem​:
122 + 52 = 169 = R2 R = 13 N
In order to find its direction, you can use ​trigonometry​:
5
tan θ = 12 ​ θ = 22.6°
Direction = 22.6​° from the horizontal

It is very important to state ​how ​the angle you find signifies the direction.

● Scale drawing - ​this should be used when vectors are at ​angles other than 90°​.
For this method, you draw a ​scale diagram ​using a ​ruler and a protractor​, in order to find
the resultant vector. Make sure to note the scale that you are using in your diagram.

For example, a ship travels 30 m at a bearing of 060°, then 20 m east. Find the magnitude
and direction of its displacement from its starting position.

Firstly, draw a ​scale diagram​, using a ​ruler and a protractor​ as shown below, noting the
scale you are using.

Finally, measure the missing side and convert it to the magnitude using your scale and
measure the missing angle ​θ, to find the bearing of the displacement.
Magnitude = 4.9 cm = 49 m to scale Direction = 072​°

If two vectors are moving in the ​exact ​same direction, adding/subtracting them can be done by
simply adding/subtracting their magnitudes. Otherwise, they will have to be resolved into their
horizontal and vertical components, as explained earlier.

1.3.7 - Projectile motion

The vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion are ​independent​, therefore the
projectile’s horizontal and vertical motion can be evaluated separately using the uniform
acceleration formula, where acceleration is ​constant​.

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 For example:
A ball is projected from the ground at 20 m/s, at an angle of 60​° to the horizontal. Find the time
taken for the ball to reach the ground and its maximum height. Ignore the effect of air resistance.

Firstly, you must resolve the initial speed into its components:

Vertical component = 20 sin 60° Horizontal component = 20 cos 60°

= 17.3 m/s = 10 m/s

(​To answer this particular question, you only need to consider the vertical component but this is not
always the case​).

Maximum vertical height occurs when the vertical component of velocity first becomes 0, therefore:
s=? u = 17.3 m/s v = 0 m/s a = -g (-9.81 ​m/s2​ ​ ​) t = ?

Using v 2 = u2 + 2as , you can find s.

0 = 17.32 + 2 ×− 9.81 × s 19.62s = 300 s = 15.3 m

Maximum height = 15.3 m

Using v = u + at , you can find t.

0 = 17.3 − 9.81t 9.81t = 17.3 t = 1.76 s

Using the fact that the time for the journey will be double the time to reach the maximum height:
Time to reach ground = 3.5 s

1.3.8 - Free-body force diagrams

A ​free-body diagram​, is a diagram which shows all the forces that act on an object, below is an
example:

A free-body diagram will show you how each of the

forces acting on the object ​compare ​with each other.
In this example, all the arrows look equal, therefore we
know that the car is travelling at a constant velocity
(because the sum of the driving force and air
resistance is zero - this is Newton’s second law of
motion and is discussed below).

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 1.3.9 - Newton’s first and second laws of motion
Newton’s 1st law - ​An object will remain at rest or travelling at a constant velocity, until it
experiences a resultant force.

Newton’s 2nd law -​ The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force experienced
by the object:
F = ma
Where ​F​ is the resultant force (this could also be described as Σ F meaning the sum of all the forces acting
on the object, which is equivalent), ​m​ is the object’s mass and ​a​ is its acceleration.

Newton’s second law can be used to find either resultant force, mass or acceleration, if two of the
others are known, however, ​the mass of the object must be ​constant​.

You can derive Newton’s first law by considering Newton’s second law, if you substitute in a
resultant force of 0 N​, you get an ​acceleration of 0 m/s2​ ​, which shows that the object is either at
rest or travelling at a constant velocity.

Terminal velocity​ occurs where the frictional forces acting on an object and
driving ​forces are equal​,​ ​therefore there is no resultant force and so no
acceleration, so the object travels at a constant velocity. A good example of an
object reaching terminal velocity is a skydiver:
● As they leave the plane they accelerate because their weight (explained
below) is greater than the air resistance acting on them.
● As the skydiver’s speed increases, the magnitude of air resistance also
increases. This continues until the force of weight and air resistance
become equal, at which point ​terminal velocity is reached​.

1.3.10 - Gravitational field strength and weight

Gravitational field strength (g)​ is the force per unit mass exerted by a gravitational field on an
object. This can be calculated using the formula below:
F
g= m
Where ​g​ is the gravitational field strength, ​F​ is the force exerted and ​m​ is the mass of the object.

(Gravitational fields and gravitational field strength are covered in a lot more depth in the notes for Topic 12).

Weight (W)​ is the ​gravitational force​ that acts on an object due to its mass and is calculated by
multiplying the object’s mass by the gravitational field strength.

W = mg
Where ​W​ is the weight, ​m​ is the mass of the object and ​g​ is the gravitational field strength.

Below is an example where you would have to use the equation for weight above, Newton’s 2nd
law and a free-body diagram.

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 Find the acceleration of the ball in the diagram below:

Firstly, you must find the mass m, of the ball as you are only given its weight.

100
As ​Weight = mass x g​, the mass = 9.81 = 10.2 kg

Next, you must find the resultant force (F).

75 − 10 = 65 N to the right

Finally, you can use ​F = ma​, to find acceleration:

65
65 = 10.2 × a a = 10.2 a = 6.4​ ​m/s2​

2.20 - Newton’s third law of motion

Newton’s 3rd law -​ For each force experienced by an object, the object exerts an equal and
opposite force.

As an example, consider a book lying on a table. The table experiences the force of the weight of
the book and in return it exerts an ​equal and opposite​ normal ​reaction ​force, which means that
the book will not experience a resultant force and so will remain
stationary (by Newton’s first law).

1.3.13 - Momentum
Momentum (p)​ is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.
M omentum = mass × v elocity
This equation can also be written as:
p = mv

1.3.14 - Principle of conservation of linear momentum

The ​principle of conservation of linear momentum​ is that
momentum​ ​is​ ​always conserved​ in any interaction where ​no external forces act​, which means
the momentum before an event (e.g a collision) is equal to the momentum after.

This fact can be used to find the velocity of objects after collisions, for example:
A car with a mass of 500 kg, and a velocity of 4 m/s, collides with a stationary truck with a mass of
1500 kg. The two vehicles join together and move on with a velocity V. Find the value of V.

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 First find the momentum before the collision.
Total momentum before = (500 × 4) + (1500 × 0) = 2000 kgm/s

Total momentum before = Total momentum after

Therefore, 2000 = 2000 × V V = 1 m/s

Δ(mv)
Newton’s second law​ states F = ma , therefore, F = Δt ​as a = Δv
Δt . From this you can
see that f​ orce is the r​ ate of change of momentum​. (​ This is discussed in more detail in topic 6).

Using ​Newton’s third law​, you can see that the principle of conservation of linear momentum can
also be expressed by saying that the ​sum ​of the change in momentum of the objects is ​zero​.
Newton’s third law states: for each force experienced by an object, the object exerts an equal and
opposite force. So, for two objects in a collision (labelled 1 and 2), the force exerted by 1 onto 2 is
equal and opposite to the force exerted by 2 onto 1.

This can be written as:

F1 = − F2
Applying Newton’s second law and a = Δv
Δt (​ as above):

m1 v 1 m2 v 2
Δt = − Δt
Finally, you can multiply both sides by the change in time (as this will be equal in a collision
between the two objects).
m1 v 1 = − m2 v 2
p1 = − p2
p1 + p2 = 0

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 1.3.15 - Moments
The ​moment​ of a force about a point is the force multiplied by the ​perpendicular distance​ from
the​ line of action of the force to the point​.

M oment = F orce × P erpendicular distance to the line of action of the f orce f rom the point

This can also be expressed as:

M oment = F x
Where ​x​ is the ​perpendicular ​distance between the ​line of action of the force and the axis of
rotation​.

1.3.16 - Centre of gravity and the principle of moments

The ​principle of moments ​states that for an object in ​equilibrium​, the ​sum ​of anticlockwise
moments about a pivot is ​equal ​to the ​sum ​of clockwise moments.

You can use the principle of moments to help answer certain questions, for example:
Find the value of F from the diagram below.

Σ clockwise moments = Σ anticlockwise moments

Taking moments around A:

(2 × 50) + (3 × 35) = (3.5 × F )
205 = 3.5F F = 58.6 N

Note, in the example moments are taken about A, as the distance from A to A is 0, the moment
caused by the 12 N force is also 0, therefore it can be ignored.

The ​centre of gravity ​of an object is the ​point at which gravity appears to act​.
If an object is described as ​uniform​, its centre of gravity will be exactly at its centre.
However, if an object is irregular (or not uniform), you can still find its centre of gravity by using the
following method:
1. Attach the object and a plumbline (piece of string with a weight
attached to it) to a clamp stand from the same point, so that the
plumbline overlaps the object.
2. Wait until the object is stable, then draw a line on the object where the
plumbline lies.

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 3. Repeat the above step at least 2 more times. The ​intersection point​ between all three
lines is the ​centre of gravity​.

As the centre of gravity is the point at which gravity appears to act, ​the ​weight ​of an object acts
at its centre of gravity​. It is vital to include the moment caused by the weight of an object, when
calculating moments.

1.3.17 - Work
Work done (W)​ is defined as the ​force causing a motion​ multiplied by the distance travelled ​in
the direction of the motion​.
W = F Δs
Where ​F​ is the force along the direction of motion and ​Δs​ is distance travelled in the direction of the motion.

The force you are given in questions may not always be ​along the direction of motion​ (as
defined in the formula above), in this case you will have to ​resolve ​the force as shown below.

In this case, the formula for work done is:

W = F s cos θ
Where ​s​ is distance travelled and ​θ ​is the angle between the direction of the force and direction of motion.

1.3.18 - Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy (E​k)​ ​ is the energy that an object has due to its motion. It can be calculated using
the following formula:
E k = 12 mv 2
Where ​m ​is the mass of the object and ​v ​is its velocity.

1.3.19 - Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy (E​grav)​ ​ is the energy that an object has due to its position in a
gravitational field. For example, on Earth, as an object is lifted up, the kinetic energy used to lift the
object is converted into gravitational potential energy and stored by the object. The change in
gravitational potential energy ​near the Earth’s surface​ can be calculated using the formula below:
ΔE p = mgΔh
Where ​m ​is the mass of the object, ​g​ is the gravitational field strength and ​Δh​ is its change in height.
1.3.20 - Principle of conservation of energy
The ​principle of conservation of energy​ states that ​energy cannot be created or destroyed​, but
can be transferred from one form to another. Therefore, the total energy in a closed system stays
constant.
T otal energy in = T otal energy out

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 As an example, think about a ball being thrown up into the air. The thrower gives the ball kinetic
energy therefore it moves upwards, however as it does, the ball slows down because ​kinetic
energy is transferred to gravitational potential energy​. Eventually, all of the kinetic energy is
transferred to gravitational potential energy and the ball stops momentarily, after which the ball’s
gravitational potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy​ and the ball falls to the ground.

It is very important to note that ​work​ is being done​ by the ball to work against ​resistive forces​,
therefore the initial kinetic energy given to the ball is not equal to the maximum gravitational
potential when the ball has stopped in mid-air. This is because some of the kinetic energy given to
the ball has been transferred to the environment in the form of heat due to air resistance.

Here is an example of a question where you could use the principle of conservation of energy,
(noting that the effect of air resistance is ignored, therefore ΔE p = ΔE k ):

As a simple pendulum of mass 500g swings, it rises up by a height of 10cm at its maximum
amplitude from its equilibrium position. What is the maximum speed the pendulum can reach
during its oscillation? (Ignore the effect of air resistance)

Firstly, find the maximum gravitational potential energy (which will be at the amplitude).
ΔE P = 0.5 × 9.81 × 0.1 = ​0.4905 J

Then, equate this to the kinetic energy formula (subbing in known values), and rearrange to find v.
1 2
2 × 0.5 × v = 0.4905 v 2 = 1.962 v = 1.4 m/s

1.3.21 - Power
Power (P) ​is the ​rate ​of energy transfer. Power can be calculated by dividing the energy
transferred or work done by the time taken, as shown below:
E
P = t P = Wt
Where ​E ​is the energy transferred, ​W ​is the work done, ​t​ is the time.

This is because work is a measure of energy transfer, and so​ ​the ​rate ​of doing work = the ​rate ​of
energy transfer​.

It is important to note that you can calculate the work done by an electrical appliance of power P in
t seconds, by finding the product of power and time passed.
E nergy transf erred = P × Δt

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 Below are some example questions using the formulas above:

163800 J of energy are required in order to boil 0.5 kg of water

How long will it take for a kettle with a power of 1200 W to boil 0.5 kg of water?
Power is the energy transferred per unit time, therefore ​to find the value of time taken we
must divide the energy required by the power.
W W 163800
P = t →t= P t= 1200 = 136.5 s

A ball of mass 0.6 kg is kicked and accelerates from rest to 12 ms​-1​ in 0.2 s. Calculate the average
power gained by the ball.
Firstly, you must calculate the energy transferred, which in this case is the ball’s gain in
kinetic energy.
E k = 12 mv 2 1
2 × 0.6 × 122 = 43.2 J
Then, divide the energy transferred by the time taken.
W 43.2
P = t 0.2 = 216 W

1.3.22 - Efficiency
Efficiency​ is a measure of how efficiently a system transfers energy. It is calculated by dividing the
useful power output by total power input ​or ​by dividing the useful energy output by the total energy
input.

usef ul power output usef ul energy output

E f f iciency = total power input E f f iciency = total energy input

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